Adolescent mothers’ interactions with their children from infancy through age 5: Continuity, antecedents, and consequences

Keri Weed, Deborah Keogh, John Borkowski, & Thomas L. Whitman

Introduction Numerous research studies have explored individual differences in

parenting behavior, attitudes and styles. Whitman, Borkowski, Keogh, & Weed (2001) adapted Belsky’s (1984) model of parenting to better account for variability in parenting of adolescent mothers. For example, maternal cognitive ability was perceived to play a larger role in variation among adolescent parents, and the role of work a minor role. However, other aspects of parenting research have received less attention. Based on a meta-analysis of studies exploring stability and change in mothering, Holden and Miller (1999) called for greater understanding of interindividual differences in parenting across time, children, and contexts, and of how parents adapt to changing developmental needs. The present study addressed these issues within a sample of adolescent mothers and their children who have been participating in an on-going longitudinal research project, the Notre Dame Adolescent Parenting Project.

The present study had three main goals:

1. to describe changes over the first five years in the interactive behavior of adolescent mothers with their infants,

2. to explain adaptive and maladaptive changes in interactive behavior based on background characteristics and early infant characteristics, and

3. to explore relationships between maternal interactive behavior in infancy and early childhood with cognitive, academic, adaptive, and psychosocial outcomes at ages 8 to 10.

Participants The sample included 92 adolescent mothers and their first-born children who have

participated in the Notre Dame Adolescent Parenting Project (cf. Whitman et al., 2001). Pregnant teens were recruited from school-aged mothers programs and from those seeking care at local health departments.

The average age at the time of childbirth was 17.15, with a range from 14 to 19.

80% were in the 10th through 12th grade, with one participant in the 7th and one in her first year of college.

71% were African-American, 22.8% European-American, and 6.5% Mexican-American.

The majority of the participants were from a working class background, with a range from upper to the lowest class (M = 54.5, Range 15 – 73 on Hollingshead’s 2-factor index).

Birth records indicated that infants were generally healthy at birth with few perinatal complications.

53% of the infants were male.

Measures

Prenatal maternal assessment

Maternal intelligence was measured with the Vocabulary and Block design subtests of the WAIS – Revised (or WISC – Revised if the teen was under 16).

6-month infant measures

Infant intelligence was based on the average of the Mental Development Index and the Psychomotor Development Index of the Bayley scales

Infant temperament was determined by a composite of the means of five subscales (i.e., rhythmicity, approach, adaptability, intensity and mood) of the Carey Infant Temperament Questionnaire.

Maternal Interactive Scale (MIS): 6-months through 5-years

Mothers were videotaped while interacting with their children during each of the data collection periods from 6 months through 5 years of age. When infants were 6 months of age, mothers were instructed to play with 3 toys (a squeeze toy, a rattle, and an infant’s key ring) with their infants for 5 minutes each. At 1-year mother and child played on the floor, surrounded by a variety of age-appropriate toys. During the 3- and 5-year interactions, dyads sat at a table, and were given a simple puzzle, stacking barrels, and either a peg board or shape sorter to play with for 5 minutes. All play episodes were videotaped for later coding with the MIS, an observational assessment that included 10 types of behaviors rated on 6-point Likert-type scales, with higher scores reflecting more positive interactions. Verbal Encouragement (VE) included 3 items from the Maternal Interaction

Scale (MIS) assessing the amount of conversation engaged, mothers’ negative or positive affect, and the amount of praise for the child’s task-related efforts.

Maternal Responsiveness (RS) included 4 items related to reciprocal control, maternal flexibility in adjusting her behavior in response to the child, rate of providing stimulation, and the degree to which she was sensitive and responsive to her child’s emotional state.

Child Outcomes at Ages 8 – 10

All outcomes measures were averaged over the 8 and 10-year assessments.

Child intelligence. Four subtests of the WISC-III (Picture Completion, Information, Block Design, and Vocabulary) measured children’s IQ.

Vocabulary. Children’s receptive vocabulary was measured using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- Revised (PPVT-R; Dunn & Dunn, 1981).

Reading and math. The Total Reading and Math subscales of the Peabody Individual Achievement Test – Revised (Markwardt, 1989) assessd academic outcomes.

Adaptive behavior. Adaptive skills were assessed with the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale, completed through an interview with the mother.

Behavior problems. The Total Problems score from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) was used to assess behavior problems.

Temperament was assessed with the Middle Childhood Temperament Questionnaire (Hegvik, McDevitt & Carey, 1980), a maternal report scale. Scores on five subscales (predictability, approach, adaptability, intensity and mood) were averaged to derive a continuous measure of temperament.

Table 1Intercorrelations, means, and SD among maternal interactive behaviors

Verbal Encouragement (VE) Responsiveness (RS)

MIS6 mo

n = 921 yr

n = 563 yr

n = 785 yr

n = 866 mo

n = 921 yr

n = 563 yr

n = 785 yr

n = 86

VE 1 yr .34**

VE 3 yr .41*** .47***

VE 5 yr .29** .47*** .48***

RS 6 m .76*** .29* .39*** .29**

RS 1 yr .29* .57*** .29** .45*** .31*

RS 3 yr .32** .33* .73*** .42*** .31** .44**

RS 5 yr .18 .31* .32** .72*** .26* .38** .39***

M 3.22 3.38 3.73 3.59 3.50 4.22 4.05 4.11

SD 1.01 1.00 1.32 .93 1.12 1.166 1.40 1.15

Range 1.33 – 6 1.67 – 6 1.33 – 6 1.67 – 6 1.25 – 5.5 1.0 – 6 1.25 – 6 1.75 - 6

Table 2Intercorrelations, means, and SD among composite of 8 and 10 year child competence measures (N = 92)

Child outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Intelligence

2. Vocabulary .70***

3. Reading .64*** .59***

4. Math .69** .49*** .75***

5. Adaptive beh -.26* -.22* -.14

6. Beh problems -.25* .25* -.19 -.26* .64***

7. Temperament .44*** .42*** .45** .40*** -.36*** -.33**

M 87.66 86.34 87.28 88.17 52.30 78.16 3.21

SD 13.48 14.45 16.98 15.60 8.93 8.06 .43

Range 59 – 117 52 – 125 58 – 136 59 – 124 30 – 74.5 55 – 99 2.1 – 4.6

Design and Procedures

The Notre Dame Adolescent Parenting Project is an on-going longitudinal study of over 100 teen mothers and their children. In-depth assessments have been conducted beginning during the prenatal period, and have continued through the adolescent years. Assessments were conducted in university laboratory settings, and mothers were compensated for their participation. Sessions specific to the current study are described below:

Prenatal: Teens completed self-report assessments related to cognitive readiness to parent, psychosocial adjustment, and social support. Standardized assessments of intelligence were administered

6-month: Many of the self-report assessments from the prenatal session were repeated, in addition to Parenting Stress, and maternal reports of infant temperament. Infant development was assessed with the Bayley scales. Mothers were also videotaped while interacting in toy play with their infants for later coding using the Maternal Interaction Scale (MIS). The MIS included ten types of behaviors rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale. Adequate inter-rater reliability was established by students who did not have prior contact with the study.

1, 3, and 5 years: Mothers were observed interacting during toy play with their children. The MIS was used to code interactive behavior.

8 and 10 years: Maternal report was used to assess temperament, adaptive behavior and behavior problems. Cognitive and achievement measures were determined through standardized testing procedures.

Results1. How did the interactive behavior of adolescent mothers and their

children change from 6-months through 5-years?

Repeated measures ANOVA indicated that the quality of interactions generally improved over time.

As infants matured from six-months to one-year of age, teen mothers demonstrated more sensitivity and responsiveness to their needs.

With further cognitive and language developments between one-year and three-years of age, a corresponding increase in VE was observed.

Maternal Interactive Behavior

3.22

3.38

3.73

3.59

3.5

4.22

4.054.11

3

3.25

3.5

3.75

4

4.25

4.5

6 mo 1 yr 3 yr 5 yr

Age of child

VE

RS

2. Were maternal intelligence, early temperament, and early infant development related to adaptive and maladaptive changes in interactive behavior?

Regression analyses evaluated relationships between prenatal maternal I.Q. and infant characteristics to parenting in early childhood after controlling for observed parenting in infancy and for SES.

Changes in VE were related to both maternal intelligence and infant development at 6-months of age.

Only early temperament accounted for significant variance in RS after controlling for early interactive behavior.

Table 3Regression analysis of Verbal Encouragement in early childhood controlling for earlier interactive behavior and SES (N =92)

Verbal Encouragement (VE)B SE B F

Step 1

Early VE interactions .36 .55 15.00***

SES -.02 .01 6.83*

Step 2

Early VE interactions .32 .09 12.67***

SES -.01 .01 3.38

Maternal IQ .10 .04 6.06*

6-mo Bayley .02 .01 6.81*

Note. R2 = .23 for VE Step 1; ΔR2= .11 for Step 2.

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table 4Regression analysis of Responsiveness in early childhood controlling for earlier interactive behavior and SES (N =92)

Responsiveness (RS)B SE B F

Step 1

Early RS interactions .26 .10 6.97**

SES -.01 .01 2.37

Step 2

Early RS interactions .19 .10 3.73

SES -.01 .01 2.69

6-mo temperament -.87 .28 10.02**

Note. R2 = .12 for RS Step 1; ΔR2= .09 for Step 2.

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

3. Were cognitive, academic, adaptive, and psychosocial outcomes at ages 8 and 10 predicted by maternal interactive behavior in infancy and early childhood?

Regression analyses controlling for early maternal and child characteristics, found intellectual ability in middle childhood was predicted by both 6-month and later VE.

Academic and adaptive competencies were predicted by 6-month VE, but not later VE.

RS during early childhood was predictive of later temperament, even after controlling for earlier temperament.

Table 5Standardized beta weights from hierarchical regression analysis of 8 and 10 year child outcomes by 6-month and 3 – 5 year observed Verbal Encouragement (VE)

8 – 10 yrChild outcomes

F1 R2 Prenatal Mat. IQ

6-mo temp

6-mo Bayley

6-mo VE

3 – 5 yr VE

Intelligence 8.76*** .34 .50*** -.10 .01 .24* .22*

Vocabulary 4.97** .23 .35*** -.15 .09 .20 .23*

Reading 4.32** .20 .38*** .13 -.05 .22* .08

Math 5.75*** .25 .39*** .03 -.17 .29** .09

Adaptive behavior 5.59*** .25 .25* -.07 .23* .36*** .17

Behavior problems 3.25* .16 -.17 .28* -.23* -.08 -.13

Temperament 1.94 .10 -.08 .27* -.07 -.19 -.02

1 All df = 5,85

Table 6Standardized beta weights from hierarchical regression analysis of 8 and 10 year child outcomes by early and later observed Responsivity (RS)

8 – 10 yrChild outcomes F1 r2 Mat IQ 6-mo

temp6-mo Bayley

6-mo VE

3 – 5 yrVE

Intelligence 6.64*** .28 .50*** -.10 .01 .09 .15

Vocabulary 3.52** .17 .35*** -.15 .09 .11 .11

Reading 3.43** .18 .38*** .13 -.05 .08 .07

Math 3.76** .18 .39*** .03 -.17 .04 .04

Adaptive beh 4.19** .20 .25* -.07 .23* .24* .18

Beh problems 3.45** .17 -.17 .28* -.23* -.01 -.18

Temperament 2.78* .14 -.08 .27* -.07 .07 -.29*

1 All df = 5,85

Conclusion Models of parenting need to progress to incorporate changes over time in

parenting behavior in response to the changing developmental needs of their children. Our results suggest parenting models also need to integrate different dimensions of maternal interactive behavior over time (Bornstein, 2004). Responsivity may increase earlier in response to infants’ intentional behavior, while improvements in Verbal Encouragement may be delayed until the child has begun to use language. It is unclear to what extent adult mothers, or more experienced mothers, may be more likely than teen mothers to anticipate the developmental needs of their children and to alter their behavior prior to developmental advances.

Longitudinal investigations of parenting emphasize the importance of early interactive behavior for optimal child outcomes. Significant influences remained even after controlling for early maternal and child characteristics. Results provide further support for the value of interventions during the early childhood period.