admission and progression trends in physiotherapy undergraduate education

472

RESEARCH REPORT

Admission and Progression Trends in Physiotherapy Undergraduate Education

Ann Green Jackie Waterfield

Key Words Admissions, undergraduate education, academic progression.

Summary Physiotherapy is now-an all-graduate profession in the UK and Republic of Ireland and the admission policies of undergraduate programmes are influenced by various factors such as the professional body and the institution of affiliation.

The aims of this study were to ascertain the composition of undergraduate programmes in terms of entry qualifications and maturity for the academic years 1990-1 994. A questionnaire was designed to collect data relating to all programmes in the UK and Republic of Ireland. Admissions data were sought, and links were explored between previous academic study and progression through the course and final outcome, ie degree classification (where applicable).

Results from 16 of the 30 programmes in the study show that intake numbers are increasing and progression rates through the programmes are similar for all types of student. Students with non-standard pre-entry qualifications, such as Btec and Access, are no less likely to achieve high degree classifications than those with the standard pre-entry requirements.

The results of this study support the broadening of admission profiles but further work is required to explore whether different pre-entry qualifications influence students’ performance on different elements within the programmes. Outcomes used to measure quality and value for money should take these issues into consideration.

Introduction The aims of this study were to ascertain the composition of undergraduate physiotherapy courses in terms of entry qualifications and maturity for the years 1990-1994 in the United Kingdom (UK) and Republic of Ireland, and to identify the progress of both school leaver (SL) and non-standard entry (NSE) students during the courses, including their final outcome, ie degree classification (where applicable). Therefore a study was designed to explore retrospectively admissions and progression trends in physiotherapy undergraduate education in the early 1990s.

Over the last 15 years physiotherapy education has changed significantly, not least through the fact that in 1992 physiotherapy became an all- graduate profession (Titchen, 1992). All courses are affiliated to universities. The popularity of physiotherapy as a degree can be seen in the high numbers of applicants - 39,603 - t o all

programmes in the UK in 1995, through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS, personal communication). Not only does the physiotherapy course offer a degree, but it also confers a licence to practise with no further training. As a professional qualification it offers a salary, a career, and status that a diploma course did not attract. This may to some extent explain the increase in the profession’s popularity with both standard entrants (SLs with advanced level qualifications) and NSEs (mature students, students from alternative academic routes).

Changes in admissions policies to undergraduate physiotherapy courses are a result of many factors, such as the influence of higher education (HE) policies and recognition by the profession that physiotherapy would be better able to serve and represent clients if it broadened its admissions profile. Regional Health Authorities (RHAs) which commission contracts for physiotherapy education also exert some influence on recruit- ment policies, especially those RHAs which include a penalty clause as part of the contract, in respect of ‘dropout rates’. Continuing development of qualifications such as General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs) is likely also to play some part in the move to change the practice of recruiting students from a predominantly advanced level school background straight on to physiotherapy programmes.

There appears to be no baseline or set of criteria for admission against which prospective students can measure themselves. This causes increasing problems when deciding which mode of pre-entry study will make an applicant more acceptable to the majority of physiotherapy programmes. More- over, content within similarly named modes of study is variable. Although data are held by the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy (CSP) with regard to the admissions profiles of physiotherapy programmes and the progression and final outcome of those students who do gain places on these programmes, they are not readily accessible. This means that advice given to prospective applicants about pre-entry study, in terms of that which would be beneficial to the students and acceptable to the programmes, is either so general as to be unhelpful or so specific that it relates to only one programme. Creating a baseline will benefit both applicants and the profession.

Physiotherapy, September 1997, vol 83, no 9

473

Literature Review Within the health field, interest in previous academic performance (PAP), selection, and progression has centred mainly on medical education, but a number of studies consider physiotherapy and occupational therapy education.

Previous Academic Performance Students’ PAP at ordinary (0) level and advanced (A) level was found to be a significant predictor in a study by Kerr (1985) which compared 23 students from the 1976 intake and 26 students from the 1977 intake on the first BSc(Hons) Phys- iotherapy degree in the UK. All students were between 18 and 23 years old and selection was determined by O-leyel and A-level performance alone. Data from student files and course examination committee forms were subjected to multiple regression analysis. The scores show- ing a highly significant correlation with final score were A-level mean (-0.4160), O-level mean (-0.5378) and year 1 mean (0.6834). However, 61.6% of the variance for the final year score was not explicable by PAP, but attributed to factors such as motivation, aptitude and personality. The work of Bridle (1987) provided similar findings with regard to PAP in relation to occupational therapy (OT) students. The study compared three methods of selecting students from a group of eligible entrants. The first group were randomly selected from the entrants, the second group were those with evidence of PAP and the third group had high interview scores. Students selected on PAP achieved high academic scores throughout their studies in OT. However, Bridle found that there was no significant difference between groups for fieldwork performance. Bridle identified a limitation of the study, in that 75% of applicants were rated favourably a t interview. This relatively homogeneous interview group may have affected the results.

A study a t the University of Leicester, by Montague and Odds (19901, compared PAP of medical students with their performance through the course. A comparison was made between PAP and assessment scores a t all stages of the four- year course. Students’ overall performance in A- level correlated significantly with their performance throughout the medical course, though significance of the correlation decreased as the course progressed. Abdulrazzaq and Qayed (1993) studied 78 medical students in the Faculty of Medicine and Health Science a t the United Arab Emirates University and demonstrated, in common with Montague and Odds (1990), that there was a significant correlation between secondary school grades and cumulative grades in the first two pre-medical years of the course.

Schmalz et al (1990) and Posthuma and Noh (1990) found that PAP was not the best predictor of academic performance. Schmalz e t a2 (1990), who studied allied health and OT students, compared a number of pre-admission criteria for selecting allied health students. Cumulative grade point average (GPA), institution attended, an essay and a mental ability test were compared. They found that for OT the mental ability test, followed by the institution attended, were both better predictors for success at the end of the four-year course than GPA.

Posthuma and Noh‘s (1990) study compared 400 OT students. They divided students into two groups: those selected on PAP and those selected on PAP and interview scores. A further variable was entrance from a previous university course or high school. A 2 x 2 ANOVA revealed no significant difference between the groups academically a t the end of the four years. They did find, however, that university students with high interview scores showed higher scores for competence in the clinical field, as compared t o those from university backgrounds with high PAP. Further- more, the clinical performance of the former group improved to a greater degree over the four years. I t was considered that students with high PAP might not have had the strength in personality characteristics to contribute positively to fieldwork. This finding supports Bridle’s (1987) work with OT students, where those selected on PAP achieved higher academic scores but there was no significant difference in their fieldwork performance.

Kerr (1985) found O-level was a good predictor of academic performance for physiotherapy students, but not necessarily for practical or clinical components. Nonetheless, Montague and Odds (1990) found that O-level score showed a significant correlation with clinical performance, which they attributed to the need for an under- standing of a wide range of subjects both at 0-level and during clinical practice.

Weiss et aZ(l988) found that matriculation scores were an effective predictor throughout medical training, and not only in the pre-clinical period. They studied matriculation, general aptitude, interview and personality tests and found that matriculation predicted both academic and clinical performance. They suggest that matriculation scores capture personality dimensions such as motivation and adjustment to the learning envi- ronment, which are important factors for success in medical training.

Price and Dunne (1990) studied the academic performance of students admitted to medical school after repeating entrance examinations and

Physiotherapy, September 1997, vol83, no 9

474

found that these students as a group were academically weaker throughout the medical course. The issue that students may have to repeat testing for pre-entry requirements because of ill health, personal or family problems was addressed, but data collected on the reasons to which students attributed poor performance indicated that these were essentially temporary (eg late decisions to enter medicine, failure to work during the course, and immaturity) and therefore did not account for the general academic difficulty they demonstrated throughout the course. This finding was confirmed by Montague and Odds (1990), who found that students who retake their A-levels in order to meet entrance requirements of medical school are disadvantaged throughout the entire course. Kerr’s 1985 study showed a high positive correlation between results obtained at the end of year 1 and final scores, indicating that the students who are weaker in the first year will probably perform poorly throughout the course.

Graduates Montague and Odds (1990) found that graduates have a significant academic advantage in the first two years of a medical course, because they have already experienced university education and may have studied the sciences which make up a large part of the first two years. Posthuma and Sommerfreud (1985) found PAP to be the best predictor of academic success for university applicants to an OT course, but a combination of PAP and interview subscores to be the best predictor for high school applicants. Perhaps the distinction is related to the experience of ’‘ university, as suggested by Montague and Odds (1990).

The Present Study A number of variables may act as predictors of success for medical and health care students during their courses. There seems to be agree- ment that PAP is a useful predictor for the pre-clinical element of the course, but this is less clear in relation to the clinical element. Students who have previously undertaken university education, and therefore would be classed as mature, and those who are successful at the first attempt, continue to perform well throughout the course.

This study concentrates on PAP, maturity and progression throughout the physiotherapy course. I t does not allow for consideration of academic and clinical elements separately; however, for all courses the first year can be considered pre- clinical.

Method Due to the sensitive nature of the data required, a survey approach was felt appropriate and a questionnaire consisting of five parts was designed. The first part asked for demographic data and questions relating to normal A-level requirements - both subject and grades - and which Btec, Access and GNVQ courses would be acceptable. Physiotherapy programmes were asked to identify which HE institution they were affiliated to; they were reassured that this fact would remain confidential to the researchers and the CSP Education Department. It was hoped that a complete picture would be gained from this request, and it would also facilitate sending reminders. It was recognised that programmes in Scotland and the Republic of Ireland would take applicants with other qualifications as their standard; this would be taken into account by respondents when filling in their questionnaires and by the researchers when these came to be interpreted.

There were four tables to complete, each relating to different aspects of admissions and progression. The first asked for general information about annual intake for academic years 1990191 - 1993194. The second table sought the number of mature and SL students entering each year with different qualifications. The third table required the numbers of students with those qualifications beginning and completing each year; this would enable any drop-outs or additions to be identified. No reasons for any changes within a cohort were asked for. This table would include some data on students who were progressing through the programmes in the 1990s but had been admitted in the 1980s. The fourth table related to final outcome, ie degree classification, where applicable.

A pilot questionnaire was sent to five OT colleagues involved in admissions and some questions in the first part were restructured for clarity.

The director of education at the CSP wrote a letter of support for the study and this was sent out with the questionnaire and an explanatory letter from the researchers. A pre-paid addressed envelope to facilitate return to the CSP was enclosed for respondents’ convenience. The researchers hoped these factors would encourage a good response. The questionnaire was sent t o all of the 30 undergraduate programmes in the UK and the Republic of Ireland and course tutors were further encour- aged to respond at a principals’ meeting at the CSP headquarters. The questionnaire went out in MarchiApril 1995, reminders were sent over the summer, and the survey closed in 0cto.ber 1995.


475

Data were analysed on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics were generated for intake numbers, entry qualifications and degree classification for each year. Where appropriate, differences in frequency data were analysed by means of a chi-squared test; p < 0.05 was taken as the probability level for statistical significance.

Results Of the 30 questionnaires sent out to physiotherapy programmes, the final number of returned questionnaires (after reminders) was 16. Hence the following results are based on a 53% response rate. Access to information was possible only if anonymity of the responders was guaran- teed, so the results,are presented as an overview of the whole of the UK and the Republic of Ireland. Gender and reasons for cohort changes are outside the scope of this study and the fact that many physiotherapy programmes have only recently become an honours degree must be borne in mind when interpreting the data from this study.

The demographic distribution of the responses covered all areas of the UK and the Republic of Ireland, and responses were from both ‘old’ (pre-1992) and ‘new) (post-1992) universities.

Intake Figures The national picture appears t o be one oE increasing numbers of students being enrolled on to programmes; this can be seen in table 1.

Table 1: Intake 1990-94 based on information from 16 programmes

Academic year % total intake 1990/9 1 199 1/92 1992/93 1993/94

Mature 30.1 28.8 35 35.7

School leavers 69.9 71.2 65 64.3

Access 3.4 6.7 7.6 9.2

Btec 8.6 4.6 7.9 6.2

First degree 11.8 10.5 7.9 5.6

n 480 583 705 727

Caution must be exercised in reviewing these figures as the sample is not inclusive of all programmes and many such programmes are a result of reorganisation of physiotherapy education provision in the UK. However, for some programmes the intake is as low as 24 while for others it is as high as 78.

Non-standard Entrants All but two ofthe programmes in the sample took students whose mode of pre-entry study was

through the Business and Technology Education Council (Btec), Ordinary National Certificate (OND) or Access; the preferred subject areas were health and science with some also considering social care and sports-related courses. The trend shows a general increase in the numbers of NSEs admitted to programmes although further analysis of the data shows the range is from 0-29% for Access and 0-18% for Btec. The average percentage yearly intake for these qualifications can be seen in table 1. At the time of this study only two programmes had recruited GNVQ students.

First Degree Entrants The figures relating to the average percentages per annum can be seen in table 1. From this sample of 16 programmes, 10 took students with a first degree, although details of preferred subject areas were not asked for. The number of first-degree students accepted on to the programmes over the four-year period has more than halved. However, one programme presented a profile of a high percentage of students with first degrees: 4596, 44%, 38% and 25% in their first-year cohorts. This same programme also featured as one which took a substantial number of mature students each year.

Mature Students Table 2 illustrates the mean percentage of mature students recruited for each year and approxi- mately one-third of the annual intake of all students are mature, ie over the age of 21. The percentage remains similar over the four-year period. These mature students are from a variety of academic backgrounds, such as Access, first degree and those with equivalent overseas qualifications. The table shows the range within the 16 programmes of the percentage intake for mature students and the maximum figures indicate that at least one programme per year takes 50% of its cohort from this age group.

Table 2: Mean intake and range, in percentages, of mature students for the total intake for 1990-94 based on information from 16 programmes

Academic year % mature students 1990/9 1 199 1/92 1992/93 1993/94

Mean 30.1 28.8 35 35.7

Minimum 7 9 10 10

Maximum 64 52 54 62

A-level Points for School Leavers Over the four years from which data were requested the average A-level points for students entering the programmes have increased (see


476

Table 3: Average A-level points for 1990-94, based on information from 16 programmes A grade = 10 points, E grade = 2 points

Academic year A-level points 1990/9 1 199 1/92 1992/93 1993/94

Mean 17.9 20.1 21.7 22.6

Minimum 13.9 14 16 16

Maximum 23.74 23.7 26.3 27.6

table 3). The difference between the minimum and maximum points for each year is approxi- mately 10 points. All respondents indicated that at least one science subject is preferred, usually a biological science. While some offer places on a point system (A grade = 10 points, E grade = 2 points) so an offer may be 20 points, the majority specify grades in particular subjects, for example BBC of which the science must be a B grade. General studies are not accepted and most programmes require three A-levels.

Progression The third table of the questionnaire asked for academic details of the students who began and completed each year. No reasons were requested as to why students failed to complete years or why students had joined a year. The loss from the first- year cohort for academic year 1990/91 was an average of 2% and all academic qualifications were represented in this loss. In subsequent academic years covered by this study the loss fell to an average of 1%. Any losses after the first year were negligible.

Classification of Degrees The figure shows the distribution of degree classifications for studer? ts who completed their study between 1990 and 1994. Some of these students would have begun their study in the late 1980s and some programmes did not offer a degree qualification until recently.

For 1990/91 those school leavers with A-levels and the Irish equivalent qualification make up a high proportion of students who attained a first-class honours degree. Other students in this band included mature students with either a first degree or A-levels. The majority of other qualifiers gained lower second honours degrees.

The picture is slightly different in this sample for 1991192, with only one first-class degree awarded, but otherwise the profile remains very much one where the majority of degrees awarded are in the second-class band, both 2.1 and 2.2. This overall profile continues for the following two years with more first-class degrees being awarded, and in

1993194 an Access student gained a first-class degree.

Over the four years 1990-94, from this sample, a total of 505 classified degrees were awarded and only 57 of these were first-class honours. Table 4 shows a cross-tabulation of degree classifications (excluding unclassified degrees) and entry qualifications for the four-year period studied. It will be noted that a slightly higher percentage of entrants with Access, Btec, overseas and ‘other’ qualifications gained either first-class or uppersecond degrees than did entrants with A-levels, Scottish Highers, Irish Leaving Certificates or first degrees, though \his difference was not stat- istically significant (x = 2.615, df = 1, p = 0.106).

Table 4: Total and percentage figures for students who gained classified degrees for 1990-94, based on information from 16 programmes

Degree Access, Btec (school A-level (school leaver classification leaver and mature), and mature) Scottish

overseas, other Highers, Irish Leaving Certificate, first degree

NO % NO %

1 st and upper 2nd 29 69 260 69

Lower 2nd and 3rd 13 31 203 44

Total 42 100 463 100

Discussion The response rate, while not unusual for this type of approach (Oppenheim, 1992), was disap- pointing, particularly in view of the strong support of the CSP for this study. This may reflect the competitive arena that physiotherapy has entered by being part of HE institutions in terms of league tables and contracts; there may therefore have been some reservations about how much information could be made available. We also expected that the information required to complete the questionnaire would be readily accessible in some form, as it would probably also be needed for various boards and reports. This did not appear to be so.

It is difficult to infer anything definite from intake numbers, although the trend in this sample was

Right: Numbers of degrees awarded 1990-1 994, classified by entry qualifications

Key First Lower second [7 Ordinary or

unclassified

Uppersecond 0 Third

SL = school leaver LC = leaving certificate


477

25

- 20 m

15

0

- F e 10 m m 0

7

5

0

h

; 10 II K

N - 5 m . E o F

45

40

35

- 30

II 25

m ul v

K v

2 20 . c\l m m 7 15

10

5

0

40

35

30 h

2

y 20

c\l 25 II c

a m .

15 7

10

5

A-level SL A-level Btec SL Btec Irish LC First degree Other mature mature

A-level SL A-level Access Btec SL Irish LC First Other mature degree

A-level SL A-level Access Btec SL Btec Irish LC First Overseas Other mature mature degree

0 A-level SL A-level Access Btec SL Btec Irish LC Scottish First Overseas

mature mature highers degree


478

increasing. This result must be seen in the light of programmes amalgamating, closing and moving within HE institutions allowing for expansion. Contracting and funding may also play a part in these figures, in addition to the need to generate income by recruiting private students. However, despite what appears as an increase in numbers of those entering study, there is still a national shortfall of qualified physiotherapists of 11.8% of establishment for Great Britain (CSP, 1995).

Average A-level points again show a n increase. Kerr (19851, Montague and Odds (1990) and Abdulrazzaq and Qayed (1993) have suggested t h a t academic performance at A-level could be used as a predictor of pre-clinical and final outcornes of students’ performance. If this is possible, one would expect tha t more students would achieGe first-class and upper second degrees, which is not reflected in this study. However, as this increase in points also relates to students who have yet to complete their programme of‘ study, it will be interesting to find out if more students achieve these classifications in the future. Another issue to consider carefully here is in relation to the high popularity of physiotherapy programmes (UCAS, personal communication). Is the continuing rise in A-level points for entry on to programmes indicative of an increasing quality of applicants or does it reflect the use of A-level points as a means of reducing the number of applicants to a more manageable level? The progress of students entering study from a non-standard background such as Btec is equal to tha t of those with standard entrance pre-requi- sites. It can be seen from the figure that only one Access student has gained a first-class honours degree in the period studied. However, table 4 indicates tha t students with Access and similar qualifications are no less likely to gain either a first-class or upper second degree than students with other qualifications. The literature is inconclusive about the relationship between previous academic study and practicaVclinica1 performance (Bridle, 1987; Weiss et al, 1988; Posthuma and Noh, 1990). This factor may be affecting the final outcome of students’ performance, as both clinical and academic components contribute to the formula for Gnal classification of degrees. Further research is needed to explore the relationship between previous academic study and performance in clinical and practical components of physiotherapy education. This may be the area where performance differences between students with certain modes of pre-entry study can be identified. Possible reasons for students’ performances being different can be speculated on; such as the equiv-

alence o€ NSE qualifications to three A-levels, or tha t some physiotherapy programmes may be examination-oriented whereas pre-entry study had been more coursework-oriented. This is often a reason for students choosing alternative modes of study to A-levels in the first place. Additionally, different delivery styles of the subject matter in modular and/or traditional modes may suit different applicants (Titchen, 1992). Interestingly, Kerr (1985) implied tha t O-levels were a good predictor of future academic performance while Montague and Odds (1990) found them more related to clinical performance, due to the breadth of subject areas. This being the case, i t seems equally possible to suggest tha t the broader approaches of alternative study such as Btec might prepare students better for physiotherapy than study for three A-levels.

Students who already have a first degree make up a relatively small percentage of most programme intakes, but they are well represented in the higher bands of degree classification. This seems to support suggestions that these students have a n advantage over newcomers to HE (Posthuma and Sominerfreud, 1985; Montague and Odds, 1990). Mature students who have come through different modes of study are represented in the classification bands in similar ways to standard entrants - again, this perhaps emphasises that i t is previous HE experience, not maturity or life experience, that influences final outcomes.

From this study it appears tha t physiotherapy education does not demonstrate ‘value added‘ in terms of academic achievement, ie those with a sound track record of previous academic performance continue to perform well regardless of the pre-entry mode. The subjective feelings of programme tutors tha t mature and NSEs contribute in numerous ways to a cohort generally should not be disregarded, even if these ways are as yet unmeasurable.

Conclusion Although the sample in this study is small, only just over 50% of all programmes in the UK and the Republic of Ireland, it does give some insight into the picture of physiotherapy education. It appears that the mode of pre-entry academic study is not the best predictor of academic performance in terms of degree classification. It seems that previous experience in higher education has a greater value than maturity alone. However, the impact of previous academic study on clinical/practical performance is unknown. Overall, it appears tha t physiotherapy programmes recruit students with high academic profiles and tha t the results from this study


479

suggest that NSEs are just as likely to succeed and achieve good degree classifications as those students who enter with more conventional qualifications.

There is encouragement by the CSP, HE and NHS contracting bodies to develop a policy of recruiting a broader profile of entrants on to physiotherapy programmes. This needs t o be balanced with how quality and value for money for funding bodies and HE generally are measured. If this relates to final outcomes then it would appear safer to recruit students with a first degree above students with any other qualification and regardless of age, as the literature suggests that previous HE experience is a known factor for success.

In the literature there is no link between academic performance and job performance (Meredith et al, 1982), so fitness for purpose cannot be estab- lished by academic profile alone. Further work is required to investigate the relationship between previous academic performance and both clinical and academic performance on physiotherapy programmes. Also the expectations and experi- ences of students, academic staff and clinicians need to be studied in order to develop strategies for developing potential in all physiotherapy students regardless of pre-entry study mode.

Acknowledgments School of Health and Social Sciences, Coventry University, for granting research development funds to the project.

The Education Department of the Chartered Society of Physio- therapy for assistance with distribution and collection of the questionnaire and for encouragement and support.

Professor Julius Sim for his advice and help

Authors Ann Green MSc MCSP DipTP and Jackie Waterfield MSc MCSP are senior lecturers in physiotherapy in the School of Health and Social Sciences, Coventry University.

This article was received on August 2, 1996, and accepted on April 11, 1997.

Address for Correspondence Jackie Waterfield MSc MCSP, Senior Lecturer in Physiotherapy, School of Health and Social Sciences, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry C V l 5FB.

References Abdulrazzaq, Y M and Qayed, K I (1993). 'Could final year school grades suffice as a predictor for future performance?' Medical Teacher, 15, 213, 243-252.

Bridle, M J (1987) 'Student selection: A comparison of three methods', Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54,

Chartered Society of Physiotherapy (1 995). Joint National Provi- sional Manpower Initiative, CSP, London.

Kerr, K M (1985). 'Pre-entry requirements and academic performance in primary degree courses in physiotherapy at the Ulster Polytechnic', Physiotherapy, 71, 11, 468-472.

Meredith, K E, Dunlap, M R and Baker, H H (1982). 'Subjective and objective admissions factors as predictors of clinical clerkship performance', Journal of Medical Educafion, 57, 743-751.

Montague, W and Odds, F C (1990). 'Academic selection criteria and subsequent performance', Medical Education, 24, 151 -1 57.

Oppenheim, A N (1 992). Questionnaire Design, lnterviewing and Atfitude Measurement, Pinter Publishers, London, new edn.

Posthuma, B and Noh, S (1990). 'Interview scores and academic grades as selection criteria for admission to an occupational therapy program', Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy,

Posthuma, B and Sommerfreud, J (1985). 'Examination of selection criteria for a program in occupational therapy', American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 39, 441 -445.

Price, J and Dunne, M (1990). 'Academic performance of students admitted after repeating entrance examinations to medical school', Medical Education, 24, 21 2-21 8.

Schmalz, G M, Rahr, R Rand Allen, R M (1990). 'The use of pre- admission data to predict levels of success in selected allied health students', Occupafional Therapy Journal of Research,

Titchen, A (1 992). 'An investigation of physiotherapy students' approaches to their study in UK hospital, polytechnic-based and university-linked schools', Physiotherapy, 78, 7, 490-494.

Weiss, M, Lotan, I, Kedar, H and Ben-Shakhar, G (1988). 'Selecting candidates for a medical school: An evaluation of a selection model based on cognitive and personality predictors', Medical Education, 22, 492-497.

1 13-1 17.

57, 5,285-291.

10,6,367-376.


admission and progression trends in physiotherapy undergraduate education

Documents