PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information.PDF generated at: Sun, 05 Jun 2011 08:31:15 UTC

AestheticsAn Introduction

ContentsArticles

Aesthetics 1

Art 17

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 34

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 36

Article LicensesLicense 37

Aesthetics 1

AestheticsAesthetics (also spelled Ästhetics or esthetics) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, andtaste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[1] It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory orsensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[2] More broadly, scholars in the fielddefine aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and nature."[3] [4]

EtymologyIt was derived from the Greek ÄÅÇÉÑÖÜáàâ (aisthetikos, meaning "esthetic, sensitive, sentient"), which in turn wasderived from ÄÅÇÉÑÖÜáÄà (aisthanomai, meaning "I perceive, feel, sense").[5] The term "aesthetics" was appropriatedand coined with new meaning in the German form ästhetik (modern spelling ãsthetik) by Alexander Baumgarten in1735.

History of aesthetics

Bronze sculpture, thought to be eitherPoseidon or Zeus, National

Archaeological Museum of Athens

Ancient aesthetics

There are examples of pre-historic art, but they are rare, and the context oftheir production and use is not very clear, so the aesthetic doctrines thatguided their production and interpretation are mostly unknown.

Ancient art was largely, but not entirely, based on the eight great ancientcivilizations: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Persia, India, China andMayan. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique andcharacteristic style in its art. Greece had the most influence on thedevelopment of aesthetics in the West. This period of Greek art saw aveneration of the human physical form and the development of correspondingskills to show musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correct proportions. Furthermore, in many Western andEastern cultures alike, traits such as body hair are rarely depicted in art that addresses physical beauty. More incontrast with this Greek-Western aesthetic taste is the genre of grotesque.[6]

Greek philosophers initially felt that aesthetically appealing objects were beautiful in and of themselves. Plato feltthat beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics,Aristotle found that the universal elements of beauty were order, symmetry, and definiteness.

Islamic aestheticsIslamic art is not, properly speaking, an art pertaining to religion only. The term "Islamic" refers not only to thereligion, but to any form of art created in an Islamic culture or in an Islamic context. It would also be a mistake toassume that all Muslims are in agreement on the use of art in religious observance, the proper place of art in society,or the relation between secular art and the demands placed on the secular world to conform to religious precepts.Islamic art frequently adopts secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamictheologians.[7]

According to Islam, human works of art are inherently flawed compared to the work of God; thus, it is believed bymany that to attempt to depict in a realistic form any animal or person is insolence to God. This tendency has had theeffect of narrowing the field of artistic possibility to such forms of art as Arabesque, mosaic, Islamic calligraphy, andIslamic architecture, as well as more generally any form of abstraction that can claim the status ofnon-representational art.

Aesthetics 2

The limited possibilities have been explored by artists as an outlet to artistic expression, and has been cultivated tobecome a positive style and tradition, emphasizing the decorative function of art, or its religious functions vianon-representational forms such as Geometric patterns, floral patterns, and arabesques.

Human or animal depiction is generally forbidden altogether in Islamic cultures because it is said to lead tosculptural pieces which then leads to worship of that sculpture or "idol". Human portrayals can be found in earlyIslamic cultures with varying degrees of acceptance by religious authorities. Human representation for the purpose ofworship that is uniformly considered idolatry as forbidden in Sharia law. There are many depictions of Muhammad,Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art.[8] [9]

The calligraphic arts grew out of an effort to devote oneself to the study of the Quran. By patiently transcribing eachword of the text, the writer was made to contemplate the meaning of it. As time passed, these calligraphic worksbegan to be prized as works of art, growing increasingly elaborate in the illumination and stylizing of the text. Theseilluminations were applied to other works besides the Quran, and it became a respected art form in and of itself.

Indian aestheticsIndian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or withrepresenting them symbolically. According to Kapila Vatsyayan, "Classical Indian architecture, sculpture, painting,literature (kåvya), music, and dancing evolved their own rules conditioned by their respective media, but they sharedwith one another not only the underlying spiritual beliefs of the Indian religio-philosophic mind, but also theprocedures by which the relationships of the symbol and the spiritual states were worked out in detail."

In the Pan Indian philosophic thought the term 'Satyam Shivam Sundaram' is another name for the concept of theSupreme. 'Sat' is the truth value, 'Shiv' is the good value & 'Sundaram' is the beauty value. Man through his 'Srabana'or education, 'Manana' or experience and conceptualization and 'Sadhana' or practice, through different stages of life(Asramas) comes to form and realize the idea of these three values to develop a value system. This Value-systemhelps us to develop two basic ideas 1) that of 'Daksha' or the adept/expert and 2) of Mahana/Parama or the Absoluteand thus to judge anything in this universe in the light of these two measures, known as 'Adarsha'. A person who hasmastered great amounts of knowledge of the grammars, rules, & language of an art-form are adepts (Daksha), whereas those who have worked through the whole system and journeyed ahead of these to become a law unto themself iscalled a Mahana. Individuals idea of 'Daksha' and 'Mahana' is relative to one's development of the concept of'Satyam-Shivam-Sundaram.' For example, Tagore's idea of these two concepts should be way above any commonman's and many perceive Tagore as a 'Mahana' Artist in the realm of literature. This concept ofSatyam-Shivam-Sundaram, a kind of Value Theory is the cornerstone of Indian Aesthetics.

Of particular concern to Indian drama and literature are the term 'Bhava' or the state of mind and rasa referringgenerally to the emotional flavors/essence crafted into the work by the writer and relished by a 'sensitive spectator' orsahçdaya or one with positive taste and mind. Poets like Kâlidâsa were attentive to rasa, which blossomed into afully developed aesthetic system. Even in contemporary India the term rasa denoting "flavor" or "essence" is usedcolloquially to describe the aesthetic experiences in films; "mâsala mix" describes popular Hindi cinema films whichserve a so called balanced emotional meal for the masses, savored as rasa by these spectators.

Rasa theory blossoms beginning with the Sanskrit text Nâtyashâstra (nåtya meaning "drama" and shåstra meaning"science of"), a work attributed to Bharata Muni where the Gods declare that drama is the 'Fifth Veda' because it issuitable for the degenerate age as the best form of religious instruction. While the date of composition varies wildlyamong scholars, ranging from the era of Plato and Aristotle to the seventh century CE. The Nâtyashâstra presents theaesthetic concepts of rasas and their associated bhâvas in Chapters Six and Seven respectively, which appear to beindependent of the work as a whole. Eight rasas and associated bhâvas are named and their enjoyment is likened tosavoring a meal: rasa is the enjoyment of flavors that arise from the proper preparation of ingredients and the qualityof ingredients. What rasa actually is, in a theoretical sense, is not discussed and given the Nâtyashâstra's pithywording it is unlikely the exact understanding of the original author(s) will be known.

Aesthetics 3

The theory of the rasas develops significantly with the Kashmiri aesthetician ändandavardhana's classic on poetics,the Dhvanyâloka which introduces the ninth rasa, shânta-rasa as a specifically religious feeling of peace (éånta)which arises from its bhâva, weariness of the pleasures of the world. The primary purpose of this text is to refine theliterary concept dhvani or poetic suggestion, by arguing for the existence of rasa-dhvani, primarily in forms ofSanskrit including a word, sentence or whole work "suggests" a real-world emotional state or bhâva, but thanks toaesthetic distance, the sensitive spectator relishes the rasa, the aesthetic flavor of tragedy, heroism or romance.

The 9th - 10th century master of the religious system known as "the nondual Shaivism of Kashmir" (or "KashmirShaivism") and aesthetician, Abhinavagupta brought rasa theory to its pinnacle in his separate commentaries on theDhvanyâloka, the Dhvanyâloka-locana (translated by Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan, 1992) and theAbhinavabharati, his commentary on the Nâtyashâstra, portions of which are translated by Gnoli and Masson andPatwardhan. Abhinavagupta offers for the first time a technical definition of rasa which is the universal bliss of theSelf or Atman colored by the emotional tone of a drama. Shânta-rasa functions as an equal member of the set ofrasas but is simultaneously distinct being the most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens it to the stringof a jeweled necklace; while it may not be the most appealing for most people, it is the string that gives form to thenecklace, allowing the jewels of the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas and particularly shânta-rasais hinted as being as-good-as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by yogis.

Chinese aestheticsChinese art has a long history of varied styles and emphases. In ancient times philosophers were already arguingabout aesthetics. Confucius emphasized the role of the arts and humanities (especially music and poetry) inbroadening human nature and aiding "li" (etiquette, the rites) in bringing us back to what is essential about humanity.His opponent Mozi, however, argued that music and fine arts were classist and wasteful, benefiting the rich but notthe common people.

By the 4th century AD, artists were debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well. Gu Kaizhi has 3surviving books on this theory of painting, for example, and it's not uncommon to find later artist/scholars who bothcreate art and write about the creating of art. Religious and philosophical influence on art was common (and diverse)but never universal; it is easy to find art that largely ignores philosophy and religion in almost every Chinese timeperiod.

African aesthetics

The Great Mosque's signature trio of minaretsoverlooks the central market of Djennã. Unique Malian

aesthetic

African art existed in many forms and styles, and with fairly littleinfluence from outside Africa. Most of it followed traditionalforms and the aesthetic norms were handed down orally as well aswritten. Sculpture and performance art are prominent, and abstractand partially abstracted forms are valued, and were valued longbefore influence from the Western tradition began in earnest. TheNok culture is testimony to this. The mosque of Timbuktu showsthat specific areas of Africa developed unique aesthetics.

Western medieval aesthetics

Surviving medieval art is primarily religious in focus and fundedlargely by the State, Roman Catholic or Orthodox church,powerful ecclesiastical individuals, or wealthy secular patrons.

These art pieces often served a liturgical function, whether as chalices or even as church buildings themselves. Objects of fine art from this period were frequently made from rare and valuable materials, such as gold and lapis,

Aesthetics 4

the cost of which commonly exceeded the wages of the artist.

Medieval aesthetics in the realm of philosophy built upon Classical thought, continuing the practice of Plotinus byemploying theological terminology in its explications. St. BonaventureÄs ÅRetracing the Arts to TheologyÇ, a primaryexample of this method, discusses the skills of the artisan as gifts given by God for the purpose of disclosing God tomankind, which purpose is achieved through four lights: the light of skill in mechanical arts which discloses theworld of artifacts; which light is guided by the light of sense perception which discloses the world of natural forms;which light, consequently, is guided by the light of philosophy which discloses the world of intellectual truth; finally,this light is guided by the light of divine wisdom which discloses the world of saving truth.

Saint Thomas Aquinas's aesthetic is probably the most famous and influential theory among medieval authors,having been the subject of much scrutiny in the wake of the neo-Scholastic revival of the late 19th and early 20thcenturies and even having received the approbation of the celebrated Modernist writer, James Joyce. Thomas, likemany other medievals, never gives a systematic account of beauty itself, but several scholars have conventionallyarranged his thoughtÉthough not always with uniform conclusionsÉusing relevant observations spanning the entirecorpus of his work. While Aquinas's theory follows generally the model of Aristotle, he develops a singularaesthetics which incorporates elements unique to his thought. Umberto Eco's The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinasidentifies the three main characteristics of beauty in Aquinas's philosophy: integritas sive perfectio, consonantia sivedebita proportio, and claritas sive splendor formae. While Aristotle likewise identifies the first two characteristics,St. Thomas conceives of the third as an appropriation from principles developed by neo-Platonic and Augustinianthinkers.

Lorsch Gospels 778Ñ820. Charlemagne's Court School.

With the shift from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, artlikewise changed its focus, as much in its content as in its mode ofexpression.

Modern aesthetics

From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aestheticsunderwent a slow revolution into what is often called modernism.German and British thinkers emphasised beauty as the keycomponent of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art asnecessarily aiming at absolute beauty.

For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of thesense experiences, a younger sister of logic, and beauty is thus themost perfect kind of knowledge that sense experience can have.For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is ajudgment of a subjective but similar human truth, since all peopleshould agree that Åthis rose is beautifulÇ if it in fact is. However,beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. ForFriedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the mostperfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature.

For Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the "organon" of philosophy concerning the relationbetween man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art. Friedrich von Schlegel,August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel have also given lectures onaesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800.

For Hegel all culture is a matter of "absolute spirit" coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, changing to aperfection that only philosophy can approach. Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifestimmediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty.

Aesthetics 5

For Arthur Schopenhauer aesthetic contemplation of beauty is the most free that the pure intellect can be from thedictates of will; here we contemplate perfection of form without any kind of worldly agenda, and thus any intrusionof utility or politics would ruin the point of the beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering.

The British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps. The intuitionists believed that aestheticexperience was disclosed by a single mental faculty of some kind. For Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl ofShaftesbury this was identical to the moral sense, beauty just is the sensory version of moral goodness. For LudwigWittgenstein aesthetics consisted in the description of a whole culture which is a linguistic impossibility. That whichconstitutes aesthetics lies out side the realm of the language game.

On 7 January 1904 James Joyce attempted to publish A Portrait of the Artist, an essay-story dealing with aesthetics,only to have it rejected from the free-thinking magazine Dana. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revisethe story into a novel he called Stephen Hero. It was a fictional rendering of Joyce's youth, but he eventually grewfrustrated with its direction and abandoned this work. It was never published in this form, but years later, in Trieste,Joyce completely rewrote it as A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. The unfinished Stephen Hero was publishedafter his death.

For Oscar Wilde the contemplation of beauty for beauty's sake was not only the foundation for much of his literarycareer but was quoted as saying "Aestheticism is a search after the signs of the beautiful. It is the science of thebeautiful through which men seek the correlation of the arts. It is, to speak more exactly, the search after the secret oflife.".[10]

Wilde famously toured the United States in 1882. He travelled across the United States spreading the idea ofAesthetics in a speech called "The English Renaissance." In his speech he proposed that Beauty and Aesthetics was"not languid but energetic. By beautifying the outward aspects of life, one would beautify the inner ones." TheEnglish Renaissance was, he said, "like the Italian Renaissance before it, a sort of rebirth of the spirit of man".[11]

William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745

For Francis Hutcheson beauty is disclosed by an inner mental sense, but is asubjective fact rather than an objective one. Analytic theorists like HenryHome, Lord Kames, William Hogarth, and Edmund Burke hoped to reducebeauty to some list of attributes. Hogarth, for example, thinks that beautyconsists of (1) fitness of the parts to some design; (2) variety in as many waysas possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautifulwhen it helps to preserve the character of fitness; (4) simplicity ordistinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling theeye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment forour active energies, leading the eye on "a wanton kind of chase"; and (6)quantity or magnitude, which draws our attention and produces admirationand awe. Later analytic aestheticians strove to link beauty to some scientifictheory of psychology (such as James Mill) or biology (such as HerbertSpencer).

Aesthetics 6

Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysisEarly twentieth century artists, poets and composers challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the scope ofart and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism, the philosophythat reality itself is aesthetic, and that "The world, art, and self explain each other: each is the aesthetic oneness ofopposites."[12] [13]

Various attempts have been made to define Post-modern aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty wascentral to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle wasthe first in the Western tradition to classify "beauty" into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinctionbetween beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types, where thetaxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to comedy and the Rococo.

Croce suggested that ÅexpressionÇ is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickiesuggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities.Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a "counter-environment" designed to make visible what isusually invisible about a society. Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the roleof the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster (art critic) attempted toportray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. ArthurDanto has described this reaction as "kalliphobia" (after the Greek word for beauty - 'kalos').[14] Andrã Malraux [15]

explains that the notion of beauty was connected to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance andwas still dominant in the eighteenth century (but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics, which originatedin the eighteenth century, mistook this transient state of affairs for a revelation of the permanent nature of art.[16]

Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze andGuattari.[17]

Daniel Berlyne created the field of experimental aesthetics in the 1970s, for which he is still the most citedindividual decades after his death.[18]

Pneumaist aestheticism is a theory of art and a highly experimental approach to art negating historicalpreconceptions of the aesthetic.

Jean-Franåois Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlikekitsch realism, "...will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing pain."[19]

[20]

Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the "Uncanny" as aesthetical affect.[21]

Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty,[22] Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of sublimation and the Thing[23]

Aesthetics and information

Aesthetics 7

Initial image of a Mandelbrot set zoomsequence with continuously coloured

environment

In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first toanalyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and informationtheory.[24] [25]

In the 1990s, Jçrgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beautywhich takes the subjectivity of the observer into account and postulates:among several observations classified as comparable by a given subjectiveobserver, the aesthetically most pleasing one is the one with the shortestdescription, given the observerÄs previous knowledge and his particularmethod for encoding the data.[26] [27] This is closely related to the principlesof algorithmic information theory and minimum description length. One ofhis examples: mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a short description intheir formal language. Another very concrete example describes an aesthetically pleasing human face whoseproportions can be described by very few bits of information,[28] [29] drawing inspiration from less detailed 15thcentury proportion studies by Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dçrer. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishesbetween what's beautiful and what's interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative ofsubjectively perceived beauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually tries to improve the predictabilityand compressibility of the observations by discovering regularities such as repetitions and symmetries and fractalself-similarity. Whenever the observer's learning process (which may be a predictive neural network - see alsoNeuroesthetics) leads to improved data compression such that the observation sequence can be described by fewerbits than before, the temporary interestingness of the data corresponds to the number of saved bits. This compressionprogress is proportional to the observer's internal reward , also called curiosity reward. A reinforcement learningalgorithm is used to maximize future expected reward by learning to execute action sequences that cause additionalinteresting input data with yet unknown but learnable predictability or regularity. The principles can be implementedon artificial agents which then exhibit a form of artificial curiosity.[30] [31] [32] [33]

Applied aestheticsAs well as being applied to art aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects. Aesthetic coupling betweenart-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency[34] This coupling wasmade to reinforce the learning paradigm when English-language speakers used translators to address audiences intheir own country. These audiences were generally not fluent in the English language. It can also be used in topics asdiverse as mathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website design.[35]

Aesthetic ethicsAesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautifuland attractive. John Dewey [36] has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reflected in ourunderstanding of behaviour being "fair" - the word having a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable.More recently, James Page [37] has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical rationalefor peace education.

Aesthetics 8

Truth as beauty, mathematics, analytic philosophy, and physicsMathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. Thisis different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty.Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics andtheoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have beenargued to be nearly synonymous,[38] as reflected in the statement "Beauty is truth, truth beauty" in the poem Ode ona Grecian Urn by John Keats. The fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced byprocessing fluency, which is the ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanationfor why beauty is sometimes equated with truth.[39] Indeed, recent research found that people use beauty as anindication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks.[40]

Computational inference of aestheticsSince about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality ofimages. Large number of manually rated online photographs were used to "teach" computers about what visualproperties are of relevance to aesthetic quality. The Acquine engine, developed at Penn State University, ratesnatural photographs uploaded by users.[41]

Notable in this area is Michael Leyton, professor of psychology at Rutgers University. Leyton is the president of theInternational Society for Mathematical and Computational Aesthetics and the International Society for Group Theoryin Cognitive Science and has developed a generative theory of shape.

There have also been relatively successful attempts with regard to chess and music.[42]

Aesthetic judgmentJudgments of aesthetic value rely on our ability to discriminate at a sensory level. Aesthetics examines our affectivedomain response to an object or phenomenon. Immanuel Kant, writing in 1790, observes of a man "If he says thatcanary wine is agreeable he is quite content if someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say instead: It isagreeable to me," because "Everyone has his own (sense of) taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere"agreeableness" because, "If he proclaims something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from others; hethen judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things."

Aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination. For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely "theability to detect all the ingredients in a composition", but also our sensitivity "to pains as well as pleasures, whichescape the rest of mankind." (Essays Moral Political and Literary. Indianapolis, Literary Classics 5, 1987.) Thus, thesensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure. For Kant "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arisesfrom sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasureby engaging our capacities of reflective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectualall at once.

Viewer interpretations of beauty possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophicalnotion of beauty. Taste is a result of education and awareness of elite cultural values; therefore taste can be learned.Taste varies according to class, cultural background, and education. According to Kant, beauty is objective anduniversal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone. The contemporary view of beauty is not based on innatequalities, but rather on cultural specifics and individual interpretations.

Aesthetics 9

Factors involved in aesthetic judgment

Rainbows often have aesthetic appeal.

Judgments of aesthetic value seem often to involve many other kinds of issuesas well. Responses such as disgust show that sensory detection is linked ininstinctual ways to facial expressions, and even behaviors like the gag reflex.Yet disgust can often be a learned or cultural issue too; as Darwin pointedout, seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgusting even though neithersoup nor beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may belinked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in our physicalreactions. Seeing a sublime view of a landscape may give us a reaction of awe, which might manifest physically asan increased heart rate or widened eyes. These unconscious reactions may even be partly constitutive of what makesour judgment a judgment that the landscape is sublime.

Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw Africansculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as being beautiful. TheAbuse of Beauty, Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus,judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value.[43] In a currentcontext, one might judge a Lamborghini to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or we mightjudge it to be repulsive partly because it signifies for us over-consumption and offends our political or moralvalues.[44]

"Part and Parcel in Animal and Human Societies". in Studies in animal and human behavior, vol. 2. pp.é115Ñ195.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1971 (originally pub. 1950.) Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained andinternally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative.It is what a thing means or symbolizes for us that is often what we are judging. Modern aestheticians have assertedthat will and desire were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed importantaesthetics to some 20th century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, "Beauty andthe CriticÄs Judgment", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to bebased on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconsciousbehavior, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these,depending on exactly which theory one employs.

Are different art forms beautiful, disgusting, or boring in the same way?A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. We can call aperson, a house, a symphony, a fragrance, and a mathematical proof beautiful. What characteristics do they sharewhich give them that status? What possible feature could a proof and a fragrance both share in virtue of which theyboth count as beautiful? What makes a painting beautiful is quite different from what makes music beautiful, whichsuggests that each art form has its own language for the judgement of aesthetics.[45]

At the same time, there is seemingly quite a lack of words to express oneself accurately when making an aestheticjudgment. An aesthetic judgment cannot be an empirical judgement. Therefore, due to impossibility for precision,there is confusion about what interpretations can be culturally negotiated. Due to imprecision in the standard Englishlanguage, two completely different feelings experienced by two different people can be represented by an identicalverbal expression. Wittgenstein stated this in his lectures on aesthetics and language games.

A collective identification of beauty, with willing participants in a given social spectrum, may be a socially negotiated phenomenon, discussed in a culture or context. Is there some underlying unity to aesthetic judgment and is there some way to articulate the similarities of a beautiful house, beautiful proof, and beautiful sunset?[46]

Defining it requires a description of the entire phenomenon, as Wittgenstein argued in his lectures on aesthetics. Likewise there has been long debate on how perception of beauty in the natural world, especially perception of the

Aesthetics 10

human form as beautiful, is supposed to relate to perceiving beauty in art or artefacts. This goes back at least to Kant,with some echoes even in St. Bonaventure.

Aesthetics and the philosophy of art

ÄAesthetics is for the artist as Ornithology is for the birds.ÅÉ Barnett Newman [47] [48]

Aesthetics is used by some as a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist on a distinctionbetween these closely related fields. In practice aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation orappreciation of an object (not necessarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to the recognition,appreciation or criticism of art or an art work.

The philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about the art works, but hasalso to give a definition of what art is. Art is an autonomous entity for the philosophy, because art deals with thesenses (i. e. the etymology of aesthetics) and art is as such free of any moral or political purpose. Hence, there aretwo different conceptions of art in the aesthetics : art as knowledge or art as action, but aesthetics is neitherepistemology nor ethics.[49]

What is "art"?

Harmony of colors

How best to define the term ÅartÇ is a subject of constant contention; manybooks and journal articles have been published arguing over even the basicsof what we mean by the term ÅartÇ.[50] Theodor Adorno claimed in 1969 ÅIt isself-evident that nothing concerning art is self-evident.Ç[51] [52] Artists,philosophers, anthropologists, psychologists and programmers all use thenotion of art in their respective fields, and give it operational definitions thatvary considerably. Furthermore, it is clear that even the basic meaning of theterm "art" has changed several times over the centuries, and has continued toevolve during the 20th century as well.

The main recent sense of the word ÅartÇ is roughly as an abbreviation forcreative art or Åfine art.Ç Here we mean that skill is being used to express the artistÄs creativity, or to engage theaudienceÄs aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the ÅfinerÇ things. Often, if theskill is being used in a functional object, people will consider it a craft instead of art, a suggestion which is highlydisputed by many Contemporary Craft thinkers. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial wayit may be considered design instead of art, or contrariwise these may be defended as art forms, perhaps called appliedart. Some thinkers, for instance, have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do withthe actual function of the object than any clear definitional difference.[53] Art usually implies no function other thanto convey or communicate an idea.

Even as late as 1912 it was normal in the West to assume that all art aims at beauty, and thus that anything that wasn't trying to be beautiful couldn't count as art. The cubists, dadaists, Stravinsky, and many later art movements struggled against this conception that beauty was central to the definition of art, with such success that, according to Danto, "Beauty had disappeared not only from the advanced art of the 1960Äs but from the advanced philosophy of art of that decade as well."[51] Perhaps some notion like "expression" (in CroceÄs theories) or "counter-environment" (in McLuhanÄs theory) can replace the previous role of beauty. Brian Massumi brought back "beauty" into consideration together with "expression".[54] Another view, as important to the philosophy of art as "beauty," is that

Aesthetics 11

of the "sublime," elaborated upon in the twentieth century by the postmodern philosopher Jean-Franåois Lyotard. Afurther approach, elaborated by Andrã Malraux [55] in works such as The Voices of Silence, is that art isfundamentally a response to a metaphysical question ('Art', he writes, 'is an 'anti-destiny'). Malraux argues that, whileart has sometimes been oriented towards beauty and the sublime (principally in post-Renaissance European art) thesequalities, as the wider history of art demonstrates, are by no means essential to it.[56]

Perhaps (as in Kennick's theory) no definition of art is possible anymore. Perhaps art should be thought of as acluster of related concepts in a Wittgensteinian fashion (as in Weitz or Beuys). Another approach is to say that ÅartÇis basically a sociological category, that whatever art schools and museums and artists define as art is considered artregardless of formal definitions. This "institutional definition of art" (see also Institutional Critique) has beenchampioned by George Dickie. Most people did not consider the depiction of a Brillo Box or a store-bought urinal tobe art until Andy Warhol and Marcel Duchamp (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the art gallery),which then provided the association of these objects with the associations that define art.

Proceduralists often suggest that it is the process by which a work of art is created or viewed that makes it art, notany inherent feature of an object, or how well received it is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction tosociety at large. If a poet writes down several lines, intending them as a poem, the very procedure by which it iswritten makes it a poem. Whereas if a journalist writes exactly the same set of words, intending them as shorthandnotes to help him write a longer article later, these would not be a poem. Leo Tolstoy, on the other hand, claims thatwhat decides whether or not something is art is how it is experienced by its audience, not by the intention of itscreator. Functionalists like Monroe Beardsley argue that whether or not a piece counts as art depends on whatfunction it plays in a particular context; the same Greek vase may play a non-artistic function in one context(carrying wine), and an artistic function in another context (helping us to appreciate the beauty of the human figure).'

What should we judge when we judge art?

Nature provides aesthetic ideals.

Art can be difficult at the metaphysical and ontological levels as well as at thevalue theory level. When we see a performance of Hamlet, how many worksof art are we experiencing, and which should we judge? Perhaps there is onlyone relevant work of art, the whole performance, which many differentpeople have contributed to, and which will exist briefly and then disappear.Perhaps the manuscript by Shakespeare is a distinct work of art from the playby the troupe, which is also distinct from the performance of the play by thistroupe on this night, and all three can be judged, but are to be judged bydifferent standards.

Perhaps every person involved should be judged separately on his or her ownmerits, and each costume or line is its own work of art (with perhaps thedirector having the job of unifying them all). Similar problems arise formusic, film, dance, and even painting. Is one to judge the painting itself, thework of the painter, or perhaps the painting in its context of presentation bythe museum workers?

These problems have been made even more difficult by the rise of conceptualart since the 1960s. WarholÄs famous Brillo Boxes are nearly indistinguishable from actual Brillo boxes at the time. Itwould be a mistake to praise Warhol for the design of his boxes (which were designed by Steve Harvey), yet theconceptual move of exhibiting these boxes as art in a museum together with other kinds of paintings is Warhol's. Arewe judging WarholÄs concept? His execution of the concept in the medium? The curatorÄs insight in letting Warhol

Aesthetics 12

display the boxes? The overall result? Our experience or interpretation of the result? Ontologically, how are we tothink of the work of art? Is it a physical object? Several objects? A class of objects? A mental object? A fictionalobject? An abstract object? An event? Or simply an Act?

What should art be like?Many goals have been argued for art, and aestheticians often argue that some goal or another is superior in someway. Clement Greenberg, for instance, argued in 1960 that each artistic medium should seek that which makes itunique among the possible mediums and then purify itself of anything other than expression of its own uniqueness asa form.[57] The Dadaist Tristan Tzara on the other hand saw the function of art in 1918 as the destruction of a madsocial order. ÅWe must sweep and clean. Affirm the cleanliness of the individual after the state of madness,aggressive complete madness of a world abandoned to the hands of bandits.Ç[58] Formal goals, creative goals,self-expression, political goals, spiritual goals, philosophical goals, and even more perceptual or aesthetic goals haveall been popular pictures of what art should be like.

The value of artTolstoy defined art, and not incidentally characterized its value, this way: "Art is a human activity consisting in this,that one man consciously, by means of certain external signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived through, andthat other people are infected by these feelings and also experience them."

The value of art, then, is one with the value of empathy.

Other possible views are these: Art can act as a means to some special kind of knowledge. Art may give insight intothe human condition. Art relates to science and religion. Art serves as a tool of education, or indoctrination, orenculturation. Art makes us more moral. It uplifts us spiritually. Art is politics by other means. Art has the value ofallowing catharsis. In any case, the value of art may determine the suitability of an art form. Do they differsignificantly in their values, or (if not) in their ability to achieve the unitary value of art?

But to approach the question of the value of art systematically, one ought to ask: for whom? For the artist? For theaudience? For society at large, and/or for individuals beyond the audience? Is the "value" of art different in each ofthese different contexts?

Working on the intended value of art tends to help define the relations between art and other acts. Art clearly doeshave spiritual goals in many contexts, but what exactly is the difference between religious art and religion per se?The truth is complex; art is both useless in a functional sense, and also the most important human activity.

An argument for the value of art, used in the fictional work 'The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy', proceeds that,should some external force presenting imminent destruction of Earth, ask the inhabitants, of what use is humanity,what should humanity's response be? The argument continues that the only justification humanity could give for itscontinued existence would be the past creation and continued creation of things like a Shakespeare play, aRembrandt painting or a Bach concerto. The suggestion is that these are the things of value which definehumanity.[59]

Aesthetics 13

Aesthetic universalsThe philosopher Denis Dutton identified seven universal signatures in human aesthetics:[60]

1. Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recognize, and admire technical artistic skills.2. Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and don't demand that it keep them warm or put food on

the table.3. Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style.4. Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art.5. Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of the world.6. Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience.

It might be objected, however, that there are rather too many exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example, theinstallations of the contemporary artist Thomas Hirschhorn deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People canappreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have)specific devotional functions. "Rules of composition" that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's4'33" do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the works'realisation). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worldsin his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that Dutton's categories seek touniversalise traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as Andrã Malraux and others havepointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas (including the idea "art" itself) werenon-existent.[61]

Increasingly, academics in both the sciences and the humanities look to evolutionary psychology and cognitivescience in an effort to understand the connection between psychology and aesthetics. Aside from Dutton, othersexploring this realm include David Bordwell, Brian Boyd, Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Noel Carroll, EllenDissanayake, Nancy Easterlin, Bracha Ettinger, David Evans, Jonathan Gottschall, Torben Grodal, Paul Hernadi,,Patrick Hogan, Carl Plantinga, Rolf Reber, Elaine Scarry, Murray Smith, Wendy Steiner, Robert Storey, FrederickTurner, and Mark Turner.

CriticismThe philosophy of aesthetics has been criticized by some sociologists and writers about art and society. RaymondWilliams argues that there is no unique aesthetic object but a continuum of cultural forms from ordinary speech toexperiences that are signaled as art by a frame, institution or special event. Pierre Bourdieu also takes issue withKant's aesthetics and argues that it represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus andscholarly leisure.

References[1] Definition 1 of aesthetics (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ aesthetics) from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online.[2] Zangwill, Nick. " Aesthetic Judgment (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ aesthetic-judgment/ )", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,

02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 07-24-2008.[3] Kelly (1998) p. ix[4] Review (http:/ / www. arlisna. org/ artdoc/ vol18/ iss2/ 01. pdf) by Tom Riedel (Regis University)[5] Definition of aesthetic (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=aesthetic) from the Online Etymology Dictionary[6] Grotesque entry in Kelly 1998, pp.338-341[7] Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art,

Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0131934554 pg. 277[8] The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rpUuqLPPKK4C&

dq=wijdan& printsec=frontcover& source=web& ots=QXySmKzsy6& sig=a9V6tTTfsrTT5Ex01QGnwrL7XYY), Wijdan Ali, AmericanUniv in Cairo Press, December 10, 1999, ISBN 9774244761

[9] From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's(s.a.w) Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art (http:/ / www2. let. uu. nl/ solis/ anpt/ EJOS/ pdf4/ 07Ali. pdf), Wijdan Ali, EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental

Aesthetics 14

Studies) (http:/ / www2. let. uu. nl/ Solis/ anpt/ ejos/ EJOS-1. html), volume IV, issue 7, p. 1-24, 2001[10] "Oscar Wilde" by Richard Ellman p 159, pub Alfred A Knopf, INC. 1988[11] Ellman, p164[12] Green, Edward, "Donald Francis Tovey, Aesthetic Realism and the Need for a Philosophic Musicology," International Revue of the

Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 2005, p. 227. (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 30032170?searchUrl=/ action/ doBasicSearch?acc=off&Query=%22The+ world%2C+ art%2C+ and+ self+ explain+ each+ other%22+ Eli+ Siegel& gw=jtx& prq=The+ world%2C+ art%2C+AND+ self+ explain+ each+ other& Search=Search& hp=25& wc=on& acc=off& Search=yes)

[13] Siegel, Eli, "Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites?", Journal of Aesthetics & Art Criticism, 1955. (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/425879?searchUrl=/ action/ doBasicSearch?acc=off& Query=%22the+ making+ one+ of+ opposites%22+ Eli+ Siegel& gw=jtx&prq=%22All+ beauty+ is+ a+ making+ one+ of+ opposites%22+ Eli+ Siegel& Search=Search& hp=25& wc=on& acc=off& Search=yes)

[14] 'Kalliphobia in Contemporary Art' in Art Journal v. 63 no. 2 (Summer 2004) p. 24-35[15] http:/ / www. home. netspeed. com. au/ derek. allan/ default. htm[16] Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, Andrè Malraux's Theory of Art (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009)[17] Massumi, Brian, (ed.), A Shock to Thought. Expression after Deleuze and Guattari. London & NY: Routeledge, 2002. ISBN 0-415-23804-8[18] Daniel Berlyne (1924-1976): Biographical Analysis. http:/ / www. psych. utoronto. ca/ users/ furedy/ daniel_berlyne. htm[19] Lyotard, Jean-Franåoise, What is Postmodernism?, in The Postmodern Condition, Minnesota and Manchester, 1984.[20] Lyotard, Jean-Franåoise, Scriptures: Diffracted Traces, in Theory, Culture and Society, Volume 21, Number 1, 2004.[21] Freud, Sigmund, "The Uncanny" (1919). Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Work of Sigmund Freud, 17:234-36. London: The

Hogarth Press[22] Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1964), "The Visible and the Invisible". Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-810-10457-1[23] Lacan, Jacques, The Ethics of Psychoanalysis (The Seminar of Jacques Lacan Book VII), NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1992.[24] A. Moles: Thèorie de l'information et perception esthètique, Paris, Denoèl, 1973 (Information Theory and aesthetical perception)[25] F Nake (1974). êsthetik als Informationsverarbeitung. (Aesthetics as information processing). Grundlagen und Anwendungen der

Informatik im Bereich ësthetischer Produktion und Kritik. Springer, 1974, ISBN 3211812164, ISBN 9783211812167[26] J. Schmidhuber. Low-complexity art. Leonardo, Journal of the International Society for the Arts, Sciences, and Technology, 30(2):97Ñ103,

1997. http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1576418[27] J. Schmidhuber. Papers on the theory of beauty and low-complexity art since 1994: http:/ / www. idsia. ch/ ~juergen/ beauty. html[28] J. Schmidhuber. Facial beauty and fractal geometry. Cogprint Archive: http:/ / cogprints. soton. ac. uk , 1998[29] J. Schmidhuber. Simple Algorithmic Principles of Discovery, Subjective Beauty, Selective Attention, Curiosity & Creativity. Proc. 10th Intl.

Conf. on Discovery Science (DS 2007) p. 26-38, LNAI 4755, Springer, 2007. Also in Proc. 18th Intl. Conf. on Algorithmic Learning Theory(ALT 2007) p. 32, LNAI 4754, Springer, 2007. Joint invited lecture for DS 2007 and ALT 2007, Sendai, Japan, 2007. arXiv:0709.0674

[30] J. Schmidhuber. Curious model-building control systems. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, Singapore, vol 2, 1458Ñ1463.IEEE press, 1991

[31] J. Schmidhuber. Papers on artificial curiosity since 1990: http:/ / www. idsia. ch/ ~juergen/ interest. html[32] J. Schmidhuber. Developmental robotics, optimal artificial curiosity, creativity, music, and the fine arts. Connection Science,

18(2):173Ñ187, 2006[33] Schmidhuber's theory of beauty and curiosity in a German TV show: http:/ / www. br-online. de/ bayerisches-fernsehen/ faszination-wissen/

schoenheit--aesthetik-wahrnehmung-ID1212005092828. xml[34] Giannini AJ (December 1993). "Tangential symbols: using visual symbolization to teach pharmacological principles of drug addiction to

international audiences". Journal of clinical pharmacology 33 (12): 1139Ñ46. PMIDé7510314.[35] Moshagen, M. & Thielsch, M. T. (2010). Facets of visual aesthetics. In: International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68 (10),

689-709. PDF (http:/ / www. thielsch. org/ download/ paper/ moshagen_2010. pdf)[36] Dewey, John. (1932)'Ethics', with James Tufts. In: The Collected Works of John Dewey, 1882-1953 Edited Jo-Ann Boydston: Carbonsdale:

Southern Illinois University Press. p. 275.[37] Page, James S. (2008) Peace Education: Exploring Ethical and Philosophical Foundations. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. ISBN

978-1-59311-889-1. (http:/ / www. infoagepub. com/ products/ content/ p478d75b79b1ea. php) (http:/ / eprints. qut. edu. au/ 12263/ )[38] Why Beauty Is Truth: The History of Symmetry, Ian Stewart, 2008[39] Reber, R, Schwarz, N, Winkielman, P: "Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience?",

Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4):364-382[40] Reber, R, Brun, M, Mitterndorfer, K: "The use of heuristics in intuitive mathematical judgment", Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,

15(6):1174-1178[41] "Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine - Instant Impersonal Assessment of Photos" (http:/ / acquine. alipr. com). Penn State University. .

Retrieved 21 June 2009.[42] Manaris, B., Roos, P., Penousal, M., Krehbiel, D., Pellicoro, L. and Romero, J.; A Corpus-Based Hybrid Approach to Music Analysis and

Composition; Proceedings of 22nd Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-07); Vancouver, BC; 839-845 2007.[43] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape

the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.[44] Korsmeyer, Carolyn ed. Aesthetics: The Big Questions 1998[45] Consider Clement GreenbergÄs arguments in "On Modernist Painting" (1961), reprinted in Aesthetics: A Reader in Philosophy of Arts.

Aesthetics 15

[46] Immanuel Kant, The Critique of Judgment.[47] Barnett Newman Foundation, Chronology, 1952 (http:/ / www. barnettnewman. org/ chronology. php) Retrieved August 30, 2010[48] The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art, By Arthur Coleman Danto, p.1, Published by Open Court Publishing, 2003, ISBN

0812695402, 9780812695403[49] Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert, Introduction to Aesthetics (Einfêhrung in die ãsthetik), Munich, Wilhelm Fink, 1995, p. 7.[50] Davies, 1991, Carroll, 2000, et al.[51] Danto, 2003[52] Goodman,[53] Novitz, 1992[54] Brian Massumi, Deleuze, Guattari and the Philosophy of Expression, CRCL, 24:3, 1997.[55] http:/ / home. netspeed. com. au/ derek. allan/ default. htm[56] Derek Allan. Art and the Human Adventure. Andrè MalrauxÄs Theory of Art. (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009)[57] Clement Greenberg, ÅOn Modernist PaintingÇ.[58] Tristan Tzara, Sept Manifestes Dada.[59] The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams[60] Denis Dutton's Aesthetic Universals summarized by Steven Pinker in The Blank Slate[61] Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure: Andrè Malraux's Theory of Art. (Amsterdam: Rodopi. 2009)

Further readingí Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics. Edited by Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester Embree. (Series:

Contributions To Phenomenology, Vol. 59) Springer, Dordrecht / Heidelberg / London / New York 2010. ISBN978-90-481-2470-1

í Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.í Derek Allan (http:/ / www. home. netspeed. com. au/ derek. allan/ default. htm), Art and the Human Adventure,

Andre Malraux's Theory of Art, Rodopi, 2009í Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.:

Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0895268337 (has significant material on Art, Science and their philosophies)í John Bender and Gene Blocker Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings in Analytic Aesthetics 1993.í Christine Buci-Glucksmann (2003), Esthètique de l'èphèmëre, Galilãe. (French)í Noel Carroll (2000), Theories of Art Today, University of Wisconsin Press.í Benedetto Croce (1922), Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic.í E. S. Dallas (1866), The Gay Science, 2 volumes, on the aesthetics of poetry.í Danto, Arthur (2003), The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art, Open Court.í Stephen Davies (1991), Definitions of Art.í Terry Eagleton (1990), The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16302-6í Feagin and Maynard (1997), Aesthetics. Oxford Readers.í Penny Florence and Nicola Foster (eds.) (2000), Differential Aesthetics. London: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-1493-Xí Berys Gaut and Dominic McIver Lopes (eds.), "Routledge Companion to Aesthetics". London: Routledge, 2005.

ISBN 0415327989í Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert (1995), Einfêhrung in die ãsthetik, Munich, W. Fink.í David Goldblatt and Lee Brown, ed. (1997), Aesthetics: A Reader in the Philosophy of the Arts.í Greenberg, Clement (1960), "Modernist Painting", The Collected Essays and Criticism 1957-1969, The

University of Chicago Press, 1993, 85-92.í Evelyn Hatcher (ed.), Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999í Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1975), Aesthetics. Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T.M. Knox, 2 vols. Oxford:

Clarendon Press.í Hans Hofmann and Sara T Weeks; Bartlett H Hayes; Addison Gallery of American Art; Search for the real, and

other essays (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ oclc/ 1125858& referer=brief_results) (Cambridge, Mass.,M.I.T. Press, 1967) OCLC 1125858

Aesthetics 16

í Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.), Art History and Visual Studies. Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN0-300-09789-1

í Kant, Immanuel (1790), Critique of Judgement, Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett Publishing Co., 1987.í Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

4 voll., pp.éXVII-521, pp.é555, pp.é536, pp.é572; 2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos; ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5.Covers philosophical, historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics worldwide.

í Alexander J. Kent, "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal, 42(2) 182-8,2005.

í Sìren Kierkegaard (1843), Either/Or, translated by Alastair Hannay, London, Penguin, 1992í Peter Kivy (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics. 2004í Carolyn Korsmeyer (ed.), Aesthetics: The Big Questions. 1998í Lyotard, Jean-Franåois (1979), The Postmodern Condition, Manchester University Press, 1984.í Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1969), The Visible and the Invisible, Northwestern University Press.í Martinus Nijhoff, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, The Hague, 1980.í Novitz, David (1992), The Boundaries of Art.í Mario Perniola, The Art and Its Shadow, foreword by Hugh J.Silverman, translated by Massimo Verdicchio,

London-NewYork, Continuum, 2004.í Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values, 1974, paperpack, or hardback

first edition ISBN 0-688-00230-7í Griselda Pollock, "Does Art Think?" In: Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and Thought. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 2003. 129-174. ISBN 0-631-22715-6.í Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007.

ISBN 0415413745.í George Santayana (1896) , The Sense of Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory. New York, Modern

Library, 1955.í Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton, 2001. ISBN 9780691089591í Friedrich Schiller, (1795), On the Aesthetic Education of Man. Dover Publications, 2004.í Alan Singer & Allen Dunn (eds.), Literary Aesthetics: A Reader. Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2000. ISBN

978-0631208693í Wîadysîaw Tatarkiewicz, History of Aesthetics, 3 vols. (1Ñ2, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.í Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, Penguin Classics, 1995.í The London Philosophy Study Guide (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ philosophy/ LPSG/ ) offers many suggestions on

what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Aesthetics (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/philosophy/ LPSG/ Aesthetics. htm)

í John M. Valentine, Beginning Aesthetics: An Introduction To The Philosophy of Art. McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN978-0073537542

von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory,"Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007.

í Thomas Wartenberg, The Nature of Art. 2006.í John Whitehead, Grasping for the Wind. 2001.í Ludwig Wittgenstein, Lectures on aesthetics, psychology and religious belief, Oxford, Blackwell, 1966.í Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521 29706 0

Aesthetics 17

External linksí Revue online Appareil (http:/ / revues. mshparisnord. org/ appareil/ index. php?id=61)í Aesthetics (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ a/ aestheti. htm) entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophyí Postscript 1980- Some Old Problems in New Perspectives (http:/ / www. ditext. com/ anka/ beardsley/ post. html)í Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation (http:/ / www. ericdigests. org/ pre-9219/ art. htm)í An history of aesthetics (http:/ / www. kunstbewegung. info/ de/

Revised_interpretation_of_founding's_and_concepts_through_an_history_of_aesthetics)í The Concept of the Aesthetic (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ aesthetic-concept)í Aesthetics (http:/ / www. rep. routledge. com/ article/ M046) entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophyí Philosophy of Aesthetics (http:/ / www. philosophyarchive. com/ index. php?title=Philosophy_of_Aesthetics)

entry in the Philosophy Archive

Art

Clockwise from upper left: A self-portrait from Vincent van Gogh, an AfricanChokwe-statue, detail from the Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli and a Japanese

Shisa lion.

Art is the product or process of deliberatelyarranging items (often with symbolicsignificance) in a way that influences andaffects one or more of the senses, emotions,and intellect. It encompasses a diverse rangeof human activities, creations, and modes ofexpression, including music, literature, film,photography, sculpture, and paintings. Themeaning of art is explored in a branch ofphilosophy known as aesthetics, and evendisciplines such as history and psychologyanalyze its relationship with humans andgenerations.

Traditionally, the term art was used to referto any skill or mastery. This conceptionchanged during the Romantic period, whenart came to be seen as "a special faculty ofthe human mind to be classified withreligion and science".[1] Generally, art ismade with the intention of stimulatingthoughts and emotions.

Evaluation

Philosopher Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the realist,whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the objectivist, whereby it is also anabsolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the relativist position, whereby it is not anabsolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[2] An object may becharacterized by the intentions, or lack thereof, of its creator, regardless of its apparent purpose. A cup, whichostensibly can be used as a container, may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament, while a painting maybe deemed craft if mass-produced.

Art 18

The nature of art has been described by Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of humanculture".[3] It has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means forexploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Leo Tolstoyidentified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another.[4] Benedetto Croce and R.G.Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentiallyexists in the mind of the creator.[5] [6] The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, andwas developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. Art as mimesis or representation has deeproots in the philosophy of Aristotle.[4] More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art asthe means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.[7]

Definition

Works of art worldwide can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of AThousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song Dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.

Britannica Online defines art as "the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments,or experiences that can be shared with others." By this definition of the word, artistic works have existed for almostas long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept tomodern Western societies.[8] Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art canbe taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art toexist."[9] The first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older Latin meaning, whichroughly translates to "skill" or "craft." A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact,artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, allwith some relation to its etymology.

Art 19

20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practicalfunctions, in addition to their decorative value.

The second and more recent sense of the word art is as anabbreviation for creative art or fine art. Fine art meansthat a skill is being used to express the artist's creativity,or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or todraw the audience towards consideration of the finerthings. Often, if the skill is being used in a common orpractical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art.Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial orindustrial way, it will be considered commercial artinstead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and designare sometimes considered applied art. Some art followershave argued that the difference between fine art andapplied art has more to do with value judgments madeabout the art than any clear definitional difference.[10]

However, even fine art often has goals beyond purecreativity and self-expression. The purpose of works ofart may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically,spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create asense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature ofperception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions.The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

Art can describe several things: a study of creative skill, aprocess of using the creative skill, a product of thecreative skill, or the audience's experience with thecreative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (arts) that produce artworks (art asobjects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and echo or reflect a message, mood, or symbolismfor the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Artworks can be defined by purposeful, creative interpretations oflimitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person. Artworks can be explicitly madefor this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Art is something that stimulates an individual'sthoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. It is also an expression of an idea and it can take manydifferent forms and serve many different purposes. Although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a newscientific theory involves skill and results in the "creation" of something new, this represents science only and is notcategorized as art.

Art 20

History

Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000Ñ22,000 BP.

Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings, and petroglyphs fromthe Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago havebeen found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputedbecause so little is known about the cultures that produced them.The oldest art objects in the worldÉa series of tiny, drilled snailshells about 75,000 years oldÉwere discovered in a South Africancave.[11]

Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, c.16,000 BP.

Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one ofthe great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia,Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca,Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilizationdeveloped a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because ofthe size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art workshave survived and more of their influence has been transmitted toother cultures and later times. Some also have provided the firstrecords of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greekart saw a veneration of the human physical form and thedevelopment of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise,beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.

In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of Biblical andnonmaterial truths, and used styles that showed the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of goldin the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned(flat) forms. Nevertheless a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew inthe art of Catholic Europe.

Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place ofhumans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphicalperspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.

Art 21

The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of theOttoman Empire was written in Arabic calligraphy. It

reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forevervictorious.

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (also called theMosque of Uqba) is one of the finest, most significantand best preserved artistic and architectural examplesof early great mosques; dated in its present state fromthe 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all themosques in the western Islamic lands.[12] The Great

Mosque of Kairouan is located in the city of Kairouanin Tunisia.

In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasison geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east,religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibetsaw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religiouspainting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended tobright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw theflourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery(including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry,calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese stylesvary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally namedafter the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang Dynasty paintingsare monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes,but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus ontelling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its stylesafter imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay betweenthe styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing becameimportant in Japan after the 17th century.

Painting by Song Dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250.24,8 ï 25,2 cm.

The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artisticdepictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockworkuniverse, as well as politically revolutionary visions of apost-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divinegeometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romanticrejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side andindividuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academicart, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.

The history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endlesspossibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down insuccession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism,Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be

Art 22

maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw anequivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by African sculpture.Japanese woodblock prints (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had animmense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up byPicasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, the west has had huge impacts on Eastern art in the 19th and 20thcenturies, with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence onartistic styles.

Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of itsunattainability. Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art andpostmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can beappreciated and drawn from only with irony. Furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and someargue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than regional cultures.

CharacteristicsArt tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding, and is usually consciously created with thisintention. Fine art intentionally serves no other purpose. As a result of this impetus, works of art are elusive,refractive to attempts at classification, because they can be appreciated in more than one way, and are oftensusceptible to many different interpretations. In the case of Gãricault's Raft of the Medusa, special knowledgeconcerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciationof Gãricault's political intentions in the piece. Even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object, mayinvite reflection upon elevated themes.

Traditionally, the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium. Thischaracteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists)do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrativesense. Art has a transformative capacity: it confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures orforms upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.

Forms, genres, media, and styles

Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa,showing the painting technique of sfumato.

The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, eachrelated to its technique, or medium, such as decorative arts, plastic arts,performing arts, or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of thefew subjects that are academically organized according to technique[13]. An artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic workis made from, and may also refer to the technique used. For example,paint is a medium used in painting, and paper is a medium used indrawing.

An art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expressiontakes. The media used often influence the form. For example, the formof a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions, and respond togravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thuscalled its formal qualities. To give another example, the formalqualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture.The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and

virtual presence. The form of a particular work of art is determined by the formal qualities of the media, and is notrelated to the intentions of the artist or the reactions of the audience in any way what so ever.

Art 23

A genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium. For instance, well recognized genres in filmare western, horror and romantic comedy. Genres in music include death metal and trip hop. Genres in paintinginclude still life and pastoral landscape. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has arecognizable group of conventions, clichãs and tropes. (One note: the word genre has a second older meaning withinpainting; genre painting was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes ofeveryday life and can still be used in this way.)

The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai (Japanese, 1760Ñ1849),colored woodcut print.

R. Gopakumar: Cognition-Libido (Digital Print on Canvas, LimitedEdition, 1/7) In the permanent collection of the Kinsey Institute for

Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction

The style of an artwork, artist, or movement is thedistinctive method and form followed by the respectiveart. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstractpainting is called expressionistic. Often a style is linkedwith a particular historical period, set of ideas, andparticular artistic movement. So Jackson Pollock iscalled an Abstract Expressionist.

Because a particular style may have specific culturalmeanings, it is important to be sensitive to differencesin technique. Roy Lichtenstein's (1923Ñ1997) paintingsare not pointillist, despite his uses of dots, because theyare not aligned with the original proponents ofPointillism. Lichtenstein used Ben-Day dots: they areevenly spaced and create flat areas of color. Dots of thistype, used in halftone printing, were originally used incomic strips and newspapers to reproduce color.Lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the"high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics Ñ tocomment on class distinctions in culture. Lichtensteinis thus associated with the American Pop art movement(1960s). Pointillism is a technique in lateImpressionism (1880s), developed especially by theartist Georges Seurat, that employs dots that are spacedin a way to create variation in color and depth in anattempt to paint images that were closer to the waypeople really see color. Both artists use dots, but theparticular style and technique relate to the artisticmovement adopted by each artist.

These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art,to narrow it down. "Imagine you are an art critic whosemission is to compare the meanings you find in a widerange of individual artworks. How would you proceedwith your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video,or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomessomething different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything elseabout the artwork remains the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become anarrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns andcompositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute

to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings

Art 24

the artwork engenders."[14]

Skill and craft

Adam. Detail from Michelangelo's fresco in theCappella Sistina (1511)

Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium.Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of alanguage to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art isan act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.[15] Thereis an understanding that is reached with the material as a result ofhandling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A commonview is that the epithet "art", particular in its elevated sense,requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whetherthis be a demonstration of technical ability or an originality instylistic approach such as in the plays of Shakespeare, or acombination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution wasviewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for itssuccess; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his

other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was mostadmired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of JohnSinger Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the sametime the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, wascompleting a traditional academic training at which he excelled.

A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack ofskill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" isamong the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised notraditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Deathin the Mind of Someone Living follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged inother activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptualdesign for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst'scelebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptualand contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However there are many modernist andcontemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works ofart.

Art 25

Value judgment

Aboriginal hollow log tombs. NationalGallery, Canberra, Australia.

Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to applyjudgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art"(the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception", (the highly attained level ofskill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of highquality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.

Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplestlevel, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the sensesmeets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to beattractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience,and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is notsomehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is notalways or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. Inother words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of theaesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, orthought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depictingthe Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firingsquad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrificimagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social andpolitical outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define'art'.

The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need notoccur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, thereverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for are-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools haveproposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aestheticchoices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosenmedium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what istermed the zeitgeist.

Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and canbe understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is arousedto some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the humancondition; that is, what it is to be human.[16]

Art 26

Purpose of art

A Navajo rug made c. 1880.

Mozarabic Beatus miniature; Spain, late 10thcentury.

Art has had a great number of different functions throughout itshistory, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to anysingle concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague",but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created.Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline.The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those thatare non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Levi-Strauss).

Non-motivated functions of art

The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to beinghuman, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific externalpurpose. Aristotle said, "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature."[17] In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do bytheir very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is thereforebeyond utility.

1. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this levelis not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balanceand harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being humanbeyond utility.

"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there isthe instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters beingmanifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, startingwith this natural gift developed by degrees their specialaptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth toPoetry." -Aristotle [18]

2. Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experienceone's self in relation to the universe. This experience may oftencome unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.

"The most beautiful thing we can experience is themysterious. It is the source of all true art and science."-Albert Einstein [19]

3. Expression of the imagination. Art provide a means to express theimagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formalityof spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definitemeaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are maleable.

"Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept ofthe sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else Ñ something that gives the imaginationan incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thoughtthan admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, whichserves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function,however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representationsstretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant[20]

Art 27

4. Universal communication. Art allows the individual to express things toward the world as a whole. Earth artistsoften create art in remote locations that will never be experienced by another person. The practice of placing acairn, or pile of stones at the top of a mountain, is an example. (Note: This need not suggest a particular view ofGod, or religion.) Art created in this way is a form of communication between the individual and the world as awhole.

5. Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as adecoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists knowthat they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnishedby any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationshipwithin the culture.

"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannotbe explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware ofthe trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova[21]

Motivated functions of artMotivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be tobring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to addresspersonal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) to sell a product, or simply as a formof communication.

1. Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intentor goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientificillustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not bescientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.

"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -SteveMithen[22]

2. Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing orentertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.

3. The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth century art has beento use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goalÉDadaism, Surrealism,Russian Constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among othersÉare collectively referred to as theavante-garde arts.

"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to AnatoleFrance, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it ismade up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to theseridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapersand stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering onstupidity, a dog's life." -Andrã Breton (Surrealism)[23]

4. Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinicalpsychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personalityand emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a processof healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troublesexperienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms ofpsychiatric therapy.

5. Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive ordeconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, thefunction of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.

Art 28

Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome.

Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publiclyviewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti,may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).6. Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to

subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influencesmood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particularemotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.[24]

The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art forthe purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.

Controversial art

Thãodore Gãricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820

Thãodore Gãricault's Raft of the Medusa (c.1820), was a social commentary on a currentevent, unprecedented at the time. ñdouardManet's Le Dèjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863),was considered scandalous not because ofthe nude woman, but because she is seatednext to men fully dressed in the clothing ofthe time, rather than in robes of the antiqueworld. John Singer Sargent's MadamePierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), causeda huge uproar over the reddish pink used tocolor the woman's ear lobe, considered fartoo suggestive and supposedly ruining thehigh-society model's reputation.

In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromaticoils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. LeonGolub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to revealher sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989)is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering,submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senateabout public funding of the arts.

Art 29

Art theoriesIn the nineteenth century, artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty. The aesthetic theorist JohnRuskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication byartifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.[25]

The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheimdistinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any humanview; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and theRelativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience ofdifferent humans.[26]

The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function ofart,[27] and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize thediscipline itself".[28] Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as away to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:

Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to callattention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting Ñ the flat surface, the shape of thesupport, the properties of the pigment É were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could beacknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded aspositive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[28]

After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, LindaNochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specificset of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various artmovements of the 20th century and early 21st century.

Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquingpopular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique ofself-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards andpornography.

Classification disputesDisputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes aboutart.

Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain,the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.[29]

Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem.Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of allclassificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputesabout societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when theDaily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilisingforces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing adefinition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work.[30] In 1998, Arthur Danto,suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a cultureapplies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of somekind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."[31] [32]

Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art;[33] it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I,[33] when he was making art

Art 30

from found objects.[33] One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence andinfluence on art.[33] Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[34] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and theYoung British Artists,[33] though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,[33] who describe themselves asanti-anti-art.[35] [36]

Art, class, and value

Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansiveentrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.

Art is sometimes perceived as belongingexclusively to higher social classes. In thiscontext, art is seen as an upper-class activityassociated with wealth, the ability topurchase art, and the leisure required topursue or enjoy it. The Palace of Versaillesand the Hermitage in St. Petersburgillustrate this view: such vast collections ofart are the preserve of the rich, ofgovernments and wealthy organizations.

Fine and expensive goods have beenpopular markers of status in many cultures, and they continue to be so today. There has been a cultural push in theother direction since at least 1793, when the Louvre, which had been a private palace of the Kings of France, wasopened to the public as an art museum during the French Revolution. Most modern public museums and arteducation programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone.Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses (The Metropolitan Museum of Art inNew York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal artcollection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st centuryremains as a marker of wealth and social status.

Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978 : Everyonean artist Å On the way to the libertarian form of

the social organism.

There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be boughtby the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivatorsof much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art thatcould not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present somethingmore than mere objects"[37] said the major post war German artistJoseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things asperformance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if theartwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or wassimply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic preceptsrevolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelledthe aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and wasreaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under theheading of Conceptual art... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the materialand materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object quaobject."[38]

In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,[39] invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of

Art 31

DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale ofartworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions tocollectors."[40]

Notes[1] Gombrich, Ernst. (2005). "Press statement on The Story of Art" (http:/ / www. gombrich. co. uk/ showdoc. php?id=68). The Gombrich

Archive. . Retrieved 2008-11-18.[2] Wollheim 1980, op. cit. Essay VI. pp. 231Ñ39.[3] Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, p.1, 2nd edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521297060[4] Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Oxford university Press, 2003, p5. ISBN 0-1992-7945-4[5] Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, Oxford university Press, 2003, p16. ISBN 0-1992-7945-4[6] R.G. Collingwood's view, expressed in The Principles of Art, is considered in Wollheim, op. cit. 1980 pp 36Ñ43[7] Martin Heidegger, "The Origin of the Work of Art", in Poetry, Language, Thought, (Harper Perenniel, 2001). See also Maurice

Merleau-Ponty, "Cãzanne's Doubt" in The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader, Galen Johnson and Michael Smith (eds), (NorthwesternUniversity Press, 1994) and John Russon, Bearing Witness to Epiphany, (State University of New York Press, 2009).

[8] Elkins, James "Art History and Images That Are Not Art", The Art Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Dec. 1995), with previous bibliography."Non-Western images are not well described in terms of art, and neither are medieval paintings that were made in the absence of humanistideas of artistic value". 553

[9] Adorno, Theodor W., Aesthetic Theory, (1970 in German)[10] David Novitz, "The Boundaries of Art", 1992[11] Radford, Tim. " World's Oldest Jewellery Found in Cave (http:/ / education. guardian. co. uk/ higher/ artsandhumanities/ story/

0,12241,1193237,00. html)". Guardian Unlimited, April 16, 2004. Retrieved on January 18, 2008.[12] John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance. Taylor & Francis. 1983. p. 104

(http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=IaM9AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA104& dq=oleg+ grabar+ kairouan+ mosque& cd=3#v=onepage& q=oleggrabar kairouan mosque& f=false)

[13] http:/ / www. rchoetzlein. com/ quanta/ theory/ theory-new-media. htm[14] Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, page 4. Oxford University Press, 2005.[15] Breskin, Vladimir, Triad: Method for studying the core of the semiotic parity of language and art (http:/ / vip. iva. dk/ signs/

Articles_Signs_International_Section/ 2010/ Breskin_(2010)_Signs_Triad_eng_final_rev_2010. pdf), Signs Ñ International Journal ofSemiotics 3, pp.1Ñ28, 2010. ISSN: 1902-8822

[16] Graham, Gordon (2005). Philosophy of the arts: an introduction to aesthetics. Taylor & Francis.[17] Aristotle. The Poetics, Republic[18] Aristotle. The Poetics, Republic. Note: Although speaking mostly of poetry here, the Ancient greeks often speak of the arts collectively.

http:/ / www. authorama. com/ the-poetics-2. html[19] Einstein, Albert. The World as I See It. http:/ / www. aip. org/ history/ einstein/ essay. htm[20] Immanuel Kant, Critique of Aesthetic Judgement (1790).[21] Silvia Tomaskova, "Places of Art: Art and Archaeology in Context": (1997)[22] Steve Mithen. The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science. 1999[23] Andrã Breton, Surrealist Manifesto (1924)[24] Roland Barthes, Mythologies[25] "go to nature in all singleness of heart, rejecting nothing and selecting nothing, and scorning nothing, believing all things are right and good,

and rejoicing always in the truth." Ruskin, John. Modern Painters, Volume I, 1843. London: Smith, Elder and Co.[26] Wollheim 1980, Essay VI. pp. 231Ñ39.[27] Griselda Pollock, Differencing the Canon. Routledge, London & N.Y.,1999. ISBN 0-415-06700-6[28] Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. ed. Francis Frascina and Charles Harrison, 1982.[29] Deborah Solomon, "2003: the 3rd Annual Year in Ideas: Video Game Art", New York Times, Magazine Section, December 14, 2003[30] Painter, Colin. "Contemporary Art and the Home". Berg Publishers, 2002. p. 12. ISBN 1-8597-3661-0[31] Dutton, Denis Tribal Art (http:/ / www. denisdutton. com/ tribal_art. htm) in Encyclopedia of Aesthetics, edited by Michael Kelly (New York:

Oxford University Press, 1998).[32] Danto, Arthur. "Artifact and Art." In Art/Artifact, edited by Susan Vogel. New York, 1988.[33] "Glossary: Anti-art" (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ collections/ glossary/ definition. jsp?entryId=571), Tate. Retrieved 23 January 2010.[34] Schneider, Caroline. "Asger Jorn" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1G1-78637292. html), Artforum, 1 September 2001. Retrieved

from encyclopedia.com, 24 January 2010.[35] Ferguson, Euan. "In bed with Tracey, Sarah ... and Ron" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ artanddesign/ 2003/ apr/ 20/ thesaatchigallery.

art2), The Observer, 20 April 2003. Retrieved on 2 May 2009.[36] "Stuck on the Turner Prize" (http:/ / www. artnet. com/ Magazine/ news/ artnetnews/ artnetnews10-27-00. asp), artnet, 27 October 2000.

Retrieved on 2 May 2009.

Art 32

[37] Sharp, Willoughby (December 1969). "An Interview with Joseph Beuys". ArtForum 8 (4): 45.[38] Rorimer, Anne: New Art in the 60s and 70s Redefining Reality, page 35. Thames and Hudson, 2001.[39] Fineman, Mia (2007-03-21). "YouTube for ArtistsThe best places to find video art online." (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2162382/ ). Slate. .

Retrieved 2007-08-03.[40] Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, page 16. Oxford University Press, 2005.

Bibliographyí Arthur Danto, The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art. 2003í Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003.í Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) Art History and Visual Studies. Yale University Press, 2002.í John Whitehead. Grasping for the Wind. 2001í Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today. 2000í Evelyn Hatcher, ed. Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999í Catherine de Zegher (ed.). Inside the Visible. MIT Press, 1996.í Nina, Felshin, ed. But is it Art? 1995í Stephen Davies, Definitions of Art. 1991í Oscar Wilde, "Intentions".í Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, "Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980." 2005

Further readingí Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.:

Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0895268337 (this book has significant material on Art and Science)í Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objectsí Carl Jung, Man and His Symbolsí Benedetto Croce, Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 1902í Wîadysîaw Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher

Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980.í Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, 1897í Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey (2004). Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes). Wadsworth.

ISBNé0-534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN 0-534-64091-5 (vol 2).í Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds., Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art. Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1996.

External linksí Art and Play from the Dictionary of the History of ideas (http:/ / etext. lib. virginia. edu/ cgi-local/ DHI/ dhi.

cgi?id=dv1-17)í In-depth directory of art (http:/ / witcombe. sbc. edu/ ARTHLinks. html)í Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection (http:/ / www. sil. si. edu/ digitalcollections/

art-design/ artandartistfiles/ ) (2005) Smithsonian Digital Librariesí Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) (http:/ / www. vads. ahds. ac. uk/ search. php) Ñ online collections from UK

museums, galleries, universitiesí RevolutionArt Ñ Art magazines with worldwide exhibitions, callings and competitions (http:/ / www.

RevolutionArtMagazine. com)í Artforum magazine Ñ online art reviews Ñ also previews of upcoming exhibitions (http:/ / artforum. com/ picks/ )í Article on the meaning of Art in Ancient India (http:/ / www. flonnet. com/ fl2416/ stories/ 20070824507606600.

htm) on the website of Frontline

Art 33

í The Definition of Art (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ art-definition) entry by Thomas Adajian in the StanfordEncyclopedia of Philosophy

Article Sources and Contributors 34

Article Sources and ContributorsAesthetics éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=432590221 éContributors: 13alexander, 17Drew, 64.2.46.xxx, A Softer Answer, A8UDI, ABF, AJD, Aalit4, Abce2, Abdullais4u,Acabtp, Aidan Kehoe, Aknxy, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Aletheia, AlexLibman, Alexjohnc3, Alison, Allen3, Alpha456, Aman13preet, AmishArmadillo, Anarchia, Andypandy.UK, Angela,Anlace, Anria, Antandrus, Anthony Krupp, AntiWhilst, Arify4, Aristophanes68, Armando Navarro, Ashindo, AshleyOz, Audrey, Avenugopalarao2011, Aymatth2, Azlan Iqbal, B.K.S.J., BMF81,Babacol, Backpackadam, Baher, Banno, Barasoaindarra, Bellhalla, Bennelliott, Bento00, Berislav, Bhamfree, Big Bird, Billych, Birkinstein, Bleedingshoes, Bloodshedder, Blue-Haired Lawyer,Bmicomp, Bmorton3, Bobblewik, Boing! said Zebedee, Bomac, Bondi444, Boneheadmx, Bookgrrl, Bornhj, Boudreauxgg, Bradjohns, Brion VIBBER, Brosi, Brossow, Btdurant, BullRangifer,Bus stop, CLW, Cailil, CallidusUlixes, Calliopejen1, Caltas, Camblast, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Cantiana, Carbon-16, Catgut, Caton, CharlieHuang, Chase me ladies,I'm the Cavalry, CheshireKatz, Chevrefoil, Chi Sigma, Chloroform42, Chowbok, Chris Roy, Christofurio, Citengam, ClanCC, Cmgjr, CodySteed, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Conversionscript, Countskull, Courcelles, DA3N, DMacks, DVD R W, DVdm, Daniel C. Boyer, Daven200520, David Gale, David Levy, David91, DavidKennerly, DavidMonk, DavidParfitt, Dcoetzee,Debaryabanerjee, Declare, Dekimasu, Deli nk, Demonhunter698, DennisDaniels, Deputyduck, DerHexer, Deviator13, Dgies, Differo, Doraannao, Doremótzwr, Dr.enh, Drumguy8800, DryaUnda,Dspradau, Dumbleton, Dungodung, Dysmorodrepanis, E rulez, ESkog, Egpetersen, Einmonim, Ekki01, El C, Ellis.ebineezer.ellis, Ellywa, Endomion, Epbr123, Erianna, Ericoides, Esteve83,Ethicoaestheticist, Everyking, Excirial, ExplicitImplicity, Fabartus, Fatal error, Fconaway, Feezo, Fifelfoo, Filam3nt, Fleabox, Fmuratozdemir, Fourdee, Fox, Fraterm, Fredrik, Freshacconci,Fsvallare, Funeral, Furrykef, Fuzzy artist, Gandalf61, Gene Ward Smith, Giftlite, Gimmetrow, GirasoleDE, Gkerkvliet, Glenn, Go for it!, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Gonzonoir,Goodnightmush, Grafen, Greatgavini, Greenbreezegrl, Greg Tyler, Gregbard, Grubber, Gurch, Gverstraete, Hackwrench, HaeB, Haham hanuka, Hairhorn, Halaqah, Halaster, Hanwufu,Headbomb, Hermeses, Heron, Herschelkrustofsky, Heyoh123, Hoof Hearted, Hu12, Hyacinth, I'd Buy That for a Dollar, Ideyal, Ihcoyc, Infinity0, Inkling, Interstates, Inwind, Ironie, IstvanWolf,Ivan òtambuk, JMK, JNW, JRR Trollkien, JaGa, Jagged 85, Jahsonic, Jambamkin, Jamessmithpage, Jasper Chua, Jauhienij, Javierito92, Jbmurray, Jcbutler, JeffC, Jeffcrane, Jeffmilner,Jesuseatsyou, JimR, Jni, JoanneB, John Ellsworth, John Fader, JohnManuel, Johnbod, Jonathan Stokes, Jossi, Joustinjustin, Joymmart, Jpbowen, Jrorowling, Jujutacular, KSchutte, Kalsikum,Kaobear, Kaotic.nite, Keith.Nichol, Knotnic, Korg, Kubigula, LCP, Lackthereof, Ladyxtrust, LainEverliving, Lament, Lara bran, Large Glass, Lee Daniel Crocker, Leranedo, Lestrade, Levineps,LilHelpa, Lisatruman, Logologist, Lucidish, Ludwigs2, Luna Santin, Lusciious420, Lysander89, M.thoriyan, Mac Davis, Magister Mathematicae, Makeemlighter, Malik Shabazz, Mani1, Maqs,Markwalters79, MarylandArtLover, Matt Gies, Matturn, Meaghan, Mediaphd, Meinolf Wewel, Merbabu, Merond e, Michael Hardy, Michaeldsuarez, Miegoreng, Mike Rosoft, Mikeo,Minesweeper, Missmarple, Modernist, MoogleFan, MrOllie, Mshonle, Munci, Muratkaraci, Mus Musculus, Mwanner, NCurse, NJA, Nachoman-au, Nakon, Nano Dan, Naohiro19, Nathan43,NawlinWiki, Neelix, Neutron Jack, Nick Denkens, Nikai, Nisann, Nivix, Numbo3, Nunatan, Nôdvornók, Ocolon, Omegatron, Omnipaedista, Omnipolex, OnBeyondZebrax, Open2universe, OriRedler, Otisjimmy1, Outriggr, Owen, Palfrey, Paul August, Pearle, Pereztonella, Persian Poet Gal, Pgk, Piano non troppo, Pill, Pinethicket, Pink!Teen, Pjoef, Pleasantville, Poor Yorick, Porges,Postmodern Beatnik, Promethean, Prsephone1674, Psp2010, QRX, Quadell, Qwertyus, R'n'B, RJaguar3, RandomP, Ratiuglink, Raven in Orbit, Raven4x4x, Ravencao, Razorazar69, Redvers,Renewolf, Research Method, RexNL, Rholton, Rich Farmbrough, Rich Janis, Rich257, Richard001, Richarddecker, Rick Block, Ricky81682, Rigadoun, Rjwilmsi, Robth, Rodasmith, Ronz,Roseworthy, Rotational, Rucha58, SabaKahn, Sam Korn, Samuel Blanning, Sandris.ö, Sardanaphalus, Schard, Scorpion451, Scott3, Screambd1, Scythia, Sdornan, Seangies, Seberle, Sebesta,Selket, SemperPirate, Serinde, SeventyThree, Shabidoo, Shell Kinney, Sjakkalle, Skomorokh, Slac, Slider360, Sluzzelin, Snow1215, Solace098, Sournick3, Sparkit, Spartan 1200,SpngeBobSquarePants, Squandermania, Squib, Srose, St.daniel, Ste4k, Steven41111, Stinkypie, Stratadrake, Summalogicae, SummerWithMorons, SvAbhinava, Symane, T.V. A'hearn, THENWHO WAS PHONE?, Tassedethe, Tatterfly, Tautologist, Taxisfolder, Tedneeman, Teller33, Tere, The Interior, The Man in Question, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, TheUtahraptor, TheOtherStephan, TheRingess, Theda, Think outside the box, Thomascochrane, Thompsontough, Thunder4848, Tide rolls, TimNelson, TimVickers, Tired time, Todowd, Tombomp,TreasuryTag, Tresiden, Trevor MacInnis, Trouver, Trynen, Twartenb, Twas Now, Tyrenius, Uncle Milty, Urthogie, Useight, User27091, User6854, VegitaU, Versageek, Vildricianus, ViolaTristan, Violetriga, Violncello, VolatileChemical, Waggers, Wahabijaz, Wavelength, Wehpudicabok, West.andrew.g, Wetman, Where, WhiteC, Who, Wikiklrsc, Wikilibrarian, Williamv1138,Winchelsea, Winston365, Wintran, Wipfeln, Wooddoo-eng, Woohookitty, Yandman, Ycdkwm, Yidisheryid, Yk Yk Yk, Ymirfrostgiant, Ynh, Yoasif, ZapThunderstrike, Zarboki, Zigger, Zzuuzz,ÄÅÇÇÉ, 829 anonymous edits

Art éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430610139 éContributors: -sil-, .V., 100110100, 130.94.122.xxx, 16@r, 170.252.177.xxx, 1717, 18conal1988, 194.109.232.xxx, 4score, 83d40m, A4, Aaron Brenneman, Aaron.t.phillips, AaronY, Aartie, Abednigo, Abid6814, Accesstheworld, Acroterion, Addyfe, Adelehanty, Adhart, Ados, Aeternus, Afro Article, Ahoerstemeier, Aion, Akanena14, Akradecki, Alan Liefting, Alanbly, Aldux, Alek s, Alex S, Alexreid2, Alphachimp, Americanjoe1776, Ames Hughes, Amizzoni, Andersmusician, Andre Engels, Andrew0921, Andrewsandberg, Andrewtcrummy, Andrewzito, Andycjp, Angela, Angr, Animum, AnnaKucsma, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthere, Anwar saadat, Apalton, AquaRichy, ArglebargleIV, Arielhafftka, Armando Navarro, Arnoutf, Art.net, Artbarn, Artethical, Artexetra, Artfriend, Artincontext, Artoasis, Artypants, Arvinlopz, Asapkid10, Ashishwave, Asterion, Astragal, Astronautics, Aude, AugustWind, Aurãola, Avventura, Ayla, BRG, BabaDraconis, Badwy, Balthazarduju, BboyYen, Beaukarpo, Benar20, Benc, Benign Tempest, Betacommand, Bevo, Bfpage, Bill37212, Billmo, Binksternet, Bio database, Bkcraft, Blackspotw, Bloodshedder, Blueboy96, Bluemask, BmastonLJ, Bmorton3, BobMaestro, Bobathon71, Bobnorwal, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bongwarrior, Bonjourtheo, Bookgrrl, Bowlhover, Bporter28, Bradeos Graphon, Branko, Brendenbuddy, BrendonJS, Brian0918, Brianga, BridgeBurner, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Brona, Brossow, Bruce wasserman, Brusegadi, Bryce32, Bulltastrophy, Bunny-chan, Burkhard, Burschik, Bus stop, Bvanvoris, CDN99, CJ, Cagliost, Caknuck, CalJW, Calvinballing, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Camhunterhall, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadianartist, Canderson7, Captain Wikify, Casliber, Categorically speaking, Catmoongirl, Celique, Ceoil, Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chaser, Cheri813, Chocoforfriends, Chocolatier, Chris Capoccia, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, Christian Kreibich, Ck lostsword, Ckatz, Ckbald1, Clancy cougar, Clear skies and raspberries, Closenplay, Clubmarx, Code 555, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Contemplating21, Conversion script, Cooljamesx1, Corrosionx, Cprzybyl, Criorf, CrookedAsterisk, Ctbolt, Curps, Cyberevil, Cyrillic, DNewhall, DVD R W, Da man 21, Dandelion1, Dar-Ape, Darigan, Daveheisel, David R. Ingham, David keith2000, DavidParfitt, Dbenbenn, Dcooper, DeadEyeArrow, Dean Wormer, Death001, Deck169, Dekimasu, Dgies, Dgriffindor, Dina, Dino246, Diogo Neves, Directors Forum, Dismas, Dmn, Doug Bell, Dracontes, Dragoburagoo, Drivenapart, Drmagic, Drritu, Duncanssmith, Dusanmravec, Dustimagic, Dv82matt, Dycedarg, DzoldzayaBlackarrow, E rulez, ELApro, ERcheck, Earle Martin, East718, Edgar181, Editor at Large, Edward, Eequor, Efio, Egil, Ehn, El C, ElectricRay, Elitebomber, Elonka, Elperro2, Emc2, Emeraldcityserendipity, Emersoni, Emma-garnett2008, Encyclopedist, Enviroboy, Eric Wester, Escape Orbit, Esprit15d, Etacar11, Etflover1243, Ethicoaestheticist, Euqinimod, Everyking, Evil Monkey, ExplicitImplicity, Exploding Boy, Farhan21, FayssalF, Fbvgsfdb3gbwebvgregwe, Feezo, Femto, Figgisfiggisfiggis, Figurejn, Filiocht, Fineartfreak, Finn-Zoltan, Flange P. Vibrator, Formation, Fplay, Fractious Jell, Frainc, Franzacurta, Fratrep, Fredcipriano, Freedom skies, Freiwilliger, FreplySpang, Freshacconci, Friarslantern, Frymaster, Fudoreaper, FunkMonk, Furra, Futurebird, Fuzheado, G Clark, G. Campbell, GHe, GabrielAPetrie, Gaidheal, Gaius Cornelius, GeneralPatton, Geni, Genjix, Geoff43230, Gggi69, Ghostal, Gimmetrow, Glenn, Glossary, Gopanraman, Graham87, Grax Willow, Gregbard, Groundpounder, Grunt, GumTree, Gurch, Guy Peters, Gwernol, Gyll, H.M.Fanna, Hadal, Ham, Hammer Raccoon, Han Solar de Harmonics, Harryboyles, Harryjjj, Haunting The Better, Headbomb, HeikoEvermann, Helixblue, Hellotarget, Hesdf, Hide&Reason, Hu, Husky, Hut 8.5, Hyacinth, Hypnotoad67, Hypnotoad76, I3D correction, I80and, Icedoghanson77, Igoldste, Ikariam3944, ImBobTheFish, Imran, Infrogmation, Inkling, Introgressive, Isabel100, Isam, Isvaffel, Ixfd64, J04n, JDZ1990, JFD, JLaTondre, JNW, Jaberwocky6669, Jackaranga, Jagged 85, Jahsonic, James Baraldi, Jr., Jamesgslade, Jameshfisher, Janbwade, Jason nah, Jastrow, Jaxhere, Jayron32, Jbmurray, Jc37, Jcw69, Jdpaulsen, Jeios, Jel, Jennifer Maddock, Jerichi, Jersildj00, Jewelz m, Jezhotwells, Jogannez, Johgeek, John Ellsworth, John Reaves, John of Reading, John254, Johnbod, Jon t44, Jonomacdrones, Jorunn, Jose77, Jossi, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jreed, Jschwa1, Julesd, Juliancolton, Julie Martello, Justforapart, JustinRossi, Justincannon4, Jwkpiano1, Jwrosenzweig, Jyffeh, KF, KRS, Kaaveh Ahangar, Kablammo, Kaiba, Kansan, KatherineTurnbull, Katieh5584, Keilana, Kelvie, Kenny sh, Khattakrehan, Khoikhoi, Kindahypertonic, King of Hearts, Kirk6701, Klavierbooster, Klemen Kocjancic, Klmarcus, Kmowery, Kmslimegreengrl, Knobme3, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knulclunk, Konstable, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kusma, Kwsn, Kx1186, Kzipser, LAX, Lakers, Lance glasmyer, Larroyo, Larry_Sanger, Lawilkin, Laxxplayer45, Leandrod, Leolaursen, Leondz, Leuko, Lexor, Lexowgrant, Lgh, Lifebonzza, Lightmouse, Lights, Lilcutiepie92896, Lildrumboy5000, Lile, Limabeans000, Lirane1, Lit-sci, Lithoderm, Locos epraix, Logologist, Lol omg1, Loodog, Looxix, Lpgeffen, Lu,py446, Luna Santin, Lupo, MANGEKYOU PRO, MER-C, MSGJ, MZMcBride, Maberry, MacGyverMagic, MacTire02, Mackeriv, Maduixa, Magioladitis, Magister Mathematicae, MagnaMopus, Magnus Manske, Mairi, Majalo, Majorly, Malrase, Mandarax, Mandolinface, Mangojuice, MarSch, Marcus Qwertyus, Marcusscotus1, Marika Herskovic, Marjil.smith, Mark J, MarkSutton, Mars2035, Martarius, MartinHarper, MarylandArtLover, Masterhand10, Maurreen, Mav, Max Terry, Maxim's JS test account, Maximaximax, Mboverload, Mclowes, Mdd, Megrisoft, Mel Etitis, Melicans, MeltBanana, Menchi, Mercurywoodrose, Merphant, Methaddict00, MethodicEvolution, Mgiganteus1, Michael Hardy, Michfan2123, Micmac128, Mike R, Mike Rosoft, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindchow, Mindstalk, Minibar, Miranda, Mirian80, Mkoyle, Modernist, Moeali2004, Monkeycheetah, Moskvax, Mountshang, Mr Rookles, Mr Stephen, Mr mimises, Mr. Absurd, Mr.Blahman, MrSomeone, Mschel, Muchness, Muhammad.idrees, Mutazilite, Mwanner, Mxn, Myanw, Mystaker1, Nachoman-au, Nakon, Nanokid, Naomichanart, Natalie Erin, Natalya, NathanEckenrode, NatureA16, NawlinWiki, Nb99, Neutrality, NewEnglandYankee, Nicknack009, Nicolas Andrew, Nicoleloves, Nigel Cross, Night Gyr, Nightscream, Nihil novi, Nikehockey 99, Nikola Smolenski, Niljay, Ninly, Nishkid64, Nitya Dharma, Nivix, Notebook1211, Notinasnaid, Nrcprm2026, Nthitz, Nuge, Numbo3, Nuttycoconut, Oda Mari, Ohms law, Ohnoitsjamie, Oicumayberight, Old Guard, Oli Filth, Olivier, Olleicua, Omegatron, OnBeyondZebrax, Only2minaway, Ontopic, Optimist on the run, Orangutan, Orayzio, Orbit lord001, Orz, Oxymoron83, PAK Man, Pacific PanDeist, Pak21, Pandukht, Pattistoneham, Paul August, Pax:Vobiscum, Pcash, PericlesofAthens, Pethan, Petufo, Phildelta9, Philip Trueman, Philipuk, Philopp, Pigman, Pilgaard, Pilotguy, Porlob, Postdlf, Prashanthns, Printzeal, Prlaantdeom12, Prolog, Prx, Psantora, Psyche, Purgatory Fubar, Quadell, Quadroclops, Quiddity, Quincy2010, Qxz, R'n'B, RW Marloe, RadicalBender, RainbowOfLight, RandomP, Rasmus Faber, Raymondpedia, Rchoetzlein, Rdsmith4, ReadQ, Red Winged Duck, Reddi, ResidueOfDesign, RexNL, Rexworth, Reywas92, RhoOphuichi, Rhobite, Riana, Riccardo Riccioni, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Barlow, Richard001, Ricky347, Ricky81682, Riverdale78, Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Rlosey, Rmky87, Rmrfstar, RobertG, Robin Patterson, Rubikfreak, Ry2k7an, ST47, STLEric, Samtheboy, Samw, Sanchezdot, Sandflyfever, Sango123, Sara USA, Sarno carlo, Saros136, SaulPerdomo, Schubert2, Schwnj, Sdornan, Search4.0, Semper discens, Semper331fi, SergeWoodzing, Sethione, Severa, Sevilledade, Shadekiller, Shadowjams, Shadowwalker, Shandilya a, Shanes, Shaun Oldershaw, Shawnc, Shawreck, Sheps11, Shii, Shizion houzin, Shoehorn, Shoeofdeath, Sichosi, Sietse Snel, Silence, Silentaria, SillyPants11, Sintaku, Sintonak.X, SirEditALot, Siroxo, Sj, Skapur, Sketchee, Skol fir, Skomorokh, SkyViewOrphanage, Smashville, Smazian, Snoyes, Somebodyreallycool, Spam=tined ham, Spangineer, Sparkit, Spas, Specter01010, Spinster, Splash, SpuriousQ, Spw0766, Spyros Pantenas, Ssbohio, Staban, Static Sleepstorm, SteinbDJ, StellaMT, Stemonitis, Stephenb, Stevegallery, Steven Weston, Stevertigo, Storkk, Sullivan2600, SummerWithMorons, Sushimatsuda, Sweet.swede13, Sweetmoose6, Symane, Syndicate, TUF-KAT, TablaRas, Tabletop, Tablizer, Talidari, Tarquin, Tastemyhouse, Taw, Teapotgeorge, Ted Wilkes, Tellyaddict, TenOfAllTrades, The Anome, The Famous Movie Director, The Rambling Man, The Transhumanist, The Transhumanist (AWB), TheArtistT2001, TheFlyingApe, TheLeopard, TheMainWikiEditor, Theaterfreak64, Thegirlwholovesfoxes, Theresa knott, Thiseye, Tiddly Tom, Timir2, Timo Honkasalo, Timwhit, Toland mansfield, Tony Sidaway, Tothebarricades.tk, Tpbradbury, Trevor MacInnis, Trevorloflin, Trevyn, TriviaKing, Troels Arvin, Tsja, Ttwaring, Tulkolahten, Twinkle777, Twlight532, Tyrenius,

Article Sources and Contributors 35

Ugen64, Ukabia, Underpants, Unknownroad4, Unyoyega, Updatedinformation, User A1, User27091, Userafw, Uusitunnus, Victorgrigas, VincentXP38, Visualerror, Vodak, VolatileChemical,Voyage2mail, Voyaging, W.S. Burton, WHOISBEHINDTHIS?, Waggers, Walden, Warrenking, Waseem7, Wavelength, Wayne Miller, Wayward, Wbcuswyvs, Werdan7, Westvoja, Whiskers,Wik, Wiki alf, WikiMan22, Wikiklrsc, Wildman7856, Wile E. Heresiarch, Willeglinton, Wimdit, Wimt, Wingspeed, Winston365, Wintran, Wiwimu, Wmahan, Wolfdog, Wronkiew, Xerosoft,Xezbeth, YUL89YYZ, Yahia.barie, Ymirfrostgiant, Yoshi348, Yosri, Zachorious, Zahakiel, Zazaban, Zeimusu, Zeldamaster3, ZippyKid, Zomic13, Zondor, õúùû ü†°†ú†¢, 1522 anonymousedits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 36

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Poseidon.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poseidon.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported éContributors: Bibi Saint-Pol,Conscious, Jastrow, Marsyas, Vachou31, Vlad2i, 2 anonymous editsImage:Great Mosque of DjennÅ 3.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Mosque_of_Djennã_3.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: JackyR, Nk, Wikiacc, 1anonymous editsImage:Codexaureus 25.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Codexaureus_25.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: AndreasPraefcke, Batchheizer, CristianChirita,ShakkoImage:William Hogarth 006.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Hogarth_006.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: AndreasPraefcke, Anne97432, Beria,Dcoetzee, Ecummenic, FA2010, Frank C. Mçller, GeeJo, Ham, Mattes, Okki, Pitke, Shakko, Thuresson, 1 anonymous editsImage:Mandel zoom 00 mandelbrot set.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mandel_zoom_00_mandelbrot_set.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike3.0 Unported éContributors: User:WolfgangbeyerFile:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 éContributors:Eric RolphFile:Siproeta epaphus Galawebdesign.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siproeta_epaphus_Galawebdesign.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0éContributors: GalawebdesignFile:Rainbow lorikeet.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rainbow_lorikeet.jpg éLicense: unknown éContributors: User:Fir0002File:Art-portrait-collage 2.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Art-portrait-collage_2.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 éContributors:User:Husky and h3m3ls, Mischa de Muynck and NielsFile:Wang Ximeng - A Thousand Li of River (Bridge).jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wang_Ximeng_-_A_Thousand_Li_of_River_(Bridge).jpg éLicense: PublicDomain éContributors: Wang Ximeng (Ä Å Ç )File:Magnify-clip.png éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png éLicense: GNU Free Documentation License éContributors: User:Erasoft24File:Teke bottle.JPG éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teke_bottle.JPG éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 éContributors: Cliff from I now live in Arlington, VA(Outside Washington DC), USAFile:VenusWillendorf.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VenusWillendorf.jpg éLicense: GNU Free Documentation License éContributors: Photo taken byde:Benutzer:Plp at the Naturhistorisches Museum WienFile:lascaux2.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lascaux2.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: Cro-Magnon peoplesFile:Tugra Mahmuds II.gif éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif éLicense: GNU Free Documentation License éContributors: BD2412, Baba66,BomBom, Diego pmc, Gryffindor, Micha L. Rieser, Saperaud, Selket, September9, 2 anonymous editsFile:Kairouan Mosque Stitched Panorama.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan_Mosque_Stitched_Panorama.jpg éLicense: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.0 éContributors: MAREK SZAREJKO from CLONMEL, IRELAND - POLANDFile:Ma Lin 003.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ma_Lin_003.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: PericlesofAthens, Sven Manguard, Tsui, ZoloFile:MonaLisa sfumato.jpeg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MonaLisa_sfumato.jpeg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: Czarnoglowa, Dbenbenn, Gaf.arq,Infrogmation, Maksim, Miniwark, OldakQuill, Oxxo, Pymouss, Schaengel89, Wknight94, 11 anonymous editsFile:Great Wave off Kanagawa2.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: Berrucomons,Calliopejen1, Durova, JMCC1, Joku Janne, Justass, Maedin, Manuelt15, Nanae, Simonizer, Sushiya, Takabeg, Tappinen, Uhanu, UpstateNYer, Was a bee, ZoloImage:Cognition-Libido.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cognition-Libido.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 éContributors: R. GopakumarFile:Michelangelo Buonarroti 017.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michelangelo_Buonarroti_017.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: Andreagrossmann,AndreasPraefcke, Barosaul, Butko, EDUCA33E, G.dallorto, Jastrow, Klare Kante, Mattes, SailkoFile:Aboriginal holllow log tomb.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aboriginal_holllow_log_tomb.jpg éLicense: GNU Free Documentation License éContributors:Docu, Fir0002, Multichill, Verica Atrebatum, 1 anonymous editsFile:Transition 1880.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transition_1880.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: Unknown Navajo weaver, pre-1889File:B Escorial 93v.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:B_Escorial_93v.jpg éLicense: Public Domain éContributors: Claveyrolas MichelFile:Graffiti Panorama rome.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Graffiti_Panorama_rome.jpg éLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 UnportedéContributors: Alterego, Duesentrieb, IIVQ, Mattes, Nordelch, Pomeranian, SimisaFile:ThÅodore GÅricault, Le Radeau de la MÅduse.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thãodore_Gãricault,_Le_Radeau_de_la_Mãduse.jpg éLicense: Public DomainéContributors: David Fuchs, GerardM, Lithoderm, MegaMatic, Neurolysis, Paris 16, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), ZoloFile:Chateau-de-versailles-cour.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chateau-de-versailles-cour.jpg éLicense: Free Art License éContributors: HarryFile:BeuysAchberg78.jpg éSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BeuysAchberg78.jpg éLicense: GNU Free Documentation License éContributors: Rainer Rappmannwww.fiu-verlag.com

License 37

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/