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Advances in Environmental Biology, 8(10) June 2014, Pages: 68-86

AENSI Journals

Advances in Environmental Biology ISSN:1995-0756 EISSN: 1998-1066

Journal home page: http://www.aensiweb.com/aeb.html

Corresponding Author: Akintola A. I, Department of Earth Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria.

Tel:+2348033511485. E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

Geology And Geochemical Analysis Of Stream Sediments And Soil Samples Of

Ijero Ekiti And Its Environs Southwestern Nigeria. 1Akintola A.I,

2Bankole S.I,

1Ikhane P.R And

1Salami O.O

1Department Of Earth Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria. 2Geosciences Department University Of Lagos, Akoka Lagos, Nigeria. A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:

Received 25 April 2014 Received in revised form 20 May

2014

Accepted 25 May 2014 Available online 22 June 2014

Key words:

Spectrometry, Mineralogy, Biotite,

Opaque, geochemical

The geology and geochemical analysis of stream sediments was carried out around

Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria with a view to identify the rock units within the study area, their mineralogical appraisal and to determine the concentration, distribution of major

and trace elements in stream sediments and soil samples of the area under investigation.

The geology of the area mapped consist of three rock types namely banded gneiss, granite gneiss with pegmatite intruding into the older lithologies of rock deposits

within the study area. Ten (10) rock samples were selected for thin section, which was

then subjected to petro graphic studies. The thin section studies reveals quartz, plagioclase, microcline, biotite, and opaque minerals as the main mineral assemblages.

Seven stream sediments, three soil samples were also collected for determination of all

possible elements using ICP- MS (Inductively coupled plasma mass Spectrometry) analytical method. The result of the geochemical analysis shows that the major oxides

includes Fe₂O₃, P₂O₅, MgO , Ti₂O, Al₂O₃ , Na₂O, and K₂O. Iron oxide [ Fe₂O₃] ranges from (1.62-8.61%) with a mean value of 5.1390%, Al₂O₃ ranges from(0.83-5.4%) with a mean value of (3.2318%) and MgO ranges from (0.13-0.51%) with a

mean value (0.3022%). Trace elements analyzed for include [Mo], [Cu], [Pb] , [Zn],

[Ni], [Co], [Mn], [As], [Sr], [V], [Cr], [Rb], [Zr], [Y] and [Be]. Manganese [Mn] range from (311.00ppm - 3269ppm) with a mean value (1063.2000ppm), [Cr] range from

(20.30ppm -76.70ppm) with mean value of (47.7000ppm) while Rubidium [Rb] also

range from (13.20ppm - 86.60ppm) with a mean value of (40.8800ppm). This could be attributed to its underlying geology and rock types. The stream sediment samples taken

at location 2 have the highest level of cumulative metal enrichment (0.83%) while the

stream sediment samples taken at location1 has the least value of (0.19%). It can

therefore be inferred that from various geochemical parameters used, there are

indications that the stream sediments in the study area has low contamination factor

(Cf<1). Indicating low contamination with respect to [Mo], [Cu], [Pb] , [Zn], [Ni], [Co], [Mn], [As], [Sr], [V], [Cr], [Rb], [Zr], [Y] and [Be]. The degree of contamination

is calculated to be 3.50˚. Manganese [Mn] contributed most to the overall degree of

contamination index with a value of 51.4˚.

© 2014 AENSI Publisher All rights reserved.

To Cite This Article: Akintola A.I, Bankole S.I, Ikhane P.R And Salami O.O., Geology And Geochemical Analysis Of Stream Sediments

And Soil Samples Of Ijero Ekiti And Its Environs Southwestern Nigeria. Adv. Environ. Biol., 8(10), 68-86, 2014

INTRODUCTION

Within the last quarter of the last century, there were much interest on environmental pollution and in

particular about geochemical distribution and fate of heavy metals in both water and sediment phases of urban

drainage system. Though significant advances had been made in the developed regions of the world, there are

still increasing concerns about the impacts of urbanization, agricultural, mining and industrial activities on

drainage networks in the developing regions of the world, especially in areas with inadequate land use planning

and proper waste disposal and management systems [1,3,5]. In such developing countries, contaminations of

surface drainage system are mostly related to the consequences of population growth, urbanization, agricultural

activities and development of new industrial zones [11], while uncontrolled direct dumping of domestic waste

and discharge of domestic and industrial sewage water into the urban drainage systems are critical components

of trace and heavy metal contamination [13,12,2,4] especially in areas with lack of strict land-use plan and

environmental protection regulations. Though sediments are said to represent the ultimate sinks for heavy metals

in the environment [8], changing physico-chemical and environ-mental conditions may lead to remobilization

and release of sediment-bound metal pollutants into the water column and consequently into the trophic levels

of the food chain within an aquatic environment with serious health and environmental consequences. The

69 Akintola A. I et al, 2014


environment impact of mining includes erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination

of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In some cases, additional forest

logging is done in the vicinity of mines to increase the available room for the storage debris and soil. Chemicals

like mercury, cyanide, sulphuric acid, arsenic and methyl mercury are used in various stages of mining. Most of

the chemicals are released into nearby water bodies, and are responsible for water pollution. In spite of tailings

(pipes) being used to dispose these chemicals into the water bodies , possibilities of leakage are always there.

When the leaked chemicals slowly percolate through the layers of the Earth, they reach the groundwater and

pollute it. Surface run-off of soil and rock debris, although non-toxic, can be harmful for vegetation of the

surrounding areas. Sometimes the liquid waste that is generated after the metals or minerals have been extracted

is disposed in a mining pit. As the pit gets filled up by mine tailings, they become a stagnant pool of water.

Based on the above background, geochemical assessment of major and trace element profiles of urban drainage

network involving water and bottom sediment samples within Ijero metropolis, SW-Nigeria, are presented and

evaluated in this study with respect to impacts of urban activities on the overall quality of drainage systems

within the metropolis.

This research work is to investigate Mineralogical appraisal of the various rock types through petro

graphical analysis and to study the geochemical assessment of major and trace element profiles of the soil and

stream sediments of the study are with a view to elucidate any form or extent of pollution within the Ijero study

area, Southwestern Nigeria. The overall evaluation is expected to give an insight into vulnerability of urban

drainage networks in a typical developing region in response to poor sanitation and waste disposal facilities and

other anthropogenic activities within the populated urban catchment of a developing country. The study area

include Ikoro and Ijero and it is situated in the North Western part of Ekiti . The two towns lie approximately

between latitude 7048’N to7˚51’N and Longitude 5˚2’E to 5˚5’E. The study area is easily accessible by by

complex road networks of major and minor roads as well as footpath linking one sampling point to the other,

neighboring towns include Idao - Ekiti , Aiyegunle. (Figure. 1). The climate is sub-humid tropical with average

annual rainfall 1348.4mm. The area is well drained the common rivers in the study area include Agbangudu,

Odooye and Awo rivers the drainage pattern is dendritic and the tributary streams take their courses from the

surrounding hills

Fig. 1a: Location and accessibility map of the study area



MATERIALS AND METHODS

Systematic geological mapping and stream sediment sampling of first order streams in other to represent

weathered rocks in the drainage system was carried out ( Figure. 1b), followed by thin section Petrographic

studies of fresh whole rock samples was carried out. Ten stream sediments samples were then analyzed for

major and trace elements using inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometry (ICP-AES), at

ACME Laboratory Vancouver Canada. The geochemical analytical procedure involves addition of 5ml of

Perchloric acid (HClO4), Trioxonitrate (V) HN03 and 15ml Hydrofluoric acid (Hf) to 0.5gm of

sample. The solution was stirred properly and allowed to evaporate to dryness after it was warmed at a low

temperature for some hours. 4ml hydrochloric acid (HCl) was then added to the cooled solution and warmed to

dissolve the salts. The solution was cooled; and then diluted to 50ml with distilled water. The solution is then

introduced into the ICP torch as aqueous - aerosol. The emitted light by the ions in the ICP was converted to an

electrical signal by a photo multiplier in the spectrometer, the intensity of the electrical signal produced by

emitted light from the ions were compared to a standard (a previously measured intensity of a known

concentration of the elements) and the concentration then computed.

Fig. 1b: Map showing the sampling point of the study area

Geological setting, field description and Petrography:

Nigeria is underlain by Precambrian basement complex rocks, younger granites of Jurassic age and

Cretaceous to Recent sediments. The basement rocks occupy about half of the land mass of the country, and is a

part of the Pan-African mobile belt lying between the West African and Congo cratons [6]. There are however

contrasting documentation of the evolution of the basement rocks. However loosely, the basement is grouped

into three major groups lithostratigraphically viz: the Migmatite-Gneiss Quartzite Complex: comprising biotite

and biotite hornblende gneisses, quartzites and quartz schist. Schist Belts, comprising paraschists and meta

igneous rocks, which include schists, amphibolites, amphibole schists, talcose rocks, epidote rocks, marble and

calc-silicate rocks. They are mainly N-S to NNE-SSW trending belts of low grade supracrustal (and minor

volcanic) assemblages. Other secondary rocks used in delineating them are carbonates, calc gneiss and banded

iron formation (BIF) and Older granites, which include granite, granodiorite, diorite charnockite, pegmatites and

aplites. The study area is located within Ikoro and Ijero Ekiti, its geology consists of Precambrian rocks that are

typical of Basement Complex of Nigeria and these rocks includes the following three lithologies:[i] Pegmatite

[ii]Banded Gneiss and [iii] Granite Gneiss (Fig 2). The Pegmatite of Ijero area and its environs intrude the

older lithologies of the rocks of the study area particularly the granite gneiss (Figure. 2), and this pegmatite's

trend in the NW-SE direction. They are coarse grained rock with generally milky white color. The main mineral

assemblage under the transmitted light includes microcline, quartz, biotite plagioclase, mica, opaque minerals.



Plagioclase ranges from (23.8% -45.6%) Microcline often intergrown graphically and are sometimes perthitic

with albite occurring as patchy perthite. It however displays cross hatch twinning. Quartz ranges between

(16.3% - 30.6%) it occurs as cloudy anhedral with wavy extinction and characteristic weak birefringence, while

Biotite occur as fine dark brown platy grains (Figure. 3). The Granite Gneiss of the Ijero study area occupy

about 90% of the study area (Figure. 2) they are metamorphosed igneous rocks that displays compositional

banding where the minerals are arranged into bands of more mafic minerals and more felsic minerals and it

occupies a major portion of the study area under the thin section the recrystallized fine grained quartz covers the

surface of microcline phenocryst as overgrowths this is a common phenomenon in all the granite gneisses. Their

main mineral assemblages include plagioclase, microcline, quartz and biotite (Figure. 4). The Banded gneiss of

the Ijero study area occurs as a massive rock consisting of alternating bands of felsic and mafic minerals

assemblages the dark band includes Biotite and other ferromagnesian mineral while the felsic band comprises of

plagioclase feldspars and quartz, it occupies about 10% of the mapped area ( Figure. 2). The petrographic study

show that the plagioclase, microcline, quartz, biotite and mica are the main mineral constituents. Under the

petro logical microscope, Plagioclase is colorless in plane polarized, but exhibit 1st order grey color under cross

nicols. It can be distinguished from other type of feldspars because of its polysynthetic twinning visible in

crystals. Plagioclase has a moderate relief and more percentage. Microcline often intergrown graphically , they

are sometimes perthitic with albite occurring as patchy perthite. It however displays characteristic cross hatch

twinning. Quartz is colorless in plane polarized light, it lacks visible twinning. Quartz under the cross polar

exhibit wavy extinction which is a phenomenon when the stage is rotated ( Figure. 5).

Fig. 2: Geological map of the study area

Fig. 3: Photomicrograph of Pegmatite in transmitted light showing Microcline (M), Plagioclase (PL) Muscovite

(MU) and Quartz (Q).



Bar scale = 20mm Mag.X40

Fig. 4: Photomicrograph of granite gneiss in transmitted light showing Microcline (MC), Plagioclase (PL),

Muscovite (Mu) and Quartz (Q).

Bar scale = 20mm Mag.X40

Fig. 5: Photomicrograph of banded gneiss in transmitted light showing Microcline (MC), Plagioclase (PL),

Biotite (B) and Quartz (Q)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The analytical results for the Major elements are presented in Tables1 [a-b] below. Table.1a shows the

major oxides composition and Table.1b shows the statistical summary of major oxides composition with respect

to their average shale content respectively. From the analytical data and the various statistical plots, Iron oxide

[Fe2O3] range from (1.62% - 8.61%) with a mean value of 5.1390% (Tables1[a-b]). The geochemical map of

[Fe2O3] shows that it is more concentrated in the NE of the study area (Figure. 6 [i] ). Phosphorus oxide [P2O5]

range from (0.064% - 0.374%). P2O5 in all location are low in the study area with an average mean value of



(0.1373%) (Tables1[a-b]). It is more concentrated in the western portion of the study area and in other areas of

the map. (Fig 7 [iv]). Magnesium oxide [MgO] range between (0.132% - 0.512%) with a mean value of

0.08933% (Tables1[a-b]).The geochemical map shows more concentration in the NE area and low

concentration in the southern part of the study area (figure. 6 [iii]). [TiO₂] range from (0.058% - 0.222%) with a

mean value of 0.1225% (Tables1[a-b]), it is usually linked to Ti-bearing minerals like illmenite, the

geochemical maps shows more concentration in the NE area and low concentration in the southern part of the

study area (figure. 7[i]). Aluminum oxide [Al2O3] range from (0.832% - 5.538%) with a mean value of 3.2318%

(Tables 1[a-b] ); Its concentration on the geochemical map is in the NE area of the study area (Fig 7[ii]). Sodium

oxide [Na2O] range from (0.0013% - 0.010%)with a mean value of 0.0083%, the geochemical map of [Na2O]

shows that it is more concentrated in the Eastern portion of the study area (Figure. 7[iii]). Pottasium oxide [K2O]

range from (0.096% - 0.409%). K2O in all location are low in the study area with an average mean value of

(0.2301%) (Tables1[a-b]); It is more concentrated in the NE of the study area and in other areas of the map

(Figure. 6[ii]). The Line diagram show the distribution of major oxides composition within the Ijero study area

with [Na2O] having its highest concentration at Location 2 of the study area, [MgO] have its highest

concentration at Location 3 of the study area, [Al2O3] have its highest concentration at Location 9, Potassium

oxide [K2O] have its highest concentration at Location 2, [TiO2] have its highest concentration at Location 9

while [Fe2O3] have its highest concentration at Location 8 respectively ( Figure 8 [a-f]). There is a very strong

correlation between Ti-Fe-Mg, Al-Fe, K-Fe-Mg-Ti-Al with ‘r’ values 0.785, 0.750, 0.862, 0.749, 0.945, 0.780,

0.704 respectively, indicating that they are governed by the same geochemical factors and are from the same

source[Table. 1c and Figure. 8 (h)], in addition, it was also noticed that there is a strong correlation between, Al-

Mg-Ti , Mg-Fe with ‘r’ values of 0.562, 0.637,0.647 respectively, which is indicative of the same origin and are

controlled by the same geochemical factors. The analytical results for the trace element geochemistry of the

study area are presented in the (Table. 2 [ a-b]). Table. 2a, shows the trace elements concentrations in stream

sediments and soils of Ijero study area, Table. 2b, shows the statistical summary of the trace element

concentration in stream sediments and soil of the study area with respect to their average shale content

respectively. from the analytical data and various statistical plots, Molybdenum [Mo] has concentrations that

range from 0.16ppm - 2.10ppm, with an average mean value of 0.76ppm. Cupper [Cu] has concentrations that

range from 22.14ppm - 98.33ppm and has the highest concentration value at Location 10, with an average mean

value of 48.89ppm (Figure. 10a). Lead [Pb] range in concentration from 9.30ppm - 67.33 ppm with an average

value of 26.20ppm, the highest concentration value for lead was found at Location 2 of the study area. Zinc [Zn]

also have values that range from 25.30ppm - 203ppm with an average value of 74.58ppm in the study area.

Nickel [Ni] has concentration value that range from 6.30ppm - 25.00ppm with an average value of 15.75ppm in

addition to this, Cobalt [Co] has values that range from 6.80ppm - 30.20ppm with an average of 17.64ppm.

Manganese [Mn] show a range in concentration from 311.00ppm - 3269.00ppm with an average value of

1063.20ppm, and the highest value of this element was found at the Location 3 of the Ijero study area (Figure

10a). Arsenic [As], Strontium [Sr], Vanadium [ V], Zircon [Zr] and Yttrium [Y] has average mean values of

2.00ppm, 21.95ppm, 66.50ppm, 1.79 ppm and 10.14ppm respectively. Chromium [Cr] also range from

20.30ppm - 76.70ppm, with an average value of 47.70ppm while Rubidium [Rb] range from 13.20ppm -

86.60ppm with an average of 40.88ppm and the highest concentration of this element was found at the

Location 9 of the study area. The 2D and 3D geochemical maps of [Mo], [Cu], [Pb], [Zn], [Ni], [Co],[Mn],

[Ar], [Sr], [V], [Zr], [Y], [Cr] and [Rb] are shown in (Figures. 9[a-e]). A very strong correlation exist between

the following elements Zn-Pb , Co-Ni, Mn-Ni-Co, V-Cu-Ni-Co, Cr-Cu-Ni-Co-V, Rb-Ni-Co-V, Zr-Mo, Be-As

with‘r’ values of 0.967, 0.961, 0.772, 0.704, 0.820, 0.912, 0.867, 0.859, 0.891, 0.827, 0.923, 0.867, 0.927,

0.790, 0.795, 0.874 respectively, indicating that they are governed by the same geochemical factors and are

from the source (Table 3a). Also Pb-Mo, Ni-Cu, Co-Co, Sr-Pb, V-Mn, Cr-Mo-Zr-Mn, Rb-Mn-Cr, Zr-As-V-Cr,

Y-Ni-Co-V-Rb, Be-Ni-V-Rb with ‘r’ values of 0.616, 0.697, 0.634, 0.523, 0.580, 0.611, 0.516, 0.692, 0.626,

0.535, 0.568,0.511, 0.641, 0.577, 0.686, 0.545, 0.588, 0.684, respectively shows strong correlation indicative of

common origin (Figure. 10b). The determination of the environmental implication of trace element distribution

in stream sediment of the Ijero study area was achieved using the following geochemical parameters: (i) Metal

ratio (ii) Geo- accumulation index (iii) Cumulative metal enrichment (iv) Contamination factor and degree of

contamination. [i]: Metal ratio is usually expressed with respect to average shale content to qualify the degree

of pollution ( Forstner and Wittman 1983). The computed values of metal ratio for selected trace elements

within the study area is shown in (Table. 3b), while (figure 10c) shows the bar chart representing metal ratio of

trace element in the study area. It is calculated thus;

Cn/Cb

Where Cn – obtained concentration in (ppm)

Cb – Average shale concentration in (ppm).

The metal ratio of the selected trace element within the study area is as follows: Ni, As, Sr, V, Zr, Y have

values less than1 in all locations, which means that there is depletion of these elements in the study area. Mo,



Cu, Pb, Zn, Co, Mn, Cr, Rb and Be have values that are greater than 1 which means there is an enrichment of

these elements in the study area.

[ii]: Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) was originally defined by Muller (1969) for metal concentrations in the

<2μm fraction and developed for the global standard shale values which is expressed as It is expressed as:

(Igeo= log2(Cn/1.5*Bn)

Where Cn= measured concentration of the element

Bn=Geochemical background value

1.5= a constant allowed for natural fluctuation in the contents of a given substance in the environment and

very small anthropogenic influences.

There are six classes of geo-accumulation index these are shown in (Table. 3c) while (Table. 3d) show the

Geo- accumulating index of selected trace element in Stream Sediment and soils of the study area. From the box

plot (figure. 10d), the stream sediments of the study area falls into the class of uncontaminated to moderately

contaminated with respect to Molybdenum, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese, Arsenic,

Strontium, Vanadium, Chromium, Rubidium, Zirconium, Yttrium and Beryllium

[iii]. Cumulative metal enrichment is the cumulative representation of elements in stream sediments of the

study area. It was calculated for five (5) elements (Copper, Lead, Zinc, Nickel, Chromium) and for each of the

element, the average shale is brought back to 100 making it a total of 500 for the five (5) elements in each

sample representing the cumulative effect of trace elements introduced into the stream sediments. The computed

result is presented in (Table. 3e) while (figure. 10e) shows the bar chart of the cumulative effect of the five (5)

elements. Location 2 has the highest level of trace elemental input with a value of 0.83, while location 1 has the

least cumulative enrichment with a value of 0.19.

[iv]: Contamination factor and degree of contamination is the assessment of sediment contamination

carried out with a view of using the contamination factor and degree of contamination parameters (Table. 3f).

This enables an assessment of sediment through reference of the concentration of the surface to background

values or average shale content. [9].

The formular is given thus;

Cf’= C0-1/Mn

Where C0-1 is the obtained mean concentration in (ppm) values

Mn is the average shale content of the elements.

The contamination factor is a single element index. The sum of the contamination factors for all elements

examined represents the degree of contamination of the environment and four classes are recognized (Table. 3f).

Contamination degree is the sum total of all contamination factors of all metals examined. It gives the overall

stream sediment contamination. Based on the contamination factor (Cf), the stream sediments and soils of the

Ijero study area (figure. 10f) has low contamination factor (Cf<1) indicating low contamination with respect to :

Mo, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, As, Sr, V, Cr, Rb, Zr, Y; also moderate contamination factor (1<Cf<6) was noticed

indicating moderate contamination with respect to [Pb] and [Mn]. The degree of contamination for the mean

elemental concentration in the stream sediment is 8.75, which falls in the class 8≤Cdeg<16, (Moderate degree of

contamination) it is observed that (Zn) contributed most to the overall degree of contamination index (figure.10

g) with a value of 53.8, Mn-51.4, Cu-39.9, Co-36.2, Zn-33.7, Rb-33.3, Be-25.9, V-20.9, Cr-19.3, Mo-15.6, Y-

11.5, As-8.2, Ni-7.8, Sr-2.0, Zr -0.37.

Table 1a: Major oxides composition of stream sediments in the study area (%).

Locations Fe₂O₃% P₂O₅% MgO% TiO₂% Al₂O₃% Na₂O% K₂O%

L1 1.62 0.083 0.132 0.058 0.832 0.010 0.096

L2 6.84 0.374 0.429 0.139 4.498 0.017 0.409

L3 6.65 0.186 0.512 0.142 3.912 0.0067 0.349

L4 4.16 0.126 0.215 0.068 1.928 0.0094 0.145

L5 5.25 0.117 0.165 0.108 1.625 0.0067 0.096

L6 2.98 0.064 0.297 0.132 1.436 0.0067 0.193

L7 3.16 0.112 0.281 0.082 2.174 0.0067 0.181

L8 8.61 0.121 0.363 0.222 5.538 0.0013 0.325

L9 6.87 0.089 0.479 0.207 5.216 0.0107 0.374

L10 5.25 0.101 0.149 0.067 5.159 0.0080 0.133

Table 1b: summary of major oxides composition in stream sediments.

Element/Oxides Number Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Ranges(%)

Fe₂O₃ 10 1.62 8.61 5.1390 2.16448 6.99

P₂O5 10 0.06 0.37 0.1373 0.08933 0.31

MgO 10 0.30 10 0.13 0.13920 0.38

TiO₂ 10 0.06 0.22 0.1225 0.05759 0.16

Al₂O₃ 10 0.83 5.54 3.2318 1.80801 4.71

Na₂O 10 0.008 0.02 0.0083 0.00401 0.02

K₂O 10 0.10 0.41 0.2301 0.12123 0.31



Table 1c: Correlation matrix for major oxides

Element Fe₂O₃% P₂O5% MgO% TiO₂% Al₂O₃% Na₂O% k₂O%

Fe₂O₃% 1

P₂O5% 0.425 1

MgO% 0.647 0.448 1

TiO₂% 0.786 0.128 0.751 1

Al₂O₃% 0.862 0.320 0.562 0.640 1

Na₂O% -0.108 0.644 0.137 -0.222 -0.006 1

K₂O% 0.749 0.596 0.945 0.782 0.705 0.253 1

Table 2a: Trace elements concentration in stream sediment and soil samples.

Mo Cu Pb Zn Ni Co Mn As Sr V Cr Rb Zr Y Be

PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM PPM

0.16 28.16 9.3 32.2 6.3 6.8 311 0.2 8.9 28 20.3 13.2 0.8 4.57 0.4

0.72 58.77 67.33 203.2 23.1 24.4 1246 1.5 31.8 95 61.1 51.4 1.8 11.91 1.6

1 51.81 29.73 89.3 24.9 24.5 3269 2 26.3 84 69.6 56.1 2.2 10.22 2.1

0.3 29.05 14.09 52 12.1 14.5 517 1 12.2 31 31 32.2 1.1 6.76 2.1

2.01 51.79 58.03 132.6 8.8 10.6 564 0.4 28.7 57 53 14 2.6 9.4 0.5

0.37 58.85 14.25 41.4 11.3 13.3 504 0.3 39.2 44 41 23 1.5 6.63 0.6

0.34 22.14 16.85 41.6 9.4 14.8 763 0.3 22 37 24.4 35.6 1.3 15.16 1.1

1.12 98.33 19.38 72.3 25 25.6 1295 3.6 15.5 121 76.7 55.3 2.3 12.06 3.3

0.83 59.07 19.29 55.9 24.4 30.2 1537 2.3 23.1 104 64.6 86.6 1.6 14.17 3.1

0.75 30.99 13.79 25.3 12.2 11.7 626 8.4 11.8 64 35.3 41.4 2.7 10.49 4.2

Table 2b: Summary of trace elements concentration in stream sediment and soil samples

Elements N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Ranges

Mo 10 0.16 2.01 0.7600 0.54328 1.85

Cu 10 22.14 98.33 48.8960 22.65938 76.19

Pb 10 9.30 67.33 26.2040 20.07774 58.03

Zn 10 25.30 203.20 74.5800 55.17978 177.9

Ni 10 6.30 25.00 15.7500 7.61420 18.7

Co 10 6.80 30.20 17.6400 7.83854 23.4

Mn 10 311.00 3269.00 1063.2000 874.61075 2958

As 10 0.20 8.40 2.0000 2.50422 8.2

Sr 10 8.90 39.20 21.9500 9.83410 30.3

V 10 28.00 121.00 66.5000 32.84729 93

Cr 10 20.30 76.70 47.7000 19.95846 56.4

Rb 10 13.20 86.60 40.8800 22.49068 73.4

Zr 10 0.80 2.70 1.7900 0.64369 1.9

Y 10 4.57 15.16 10.1370 3.39454 10.59

Be 10 0.40 4.20 1.9000 1.30809 3.8

Table 3a: Correlation matrix of trace elements in soil samples and stream sediments.


Mo 1

Cu 0.465 1

Pb 0.616 0.255 1

Zn 0.489 0.350 0.967 1

Ni 0.240 0.697 0.255 0.399 1

Co 0.188 0.634 0.219 0.352 0.961 1

Mn 0.249 0.335 0.182 0.258 0.772 0.704 1

As 0.120 0.086 -0.188 -0.217 0.240 0.120 0.090 1

Sr 0.260 0.318 0.523 0.495 0.198 0.244 0.220 -0.392 1

V 0.461 0.820 0.330 0.418 0.912 0.867 0.580 0.374 0.161 1

Cr 0.611 0.859 0.444 0.516 0.891 0.827 0.692 0.164 0.354 0.923 1

Rb 0.071 0.425 0.011 0.111 0.867 0.927 0.626 0.347 0.040 0.790 0.659 1

Zr 0.795 0.419 0.407 0.298 0.325 0.198 0.308 0.626 0.162 0.535 0.568 0.191 1

Y 0.250 0.229 0.219 0.209 0.511 0.641 0.358 0.231 0.156 0.577 0.421 0.686 0.325 1

Be 0.082 0.260 -0.240 -0.196 0.545 0.491 0.287 0.874 -0.409 0.588 0.385 0.684 0.480 0.427 1

Table 3b: Metal Ratio of Trace Element in the Study Area

Sample

Location

Mo

Cu

Pb

Zn

Ni

Co

Mn

As

L1 0.08 0.56 0.46 0.35 0.07 0.34 0.36 0.02

L2 0.36 1.17 3.36 2.25 0.28 1.22 1.46 0.15

L3 0.5 1.03 1.48 0.99 0.31 1.22 3.84 0.2

L4 0.15 0.58 0.70 0.57 0.15 0.72 0.60 0.1

L5 1.005 1.03 2.90 1.47 0.11 0.53 0.66 0.04

L6 0.18 1.17 0.71 0.46 0.14 0.66 0.59 0.03

L7 0.17 0.44 0.84 0.46 0.11 0.74 0.89 0.03

L8 0.56 1.96 0.96 0.80 0.31 1.28 1.52 0.36

L9 0.41 1.18 0.96 0.62 0.30 1.51 1.80 0.23

L10 0.37 0.61 0.68 0.28 0.15 0.58 0.73 0.84



Table 3b: Continued

Sample Location

Sr

V

Cr

Rb

Zr

Y

Be

L1 0.02 0.21 .0.20 0.26 0.004 0.13 0.13

L2 0.07 0.73 0.61 0.51 0.01 0.34 0.53

L3 0.06 0.64 0.69 0.64 0.02 0.29 0.7

L4 0.03 0.23 0.31 0.28 0.006 0.19 0.7

L5 0.07 0.43 0.57 0.28 0.014 0.26 0.16

L6 0.09 0.33 0.44 0.46 0.008 0.18 0.2

L7 0.05 0.28 0.37 0.71 0.007 0.43 0.36

L8 0.038 0.93 1.21 1.10 0.012 0.34 1.1

L9 0.057 0.8 1.04 1.73 0.008 0.40 1.03

L10 0.02 0.49 0.64 0.82 0.01 0.29 1.4

Table 3c: Geo-accumlation index classes

CLASSES RANGES INDICATION/WATER QUALITTY

0 Igeo<o Practically uncontaminated

1 0<Igeo<1 Uncontaminated to moderately contaminated

2 1<Igeo<2 Moderately contaminated

3 2<Igeo<3 Moderately to heavily contaminated

4 3<Igeo<4 Heavily contaminated

5 4<Igeo<5 Heavily to extremely contaminated

6 5<Igeo< Extremely

Table 3d: Geo-accumulation index of Trace Elements in Stream Sediments and soils of the study area.

Sample

Location

Mo

Cu

Pb

Zn

Ni

Co

Mn

As

L1 0.016 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.015 0.068 0.073 0.004

L2 0.072 0.23 0.67 0.45 0.057 0.24 0.29 0.03

L3 0.100 0.20 0.29 0.19 0.062 0.24 0.76 0.04

L4 0.030 0.11 0.14 0.12 0.030 0.14 0.12 0.02

L5 0.201 0.23 0.58 0.29 0.022 0.10 0.13 0.008

L6 0.037 0.57 0.14 0.09 0.028 0.13 0.11 0.006

L7 0.034 0.67 0.16 0.09 0.023 0.14 0.18 0.006

L8 0.11 0.07 0.19 0.16 0.062 0.25 0.30 0.007

L9 0.083 0.07 0.19 0.12 0.061 0.30 0.36 0.004

L10 0.075 0.05 0.13 0.05 0.030 0.111 0.14 0.16

Table 3d: Continued

Sample Location

Sr

V

Cr

Rb

Zr

Y

Be

L1 0.004 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.0008 0.002 0.026

L2 0.015 0.14 0.12 0.20 0.0020 0.068 0.107

L3 0.013 0.12 0.13 0.22 0.0024 0.058 0.140

L4 0.006 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.0012 0.038 0.140

L5 0.014 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.0028 0.053 0.033

L6 0.019 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.0016 0.038 0.040

L7 0.011 0.05 0.04 0.14 0.0014 0.086 0.073

L8 0.007 0.18 0.15 0.22 0.0025 0.069 0.220

L9 0.011 0.16 0.12 0.34 0.0078 0.081 0.207

L10 0.005 0.09 0.07 0.16 0.0030 0.060 0.280

Table 3e: Cumulative metal enrichment

Location Total Conc.(%) Background value Cumulative metal enrichment

L1 96.26 500 0.19

L2 413.5 500 0.83

L3 265.34 500 0.53

L4 138.24 500 0.28

L5 304.22 500 0.61

L6 166.8 500 0.33

L7 114.39 500 0.22

L8 291.7 500 0.58

L9 223.26 500 0.45

L10 117.58 500 0.24

Table 3f: Descriptive classes of contamination factor (Hakanson, 1980)

Class Indication

Cf<1 Low contamination factor

1<Cf<3 Moderate contamination factor

3<Cf<6 Considerable contamination factor

6<Cf Very high contamination factor



Table 3g: Degree of contamination of trace elements.

Elements Mean Average Shale

(ppm)

Contamination Factor (cf) Overall degree of (%)

Contamination index

Mo 0.7600 2 0.38 15.63

Cu 48.8960 50 0.97 39.9

Pb 26.2040 20 1.31 53.8

Zn 74.5800 90 0.82 33.7

Ni 15.7500 80 0.19 7.81

Co 17.6400 20 0.88 36.2

Mn 1063.2000 850 1.25 51.4

As 2.000 10 0.2 8.2

Sr 21.9500 400 0.05 2.0

V 66.5000 130 0.51 20.9

Cr 47.7000 100 0.47 19.3

Rb 40.8800 50 0.81 33.3

Zr 1.7900 180 0.009 0.37

TY 10.1370 35 0.28 11.5

Be 1.9000 3 0.63 25.9

Degree of contamination index

8.75

Fig. 6: [i,ii,iii,]: Showing the 2D and 3D geochemical maps for Major elements Oxides of (Fe), (K) and (Mg)

respectively.



Fig. 7: [i,ii,iii,iv]: Showing the 2D and 3D geochemical maps for Major elements Oxides of (Ti), (Al), (Na)

and (P) respectively.

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

1 3 5 7 9

con

cen

trat

ion

Na %

Na %

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

1 3 5 7 9

Mg %

Mg %

0

1

2

3

4

1 3 5 7 9

con

cen

trat

ion

Al %

Al %

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

con

cen

trat

ion

K %

K %



Fig. 8: (a-f) Line diagram showing the distribution of major elements Oxides of [Na],[Mg], [Al], [K], [Ti] and

[Fe] respectively.

Fig. 8(h): Scatter plot for Correlation matrix for major elements.

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

1 3 5 7 9con

cen

trat

ion

Ti %

Ti %0

5

10

1 3 5 7 9con

cen

trat

ion

Fe %

Fe %

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0 5 10

Ti (

%)

Fe (%)

Ti %

Linear (Ti %) 0

2

4

6

8

0 0.2 0.4

Fe (

)%

K (%)

Fe %

Linear (Fe %)

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0 0.1 0.2

K (

%)

Ti (%)

K %

Linear (K %) 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0 0.2 0.4

K (

%)

Mg (%)

Mg %

Linear (Mg %)



Fig. 9a: showing 2D and 3D geochemical maps of [Mo], [Cu] and [Pb] respectively.

Fig. 9b: showing 2D and 3D geochemical maps of [Zn], [Ni] and [Co] respectively.



Fig. 9c: showing 2D and 3D geochemical maps of [Mn], [As] and [Sr] respectively.

Fig. 9d: showing 2D and 3D geochemical maps of [V], [Zr] and [Y] respectively.



Fig. 9e: showing 2D and 3D geochemical maps of [Cr] and [Rb] respectively.

Fig. 10a: Line diagram showing the distributins of various trace elements like [Ni], [Co], [Mn], [Cu], [Pb] and

[Zn], [V] and [Cr] respectively within the study area.

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

1 3 5 7 9

con

cen

trat

ion

location

Ni PPM

Co PPM

Mn PPM 0

100

200

300

1 3 5 7 9

con

cen

trat

ion

location

Line diagram

Cu PPM

Pb PPM

Zn PPM

0

50

100

150

1 3 5 7 9

con

cen

trat

ion

locations

Line Diagram

V PPM

Cr PPM



Fig. 10b: scatter plots for correlation of matrix of trace elements

Fig. 10c: Bar chart showing the metal ratio of trace elements within the study area.

020406080

100120140

0 20 40

V

Co

V PPM

Linear (V PPM) 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 100 200

V

Ni

Ni PPM

Linear (Ni PPM)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

0 20 40

Mn

Ni

Mn PPM

Linear (Mn PPM) 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

0 2 4

Mo

Zr

Mo PPM

Linear (Mo PPM)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5


L1

L2

L3

L4

L5

L6

L7

L8

L9

L10



0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8


Fig. 10d: Box plot of geo-accumulation index for selected trace elements

Fig. 10e: Bar chart showing the cumulative metal enrichment of trace elements in the study area.

Fig. 10f: Bar chart showing contamination factor of trace elements.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10

Cumulative metal enrichment

Cumulative metal enrichment

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4


Series1



Fig. 10g: Pie chart showing the distribution of trace element in Ijero area.

Conclusion:

The geology of the area mapped consist of three rock types namely banded gneiss and granite gneiss with

pegmatite intruding into the older lithologies of rock deposits within the Ijero study area, thin section studies

reveals quartz, plagioclase, microcline, biotite, and opaque minerals as the main mineral constituents. From the

correlation matrix of major elements, a strong correlation exist between Ti-Fe-Mg, Al-Fe, K-Fe-Mg-Ti-Al with

‘r’ values 0.785, 0.750, 0.862, 0.749, 0.945, 0.780, 0.704 respectively which shows a very strong correlation

indicating that they are governed by the same geochemical factors and are from the same source, an appraisal of

the correlation matrix of trace elements shows that a very strong correlation exist between Zn-Pb, Co-Ni, Mn-

Ni-Co, V-Cu-Ni-Co, Cr-Cu-Ni-Co-V, Rb-Ni-Co-V, Zr-Mo, Be-As with ‘r’ values of 0.967, 0.961, 0.772, 0.704,

0.820,0.912, 0.867 ,0.859 ,0.891 ,0.827 ,0.923 , 0.867, 0.927, 0.790, 0.795, 0.874 respectively which indicates

that they are governed by the same geochemical factors and are from the source. Also elements, Pb-Mo, Ni-Cu,

Co-Co, Sr-Pb, V-Mn, Cr-Mo-Zr-Mn, Rb-Mn-Cr, Zr-As-V-Cr, Y-Ni-Co-V-Rb, Be-Ni-V-Rb with ‘r’ values of

0.616, 0.697, 0.634, 0.523, 0.580, 0.611, 0.516, 0.692, 0.626, 0.535, 0.568, 0.511, 0.641, 0.577, 0.686, 0.545,

0.588, 0.684, respectively shows strong correlation indicative of common origin. It could be suggested that the

element distribution patterns and chemical composition of stream sediments and soils of Ijero Ekiti area is

greatly influenced by the local geology of the area. Base on the result obtained from environmental geology, the

sediments has low contamination factor (Cf<1) indicating low contamination with respect to [Mo] , [Cu], [Zn],

[Ni], [Co], [As], [Sr], [V], [Cr], [Rb], [Zr] , [Y ], also moderate contamination factor (1<Cf<6) was noticed

indicating moderate contamination with respect to [Pb] and [Mn]. The degree of contamination for the mean

elemental concentration in the stream sediment is 8.75, which falls in the class 8≤Cdeg<16, (Moderate degree of

contamination) it was observed that (Zn) contributed most to the overall degree of contamination index. The

result has shown a moderate level of pollution and contamination within the study area. It is therefore suggested

that the area should be place under close monitoring and further geochemical research be conducted in the area

to determine future rise in contamination level as a result of un-regulated mining activities going on in this

environment which can pose a threat to the healthy living of the inhabitants of the area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr Mafoluku, chief technologist of the Department of Geology

University of Ibadan for his cooperation during the production of the thin section slides for petro graphic

studies, in addition Dr Okunlola Olugbenga of the Department of Geology University of Ibadan is also highly

appreciated for his numerous support

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