africarice annual report 1996

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West Africa Rice Development Association

01 BP 2551, Bouak 01, Cte dIvoire

WARDA

ADR A O


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About the West Africa Rice Development Association

The West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) is an autonomous intergovernmental research association with amission to strengthen West Africas capability in rice production science, technology and socio-economics through research,training and communications activities.

Conducted in collaboration with the national agricultural research systems of member states, academic institutions, interna-tional donors and other organizations, the work of WARDA benefits the mostly small-scale West African farmers who cultivaterice, as well as the millions of African families who eat rice as a staple food.

WARDA was formed in 1971 by 11 countries with the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),

the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). It nowcomprises 17 member states: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Cte dIvoire, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. WARDA is a member of the Consultative Group onInternational Agricultural Research (CGIAR), a network of 16 international research centers supported by public- and private-sector donors (see inside back cover).

The headquarters and main research facilities of WARDA are located at Mb, near Bouak, Cte dIvoire. Regional researchcenters in St-Louis, Senegal and Ibadan, Nigeria focus on Sahel irrigated rice and lowland rice breeding respectively.

Donors to WARDA in 1996 were: the African Development Bank, Canada, Denmark, the European Union, France, theGatsby Foundation, Germany, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the International Fund for Agricultural

Development (IFAD), Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Norway, the Rockefeller Foundation, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom,the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United States of America, the World Bank and several WARDAmember states.

Headquarters and Main Sahel Irrigated Rice Program Lowland Breeding Unit

Research Center

WARDA ADRAO WARDA01 BP 2551 BP 96 c/o International Institute ofBouak 01 St-Louis Tropical Agriculture (IITA)Cte dIvoire Senegal PMB 5320

Oyo RoadIbadanNigeria

Tel: (225) 63 45 14 Tel: (221) 62 64 93 Tel: (2342) 241 2626Fax: (225) 63 47 14 Fax: (221) 62 64 91 (2342) 241 2169Telex: 69138 ADRAO CI Telex: 75127 ADRAO SG Fax: 874 1772276e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Telex: 31417 TROPIB NG

e-mail: [email protected]

ISBN 9291131113


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About the Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchThe Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is a consortium of some 53 public- and private-sectorbodies that provide funding for 16 international agricultural research centers, including WARDA. Founded in 1971, the CGIARis cosponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank.

The CGIARs mission is to contribute, through research, to sustainable agriculture for food security in developing countries.In pursuit of this mission, the CGIAR focusses on five major research thrusts: increasing productivity, protecting the environ-ment, saving biodiversity, improving policies and strengthening national research. It collaborates with a wide range of partners,

especially national agricultural research systems, advanced research institutions in the North and the South, universities, theprivate sector, non-governmental organizations and farmers associations.

CGIAR centers

CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura TropicalCIFOR Center for International Forestry ResearchCIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y TrigoCIP Centro Internacional de la PapaICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry AreasICLARM International Center for Living Aquatic Resources ManagementICRAF International Centre for Research in AgroforestryICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IFPRI International Food Policy Research InstituteIIMI International Irrigation Management InstituteIITA International Institute of Tropical AgricultureILRI International Livestock Research InstituteIPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources InstituteIRRI International Rice Research InstituteISNAR International Service for National Agricultural ResearchWARDA West Africa Rice Development Association


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WARDA

Annual Report

1996

West Africa Rice DevelopmentAssociation

Association pour le Dveloppement de la Riziculture enAfrique de lOuest

WARDA

ADR A O


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Correct citation: WARDA 1997. WARDA Annual Report 1996. Mb, Cte dIvoire.

Cette publication est aussi disponible en franais, sous le titre: ADRAO Rapport annuel 1996.

Cover: Ivorien children enjoy a dish of rice made from a variety developed by WARDA and its partners


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Contents

Foreword 1

Overviews 5

Research 5

Communications and Training

Features 13

Something New out of Africa 13

Farmers in the Driving Seat 21

Rice Cultivation: Kill or Cure? 27

A Tradition in the Making 32

Tooling up for Inland Valley Development 39

From Asia with Knowledge 44

Annexes 49

Financial Statement 49

Board of Trustees 52

Senior Staff and Associates 53

Publications 55

Acronyms 58


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WARDA Annual Report 1996Foreword

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Message from the Director General andChairman of the Board of Trustees

WARDAs STANDING as a center of excellence in the global scientific community owes much to thesupport of its donors, its membership of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR),and the strength of its partnerships with other institutions. But these factors pale beside the contributions of twooutstanding individuals, both of whom have now left WARDAs employment.

Eugene Terry took up the post of Director General of WARDA in 1987. He came with a brief for change, which heset about pursuing with a vigor, a sincerity and a commitment unparalleled in the Associations previous history. Bythe early 1990s, WARDA had a strategy and medium-term plan that brought its mission and program into line withother CGIAR centers, its first ever Board of Trustees, a new management structure committed to accountability andtransparency, a new home in Cte dIvoire andmost importantrenewed and growing support from the donorcommunity.

On these foundations it was possible to build a strong scientific program. This was the brief of Peter Matlon, whoarrived at WARDA as its Director of Research not long after Eugene. Peters vision, his gifts as a scientist, hisinsistence on quality, his ability to inspire others and to foster good teamworkall have contributed greatly to thescientific reputation enjoyed by WARDA today.

Eugene and Peters combined efforts have enabled WARDA to build its new headquarters building at Mb, tomaintain a healthy funding position despite difficult times, to assemble a team of highly motivated scientists and toestablish a well focussed collaborative research program with a widerange of partners both within and beyond the region. In 1996, as theclosing chapter of their era, they led a new medium-term planningexercise and the restructuring of WARDAs program, leaving theAssociation well positioned to meet the challenges of the years ahead.WARDA wishes both men well in their new positions with the WorldBank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)respectively.

Bringing the search for a new Director General to a successful con-

clusion was the major task of the Board of Trustees in the first half of1996. The search process culminated in a recommendation, made to anextraordinary meeting of WARDAs Council of Ministers held in Accrain June, to appoint Dr Kanayo F. Nwanze (see box overleaf). It is onemore measure of the progress WARDA has made in the past decadethat its recruitment process was singled out for praise by the CGIARsChairman, Dr Serageldin, for its rigor and transparency.

Following a recommendation made in November 1996 by a

management consultant, the Board of Trustees began a search for a

Dr. Eugene R. Terry, Director Generalof WARDA, 1987-1996 (November)


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WARDAs new Director General

Dr Kanayo F. Nwanze has had a distinguished career in the CGIAR system as both ascientist and a research manager. He has worked in several francophone andanglophone countries of West and Central Africa, in addition to India.

After obtaining a doctorate in entomology at Kansas State University, USA, DrNwanze joined the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), in Ibadan,Nigeria, as a post-doctoral fellow in entomology research. In 1977 he became prin-cipal entomologist (roots and tubers) with IITAs collaborative program on cassava

in Zaire. Then, in 1979, he moved to Burkina Faso, taking up the post of principalcereals entomologist with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). He remained with ICRISAT for the next 16 years, servingsuccessively as acting director and team leader at the Sahelian Centre, Niger, unitleader and principal scientist based in Hyderabad, India, and project teamleader for the Sorghum Medium Rainfall Project, also based in Hyderabad. In 1986he took a years sabbatical leave as adjunct professor at the Department ofEntomology and Nematology. University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.

A Nigerian, Dr Nwanze is married with four children. We welcome him and hisfamily to WARDA and to Cte dIvoire.

WARDA Staff Association

Director of Administration and Finance, re-establishing a post that had been vacant for some time. Under WARDAsnew structure, the post of Director of Research becomes that of Director of Programs. As Peter Matlon agreed to staywith us during the transition phase, this post too remains to be filled in 1997.

These major changes at the top of WARDA did not disrupt the pursuit of the Associations normal business. At itsNovember 1966 meeting, WARDAs Board of Trustees approved the medium-term plan for 1988-2000 for submissionto the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the CGIAR in March 1997. The approach taken to formulating theplan was broadly participatory, with inputs derived from the assessments of priorities made annually by WARDAstask forces, state-of-the-art reviews conducted by WARDA scientists, and the results of diagnostic research on farmersperceptions of their main problems. The planning exercise itself used a Delphi method to evaluate the contributionsto regional rice production made by alleviating different constraints. One new feature of the plan is a provision forspillover from WARDAs research to other regions of Africa besides our main mandate region, West Africa.

Closely associated with the medium-term planning exercise was the restructuring of WARDA. This was designedto promote multidisciplinarity and the flow of information and technologies across ecosystems, to integrate trainingand communications activities with research, to promote policy analysis in support of technology adoption, and toincrease our emphasis on technology transfer and the assessment of impact. The rationale for the restructuring process,together with its outcome, is described in more detail in the overview article on research (see page 5).

WARDAs new management team, together with its Board of Trustees, fully endorses the new structure. Weparticularly look forward to placing more emphasis on technology transfer as we seek to increase the impact of

WARDAs research. Such a shift in emphasis should come easily to WARDA, given its unique nature as an association

Dr Kanayo F. Nwanze


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for rice development as well as rice research. It does not mean that we will relinquish our pursuit of excellence in

science, since good science is a prerequisite to good development.The year was crowded with many other important items of institutional business. We shall try to pick out a few

that are milestones of WARDAs progress or that have implications for its future.One milestone was the signing of a new memorandum of understanding between IRRI and WARDA. The shared

mandate of the two institutes for rice research in Africa means that a clear definition of roles is vital to the efficientuse of the CGIARs resources. The memorandum, which replaces the former tripartite agreement between IITA, IRRIand WARDA, provides such a definition, together with guidelines for collaboration over the next 5 years.An early outcome of that collaboration will be the transfer from IITA to WARDAs Mb headquarters of thegermplasm, staff and equipment associated with the African operations of the International Network for the GeneticEvaluation of Rice (INGER). This will promote easier access by WARDA staff and collaborators to a wider range ofgermplasm, and more flexible germplasm exchange throughout the region.

An internally managed external review of our integrated pest management (IPM) activities reported favorably onour achievements in this field, but identified several areas in which we need to improve our performance. Theseinclude collaboration between the different disciplines involved in IPM, the need to appoint an entomologist, ourcollaboration with IITA, and resistance breeding strategies.

WARDAs task forces were also evaluated as part of a review by the United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID) of the networks it funds in West Africa. The review found that the task forces fostered aparticipatory approach to research planning and a high level of national involvement in collaborative research. It alsoidentified several areas in which there was scope for improving their efficiency. WARDA is considering the reviewsmany recommendations, which included a proposal to reduce the number of task forces by merging some of them.

Lastly, a word about this report, which differs from its predecessors. WARDAs previous annual reports havereflected and indeed contributed to the Associations scientific output and reputation by providing a formal, compre-hensive account of the years research results. In our report this year we lighten the load on our readers by adopting

a more informal approach and by presenting a few projects only. (The need for detailed scientific information will bemet through separately published technical reports.) In keeping with our new emphasis on technology transfer, wediscuss our links with partners and the implications of our research for development. And weve given a voice tosome of the many peoplein WARDA, partner institutions and the farming communitywho make it all happen.We hope you like the result and would welcome your comments on it.

Just Faaland Kanayo F. NwanzeChairman, Board of Trustees Director General (incoming)


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WARDA Annual Report 1996Overviews

5

ResearchPeter Matlon

NINETEEN NINETY-SIX was a watershed year for the organization of WARDAs research, training andcommunications activities. Building on lessons learned during the last two medium-term plan periods andguided by a rigorous priority-setting exercise initiated early in the year, WARDAs management and scientists designeda streamlined program structure built around a new set of interdisciplinary projects. Our new structure consists of twotechnology generation programs (the Rainfed Rice Program and the Irrigated Rice Program), a Policy Support Programand an Information and Technology Transfer Program. We have combined the former Research Division with theTraining and Communications Division to form a single Program Division, integrating research, training andinformation dissemination activities for greater efficiency and impact (Figure 1).

Technology generation

WARDAs new research programs mark a major departure from our earlier agroclimatic structure. Beginning in1990, two separate research teams were assembled: the first was the Continuum Program, based in Cte dIvoire andcovering both rainfed and irrigated rice systems in the humid and subhumid zones; and the second was the SahelProgram, based in Senegal and focussing only on irrigated rice systems in the Sahelian zone. Experience, however,showed that many of the most important constraints to irrigated rice production cut across these broad climatic zones.The result was that our climate-based structure unintentionally created program barriers that discouraged scientists indifferent locations from working effectively together to solve some of the most important region-wide constraints toirrigated rice production. The creation of a new Irrigated Rice Program will help solve this problem by facilitating the

formation of project teams across locations.Having combined irrigated rice components into a single new program, it was logical that our research on upland

and rainfed lowland rice systems should also be brought together in a new Rainfed Rice Program. This programbuilds on WARDAs original continuum concept by recognizing that uplands and lowlands are closely interlinked bymany biophysical and socio-economic factors, requiring a coordinated research approach that explicitly cuts acrossthe toposequence.

Within both the technology generation programs, WARDAs strategic goal has remained unchanged since our lastmedium-term plan: to combine productivity gains with natural resource conservation through the careful selection of

target ecosystems and research interventions.

Policy supportThe creation of a new Policy Support Program reflects WARDAs commitment to support national policy analysts.Experience has shown that it is not enough to develop well adapted and profitable technologies to achieve broad-based progress in rice production and yields. Government policies are often the determining factor affecting thesuccess or failure of technical interventions. Far-reaching reforms introduced by most governments during the past

15 years under structural adjustment programs have liberalized and privatized most parts of the rice sector, creating


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exciting new opportunitiesbut also new problems, ones for which most policy makers lack appropriate analytical

methods. Our Policy Support Program will respond to these new needs through methodology development and transferand through complementary policy research. It will work closely with national policy making bodies, as well as witheconomists in national rice research programs.

Information and technology transferWe have also learned that, despite the increasing availability of well adapted technologies, farmer adoption in manycountries remains severely constrained by systemic problems in public development agencies. Poorly traineddevelopment workers, lacking access to knowledge of the most recent participatory extension methods as well as tonew technologies, are a major obstacle to technology transfer. WARDAs past training and communications activitiesfocussed on imparting new knowledge and skills to scientists and technicians, thereby strengthening national researchcapacities. WARDAs new Information and Technology Transfer Program will build on this achievement by wideningour focus, with the goal of accelerating on-farm impact. Specifically, we will broaden the scope of our training andcommunications activities, placing greater emphasis on transferring the most recent research results to public-sectorresearch and development institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and farmers groups. Activities inboth training and communications will therefore cut across each of WARDAs research programs as downstream

extensions to research projects. Individual and group training opportunities will be designed to ensure the early

WARDA's organizational chart

Finance

HumanResourcesAdministration

and SupportServices

Director ofAdministrationand Finance

Farm

Managementand

EngineeringServices*

Program 1Rainfed Rice

Program 2Irrigated Rice

Statistical

SupportDirector ofPrograms

Public Awareness

Internal Audit

Executive Assistant

Director General

*Farm Managementhas a reporting relationshipto the Director of Programs

Program 4

Information andTechnology

Transfer

Program 3

Policy Support

Figure 1. WARDAs new organizational chart.


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diffusion of the newest methods and results generated by research in WARDA and in partner institutions and to

strengthen the activities of the regional task forces.

ProjectsThe building blocks of the four new programs are 18 fully interdisciplinary problem-solving projects (see box).These new projects represent a major departure from our former projects, which had become too disciplinary inorientation. Diagnostic and characterization research conducted by WARDA scientists since 1990 has provided valuableinformation on the most important biotic and abiotic constraints that require immediate attention. That research hasalso helped identify the strategic research problems that need to be solved before major gains through applied researchare possible. Several of these problems have become the foci of specific strategic research projects.

The new projects were developed through team planning exercises following a rigorous priority-setting exercisethat combined consultation with national scientists, reviews of the literature and re-examination of the results ofearlier WARDA characterization research. We explicitly considered WARDAs comparative advantage and identifiedopportunities to out-source research products from advanced research institutions with specialized capacities in key

WARDAs new projects

Rainfed Rice Program Sustainable intensification of lowland rice-based systems Stabilization of upland rice-based systems under shortening fallow Applying watershed management methods to optimize resource use in inland valleys Creating low-management plant types for resource-poor farmers Development of environment-specific breeding approaches for drought-resistant rice varieties Characterization of blast fungus genetic diversity and development of donors with durable blast resistance

Integrated management of iron toxicity in lowlands

Irrigated Rice Program Improvement of resource use efficiency in irrigated rice-based systems Development of profitable land and water use systems preventing soil degradation in Sahelian rice irrigation

systems Integrated management of rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) in lowland ecosystems

Policy Support Program Rice policy formulation in the post-structural adjustment era

Ex-ante assessment of rice research impact Ex-post assessment of rice research impact Characterization of hydromorphic rice environments prone to seasonal shallow flooding Reducing human health risks in lowland rice ecosystems

Information and Technology Dissemination Program Research on constraints to rice technology transfer Training for agricultural technology transfer Information dissemination for the transfer of agricultural technologies


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areas. The projects have been designed both to focus the work of WARDA scientists and collaborators and to allow its

more efficient management and monitoring. The results should be increased accountability and transparency, in bothfinancial and research terms. The projects have also been designed to ensure that WARDAs research fully complementsthat of national programs and will reinforce its partnerships with them. Task forces and consortia will continue to bethe major mechanisms through which we collaborate with national programs.

AfterwordOur planning process has benefitted from the inputs and participation of scientists and research managers fromthroughout the region. For these contributions, WARDAs management is most grateful. It has been a time-consumingexercise. But we see it as an essential investment if we are to continue to respond to changing needs and to conductmore focussed and efficient research and technology transfer in the years ahead.

The past year has also seen major changes in WARDAs management team. I am confident that the new team iswell positioned to take WARDA to a new level of scientific excellence and to even greater impact on farmers fields.To all WARDAs scientists and other staff, and to all WARDAs research partners, I wish every success in theircontinuing endeavors to fulfil WARDAs challenging but immensely worthwhile mandate.


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Training and CommunicationsAnthony Youdeowei and Alassane Diallo

Training and communications activities in 1996 focussed on developing the concept of research-driven trainingand workshop activities, strengthening collaboration with other programs active in West Africa, and workingwith national and international partners to provide training for extensionists and farmers in the integrated managementof rice pests. Programs in new communications technologies were initiated, including the establishment of e-maillinks between national agricultural research and development institutions in West Africa. We also continued to play aleading role in the inter-center training program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research(CGIAR). This program aims to build research management capacities in national agricultural research systems.

Linking research with trainingThe restructuring of WARDAs programs includes the integration of training activities with research. This will greatlyfacilitate the transfer of research methods and results developed by WARDA and its partners. In 1995, we beganconsulting scientists in WARDAs Research Division and in the task forces in order to identify those techniques ortechnologies that are ready to be transferred.

During 1996 we intensified this activity, ensuring that the training courses organized at WARDA were totallyresearch driven. Emphasis has fallen initially on research conducted by the task forces. Consultations between thetraining unit and the task forces during the annual task force meetings led to a decision to go ahead with three courses,on the Diagnosis and Management of Rice Yellow Mottle Virus (RYMV), Lowland Rice Improvement and Produc-tion, and the Use of the Rice Development (RIDEV) Model in Sahelian Rice Production. The courses were organizedand implemented by the Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Lowland Breeding and Sahel Task Forces respectively.Working with the relevant scientists, we designed the content and pattern of instruction as well as deciding on themost appropriate time and location for each course. Efforts were subsequently made to secure external funding for thecourses.

The course on RYMV was organized in collaboration with the Technical Centre for Agricultural and RuralCo-operation (CTA), which supported the direct costs of some participants and resource persons. The remainingcosts were covered by funds from the IPM Task Force. This course, which was designed for rice pathologists andbreeders in West Africa, provided a forum for coordinating research on RYMV. A major output was a critical reviewof the existing systems for scoring RYMV infestations in rice plants. This led to a decision to adopt a uniform scoringsystem to facilitate cross-country comparisons of RYMV infestations and damage.

Funds for the other two courses were obtained too late to schedule them for 1996. In consultation with the scientistsconcerned, these courses were therefore rescheduled for 1997.

Making rice farmers IPM expertsCollaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and with national programsin IPM training using a farmer participatory approach continued in Cte dIvoire and Burkina Faso. The training

courses, modelled on a course given in Ghana the year before, are further described in the feature article on page 44.

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The course in Cte dIvoire, conducted with technical and financial assistance from FAO and in collaboration

with the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, was held at the Sakassou irrigation scheme, 42 kilometerssouthwest of Bouak, in the center of the country. Training for trainers and farmers was organized in rice fields and infarmer field schools, which are schools without wallslocated close to the rice fields. By the end of the season-longcourse, 25extension agents (17 from Cte dIvoire, 2 from Mali and 4 from Burkina Faso) and 70 small-scale farmershad been trained. The farmers were empowered to make IPM decisions in their own fields and motivated to adoptIPM practices, which enabled them to raise their incomes from rice by 35% over farmers who maintained theirstandard production practices using pesticides. The course generated considerable interest among researchers, donorsand policy makers, as well as in the local farming community.

The course in Burkina Faso was conducted at the Valle du Kou irrigation scheme, near Bobo-Dioulasso. There 21extension agents were trained as rice IPM trainers and 75smallholders were trained to adopt rice IPM practices.Farmers readily adopted the recommended practices, increasing their incomes by 34%.

Through these courses the national programs in both countries have been strengthened in the theory and practiceof IPM, which they now know to be both environmentally friendly and economically profitable.

Building national capacities in research management

Efficient research management is essential for the successful performance of national agricultural research programs.Through a series of training needs assessment workshops associated with the CGIARs inter-center training program,the International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) has identified research management as a priorityarea in which training is needed for national researchers. Working with resource persons from ISNAR, the InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (lCRISAT)and with Cte dIvoires Institut des Savannes (IDESSA) as co-hosts, we successfully organized the third in a seriesof collaborative training workshops in research management. This workshop was attended by 14 program leaders ordirectors from five francophone countries in West and Central Africa. It provided an opportunity for participants to

improve their abilities in three areas: program formulation; planning, monitoring and evaluation of research projects;and financial management.

Agricultural information managementMembers of the regional rice research community need access to up-to-date information relevant to their work.Access is possible only if all levels of the information processing and dissemination chain are managed by highlyskilled staff. WARDAs Library and Documentation Center is therefore putting more emphasis on capacity building,through training at both WARDA and in member states and through follow-up consultative and advisory missions.

In 1996 we conducted an in-depth consultancy for the Projet National Riz (SOPRORIZ) of Cte dIvoires Ministryof Agriculture and Animal Resources. The purpose was to develop an information strategy and prepare for the estab-lishment of a specialized library. One outcome of this exercise was a document on the procedures and mechanismsfor setting up an integrated information system, to be known as the Observatoire du Riz. Another was a 2-monthtraining program for one staff member from SOPRORIZ at WARDAs headquarters.

From 10 to 13 June we participated in a preparatory session to plan and practice the delivery of lectures and thesupervision of practical exercises for a workshop on the training of trainers in scientific writing. The workshop itself,organized by the Sahel Institute in Bamako, Mali, was held from 2 to 6 September. It was attended by senior scientists

WARDA A l R t 1996


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from agricultural research institutions in the member countries of the Comit Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la

Scheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS), with the objective of building a core of skilled scientists able to organize furtherin-country training. WARDAs contribution focussed on the use of information services and tools, with special referenceto new computer-based technologies for accessing and managing information and literature.

At the Inter-African Phytosanitary Council of the Scientific, Technical and Research Commission of the Organizationof African Unity (OAU), in Yaound, Cameroon, we assisted in establishing a computerized database of Africanspecialists in the field of plant protection. We also provided 1 months training in data base management for one of thecouncils staff.

We also played a role in preparing and implementing an international workshop on the information management

policies of agricultural research institutions in Africa. This workshop was sponsored by CTA and held in Bamako,Mali, from 16 to 20 September 1996. One of its most important outputs was a working document on the establish-ment of an information system on current agricultural research in West and Central Africa. This system is conceivedas a project of the Confrence des Responsables de la Recherche Agronomique Africaine (CORAF) that will beimplemented in collaboration with WARDA once funding is secured.

The Africa Link Project

Many agricultural research networks, task forces, working groups and other inter-institutional initiatives are opera-tional in West and Central Africa. An important component of all such activities is the exchange of information.E-mail and the Internet are efficient means of accessing and exchanging information among participants.

Under the Africa Link Project, WARDA has received a grant of US$ 300 000 from the United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID) to improve connectivity within the region and to the rest of Africa and theworld. Since October 1996, all agricultural research institutions, networks and other relevant bodies in the regionhave been informed about the project. Information about the project has also been presented at various regionalmeetings.

Responses have been received from 33 institutions, requesting assistance in connecting some l29 sites (researchstations and institutes) and providing e-mail access to between 500 and 1000 scientists. Institutions facing technicalproblems or having difficulty in getting the information required to submit their requests, or those in areas wherethere is no service provider, have been assisted wherever possible. This assistance will continue in 1997, when anexpert will be sent round to study the options, put in place the appropriate mechanisms and provide complementarytraining for users.

The funds provided by the project cover the costs of connection and communication for the first few months(modem, installation, subscription fee and lump sum for the payment of the first quarter or years bill), together with

on-site training in the use of e-mail and the Internet. The project may also purchase additional computer hardware ifnecessary.

Allocation of funds is scheduled to start in January 1997. It is expected that all institutions will be connected bythe end of that year. Workshops will then be held to ensure that participants make the fullest possible use of thepotential of e-mail and the Internet. Participating organizations and networks may be assisted in establishing discus-sion forums and a home page.


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WARDA Annual Report 1996


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WARDA Annual Report 1996Features

Number one constraintAs part of a recent planning exercise, WARDAs scien-tists listed possible research topics in order of priorityaccording to their perception of each topics potentialimpact on regional rice production. Top of the list by awide margin was combatting weeds with a payoff esti-

mated at a staggering 1.5 million tonnes of extra rice.Weeds achieve their significance for rice yields not so

much by devastating individual fields, as insect pests anddiseases often do, but rather by exerting a steady down-ward pressure over huge areas, year after year. Theproblem is ubiquitous across West Africa, and particu-larly severe in the upland and hydromorphic parts of thesavanna and forest zones.

Besides depressing yields, weeds cause serious equityand environmental problems. In terms of equity, they arethe major constraint keeping small farmers small. In aWARDA survey, 80% of respondents said they wouldincrease their rice area if only they could be sure of beingable to weed it properly. Most farmers rely heavily onfamily labor for this task, herbicides being too expensiveor not available. In upland and hydromorphic areas, they

typically spend 40 to 60 days per hectare on weeding everyseason. With that sort of labor requirement, it is no won-der that weeding is often done late or not at all.

Environmentally, the weed problem drives one of WestAfricas most damaging production systemsshiftingcultivation. In this system, millions of hectares of forestare sent up in smoke each year as farmers clear new landfor cultivation. Weeds are a major factor forcing farmers

Something New Out of Africa

Shifting cultivation is Africas most environmentally damagingproduction system. Weeds are a major factor forcing farmers tocultivate new land

Weeding takes hours of back-breaking labor,provided mostly by women

ATEAM OF WARDA scientists has developed a new type of rice plant with a superiorability to compete with weeds. West Africas poorest farmers look set to reap the benefits. Andthere could be environmental gains too.


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exploring the potential of plant breeding to solve the

problem.

A goldmineSierra Leonese plant breeder Monty Jones first cameacross Oryza glaberrima in the 1970s, while he wasworking at the Rokupr Rice Research Station, in his homecountry. He was struck by the fact that farmers in difficultenvironments continued to grow the species in preference

to the higher-yielding O. sativa varieties that were alsoavailable. Clearly, O. glaberrima was better adapted tolocal stresses.

O. glaberrima is an indigenous African rice speciesthat has been selected and cultivated in West Africa for atleast 3500 years. It is not particularly high-yielding, butis a rich reservoir of genes for resistance to severalstresses, including weeds. The Asian rice O. sativa was

first introduced to Africa 500 years ago by Portuguesetraders. Despite being more vulnerable to weeds it has arelatively high yield potential that has made it popularwith farmers. As a result it has steadily replaced O.glaberrima,which is now thought to account for less than20% of West Africas rice area.

Jones move to Mb in the early 1990s to take up thepost of upland rice breeder with WARDA gave him theopportunity to realize his long cherished dream of cross-ing the two species. By embarking on such a project, hetook WARDAs breeding program in a new direction,away from the Green Revolution approach of the past.

The Green Revolution answer to the weed problemwould have been to continue breeding for yield whileencouraging the farmer to control the weeds, Jones says.When I arrived in 1991, WARDA was still using a highlevel of inputs when evaluating possible new releases.The result was the typical plant breeders syndrome:improved varieties that did well on the research stationbut flopped on farmers fields. Being short-stemmedsativa types, they were quickly smothered by weeds. Werealized we were only catering for the 20% of farmerswho used herbicides. We had to do something for themajority who couldnt afford them.

Jones and his colleagues began by requesting African

rice materials from national and international genebanks.They assembled a collection of 1500 lines ofO.glaberrima, which they then screened for a wide rangeof traits.

What we found was a goldmine, says Jones. Theglaberrima lines showed tremendous diversity in theirresistance to major stresses, including drought, blast dis-ease and iron toxicity. They also varied greatly in their

growth duration, response to fertilizer, grain quality andyield.

The screening exercise enabled the scientists to ex-plore the traits that made O. glaberrima so effective atcombatting weeds. Most of the accessions showedvigorous early growth and had droopy lower leavestraits that enabled them to fill up the available space rap-idly, physically elbowing out competitors in the early

stages and then providing a canopy of shade to slow downtheir development still further (Figure 2).

Also evident were the traits that make O. glaberrimagenerally a poor grain yielder. Most lines produced only74-150 grains per panicle, compared to 250 or more inO. sativa. Unlike O. sativa, the O. glaberrima accessionshad few secondary branches on their panicles and hence

O. glaberrima elbowsout competitors



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pFeatures

Figure 2. Weed growth in rice fields sown to one O.

glaberrima (IG 10) and two O. sativa (Morobevehanand IDSA 6) varieties.

Dry weed weight(g m2)

Days after emergence

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

IG 10MorobevehanIDSA 6

a lower number of spikelets. They were also prone to lodg-

ing, seed shattering and long seed dormancy. Traits suchas these explain why farmers have switched away fromO. glaberrima to O. sativa varieties.

New plant typeAs a result of the screening exercise, the scientists wereable to identify eight O. glaberrima lines to serve asparents in a wide crossing program with O. sativa. Theselines were relatively productive and had good grainquality, while displaying the characteristic O. glaberrimaplant architecture. For the O. sativa parents, the scientistschose five high-yielding improved varieties developedby WARDA. They then made 48 crosses between the twospecies.

Crossing different species is a hit-and-miss business,

with a high probability of sterility in the offspring. Wewere all in suspense, recalls Jones. But gene flowsbetween the two species do occur in farmers fields, sowe thought we had a fair chance of success.

In the event, 7 of the 48 crosses produced a few fertilegrains. The plants raised from these fell into three distinctgroups: those that looked like one or other of their parents,which were the most numerous, and a few plants that were

true interspecifics, combining features from both parents.Among the latter group were a handful of progeny thathad the high number of spikelets typical ofO. sativa,together with the droopy leaves and vigorous early growthofO. glaberrima.

These progeny were back-crossed twice to the O.sativa parents, to restore fertility and raise the yieldpotential. Progeny of the backcrosses were then subject

to pedigree selection through a further six generations,until the desired traits appeared stable. The new plant typehad been born.

Tested on the research station, two of the interspecificprogeny outyielded both the O. sativa and the O.glaberrima checks when grown under low-inputconditions, indicating a high degree of adaptation todifficult environments. Under high-input conditions, the

Realizing a longcherished dream:WARDAs upland ricebreeder, Monty Jones



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pFeatures

Table 2. Grain yield of 22 interspecific progenies and

their parents under high and low levels of management.

interspecifics regularly yielded 3.4 to 3.8 tonnes per hec-

tare, significantly more than the O. glaberrima parent andequal to the O. sativa check (Table 2). They combinedearly vigor with short duration, high yields and good grainquality.

WARDAs new plant type will not solve the weedproblem by itself. Rather, it will form the kingpin of apackage of measures, including improved agronomic prac-tices such as higher sowing density, that will prove most

effective when used together. Until now, that kingpin hasbeen missing. As Johnson puts it, If you have a good plant,then you can fight a winning battle on other fronts too.

New toolsThe WARDA team is developing and applying new toolsto increase the efficiency of its breeding program.

In the laboratory at Mb, the scientists are using antherculture as a short cut to their final product. Anther cultureis a form of tissue culture in which whole plants areregenerated from the anther or male part of the flower,using various growth media. The technique makes use ofthe fact that anthers, and the pollen they contain, arehaploidcontaining only one copy of each chromosome.Chromosome duplication thus gives rise to fertile diploid

plants, with two identical sets of chromosomes. Antherculture can be used to produce genetically stable lineswith a high level of fertility in around 24 months,compared with the 5 to 6 years needed in conventionalselection. An additional advantage is the conservation ofgenetic material that would otherwise have beendiscarded.

In applying this sensitive technique to the regenera-

tion of a new type of rice plant, WARDAs scientists werebreaking new ground. At first, they didnt succeed: themedium N6, normally used to induce callus formation inO. sativa, produced zero results when used on theinterspecifics. Jones went to Chinas National Instituteof Agricultural Research, in Hangzhou, which hasexpertise in anther culture, to find out more about how toovercome the problems. His assistants, Hortense Sehi and

Semon Mande, received specialized training in Taiwanand Colombia respectively. On their return the three triedseveral modifications, among which the addition ofcoconut milk and the hormone naphtaline acetic acidproved successful. Jones also developed a new medium

1

Means with the same letters do not differ significantly fromeach other.

O. glaberrima

O. sativa

yteiraV

ahgk(dleiyniarG 1)

tupnihgiH 1 tupniwoL 1

BH-601-P-B-I-054BAW a2963 edcb3161

BH-33P-3-2-42-054BAW ba5663 ed6941

BH-83-P-B-I-054BAW ba0163 edcba3381

BH-5-P-1-2-42-054BAW ba0063 ed1151

BH-02-P-B-I-054BAW ba3853 cba3002BH-061-P-B-I-054BAW ba8753 a4612

BH-81P-2-3-42-054BAW ba5653 ed3641

BH-3P-1-1-11-054BAW ba3353 ed5931

BH-331-P-B-I-054BAW ba5253 edcb5861

BH-19-P-B-I-054BAW cba8443 edc3351

BH-13-P-B-I-054BAW cba0733 edcba3071

)tnerap(6ASDI cba8633 e0931

BH-23-P-B-I-054BAW cba5033 ed1251

BH-32-P-B-I-054BAW dcba8723 ed8941

561CBAW edcba0723 dcba5881

BH-26-P-B-I-054BAW edcba9523 edcba4171

401-65BAW edcba5523 ed0641

BH-241-P-B-I-054BAW edcba0223 ed6541

BH-531P-1-3-42-054BAW fedcb0213 edcba3971

BH-741-P-B-I-054BAW fedc3392 edcba5071

BH-501-P-B-I-054BAW gfed5172 edcb7661

BH-8P-1-3-51-054BAW gfe9962 edcb0461

BK-8-1-11-054BAW fg8062 edc2451

BH-731-P-B-I-054BAW g3942 ed9041

BH-82-P-B-I-054BAW g3732 edcb8661

(41GC)tnerap g3961 ba3702



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Features

called multi-effective triazolea hardening chemical thatallows profuse root developmentto improve on the poorsurvival rate initially experienced when plants weretransferred to the soil.

Another tool being used by the team is modelling. The

scientists were well aware that the interspecifics abilityto combat weeds comes at a cost to other useful attributes,especially yield potential. Were not going to get some-thing for nothing, observes Johnson. And we dont wantto pay the highest price in terms of yield. The interspecificsmust still produce a lot of good quality grain if they are toappeal to farmers.

Michael Dingkuhn, the teams systems analyst, has

developed a model that plots the relationships betweenattributes such as tillering ability and leaf area indexthe ratio of leaf area to ground areaagainst yield poten-tial. According to Dingkuhn, the model is proving a usefulpredictive tool, avoiding the lengthy and expensivebusiness of growing out each and every cross to study its

performance empirically.

An important concept in the modelling work is that of

specific leaf area (SLA). This is defined as the area ofleaf per gram of leaf weight and is thus a measure of leafthickness. A high SLA indicates the ability to producelarge but thin leaves, or in other words a plant that spreadswell while incurring relatively low loss of grain. SLAvaries greatly between genotypes but appears relativelystable across environments, suggesting that the parametercould be a useful selection criterion for plant breeders.

The ideal plant will have a high SLA during early growthbut a rapid decline in SLA thereafter, as it puts lessinto vegetation and more into the production of grain(Figure 3).

A newly developedmedium promotes

rooting

Anther culture isbeing used tospeed up thebreeding effort

Days after sowing

Specific leaf area(m2kg1)

20 40 60 80 100

10

15

20

25

30

35

LSD(0.05)

O. glaberrimaO. sativaInterspecific progeny

Figure 3. Specific leaf area (SLA) over time for an inter-specific progeny (WAB 450-24-3-2-P18-HB) and its O.sativa (WAB 56-104 5) and O. glaberrima (CG 14)parents. The broken line indicates the ideal SLA for aweed-competitive high-yielding plant.


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WARDA Annual Report 1996F t


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Features

provide the bulk of the labor to rice cultivation in West

Africa. By reducing labor inputs while raising yields, thenew rice will lower the costs of production, therebymaking the classic contribution of new agricultural tech-nology to economic growth and equity. It could also bringsizeable environmental gains, helping to stabilize the shift-ing cultivation system and hence to reduce deforestation,while enabling countries to cut back on herbicide imports.

The most promising interspecific lines have already

reached farmers fields, where they are getting anenthusiastic reception from growers (see p. 21). In collabo-ration with Cte dIvoires national program, trials areunder way at a range of sites across the country. Seed ofthe new lines has also been sent to several other WestAfrican countries, including Togo, Ghana and Benin.

Jones believes adoption rates in West Africa will behigh. Five to six years from now, I see these new

materials flowing onto farmers fields throughout theregion, he says. As is typical in resource-poor farmingsystems, the new plants are likely to complement exist-ing varieties rather than totally replace them, so there willbe gains in biodiversity too.

Lastly, the benefits of the new technology could spreadbeyond Africa to other developing regions. Resource-poorAsian farmers, for example, face mounting problems incombatting weeds as rising population density forces themto cultivate increasingly marginal areas. In bringing gainsto such farmers, the new rice plant would demonstratethe coming of age of African science, reversing theconventional flow of technologies into the region fromelsewhere.

Ex Africa semper aliquid novi, wrote the Romanpoet Pliny the elder in the first century A.D.there isalways something new out of Africa. A product of Africanscience at its most creative, WARDAs new rice plant

demonstrates that Plinys words are still true today.

An improved screening methodpromises faster verification ofcompetitiveness

Something new out of Africa

WARDA Annual Report 1996Feat res


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21

Famine to feastIt was like Christmas, says Tim Dalton, agriculturaleconomist with WARDA. Hes describing the mood ofexcitement and curiosity among farmers as they exam-

ined rice plants during an evaluation day held at the villageschool in Ponondougou, Cte dIvoire. In an area whereno new varieties have become available for at least adecade, farmers were keen to explore what was on offer.For them, it was a case of famine to feast.

The farmers had been exposed to 60 different rice lines,chosen to represent the diversity of rice germplasm in theregion. The lines included already released varieties of

Oryza sativa together with possible new releases, a fewtraditional O. glaberrima types, and 10 of the newinterspecifics developed by WARDA scientists and theirnational partners (see p. 13). After a session in which allthe farmers inspected the display together, each was askedto pass through separately and to make his or herselections. The scientists then asked the farmers to givethe reasons for their choices, again separately so as to

minimize the influence of others.The day was part of a broader 3-year exercise con-

ducted in different rice-growing environments across thecountry and at different stages in the rice cycle. Duringthe first year, farmers are asked simply to select the vari-eties that most interest them; in the second, they are givenseed of these varieties for trials in their own fields,allowing them to make a direct comparison with their

Farmers in the Driving Seat

WARDAs scientists have long conducted surveys to determine the varietal preferences of riceproducers and consumers. Now, through participatory on-farm research, they are forging adeeper understanding of why farmers select some varieties and not others. The aim is to promoteadoption by making the farmer an equal partner with the scientist in the development of newtechnology.

traditional varieties; in the third, they will be asked topay for the seed. The third year will be the acid test offarmers willingness to adopt: will they put their moneywhere their mouths were?

Research in the savanna zone is conducted at two vil-lages, Ponondougou and Pondou, 15 km apart, near thetown of Boundiali. At these locations the exercise is nowin its second year. Activities in the forest zone, due tobegin in 1997, will be based at Gagnoa and Danan. At

Farmers showedgreat interest in the

diversity of ricetypes on display



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each location, WARDAs technicians launch the exerciseby sowing the set of accessions in the fields of a farmerselected for his or her willingness to innovate. Duringthe season around 80 farmers in the neighborhood areinvited to visit the crops at up to three different stages:the vegetative growth stage, 40 to 45 days after sowing,when early vigor and the ability to suppress weeds canbe assessed; the flowering stage, at which characteristics

such as height, duration and resistance to pests and dis-eases become evident; and just after harvesting, whenfarmers can evaluate grain quality and quantity beforemaking the final choice of an overall favorite.

Setting the trendMaster of ceremonies at most of the evaluation days isWARDAs upland rice breeder Monty Jones, himself

responsible for developing much of the material ondisplay. Jones sees the exercise as setting the trend forfuture rice breeding efforts in the region.

Participation and biodiversity go hand in hand, heexplains. Putting the farmer in the driving seat as re-gards technology development makes it far more likelyshe or he will adopt. Our aim is to expose farmers to thefull range of germplasm available, allowing them to en-

rich the local stock by making new choices. In this

respect the exercise represents a break with traditionalapproaches to technology development and dissemination,in which multilocational trials are followed by thenationwide release of a few varieties only.

The exercise is also designed to be gender-sensitive.Rice is primarily a womens crop in West Africa, andwomens views on new genetic materials, which oftenwent unheard in the conventional station-based research

of the past, may be different to those of menwithimportant implications for the breeding program.Womens choices and criteria are therefore distinguishedfrom mens in the data recorded during evaluation days.Interviews with women are conducted by a separate teamof three women scientists, to remove any possible biascaused by male interviewers.

Putting farmers in the driving seat has proved a popu-lar move with the farmers themselves. The exercise inthe Boundiali region started with 61 farmers but soonexpanded to 81the maximum number the researchersfelt they could handleas farmers flocked to join it. Asword spread, farmers from more distant villages came toask that the exercise be repeated there. In a similar exerciselaunched at Saioua, in the south of the country, the farmers

present at the first evaluation day were so enthusiasticabout the experience that they went to tell their Chief andelders, all of whom came along during the second half ofthe day to make their own selections.

Farmers choicesAs the exercise is still in its early stages, the results so farmust be treated with caution. That said, the initial find-

ings from the Boundiali region suggest that breeders havecorrectly gauged farmers needs (Figure 4).

Farmers first and second choices in both villages wereWAB 189-B-B-B-8HB and WAB 95 B-B-14-HB, bothof which are new breeding lines developed frominterspecific hybrids. The farmers were impressed by theability of these lines to beat weeds during the early growthstages and to go on to produce a high yield of attractive,

To avoid farmer-to-farmer influences,

each farmer wasinterviewed separately



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Figure 4. Men and womens choices of rice germplasm lines at two locations in the savanna zone of Cte dIvoire,

1996.

large-sized grains with good cooking qualities. Third andfourth places went to IDSA 10 and WAB 56-104, both

improved O. sativa varieties. The first of these wasdeveloped by WARDAs national partner in Cte dIvoire,the Institut des Savannes (IDESSA), while the secondwas developed by WARDA.

Interestingly, farmers first few selections were broadlysimilar at the two locations. The conventional wisdomregarding varietal preferences in West Africa is thatpreferences vary greatly from one village to the next. This

was not borne out by the results from Boundiali, but itremains to be seen whether greater differences become ap-

parent at other locationseither locally or between regions.Besides the four or five most popular lines, there were

some significant minority choices at both locations. Theseselections, which show greater variability across locations,probably cater for farmer-specific conditions, includingtaste and cooking quality. The existence of this secondtier of selections bodes well for future biodiversity atlocal level.

15105051015

60

50

40

30

20

10

Pondou village

Number of times selected

Line

IDSA 10

WAB 95 B-B-14-HB

WAB 33-25

WAB 56-104

WAB 189-B-B-B-8-HB

WomenMen

Ponondougou village



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24

Women and men valued the same plant traits but

ranked them differently, reflecting their different roles inthe marriage and business partnership (Figure 5). Thewomen chose lines primarily for their yieldan importantconsideration when feeding a large family. Men were alsointerested in yield, but with the added qualification thatfertilizer inputs should be kept low, since they are respon-sible for buying fertilizers. Predictably, women were moreinterested than men in ease of dehulling, while the men

focussed more on the taste of the cooked rice. Some womenalso went for tall plant height, which takes the backacheout of harvesting, especially when carrying a baby.

Two varieties, WAB 450-I-B-P-28-HB and WAB 33-25, were selected by women only at both locations. Thefirst of these is an interspecific progeny with good earlyvegetative growth, giving it a head start over weeds. Thewomen, all of whom were responsible for weeding,spontaneously named this characteristic as a reason fortheir selection. They also said the line would do well inareas with problem soilsanother facet of local farmingwith which they were familiar. WAB 33-25, a new breed-ing line derived from O. sativa materials, was popular onaccount of its large grain size and the ease with which itcould be pounded.

Women frequently described the grains they liked asjolieliterally, pretty. Prettyness appeared to be acomposite quality in which grain color, pattern, lengthand width all played a part. In many cases it was associatedwith the presence of an apiculusa purple or red spot onthe tip of the grain that is a characteristic ofglaberrimavarieties and thought to be an indicator of good aromaand hence good taste. If this proves to be the case, the

apiculus could serve as a useful morphological markerfor plant breeders.

Lastly, one woman selected a line with awnstheslender bristles that project from the spikelets in somevarieties. The reason she gave was that the awns areanathema to birds, piercing them the moment they alighton a panicle, so growing this variety would allow herchildren to spend less time on bird-scaring and more on

Women valued the same traits as men,but ranked them differently

Figure 5. Main selection criteria of men and women attwo villages in the savanna zone of Cte dIvoire, 1996.

Men Rank Women

Produces wellwith/without fertilizer

Large grains

Yield

Good taste

Long grains

1

2

3

4

5

Yield

Long grains

Swelling

"Pretty" grains

Easy to dehull

74 86Percentage

choosing accordingto these criteria



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25

doing their homework and helping about the house. This

was an eye-opener for the breeders, who usually selectagainst the presence of awns.

Methodological issuesParticipatory on-farm varietal selection is a new area ofresearch in which methods are evolving rapidly. TheWARDA team is giving considerable thought as to howto improve both data collection and the interpretation of

results.The teams main concern while gathering information

on farmers selection criteria has been not to prejudicefarmers responses by asking leading questions or steer-ing the conversation in certain directionshabits thatoften dogged the formal questionaire-based surveystypical of farming systems research. To combat thisproblem the researchers adopted an open approach,

allowing farmers to express themselves in their own wordsrather than being bound by a specific set of questionswith yes or no answers. This approach yielded a wealthof information, but it did lead to some ambiguity andoverlap between different criteriaas in the case ofjoliegrains described above.

One way of improving the usefulness of the results isto match farmers varietal preferences with socio-

economic characteristics such as household size andincome. Among other things, this will enable the team todiscover whether the farmers use different criteria to judgerice intended for home consumption or marketing. Daltonplans to use cluster analysis to analyze these and otherfactors, with the aim of improving the targeting of newvarieties to users once they are released. He also hopes touse conjoint analysis, a technique borrowed from product

marketing, to find out which traits are most important indetermining farmers choices and how farmers trade offone trait against anotherinformation that could proveuseful to plant breeders.

A host of other intriguing questions remain tobe answered. For instance, how similar are farmerschoices to what they already grow? Are more adventurouschoices correlated with relatively favorable financial

Processing qualities, such as ease of dehulling andpounding, were of more interest to women

One woman chosea variety with awns



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circumstances and good access to inputs and markets?

And do farmers choices change over time, according tosuch factors as their perception of the type of season, ormarket preferences?

Spreading the benefitsDespite the unanswered questions, WARDAsparticipatory research on varietal selection has alreadypaid handsome dividends. Besides speeding up the

development of new rice varieties, it is helping to gaugethe acceptability of what is already available and to

stimulate the demand for new varieties in the farming

community. Most importantly, it has confirmed that pastdiagnostic research has correctly identified farmers needs,with the result that breeders are now coming up with theright answers.

Jones and his colleagues have lost no time in seekingto spread these benefits to other countries in West Africa.Similar exercises are planned to start in Ghana and Togoin 1997; and in 1998, with Japanese funding, a further

four countries will join in, namely Benin, Gambia, GuineaBissau and Nigeria.



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Malaria kills halfa million Africanchildren a year

The disease is spread byseveral species ofmosquito, notablyAnopheles gambiae

A vigil for scienceIts 2.00 a.m. on a pitch-black African night. Alone in adark room sits a man, stock-still, his chest, legs and armsnaked, lit only by the torch he is holding. An eery

chiaroscuro figure, from a painting by Rembrandt.The man makes a brief forward movement of the head,

accompanied by a gentle hissing sound as he sucks inthrough the plastic tube he holds in his mouth. From thespot on his arm on which it had alighted, another mos-quito joins its companions in the glass jar to which thetube is connected.

The scene is a house in a small village on the Office

du Niger irrigation scheme, in Mali. The man is one of ateam of research assistants working in 6-hour shiftsthrough the night. In the morning, the teams catch ofmosquitoes will be sent to the laboratory for analysis, tofind out how many carry malaria. The aim is to assess theaverage number of infective mosquito bites to which thelocal population is exposed at different seasons of theyear.

This experiment is one of several being conductedunder the auspices of the Rice and Human HealthResearch Consortium, a group of national andinternational research institutes and donor organizationsformed in 1994 and based at WARDAs Mb headquar-ters (see box overleaf). The consortiums objective is toanswer the many questions surrounding the links betweenrice cultivation and malaria.

Rice Cultivation: Kill or Cure?

MALARIA IS Africas single biggest killer, claiming the lives of half a million children everyyear. Over a lifetime, the average African may experience up to 60 episodes of the disease,each of them potentially fatal. It is often assumed that lowland rice fields provide an ideal breedingground for the malarial mosquito. But do they really? And if so, do increased populations of thevector actually increase the incidence of malaria?



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The consortium partners

In Cte dIvoire: Centre Universitaire de Formation en

Entomologie Mdicale et Vtrinaire Institut Pierre Richet (Organisation de Coordination

pour la Lutte contre les Grandes Endemies)

In Mali: Ecole Nationale de Mdecine et de Pharmacie

Institut dEconomie Rurale (IER) Institut National de Recherche en Sant

Publique

International: West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) Joint Panel of Experts on Environmental

Management for Vector Control (PEEM) of theWorld Health Organization (WHO), the Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO), the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) and the United NationsCenter for Human Settlements (UNCHS)

Donors: International Development Research Centre

(IDRC) Government of Norway Danish International Development Agency

(DANIDA)

The shallow, sunlit waters of lowland rice fields appearto provide the perfect habitat

The health conundrum

The epidemiology of malaria is extremely complex, andthere are plenty of pitfalls for the unwary.

Lowland rice fields have long been under suspicionas breeding grounds for malarial mosquitoes. With theirwide expanses of clean, shallow water exposed to air andsunlight, they appear to provide ideal conditions, at leastuntil the crop is established. Mosquitoes sleep during theday, so people actually working in the fields are not at

any heightened risk of being bitten. But the night-timerisk to the local population as a whole could increase ifmosquito numbers rise following the introduction ofirrigated or wetland rice cultivation. And intensifyingcultivation through double cropping could make matterseven worse, raising numbers still further by prolongingthe breeding period.

That, at least, is the theory. The trouble starts whenyou look for concrete evidence to support it. Socio-economic research by WARDA during the early 1990sdid reveal that some farmers in Cte dIvoire regardlowland rice cultivation as risky for health reasons, in-cluding malaria. But beyond these subjective perceptionsthe scientific literature on the subject is inconclusive, withsome studies pointing to increased frequencies of malaria

when rice cultivation is introduced, others to reducedfrequencies and still others to no change.So are ricelands in fact any more culpable as habitats

than other damp areas, including uncultivated swampsand the hydromorphic fringes that typically surroundwetlands? Some argue that, as the rice crop establishes,providing shade, rice fields pose less of a threat than theseother areas, or at least do so for a shorter period. Here the

effect of agronomic variables, such as seeding densityand method, could be decisive.

The relative importance of ricelands as a breedingground can be expected to vary from zone to zone. Inhumid areas, ricelands are far from the only potentialhabitat. Provided it is filled with shallow water, an areaas small as a footprint in the mud may serve. The irrigationschemes of the Sahel, in contrast, represent virtually the



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only available year-round breeding ground in a zone that

has only a short rainy season and hence, away from theschemes, a low mosquito population for all but a fewmonths of the year. The savanna represents an intermedi-ate situation between these two extremes.

Beyond these considerations lie still more complexissues. The population dynamics and life-cycle of themalarial mosquito are such that higher mosquitopopulations do not necessarily lead to increased risk of

disease transmission. And even if they do, that does notmean there will necessarily be more cases of malaria.Incidence depends on the susceptibility of local peopleand on the preventive measures they take, factors whichvary greatly according to previous levels of exposure andto education, income and the perception of risk.

A cross-sectoral studyIn 1995 the consortium launched a study to investigatethese questions. The studys unique feature is its cross-sectoral nature, integrating the agricultural disciplineswith those of human health and the social sciences.

Research is conducted in the three major rice-growingzones of West Africa. Twenty-four villages each wereselected in the humid forest and savanna zones of Cte

dIvoire, eight representing single-cropping rice systemsand eight double-cropping systems, while the remainingeight have wetlands that are uncropped or at least notcropped to rice. In the Sahel, villages on the Office duNiger irrigation scheme in Mali are compared withvillages in the dry rangeland, inhabited by pastoralists.

In each village, consortium scientists assess the effectsof different agricultural systems and practices on mosquito

populations throughout the wet and dry seasons. At6-weekly intervals, they also measure the average numberof infective mosquito bites per person and record thenumber of new malaria cases occurring.

Its not crop growth!In a typical forest-savanna transition ecology, the scien-tists detected a sharp fall in the density of mosquitoes in

rice fields about 6 weeks after sowing/planting. Similar

falls found in previous studies had been put down to theeffect of shading provided by the rice crop. But in theconsortium experiments the same fall occurred at differ-ent sowing densities and regardless of whether the crophad been transplanted (and was therefore more mature)or seeded directly.

Surprised, the scientists repeated the experiment,adding an empty plot that had been prepared for sowing

but not actually sown. Preparations for sowing includethe creation of a clean seedbed using herbicides, and theapplication of fertilizers.

To their astonishment, the scientists found that themosquito population of the empty plot behaved in exactlythe same wayfalling drastically after 6 weeks. Some-thing happens that is associated with soil preparation andthe use of inputs, not with the growth of the rice, says

Thomas Teuscher, the Swiss medical doctor who coordi-nates the consortium.

Teuscher and his colleagues are now conducting afurther set of trials, comparing plots with and withoutinputs and separating the effects of fertilizers andherbicides. In the first year of these trials, bothhydromorphic and lowland (with standing water) plots

produced similar amounts of mosquito larvae. However,in lowland plots with inputs, the breeding period doubledin length from 6 to 12 weeks compared to plots withoutinputs, leading to a fivefold leap in the mosquito popula-tion. Inputs appear somehow to change the acquaticenvironment, making it more favorable for larvae over alonger period, concludes Teuscher.

Once bitten...Although unexpected, these findings still appear tosupport the case against rice systems and their intensifi-cation. Common sense suggests that, especially in villageswhere the high use of inputs is coupled with doublecropping, higher populations of mosquitoes should leadto more infective bites per person and hence to more out-breaks of malaria.



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Figure 6. Possible relationships between malaria mortalityand exposure to malaria.

Rice growing does not appear to increase the risk to villagers inthe savanna and forest zones, where malaria is endemic...

But the data on the number of infective bites per per-

son do not provide clear evidence of such a relationship.True, during the dry season double-cropping villages inthe savanna zone had levels of exposure twice as high asthose of single-cropping villages (10 bites per person permonth, compared with 5). Awkwardly, however, the figurefor non-rice villages was at the same high level as fordouble-cropping villages10 bites per person per month.

And the common sense hypothesis unravels

completely when the figures for new malaria cases areconsidered. A total of 2.6 new fever cases were reportedper 1000 inhabitants in double-cropping villages,compared with 2.0 in single-cropping villages and 2.4 innon-rice villages. In other words, broadly similar levelsat a time of year when double-cropping villages could beexpected to have a significantly higher level. These figuresshould be interpreted cautiously, since they cover only

one season and fever cases are not necessarily malarial.But they do suggest strongly that rice cultivation systemsdo not, after all, increase the risk of malaria, at least inthe savanna zone.

The key to the mystery, according to Teuscher, lies inthe relationship between infective bites and diseaseincidence. This relationship is already known from other

studies (Figure 6). As the number of bites per year risesfrom 0 to 10, incidence and mortality increase sharply.But from 10 upwards, the curve levels off rapidly, withincidence remaining remarkably stable through levels ofexposure ranging up to 1000 bites per year. Theexplanation is that, at increasing levels of exposure, peopleacquire immunity. At the highest levels of exposure, ofover 1000 infective bites per year, there may even be a

decrease in the number of malaria cases, although theexact shape of the curve remains unknown.

Extrapolating the dry-season figures for the numberof bites per person in savanna villages gives levels rangingfrom 50 to 100 infective bites per person per year. Alltypes of village thus lie well above the point at which thecurve levels off. In other words, at infestation levels thishigh, whether or not you grow rice is unlikely to make

Mortality

1000100101

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Number of infective bitesper person per year


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Easing the learning curveWhen it comes to fertilizers, Saer Kane Diop knows hisstuff. If I apply 50 kg of 18-40-6 DAP at 23 days after

sowing, then make two further applications at 50 and 70days, I can be sure to get a yield of 7 tonnes per hectare,he says. He has an equally firm grasp of the dates bywhich all the other operations in his busy cropping calen-dar should be completed, including sowing, weeding,

harvesting and threshing.Now in his sixties, Diop farms land near the village of

Thiagar, on the left bank of the Senegal River. These days

he grows rice alone, but he hasnt always done so. In fact,he can remember a time when no one in his area grewrice. Before the mid-1960s we were all floodplainfarmers, producing beans, cowpea and cucumber, he re-calls. Thiagar was one of the first villages to agree tohave irrigation, and I was among the first farmers tocultivate irrigated rice here. We had to learn from scratch.

Diops story is typical of his generation. Thousands

like him have had to master a completely new kind offarming as, under government schemes, they saw theirland transformed by the introduction of irrigation canalsand structures. With the switch to irrigated rice came theneed to acquire the skills of land preparation, watermanagement and the use of inputs such as fertilizer andherbicides. The year-round supply of water also broughtwith it the opportunity to grow an extra crop during the

A Tradition in the Making

DESPITE IMPRESSIVE strides forward over the past 30 years, Senegal still has a long way to gobefore it makes full use of its substantial investment in irrigation. For many of the farmers in theSenegal River Valley, irrigated rice is a new crop of which they have little experience, with theresult that their yields often fall below the level needed to cover the costs of production. WARDA is

one partner in a dynamic national research and development system that is determined to overcomethe obstacles to further progress.

Saer Kane Diop (center) talks with WARDA scientists and (left)Moustapha Diaw, president of the local farmers association. Inthe mid-1960s, Diop and Diaw became the fi rst irrigated ricefarmers in Thiagar village

Sunshine andwater areplentiful onSenegalsirrigation

schemes, butyields remainwell belowpotential



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dry season, besides the traditional rainy season crop. Here

the Sahelian climate imposed its own harsh lessons: sowtoo early, and the emerging plants were blasted by a cold,dust-laden wind; too late, and they wilted under thesummer heat. Even the normal wet-season crop could belost to cold if sown too late in the season.

Diop has learned much by experience, but his learningcurve has been eased by strong institutional support. Re-cently, he attended a journe de restitutiona one-day

seminar allowing farmers to brush up on their technicalknowledge of all aspects of irrigated rice production,including fertilizer applications. Held in the village ofThiagar, the seminar was one of many organized indifferent parts of the Senegal River Valley by the SocitAnonyme du Dveloppement du Delta (SAED), the bodyresponsible for providing advice to the valleys farmersand one of WARDAs leading research partners (see box).

Asked what he thought of the seminar, Diop im-mediately attests to its relevance. I was expectingrecommendations that would be unrealistic for us poorfarmers, he says. But to my surprise we got informa-tion that complements what we do already. The seminardid not ask us to spend extra money but instead taught ushow to use existing resources more efficiently, so that weget better results.

Relevant researchTwo topics emphasized at the seminar were theimportance of observing the cropping calendar, and theappropriate rates and dates for fertilizer applications. Thechoice of both topics, as well as the recommendationsmade on them, reflected recent research results.

Surveys conducted yearly since 1995 show that non-

observance of the cropping calendar is still the majorreason why farmers in the Senegal River Valley fail toobtain good yields. For a variety of reasonsnot justinexperience, but also the unavailability of credit andinputsfarmers regularly start the season late and thenfall further and further behind as it goes on. The surveyshighlight the fact that timely operations matter frombeginning to end of the season: late sowing of the dry-

season crop, for example, can lead to 100% failure as the

plants succumb to the extreme heat of the Sahel in Apriland May; late weeding also reduces yields sharply, withthe weeds increasingly competing with the rice for nutri-ents and water; and late harvesting and threshing resultin further losses caused by declining grain moisture con-tent and post-harvest pests.

The surveys also show that farmers obtain extremelyvariable results when they use fertilizer. Either they can-

not obtain fertilizer when they need it, or else they lackinformation on how and when to apply it. Once applied,fertilizer is often swept away by excessive flooding or,where it does remain in the field, benefits the growth ofweeds rather than that of the rice crop.

To underpin the recommendations made to farmers,WARDAs systems analyst Michael Dinkuhn has devel-

A strong extension service

Founded in 1965, SAED is responsible for the develop-ment of irrigated rice production throughout theSenegal River Valley. It provides an advisory service tofarmers, and also conducts research.

SAED is that rarety among African institutions, astrong extension organization. Several factors help to

explain its strength, including dynamic leadership andwell trained and motivated professional staff. Theorganizations limited geographical scope hasenabled it to focus its resources well. The dualmandateresearch as well as extensionensuresstrong links with other research institutions and a strongsense of ownership of the products of collaborativeresearch.

With donor support, SAED has built a detailed database on irrigated areas throughout the Senegal River

Valley, recently complementing this with the introduc-tion of a geographical information system (GIS). Thisserves as an effective tool for agro-ecological analysisand planning, resulting in the provision of well targetedadvice to farmers.

To ensure the continuing relevance of collaborativeresearch, SAED organizes a yearly meeting betweenresearchers and farmers. This is attended by WARDAand ISRA scientists, as well as those of SAED.



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oped a simulation model known as Rice Development,

or RIDEV for short. The model predicts yield losses dueto cold or heat stress at flowering time, as a function ofthe crop variety chosen, the establishment method (directsowing or transplanting), the sowing date and the charac-teristics of the site. It provides users with cut-off datesfor each operationsowing, applying fertilizer, drainingthe field, and harvesting. RIDEV has been adapted foruse in several Sahelian countries, where training courses

on it have been organized for extensionists.Fertilizer application dates and rates are also the

subject of joint experiments by SAED and WARDA,conducted in farmers fields near Thiagar and at otherlocations. The experiments compare a range of farmerspractices with those of researchers. The aim is to allowfarmers to see for themselves what works and whatdoesnt, says Salif Diack, WARDA research assistant.

The results feed directly into the seminars, many of whichare conducted by extensionists who are themselvesinvolved in the research.

The seminars are as popular with extensionists andresearchers as they are with farmers. Arona Tour, agri-cultural advisor with SAED, thinks the one at Thiagarwas highly effective and that farmers will adopt therecommendations made. He has written to KouamMiezan, WARDAs team leader in Senegal, to thank himfor WARDAs input and to suggest repeating the exerciseeach year. For Cynthia Donovan, economist with theWARDA team, the seminars provide researchers with a

welcome reminder of the relevance of what they are doing.

Its good to hear farmers asking questions that researchreally can answer, she says. Thats typical of farmerswho are learning how to grow a new crop.

New seedsCentral to the drive to raise yields is the developmentand dissemination of new rice varieties. In p

africarice annual report 1996

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