afghanistan data

7/28/2019 Afghanistan data

1/11

Afghanistan has long been used as a battleground for strategic wars bylarger external powers. This is in part due to its geographic position betweenthe Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia. In addition, the fragmented andpolarised nature of Afghan society, which is made up of many different ethnicgroups, has lead to its multiple internal struggles which have gained support from

the different external powers. The almost continuous devastation caused to thecountry for over the past three decades is a testimony to the strength andendurance of its people and the groups who work towards rebuilding theircountry.

The Rise and Fall of Communism andthe Soviet War

In 1978 the Saur Revolution overthrew the existing government and implementeda Socialist agenda. Led by Hafizullah Amin and the military of the Khalq party, the

agenda included a move to state atheism, land reforms and declared the equality

of the sexes. Reigning President Mohammad Daoud Khan, along with 17 other

members of his family, was overthrown and killed just hours after the start of the

coup, whilst many members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment

and the intelligentsia were also imprisoned, tortured or killed. The revolutionaries

went on to free prominent figures of the Khalq party, and Noor Mohammad

Taraki was chosen as leader and President. Following this,

the Mujahedeen, loosely-aligned opposition forces made up of groups of mostlyPashtun tribesmen, began attacks aimed at overthrowing the Marxist-Leninist

government, which was also under attack from separate attacks from other left-

wing groups who disagreed with President Taraki. The ruling party in turn

requested the support of the Soviet Union in fighting the Mujahedeen resistance,

removing the other left-wing opposition and supporting the failing Afghan army.

There was an initial, massive deployment of 100,000 Red Army troops into

Afghanistan. The US saw this as a prime opportunity to weaken the Soviet Union

as part of its Cold War strategy, and they began to provide training and arms to

the Mujahedeen resistance groups, along with extra support from other countriessuch as Saudi Arabia (who had their own agenda) and the UK.

There are many varied reports that the financial and military assistance from

these external powers ranged from $10 to $40 billion over the nine-year conflict.

It officially ended in 1989 with the withdrawal of the Soviet forces. The

devastation caused by the conflict left an estimated two million people dead and

1.5 million people disabled, in part due to the massive city carpet-bombing

campaigns and the large areas of land mines that still exist today. One third of

the countrys pre-war population also fled into neighbouring Pakistan, Iran andfurther afield, and two million people were internally displaced.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/analysis/83854.stmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafizullah_Aminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Tarakihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Tarakihttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1569826.stmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_in_Afghanistanhttp://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3ae6b81cf0&query=Return%20to%20Afghanistanhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/analysis/83854.stmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafizullah_Aminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Tarakihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Tarakihttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1569826.stmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_in_Afghanistanhttp://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3ae6b81cf0&query=Return%20to%20Afghanistan


2/11

image by US Army, published under the Creative Commons License

By 1992 the Communist government had collapsed and the Peshawar Accord

declared Afghanistan to be the Islamic State of Afghanistan. However, many

groups refused to acknowledge the new government and the country soon fell

into civil war that lasted throughout the 1990s. Working government

departments, the police, justice systems and education systems did not have

time to reform after the Soviet War and much of the country descended into

lawlessness. This led to areas being controlled by different armed factions whoin turn were supported by governments and groups in Saudi Arabia, Iran,

Pakistan and the US.

In the early 1990s in Kandahar, a militia group called the Taliban, began to

emerge as a political and religious force, led by Mohammed Omar and with the

support of many Afghan refugees from Pakistan, and who supposedly opposed

the tyrannical rule of the local governor and began to install greater order into the

area. The group gained increasing recognition, power and support and began to

take control of much of southern and central Afghanistan.

Implementation of an Islamic state

The Taliban was able to oust the existing, weakened government and take over

Kabul in September 1996, establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Many

of the Talibans leaders followed a fundamentalist version ofDeobandi and

Wahhabi Islam and a strict interpretation of Afghan social and cultural norms.

They enforced the most extreme version of Sharia law ever encountered in themodern Islamic world. The Taliban became notorious internationally for its
http://www.cfr.org/afghanistan/taliban-afghanistan/p10551http://www.paklinks.com/gs/religion-and-scripture/39109-deobandi-wahabi-naqshbandi-alliance.htmlhttp://www.paklinks.com/gs/religion-and-scripture/39109-deobandi-wahabi-naqshbandi-alliance.htmlhttp://www.paklinks.com/gs/religion-and-scripture/39109-deobandi-wahabi-naqshbandi-alliance.htmlhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/soldiersmediacenter/531605535/sizes/m/in/photostream/http://www.cfr.org/afghanistan/taliban-afghanistan/p10551http://www.paklinks.com/gs/religion-and-scripture/39109-deobandi-wahabi-naqshbandi-alliance.htmlhttp://www.paklinks.com/gs/religion-and-scripture/39109-deobandi-wahabi-naqshbandi-alliance.html


3/11

treatment of women, who had (amongst other things) to wear the burqa (a full

face and body covering); were not allowed outside the home without a related

male chaperone and were not permitted to work or to be schooled after the age

of eight. In some areas of Afghanistan music, dance and other forms of

entertainment were also banned and public beatings and executions occurred forthose who disobeyed the laws enforced by their police or anyone seen as a

political dissident. Many Pakistani nationals joined the Taliban to fight against the

United Fronts forces and Osama bin Laden channelled more money into the

Taliban, citing them as the only true Islamic state. Bin Laden had been involved

in the Soviet War, providing money to different militia groups to fight the Soviet

forces. He returned to Afghanistan in 1996 after having to flee Sudan and Saudi

Arabia, and allegedly used the country as a base to plan and finance attacks

internationally.

image by Dfid, published under the Creative Commons License

At the same time, the United Front, also known as the Northern Alliance, led

byAhmad Massoud, fought back against the Taliban stronghold. Western

support and financial assistance in the 1990s had dramatically decreased after

the end of the Cold War. But with the increase in the number of attacks on US

embassies internationally from Islamist terrorist groups, attention began to

increase once again with the US attacking suspected bases belonging to bin

Laden in Afghanistan in 1998, along with the UN also ordering increasing

sanctions on the Taliban. Massoud appealed to the European Parliament in early

2001 for help and warned that there was information about a large-scale attack
http://essays.ssrc.org/sept11/essays/roy_text_only.htmhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1340726/Ahmad-Shah-Massoud.htmlhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/dfid/4016911514/http://essays.ssrc.org/sept11/essays/roy_text_only.htmhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1340726/Ahmad-Shah-Massoud.html


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on US soil. However, he was killed by a suicide bomb attack on 9 September

2001, two days before the attacks on the Twin Towers that shook the world.

September 11

th

and the US War of TerrorIn the aftermath of the World Trade Center attacks the US government quickly

identified Osama bin Laden as responsible and claimed that the Taliban

stronghold was harbouring him and refusing to hand him over. They launched a

series of aerial attacks on supposed al-Qaida bases under Taliban control and

began militarily and financially supporting the Northern Alliance to bring down the

Taliban. The Taliban government in Kabul collapsed by December 2001, with

many of the Taliban forces moving to the south and along the contested border

with Pakistan.

Hamid Karzai was installed as the President of the interim government in 2001

and other coalition forces joined the US and UK fight against insurgency attacks

in Afghanistan, namely France, German and Italy supplying the most troops. In

2004 the first Presidential elections were held, with Karzi winning 53 per cent of

the votes, but with an extremely low voter turnout amid fears of election violence.

However, since 2006 there has been an increase in the levels of insurgency led

by the Taliban who used mainly improvised explosives and suicide bomb attacks,

a UN report has suggested that most of the civilian casualties in Afghanistan arethe result of Taliban attacks. The coalition military occupation is now in its tenth

year, with approximately 154,000 troops currently stationed there, and

an estimated 10,000 people were killed in 2010alone.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/hamid-karzaihttp://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/comments/2010C33_sbg_wmr.pdfhttp://www.afghanconflictmonitor.org/civilian.htmlhttp://www.afghanconflictmonitor.org/civilian.htmlhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/hamid-karzaihttp://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/comments/2010C33_sbg_wmr.pdfhttp://www.afghanconflictmonitor.org/civilian.html


5/11

image by US Army, published under the Creative Commons License

The Obama administration pushed towards a final troop surge at the end of 2010,

with an extra 30,000 US troops. The US has given a date of July 2011 when they

want to start withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and to shift control to Afghan

security forces by 2014. However, training of the forces and police has proved

extremely difficult with large numbers of suicide bomb attacks at recruitment

centres, a drop-out rate of 25 per cent and a high level of drug addiction amongst

troops.

Destruction of war

Afghanistan is struggling to rebuild itself amidst the ongoing war despite the

billions of dollars of aid that have been pumped into the country. Life expectancy

is 44 years, compared to an average of 53 years for other low-income countries

worldwide. The government is failing to extend its control or enter intonegotiations with the Taliban, while the Taliban in turn refuse to enter any

negotiations until all foreign troops leave the country. Much of the Taliban and its

leaders are based across the border in Pakistan, where British and US troops

cannot be seen to be overtly attacking or occupying, but have madefrequent use

of drone attacks, which are carried out by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

The opium trade has increased massively since 2001 and the occupying forces

are unable to prevent it, with some of the proceeds allegedly going to members of

the Kazai government. Other forms ofcorruption remain rife in all sectors of

society and some areas remain outside of government control.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/29/AR2010052903172.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/29/AR2010052903172.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/29/AR2010052903172.htmlhttp://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_statistics.htmlhttp://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_statistics.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11490722http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11490722http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11490722http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/01/19/us-afghanistan-corruption-idUSTRE60I2CF20100119http://www.flickr.com/photos/soldiersmediacenter/768971192/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/29/AR2010052903172.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/29/AR2010052903172.htmlhttp://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_statistics.htmlhttp://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_statistics.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11490722http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11490722http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/01/19/us-afghanistan-corruption-idUSTRE60I2CF20100119


6/11

image by Defense Images, published under the Creative Commons License.

In July 2010 Wikileaks released a huge cacheof 90,000 secret military files

related to Afghanistan. Revealing how the coalition forces had killed hundreds of

civilians in unreported incidents, it also recorded the surge in Taliban attacks and

the fear of support to the Taliban from neighbouring Iran and Pakistan.

Throughout spring 2011, theTaliban launched a major offensive, targetinggovernment officials and buildings. The attacks took place in Kandahar with the

Taliban claiming to take over the city. This inflamed insurgency, fueled by the

recent killing of Osama Bin Laden demonstrates how the Afghan government

and Western forces are tilting at windmills of extremists groups, trapping the

country in a spiral of violence.

There is no immediate end in sight to the Afghanistan conflict, and its complex

issues and lack of stable governance mean that new conflicts will continue to rise

up. However, there is a small but steady increase in the number of groupsworking towards building civil society on a local level and mediating conflicts. The

stance on development in Afghanistan is shifting slightly, with more awareness

being given to locally-led projects as opposed to donor-led projects. After more

than three decades of conflict the fatigue of war felt by its people is strong, and

there is a definite need for a chance of a more tolerable situation in a country

where many generations have only known war.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/25/afghanistan-war-logs-military-leakshttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/25/afghanistan-war-logs-military-leakshttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13248421http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13248421http://www.flickr.com/photos/defenceimages/4635521219/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/25/afghanistan-war-logs-military-leakshttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13248421


7/11

Landlocked and mountainous, Afghanistan has suffered from suchchronic instability and conflict during its modern history that itseconomy and infrastructure are in ruins, and many of its peopleare refugees.

Since the fall of the Taliban administration in 2001, adherents of the

hard-line Islamic movement have re-grouped.

It is now a resurgent force, particularly in the south and east, and theAfghan government has struggled to extend its authority beyond thecapital and to forge national unity.

Its strategic position sandwiched between the Middle East, Central Asiaand the Indian subcontinent along the ancient "Silk Route" means thatAfghanistan has long been fought over - despite its rugged andforbidding terrain.

Great Game

Afghanistan hasdrawn in military forces from several parts of the world

It was at the centre of the so-called "Great Game" in the 19th centurywhen Imperial Russia and the British Empire in India vied for influence.

And it became a key Cold War battleground after thousands of Soviettroops intervened in 1979 to prop up a pro-communist regime, leading


8/11

to a major confrontation that drew in the US and Afghanistan'sneighbours.

But the outside world eventually lost interest after the withdrawal ofSoviet forces, while the country's protracted civil war dragged on.

Continue reading the main story

At a glance

Afghanistan has been torn by conflict for decades

Nato-led foreign combat troops are due to withdraw in 2014

The Taliban - who were ousted by a US-led invasion - want to restore strict Islamic

rule and have been making a come-back

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

The emergence of the Taliban - originally a group of Islamic scholars -brought at least a measure of stability after nearly two decades ofconflict.

But their extreme version of Islam attracted widespread criticism.

The Taliban - drawn from the largest ethnic group, the Pashtuns - wereopposed by an alliance of factions drawn mainly from Afghanistan'sother communities and based in the north.

In control of about 90% of Afghanistan until late 2001, the Taliban wererecognised as the legitimate government by only three countries.

They were at loggerheads with the international community over thepresence on their soil of Osama bin Laden, who ordered the bombing ofUS embassies in Africa in 1998 and the attacks in the US on 11September 2001.

After the Taliban's refusal to hand over Bin Laden, the US initiatedaerial attacks in October 2001, paving the way for opposition groups todrive them from power and heralding a long-term, Nato-led militarypresence.

Predictions of the Taliban's demise after the adoption of a newconstitution in 2004 proved to be premature - the extremist group cameback with a vengeance and violence increased.

Military withdrawalAmid a rising death toll and the increasing unpopularity of the conflictamong Western voters, pressure grew for a withdrawal of foreignforces.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12011352#story_continues_1http://www.monitor.bbc.co.uk/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12011352#story_continues_1http://www.monitor.bbc.co.uk/


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In 2012, the 11th year of the conflict, Nato backed plans to hand overcombat duties to Afghan forces by mid-2013. Some 130,000 Nato-ledcombat troops will leave Afghanistan by December 2014.

The alliance says it is committed to a long-term strategic relationshipwith Afghanistan beyond that date. Foreign military trainers will stay on.

Meanwhile, tentative steps towards a negotiated peace agreement weremade in 2012, when the Taliban announced they had agreed to openan office in Dubai for talks with US officials.

Drugs tradeAfghanistan's economy depends heavily on the drugs trade. Thecountry supplies over 90% of the world's opium, the raw ingredient ofheroin.

International bodies and governments say the drugs trade is helping tofuel the Taliban insurgency, which is estimated to receive up toUS$100m a year from the trade.

The UN Office on Drugs and Crime has called on Afghanistan to targetthe major traffickers and corrupt government officials, who it saysoperate with impunity.

Afghans have resolutely defended their independence from foreign influence


10/11

Peace Agreements in Central Asia

Afghanistan: Year Download

Peshawar Accord afgan2.pdf

Afghan Peace Accord (Islamabad Accord) 1993 afgan1.pdf

See also:

INCORE'sCountry Guide to Afghanistan.

Russia: 1996-1997 Year Download

Agreement on a Cease-fire, the Cessation of Military Activities, and on Measures for a Settlement of theArmed Conflict on the Territory of the Chechen Republic

1996 rus1.pdf

Khasavyourt Joint Declaration and Principles for Mutual Relations 1996 rus6.pdf

Protocol of the Meeting of the Commissions on the Negotiations Regarding a Cease-fire and Cessation ofHostilities and on Measures to Settle the Armed Conflict on the Territory of the Chechen Republic

1996 rus3.pdf

Protocol of the Meeting of the Working Groups on the Question of a Settlement of the Armed Conflict onthe Territory of the Chechen Republic 1996 rus4.pdf

Protocol of the Meeting of the Working Groups, Formed under the Negotiations Commissions, to LocateMissing Persons and to Free Forcibly Detained Persons

1996 rus5.pdf

Peace Treaty and Principles of Interrelation between Russian Federation and Chechen Republic Ichkeria 1997 rus2.pdf

See also:

INCORE'sCountry Guide to Russia.

Tajikistan: 1994-1997 Year Download

Agreement on a Temporary Cease-fire and the Cessation of Other Hostile Acts on the Tajik-Afghan Borderand within the Country for the Duration of the Talks

1994 taj12.pdf

Protocol on the fundamental Principles for establishing peace and national accord in Tajikistan 1995 taj11.pdf

"Mise en oeuvre de l'Accord de paix du 23 decembre 1996 - Reunion de Meched-Iran Communiquecommun"

1996 taj4.pdf

Moscow Meeting Agreement, and Protocol on Commission on National Commission 1996 taj7.pdf

Protocol on Settlement of the Military and Political Situation in the Areas of Confrontation 1996 taj14.pdf

Accord general sur l'instauration de la paix et de l'entente nationale au Tadjikistan 1997 taj1.pdf

Declaration conjointe de la delegation du Gouvernement de la Republique du Tadjikistan et de ladelegation de l'Opposition tadjike unie sur les resultats de la serie de pourparlers intertadjiks qui a eu lieu

1997 taj2.pdf
http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/afgan2.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/afgan1.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/countries/afghan.htmlhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/countries/afghan.htmlhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus1.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus6.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus3.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus4.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus5.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus2.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/countries/russiahttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/countries/russiahttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj12.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj11.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj4.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj7.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj14.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj1.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj2.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/afgan2.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/afgan1.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/countries/afghan.htmlhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus1.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus6.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus3.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus4.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus5.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/rus2.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/countries/russiahttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj12.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj11.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj4.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj7.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj14.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj1.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj2.pdf


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a Moscou

Delaration du president E. Rakhmonov, du chef de l'Opposition A. Nouri, et du representant special del'ONU, G. D. Merrem

1997 taj3.pdf

Joint Statement by the Delegation of the Government of Tajikistan and the Delegation of the United TajikOpposition

1997 taj13.pdf

Protocol on Military Issues 1997 taj9.pdf

Protocol on Political Issues 1997 taj8.pdf

Protocol on Refugees 1997 taj10.pdf

Protocole d'entente mutuelle 1997 taj5.pdf

The Bishkek Memorandum 1997 taj6.pdf

See also:
http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj3.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj13.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj9.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj8.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj10.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj5.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj6.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj3.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj13.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj9.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj8.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj10.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj5.pdfhttp://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/agreements/pdf/taj6.pdf

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