“adaptive aristocrats: jean-baptiste marie pierre’s ... · “adaptive aristocrats:...

“Adaptive Aristocrats: Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre’s Abduction of Europa as a Response to Genre

Scenes in 18th Century France”

Megan Wanttie

Wanttie -‐ 1

Painting in 18th century France was controlled by the Académie royale de peinture et de

sculpteur. History painting had been considered the pinnacle of art since the Renaissance and was

the official genre of painting encouraged by the Académie royale. However, beginning in the first

few decades of 1700, genre scenes, scenes of leisure and scenes of domesticity gained popularity

with the French populace because of their decorative quality. The growth of an “inferior” genre

proved to be a threat to the Académie royale’s standards. This paper argues that Jean-Baptiste Marie

Pierre’s The Abduction of Europa reaffirms the place of history painting in response to genre

painting by combining decorative Rococo visual elements in conjunction with grand history painting

themes, of which mythology will be included for the purposes of this paper, to satisfy both the

Academy’s standards of high art and the public’s demand for decorative art while simultaneously

passing a severe message about the role of women in French society. The present paper will first

look to the origins of the myth of the abduction of Europa and the painting, then to a discussion

about the French Académie royale du peintre et du sculpteur, the rise in popularity of genre scenes,

as well as how each topic relates back to the growing presence of women as subjects in eighteenth-

century French art and culture.

Jean Baptiste Marie Pierre’s The

Abduction of Europa (Fig. #1) utilizes

interaction between figures and pastel colors

to tell the mythological story of the

Abduction of Europa. Europa is situated as

the focal point for the piece. She sits directly

in the center of the canvas and is the only

figure to crosscut the horizon line while

Wanttie -‐ 2

nearly every figure in the painting interacts with Europa through eye contact, gestures, or

extended bodies. The figures residing in the water are overlapping and complex which creates an

energetic canvas, allowing the eye to bounce between figures. The depiction of Europa insinuates

that the female body is an object to admire and a thing to be conquered. The horrific notion of a

woman being abducted and raped is turned into a scene of leisure, of play, and of beauty.

Decadence overpowers didacticism as attention is placed on the opulent drapery that gracefully

folds and floats in the air. Pastel colors mask the severity of the sight and leave the viewer

unencumbered by serious deliberation of what is depicted before them.

Pierre’s Abduction of Europa was

commissioned to go alongside François

Boucher’s Abduction of Europa painted in

1747. (Fig. #2) Boucher’s Abduction of Europa

shows the scene directly before Pierre’s

Abduction of Europa with Europa still on the

shore and was initially created for a competition

put on by the Académie royale in 1747 by

Lenormant de Tourneham in order to restore the

place of history painting in French art.1

Boucher’s initial sketch submitted to the

competition still remains but shows a few small

changes in the overall composition of the piece.

(Fig #3) The patronage of Pierre’s Abduction of

Europa, like most other history paintings in the early 18th century, was the sole deciding factor in

Wanttie -‐ 3

the subject matter of the piece. History painting was expensive and took a lot of education to

complete successfully. While the artist had a choice in how the painting was executed, the patron

of Pierre’s Abduction of Europa would have had a very clear picture in his mind when he called

for the painting by the artist.

History paintings necessitated the role of the patron in French art, simultaneously

necessitating the role of the aristocracy and Académie royale. Large-scale works with grand

themes were created for viewing in large halls and public arenas, again financed by the

aristocracy. Genre paintings, on the other hand, were generally painted on a smaller scale due to

convenience and the nature of the scenes that were painted while being small enough to be placed

in private estates out of the reach of the Académie royale. In order to create a history painting,

one needed not only the supplies and technical training, both of which required vast sums of

money based on the considerable size of a standard history painting which was generally

provided by patron, but the artist also needed to be educated about Greco-Roman mythology.

Though much of the information was available at the Académie royale, in 1748, Charles François

Paul Le Normant de Tournehem founded the École royale des élèves protégés that functioned as a

literature and history school for Prix de Rome candidates in order to furnish them with the

appropriate cultural background for their field.2 De Tournehem was the directeur général of the

Bâtiments du Roi and was responsible for building works for the King’s residences and

commissioning work around Paris.3

The French Académie royale de peintre et du sculpteur was founded in 1648 in order to

rid artists of regulatory painters’ guilds and give them the freedom to work on their own for

profit. When the Académie royale was instituted, it elevated the nature of the artist from

craftsman, like a blacksmith or a carpenter, to intellectual. Though many artists had been

Wanttie -‐ 4

asserting their scholarly qualities for ages, the formation of the Académie royale created standards

for the artists to abide by that clearly distinguished them from craftsmen. However, the

advancement did not come without shortcomings. The French royalty and the aristocracy replaced

the set of oppressive guilds but encouraged their own set of beliefs. Women were then further

excluded from proper training based on the idea that women did not possess the intellectual

ability needed to become a proper, scholarly artist. In addition, women were banned from areas of

study – specifically study from the nude figure, which was considered indecent for women.

The Académie royale, like artists since the Renaissance, placed a high value on drawing

and history paintings as the pinnacle of artistic creation. By the late 17th century there was a

separation between those who preferred drawing and those who privileged color. Drawing

favored detail and precision with under-drawings and planned compositions based on intellect

whereas color referred to the literal application of paint, the decisions based on what was pleasing

to the eye rather than the immediate understanding of the piece.4 Despite the disagreement, many

agreed that drawing was an intellectual activity whereas color was a manual or emotional activity.

The split in the school of thought in part led to the distinction between history painting, which

used drawing techniques, and decorative genre painting, which used color techniques.

History painting was best suited to serve the needs of the royal family because it could be

used as an allegory for the triumphs of the ruling class as well as a didactic tool to teach the lower

classes that the place they held in French society was natural. Such a high value was placed on

history painting, in fact, that in 1664 the Académie royale officially decided that only history

painters could become professors of painting or hold office.5 Later, in 1747, Charles François

Paul Le Normant de Tournehem further encouraged history painting by raising the official rate

Wanttie -‐ 5

for history painters and decreasing the amount paid for portraiture.6 These types of movements

pointedly excluded genre painters from holding high office.

Despite the Académie royale’s efforts, genre painting gained popularity with the

bourgeois pubic. These patrons were able to relate more directly with the scenes and found place

for the paintings within their homes as decoration in their parlors. Members of the Académie

royale largely looked down upon genre scenes for the superficial nature and lack of grand,

inspiring, and universal themes held within them.7 Oftentimes, it was assumed that genre painters

were simply unqualified to paint history paintings.

Problematically for the French Académie royale, genre paintings celebrated domestic life

over the dignified themes of history. Genre painter Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin made the

mother a symbol of heroic accomplishment. The mother, in Chardin’s paintings, contained

admirable qualities like patience, diligence, and fortitude – prime qualities for a subservient

French wife during the eighteenth century as well as admirable qualities of Greco-Roman heroes.

(Fig. #4) Though the French Académie royale was supportive of the traits of motherhood and the

place of the woman in the domestic sphere, Chardin’s genre scenes celebrated the woman’s

sphere, leading to the Académie royale feeling challenged by

the admiration of femininity within the woman’s domestic

sphere. In response to scenes like Chardin’s genre paintings,

the Académie royale showed women as compliant within

history painting through allegorical scenes by choosing

mythological stories that supported their purposes. Jean-

Baptiste Marie Pierre’s Abduction of Europa accomplishes

this goal by using the coded language of the Académie royale.

Wanttie -‐ 6

In his work, Europa is shown as a willing participant in her own abduction. She gently sits atop

the bull; her hand gracefully wrapped around his horns, and elegantly looks back without any sign

of anguish in her face. The abduction is the capture and control of a young woman in order to turn

her into a submissive and obedient new wife; and while the French Académie royale wasn’t

overtly promoting the kidnapping of a wild and unruly girl to turn into a childbearing heroine of

the home, it presented the way for women to submit to their role in French society.

The particularly coarse Greco-Roman myth of Europa was advantageous for the male

dominated societies that created works based off of the myth because it encouraged submissive

and docile wives. In the various depictions of Europa, she is not shown fighting back against her

attacker but oftentimes leans in, holds on to the bull’s

horns, or glides alongside – suggesting her acquiescence in

the attack. In other depictions, she is shown in ecstasy or

agony8. It is not by coincidence that the particular scene is

frequently chosen by Pierre and his contemporaries. The

mythological rape of Europa was used as a purposeful

message sent to the women of the time from the Académie

royale and

the royal

patrons about their correct place in society. Other

mythological stories would have promoted different

qualities in women that were unacceptable for the

French state. For example, Titian’s Venus with a

Mirror (Fig #5) has a very different message than

Wanttie -‐ 7

Titian’s version of the abduction, Rape of Europa. (Fig #6) Titian’s Venus is shown wrapped in

alluring furs and velvets with delicate embroidery and perfectly placed jewels, admiring herself in

her mirror while Europa is shown unbalanced with her legs open, surrounded by frenzied

brushstrokes, her linens bunched together and grasping on to the bull for fear of her life. With

these two images, it becomes clear that images of Venus may encourage sexualized, confident,

and empowered women, whereas images of Europa encouraged tame and subdued women by

insinuating that fighting their role was futile.

Wanttie -‐ 8

In addition to scenes of domesticity, images of aristocratic leisure rose in popularity in

the 18th century to which the Académie royale responded to in a similar manner to genre scenes.

Antoine Watteau created the first images of Fétes galantes and was responsible for a new

category of art within the annual Salon.9 Fétes galantes were idealistic outdoor gatherings of

aristocratic members of society as shown in art in order to include portraits of patrons into the

images submitted for the Salon.10 His

Embarkation of Cytheria (Fig #7) employs

elements of decorative art, later termed

Rococo, into what looks like a history painting

at first glance. The canvas itself is sized as if it

were a history painting, over four feet tall and

six feet wide, but also includes various genres of art – portraiture, landscape, animals - as well as

references to the Antiquity with the cherubs flying through the sky and marble statuary. Pierre’s

later work, The Abduction of Europa, shares the overall aesthetic by using similar pastel colored

clouds, a focus on Europa’s sumptuous gown, and the appropriately placed cherubs floating

through the sky. In this way, Pierre is using the Greco-Roman myth to incorporate aspects of

contemporary French tastes. However, he is not the first to incorporate Rococo elements into the

grand history painting composition. Noël-Nicholas Coypel’s Abduction of Europa painted in

1727 breaks the trend for history painting in the

French Salon11. (Fig #8) He, too, uses the pastel

colored sky and decidedly decorative elements

incorporated in the history painting. With the

popularity of decorative painting, or Rococo

Wanttie -‐ 9

painting, was clearly on the rise, the Académie royale responded by incorporating elements of the

Rococo into history paintings in order to attract the bourgeois public but maintain the same level

of seriousness that the Académie royale believed that they must preserve. Grandiose images like

The Abduction of Europa were painted in response to the threat against the Academy by using

Rococo imagery in conjunction with history painting themes to satisfy both the Academy’s

standards of high art and the public’s demand for decorative art.

Much like the separation between high art and decorative art for the French Académie

royale, there was a separation between what they believed was beautiful and what they

considered simply pretty. What was beautiful was noble, admirable, and inspiring to the people –

associated with history painting - while what was pretty was delicate and decorative – and

associated with genre painting.12 Delicate and decorative genre paintings were not an appropriate

way to represent the French state. Genre painting, by nature, is created in order to please the

viewer, focus is placed on color and emotion over draftsmanship and quality, while loving scenes

of romance excite the viewer rather than teach. Jean-François de Troy’s Declaration of Love is an

example of the decorative Rococo genre scenes that were gaining popularity in the early 18th

century. The image shows a finely dressed couple lounging

on a richly decorated couch; the man reaches for the

woman’s hand, clutching his chest in passion in order to

proclaim his love for her. She leans back in a sensual

manner, displaying her neck and chest passionately in

response to the man. (Fig #9) The painting relies on

sumptuousness and sensation in order to attract the viewer.

The opulence of Pierre’s Abduction of Europa again intended

Wanttie -‐ 10

to incorporate elements of contemporary genre painting into history painting by integrating the

same sort of sensuality that this image invokes and imitates what attracted the viewers to the

piece by de Troy. It is as if Europa were a woman listening as a man declares his love for her

rather than being snatched up and stolen away. By incorporating the sentiments of romantic

painting, Pierre disguises the domination of the female body and romanticizes the scene of rape to

further the needs of the Académie royale.

It is important to remember that the oppression of women relied on more than the

sentiments and opinions put forward by a handful of powerful men; countless laws and

regulations on women prevented them from retaining the same rights as men based on perceived

inadequacies and deficiencies held by women. New laws in the 17th century reinforced traditional

gender roles that continued to oppress them despite strides women were making economically.13

Cardin Le Bret in Traité de la Souveraineté du roi of 1632 said that women:

[by] the law of nature, which having decreed woman imperfect, weak, and

debilitated, as much in body as in mind, has submitted her to the power of man,

who she [nature] has... enriched with a stronger judgment, more assured courage,

and a stronger physical force. Also we see that divine law wants a wife to recognize

and render obedience to her husband as to her master and to her King.14

Pierre’s Abduction of Europa reflects these worldviews by telling the story in the masculine arena

and by equating Europa with the weak and imperfect woman, clearly submitted to the power of

man – or in our case, bull – disguised through rococo imagery. The chosen imagery, of “heroic”

rape, has been used in innumerable images in order to assert male power over women through the

guise of sexual passion.15 The pervasiveness of sexualized rape scenes neutralized the crime and

allowed the image to be seen as nonthreatening to the public.16 Rape scenes oftentimes are

Wanttie -‐ 11

connected to the gain or loss of property rights where the woman is the key to greater acquisitions

or the cause of property forfeiture17. In the myth of the abduction of Europa, Europa is directly

linked to the acquisition or conquering of new land – she is placed on Crete where she rules and

gives birth to several sons. As women gained little bits of notoriety and acclaim in French society,

the aristocracy responded by producing images of rape in order to reiterate their role as the hero

and remind the viewer of the acceptable role of women.

The role of women in 18th century France was a culmination of several centuries of

struggle. Women’s place in society began growing as early as the 16th century.18 Economically,

women became more independent as more opportunities for single women, whether widowed or

never married, were able to work outside of the household.19 In response to the threat to

patriarchy, women were legally restricted in France from the 16th century to the 18th century,

limited both in choice of spouse and of activity.20 Though social restrictions of women were

oftentimes challenged, legal restrictions were more difficult to overcome. During the late 1600’s

after the founding of the Académie royale, upper-class women were included in the French Salons

in an unofficial but essential way.21 The 17th century saw an overall improvement in the attitudes

toward women as seen in the works of Marie de Gournay who promoted female independence

and education to prevent a dependence on men.22 Development is also shown in the writing of

feminist philosopher François Poullain de La Barre who threatened the traditional roles of women

in his work De L’Egalite des deux sexes where he claimed the role of women is based

onprejudgment and a culmination of the historic opinions of women rather than on fact. He says:

... it is shown that common opinion [of women] is prejudiced... and can be

observed in the conduct of men and women. [W]e are obliged to recognized

gender as an entire reality.”23

Wanttie -‐ 12

De La Barre continues to describe the diverse opinions of women but concludes by questioning

the inferiority of women.

Due to feminist philosophers in France in the 17th century, France in the 18th century was

undergoing major changes in the roles of women within the nation. In 1697, Marie Catherine

d’Aulnoy released her Les contes des fees, the Tales of the Fairies. D’Aulnoy, a member of an

aristocratic French family, was what the French called a conteuse, which translates roughly to a

female storyteller. 24 Though the place of women within literature spanned beyond fairytales, the

fairytale genre was composed almost exclusively of women in the late 17th and early 18th

centuries.25 The nature of the fairytale allowed for a greater sense of imagination and

independence that was not necessarily permissible in the more developed genres – much like the

developed history painting and growing genre scenes. Like artists of genre scenes that recognized

the capability and independence of women, the conteuses were often targeted for their subject

matter that criticized the oppressive nature of marriage and the social restrictions placed on

women.26 D’Aulnoy allegedly schemed against her husband, others were banished from court for

“impious poems,” some even imprisoned with their stories as evidence of their corruption.27

Many believed that these women had a greater impact beyond that of harmless storyteller, 18th

century men felt threatened by their presence and targeted them for their supposed immoral

behavior. Despite this, many of the writers attained popularity and had best sellers in their time.28

Members of the Académie royale would have been at least acutely aware of these types of

movements toward female integration and responded to them within their own field by reasserting

their role within art.

The French state had not always had to concern themselves with the opinions of the

bourgeois public in relation to French art. However, France in the 18th century was undergoing

Wanttie -‐ 13

major social change that gave power to the lower classes. Due to growth in manufacturing outside

of Paris of silk and cloth and profits from overseas endeavors in the New World and elsewhere,

the bourgeois, and others became wealthier, collectively referred to as the “Third Estate.”29 The

Third Estate had been in place since 1560 when it was revived in France and gained little power

politically during the early 18th century but continued to gain influence as theatres and

independent salons opened free from the influence of the aristocracy.30 As the lower classes grew

wealthier, the aristocracy had to compete with social changes and the growing independence of

their lower classes. History paintings needed to play their part even more convincingly than ever

in order to maintain the established social structure.

Jean-Marie Baptiste Pierre’s Abduction of Europa is an allegory used by the French

Académie royale du peintre et du sculpteur in order to reassert their values and their place in

society in response to the growing popularity of genre scenes which oftentimes focused on the

importance of the woman within the household. The 18th century was a period of great societal

upheaval in France from beginning to end as the bourgeois became increasingly influential in

their own lives. Gone were the days in which the aristocracy dominated the cultural sphere and it

terrified the Académie royale, the aristocracy, and royalty. Artists like Chardin changed the way

in which the ordinary woman was portrayed and it transformed the way the Académie royale

portrayed themselves – for the first time, the Académie royale had to respond to another’s

authority.

Wanttie -‐ 14

1 National Galleries Scotland, “François Boucher, The Rape of Europa Sketch,”

nationalgalleries.org, https://www.nationalgalleries.org/collection/artists-a-z/b/artist/francois-

2 Dominique Jarrasse, 18th Century French Painting (Paris: Finest SA/Editions Pierre Terrail,

1998), 36.

3 Haldane Macfall, Boucher: the man, his times, his art, and his significance, 1703 to 1770,

(London: The Connoisseur, 1908), 45.

4Humphrey Wine, “The End of History? Painting in France 1770-1880” in Tradition and

Revolution in France 1700-1800 (London: National Gallery, 1993), 13.

5 Humphrey Wine, “The End of History?,”13.

6 Jarrasse, 18th Century French Painting, 20.

7 Richard Rand, “Love, Domesticity, and the Evolution of Genre Painting in Eighteenth Century

France,” in Intimate Encounters: Love and Domesticity in Eighteenth Century France, ed.

Richard Rand et al. (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1997), 5.

8 A.W. Eaton, Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian’s Rape of Europa, Hypatia, 18, 4.

(2003): 162.

9 Fred Kleiner, Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A global history. Enhanced 13th edn. (Boston:

Wadsworth, 2011),755.

10 Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 755.

11 Christopher Riopelle, Philadelphia Museum of Art: Handbook of the

Collections, (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1995), 179.

12 Rand, “Love, Domesticity, and Evolution,” 8.

Wanttie -‐ 15

13 James B. Collins, “The Economic Role of Women in Seventeenth-Century France,” French Historical Studies, 16 (1989): 437. 14 As quoted in, Marchel Marion, Dictionnaire des Institutions de la France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe

siècles (Paris, 1923; rpt. New York: Burt Franklin, 1963), 340.

15 Diane Wolfthal, Images of Rape: The “Heroic” Tradition and Its Alternative. (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1999),18.

16 Susan B. Bond and Donald L. Mosher, “Guided Imagery of Rape: Fantasy, Reality, and the

Willing Victim Myth,” The Journal of Sex Research, 22(1986): 163.

17 Diane Wolfthal, Images of Rape, 99.

18 Collins, “The Economic Role of Women,” 436.




22 Carolyn Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes: Women, Salons, and Social Stratification in

Seventeenth-Century France (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1976). 23 Francois Poullain de La Barre, De L’Egalite des deux sexes, discours physique et moral, où

l’on voit l’importance de se défaire des Préjugés (Paris: Jean du Puis, 1673), 9.

24 Domna C. Stanton and Lew Carl Seifert, Enchanted Eloquence: Fairy Tales by Seventeenth-

century French women writers (Toronto: Iter Inc, 2010), 2.

25 Stanton and Seifert, Enchanted Eloquence, 3.


27 Stanton and Seifert, Enchanted Eloquence, 6-7.


Wanttie -‐ 16

29 Henri Sée, Economic and Social Conditions in France During the Eighteenth Century, pg. 88.

30 Sée, Economic and Social Conditions, 86.

Fig. 1. Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre, Abduction of Europa, 1750. Oil on Canvas, 96 x 108 ½ in.

Dallas Museum of Art.

Wanttie -‐ 17

Fig. 2. Francois Boucher, Abduction of Europa, 1747. Oil on Canvas, 160.5 x 193.5 cm. Musée

du Louvre.

Wanttie -‐ 18

Fig. 3. Francois Boucher, Abduction of Europa Sketch, 1747. Red chalk on paper. 28.40 x 44.10

cm. National Galleries Scotland

Wanttie -‐ 19

Fig 4. Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Saying Grace, 1740. Oil on canvas, 49.5 x 38.5 cm. Musée

du Louvre.

Wanttie -‐ 20

Fig. 5. Titian, Venus with a Mirror, 1555, Oil on Canvas, 124.5 x 105.5 cm, National Gallery of

Art

Wanttie -‐ 21

Fig. 6. Titian, Rape of Europa, 1560-1562. Oil on Canvas, 70.1 x 80.7 in. Isabella Stewart

Gardner Museum.

Wanttie -‐ 22

Fig. 7. Antoine Watteau, Embarkation for Cythera, 1717. Oil on Canvas, 4/3” x 6’4”. Musée du

Louvre.

Wanttie -‐ 23

Fig. 8. Noël-Nicolas Coypel, Abduction of Europa, 1727. Oil on canvas, 50 ¼ x 76 3/8 in.

Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Wanttie -‐ 24

Fig. 9. Jean-François de Troy, The Declaration of Love, 1725. Oil on canvas,. Private collection.

Wanttie -‐ 25

Bibliography

De La Barre, Francois Poullain, De L’Egalite des deux sexes, discours physique et moral, où l’on

voit l’importance de se défaire des Préjugés. Paris: Jean du Puis, 1673.

Block, Sharon. "Rape without Women: Print Culture and the Politicization of Rape, 1765-

1815." The Journal of American History 89, no. 3 (2002): 849-68

Bond, Susan B., and Donald L. Mosher. "Guided Imagery of Rape: Fantasy, Reality, and the

Willing Victim Myth." Journal of Sex Research 22, no. 2 (1986): 162-83.

Collins, James B., “The Economic Role of Women in Seventeenth- Century France,” French

Historical Studies, no. 16 (1989).

Eaton, A. W. "Where Ethics And Aesthetics Meet: Titian's Rape Of Europa." Hypatia 18, no. 4

(2003): 159-88.

Gonzalez-Palacios, Alvar. The Age of Louis XV. London: New York: Paul Hamlyn, 1969.

Jarasse, Dominique. 18th Century French Painting. Paris: Finest SA/Editions Pierre Terrail, 1998.

Kleiner, Fred. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A Global History. Boston: Wadsworth, 2011.

Kimball, Fiske. The Creation of the Rococo. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1943.

Wanttie -‐ 26

Landes, Joan B. Visualizing the nation: gender, representation, and revolution in eighteenth-

century France. Ithaca, New York: London: Cornell University Press, 2001.

Leith, James A. The idea of art as propaganda in France, 1750-1799. Toronto: Toronto

University of Toronto Press, 1965.

Lougee, Carolyn. Le Paradis des Femmes: Women, Salons, and Social Stratification in

Seventeenth-Century France. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Macfall, Haldane. Boucher: the man, his times, his art, and his significance, 1703 to 1770.

London: The Connoisseur, 1908.

National Galleries Scotland, “François Boucher, The Rape of Europa Sketch,”

nationalgalleries.org, https://www.nationalgalleries.org/collection/artists-a-z/b/artist/francois-

boucher/object/the-rape-of-europa-d-5351 (Accessed November 5, 2014.)

Pignatti, Terisio . The Age of Rococo. London: New York: Paul Hamlyn, 1969.

Rand, Richard. Intimate Encounters: Love and Domesticity in Eighteenth Century France, ed.

Richard Rand et al. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997.

Wanttie -‐ 27

Riopelle, Christopher. Philadelphia Museum of Art: Handbook of the

Collections. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1995.

Rosenberg, Pierre. The Age of Louis XV: French painting 1710-1774. Toledo, Ohio: Toledo

Museum of Art, 1975.

Saisselin, Rémy G. "The Rococo as a Dream of Happiness." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art

Criticism 19, no. 2 (1960): 145-52.

Sée, Henri. Economic and Social Conditions in France During the Eighteenth Century. Originally

Published 1927. Translation by Kitchener: Batoche Books, 2004.

Stanton, Domna C., and Lewis Carl Seifert. Enchanted eloquence: fairy tales by seventeenth-

century French women writers. Toronto: Iter Inc, 2010.

Wine, Humphrey. “The End of History? Painting in France 1770-1880” in Tradition and

Revolution in France 1700-1800. London: National Gallery, 1993.

Wolfthal, Diane. ""A Hue and a Cry": Medieval Rape Imagery and Its Transformations." The Art

Bulletin 75, no. 1 (1993): 39-64.

Wolfthal, Diane. Images of Rape: The "heroic" Tradition and Its Alternatives. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1999.

“adaptive aristocrats: jean-baptiste marie pierre’s ... · “adaptive aristocrats:...

Documents