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Adapting office buildings for climate change
– literature review
Angela Connelly
2011
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EcoCities is a joint initiative between the School of Environment and
Development at the University of Manchester and commercial property company
Bruntwood. The project looks at the impacts of climate change and at how we
can adapt our cities and urban areas to the challenges and potential
opportunities that a changing climate presents.
© University of Manchester. 2011.
School of Environment and Development
University of Manchester
Oxford Road
Manchester
M13 9PL
This report should be referenced as: Connelly, A. (2011). Adapting office buildings for climate change – literature
review. EcoCities project, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
Please note that EcoCities working papers have not been subject to a full external peer review. The author(s) are solely responsible for the accuracy of the
work reported in this paper and the conclusions that are drawn.
3
Table of Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Commercial office space in Manchester 5
1.2 Climate change projections and impacts 6
1.3 The case for adaptation 7
2 Design guides and regulation 10
3 Adaptation Responses 13
3.1 Overheating 13
3.1.1 Natural ventilation and passive cooling 14
3.1.2 Cool and Green Roofs 19
3.1.3 Modelling interior temperatures 22
3.2 Flooding 23
3.2.1 Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) 24
3.2.2 Rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling 24
3.2.3 Permeable paving 26
4 Historic Buildings 27
5 Human Behaviour 29
6 Conclusion 32
7 References 33
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List of Figures
Figure 1. CIS Tower, Manchester. 18
Figure 2. All Saints building, Manchester Metropolitan University. 20
Figure 3. Number One First Street. 21
Figure 4. Manchester Central Hall. 25
Figure 5. Salford Sports Village. 26
List of Tables
Table 1. Age of B-use class premises in Manchester. 6
Table 2. Impacts of climate trends on the built environment. 12
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1 Introduction This literature review covers adaptation options for the built environment, with a
particular focus on Greater Manchester (GM), in light of EcoCities climate change
projections (Cavan 2011). It considers retrofit options appropriate for
commercial office buildings since the north west of England has the highest
proportion of commercial and industrial floor space (14%) compared to other
English regions (DCLG 2009). For these, retrofitting rather than rebuilding may
be the most sustainable option in terms of cost and carbon savings. Moreover, a
large part of this is historic stock, integral to the image of the region and the
replacement rate for buildings is currently 1 per cent per annum. Therefore
much of the existing building stock will remain when climate change impacts are
likely to become even more significant than they are now. The options
considered respond to the two main climate impacts identified as relevant at GM
scale: overheating and flooding. This complements two EcoCities building case
studies that consider the cost of energy use under different adaptation retrofit
interventions and the adaptation responses of building users.
Key design guides and relevant academic literature were consulted to discern
generic adaptation options. Section 1 considers local context and the case for
adaptation. Section 2 discusses the regulatory framework and current design
guidelines. Section 3 considers suitable adaptation options to cope with
overheating and flooding. The final two sections appraise special considerations
for historic buildings and, lastly, human comfort and behaviour.
1.1 Commercial office space in Manchester
Manchester has a rich array of building types that stem from its expansion as
the leading city of the industrial revolution through to post-industrial decline in
the latter half of the twentieth century and an urban renaissance in the early
twenty-first century. Contrasting architectural styles reflect these changes; with
nineteenth-century Italian renaissance, preferred by Victorian commerce, much
in evidence along with modern high-rise concrete and glass structures of the late
twentieth century (Parkinson-Bailey 2000).
The north west of England has the highest proportion of commercial and
industrial floor space (14%) compared to other English regions (DCLG 2009). In
Manchester, much of the historic centre has been adapted through time to
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accommodate modern uses. It now has the city’s largest share of Grade A office
stock (Nathaniel Lichfield and Partners 2010: 46). Approximately 55% of this
was constructed before 1970, albeit with limited data for post-2001
developments. These proportions are roughly similar to the average across the
region (Nathaniel Lichfield and Partners 2010: 38). Newer developments tend to
occur outside the historic centre. However, the economic climate after 2007 has
slowed the completion of new offices. In the third quarter of 2011, just under
50% of available space in Manchester City Centre was occupied (New Economy
2011).
Table 1. Age of B-use class premises in Manchester (source: Nathaniel Lichfield
and Partners 2010: 38).
Use Pre-
1940
1940 –
70
1971 –
80
1981 –
90
1991 –
2000
2001 + Unknown
Offices 34% 21% 14% 8% 13% N/A N/A
Factories 56% 22% 5% 6% 5% N/A N/A
Warehouses 36% 19% 21% 11% 6% N/A N/A
All 42% 18% 14% 9% 9% 3% 5%
The average life span of a building can range from 40 to 100 years, longer if the
building is of special interest. Internal building services and certain external
components have varying longevities (BCIS 2006). At the current rate of
building replacement or refurbishment, approximately 1% per year (Steemers
2003), it is reasonable to assume that a large proportion of what is standing
today will still be functioning in fifty years time. There is an incentive to ensure
that these buildings are well-adapted to cope with extreme weather events and
fit for purpose in ensuing years.
1.2 Climate change projections and impacts
EcoCities projects that temperatures in Greater Manchester are likely to increase
by the 2050s in both summer and winter (Cavan 2011). It is likely that we shall
encounter drier summers and wetter winters. Extreme temperature ranges may
also be felt: the number of days when extreme rainfall leads to potential flooding
increases from the present average of 1 to 2 days to an average of 2.4 days by
the 2050s. Under the medium emissions scenario for the 2050s, the central
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estimate of increase in annual mean temperature is 2.3°C; it is very unlikely to
be less than 1.4°C and is very unlikely to be more than 3.3°C.
These projections are made under various scenarios that incorporate different
ranges of continued greenhouse gas emissions. However, the climate system is
inert meaning that past emissions will result in future climate change; the time
lag is around 30 – 40 years between emitting and the resulting temperature
change. As a result, although reducing emissions is important, we also need to
adapt to unavoidable change.
Wind and storm severity may also increase. Driving rain carries severe
implications for buildings (Graves and Phillipson 2003). However, there are
uncertainties associated with both the position and strength of the present day
storm tracks. Consequently, this contributes to large uncertainties in the future
predictions of storms that presently indicate negligible change (UKCP 2009). The
Association of British Insurers (2009), using a different modelling technique,
considers changes in storm track to be highly likely and found that even modest
changes could increase average annual insured losses from windstorms by 25%.
In the UK, earlier analyses of insurance claims and weather data show that a
large proportion of wind-related damage takes place at wind speeds lower than
those to which buildings are designed (Buller 1993).
Wilby (2007) and Graves and Phillipson (2003) review climate change impacts
on the built environment at a general level and with a focus on London – noting
the need for local data tools to assist designers and developers. EcoCities
concentrates on overheating (section 3.1) and flooding ( 3.2) given local future
projections and the analysis of recent weather and climate events (Carter and
Lawson 2011).
1.3 The case for adaptation
Fifty-year climate change projections are a long-term planning horizon; one that
may not cohere with the needs of most businesses (Adger et al 2005). Yet, we
can already see and feel the impacts of the changing climate (Carter and Lawson
2011). A recent survey, commissioned by DEFRA, found that 31% of companies
were affected by extreme weather events in the past three years; larger
organisations felt the impacts more than smaller businesses (Ipsos MORI 2010).
UKCIP’s A Changing Climate for Business (2010) and its BACLIAT tool help
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businesses to identify the implications of climate change on a particular
organization or sector. It comprises a simple checklist for assessing the potential
impacts of climate change under the following generic headings: logistics,
finance, markets, process, people, premises and management implications.
Using the BACLIAT framework, ARUP (2009) analysed the climate change
impacts, possible vulnerabilities and potential adaptation actions for 18 key
public services and private businesses operating in the north west of England.
Amongst the key messages, ARUP noted the centrality of premises for the
continued functioning of business, such that building comfort will become an
increasingly important consideration for organisations looking to rent, purchase
or commission the design of new premises and facilities. In a city such as
Manchester, with its high levels of historic stock and large proportion of
commercial office space, the built environment needs to be a key focus of
adaptation activity in order to maintain and attract investment in employment
and the economy. This provides a strong case for improving the built
environment’s resilience to extreme weather events and adapting it to a
changing climate to ensure that it remains effective for human comfort and
business functioning.
Much of the existing building stock was built in an era before the relationship
between buildings and local climatic variation was properly understood (ARUP
2009: 63). Many post-war commercial office buildings inadequately respond to
local climatic variation and fail to deliver thermal comfort for users (Roaf et al
2007). The presence of modern IT equipment has substantially raised internal
temperatures (Hacker and Holmes 2005: 105). Therefore, it makes sense to
take stock and identify, on the basis of past weather and climate events, which
buildings are most at risk or uncomfortable in the present day. Attentiveness to
climatic variation has wider benefits: knowledge of a city’s microclimate can help
urban planners to manage climate change through physical structures, as a
recent case study on Stuttgart’s Klimaatlas has shown (Hebbert and Webb
2012).
With the construction industry responsible for 50% of the UK’s greenhouse gas
emissions, a succession of regulatory measures means that mitigation – to
reduce energy emissions – is prevalent. Manchester’s ‘mini-Stern’ review
estimated that failure to adapt to the legislative, policy and physical aspects of
climate change could result in potential losses of £20 billion to the city-region’s
economy (Deloitte 2008). In response, retrofitting buildings for energy efficiency
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in commercial offices is a well-established and well-rehearsed argument.
Manchester has been chosen as the UK’s fourth Low Carbon Economic Area
(LCEA) with one strand of work focussing on maximising the energy efficiency of
the commercial sector in the city region’s financial district (Drivers Jonas 2010).
Means of adaptation can overlap with the mitigation agenda (Steemers 2003;
Mills 2003). The issues are not new to architects and the technology has long
been there. In architecture, bioclimatology refers to the connection that the
environmental performance of the structure has to its external climate (Yeang
1996). Despite higher start-up costs, it produces lower life-cycle energy costs,
as well as providing a healthier environment. Therefore, many of the mitigation
options also enable buildings to also adapt to future climate. However, we have
to be careful that the two agendas do not clash: air conditioning, for example, is
one adaptation option. However, running mechanical systems can be highly
energy inefficient and contribute to the urban heat island effect (McEvoy et al
2006). Further research into potential mitigation-adaptation synergies and
conflicts, in the context of the built environment and other sectors, would be
useful.
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2 Design guides and regulation
A number of design guides, reports and regulations recommend suitable
adaptation choices. For buildings, the Technology Strategy Board (TSB)
commissioned an architect, Bill Gething, to produce Design for future climate:
opportunities for adaptation in the built environment (2010) primarily to identify
gaps in research and innovation. Gething provides useful information on various
adaptation options, duration of implementation and potential costs. In tandem
with this, the TSB have made almost £5 million available to fund innovative
strategies to adapt UK buildings to the changing climate. The Town and Country
Planning Association’s (TCPA) Adaptation by design: a guide for sustainable
communities looks at adaptation at building, neighbourhood and conurbation
scale (Shaw et al 2007). The Northwest Climate Change Adaptation Group
commissioned a similar report, aimed at decision makers, that provides design
guidance with case studies attuned to the region and covering issues at a variety
of scales (Northwest Climate Change Adaptation Group 2010). The Royal
Institute of British Architect’s (RIBA) Climate Change Toolkit is regularly updated
but this remains focused on mitigation although there are useful sections on
designing for flood risk (RIBA 2007).
Arup’s Existing buildings survival strategies. A guide for re-energising tired
assets (2009) is primarily aimed at retrofitting buildings for improved energy
efficiency. The report includes international case study examples and practical
advice on facilities management and maintenance. Some of the material remains
relevant to increasing the resilience of buildings in the face of extreme weather
events, particularly overheating. It remains an excellent source of practical
information, particularly for the commercial property sector.
At industry level, several Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
(CIBSE) publications are applicable including Climate Change and the Indoor
Environment: Impacts and Adaptation (CIBSE TM36) that formed the basis for
the UKCIP report Beating the heat: keeping UK buildings cool in a warming
climate (Hacker, Belcher, & Connell, 2005). They consider the implications of
overheating for different building types and potential adaptation options as
relevant to London, Manchester and Edinburgh. CIRIA’s documentation on
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) (C697and C698) deal with on-site
management. It also has easily accessible guidelines on the design, construction
and operation of green roofs and walls in their Building Greener (C644).
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Much research in the academic sector has been geared towards developing
practical tools. PROMETHEUS produced standardised weather data to allow
professionals to model the thermal and energy-use performance of buildings.
With information on 40 locations in the UK (including Manchester), the data
allows professionals to design retrofit solutions to help existing buildings adapt
to changing local climates with risk-based analyses (see Coley and Kershaw
2010). GRaBS, a pan-European research project, looked at the role of green and
blue infrastructure in adapting to climate change and collated a wide range of
exemplary international case study examples. SCORCHIO provided a GIS
decision support tool to help end-users analyse adaptation options for urban
areas with an emphasis on heat and human comfort at various scales ranging
from the city scale through to the building scale.
The legal and regulatory planning framework is currently in flux. Part L of the
Building Regulations covers the energy requirements committed by both the
design and the energy costs in use. This is due for review in 2013 and will
consider climate change adaptation with a commitment to design buildings for
the future climate with a specific focus on overheating and flooding (DCLG 2010:
15). Much of the current literature and regulatory measures on retrofitting are
specifically aimed at homes with a focus on reducing energy consumption to
meet the government’s carbon targets (e.g. English Heritage 2007; ASC 2011).
At local level, Manchester’s core strategy mainly covers new developments,
which are ‘expected to be adaptable to climate change in terms of the design,
layout, siting and function of both buildings and associated external spaces’
(Manchester City Council 2011: 183). It specifically recommends that
overheating of buildings should be controlled through passive design measures
and not by mechanical cooling. The Greater Manchester Climate Strategy puts
buildings and green infrastructure at the heart of its climate change plans, to
strengthen the vision of a low-carbon and well-adapted region (Manchester City
Council 2009).
The GM climate change projections mean that buildings will have less heating
requirements. Conversely, it may increase the number of days in which some
form of cooling in buildings is required (cooling degree days). A more detailed
and general overview of potential impacts of climate trends or extreme weather
events is given in table 2, along with identified solutions. These draw on the
design guides and strategies noted above and will be discussed in the following
sections.
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Table 2. Impacts of climate trends or weather events on the built environment
(Sources: Carter and Lawson 2011; Wilby 2007; Shaw et al 2007; RIBA 2007).
Climate/ weather
events
Impact on the Built Environment
Solution
Floods
Internal and external building
damage. Risk of slope instability. Increased insurance premiums in
flood risk areas.
SUDS; door guards; air bricks;
vigilant maintenance; air tightness.
Storms (including
high winds)
Greater risk of structural damage to buildings. Risk of rain
penetration in exposed areas.
Reinforcement of the structural envelope;
Reinforcement of roofs (e.g. cool roofs).
Cold events
Reduction in cold related stresses on buildings (e.g. freezing pipes,
frost heave on stonework). Less energy needed for heating.
Vigilant maintenance.
Heat waves (including temp
increase)
Risks linked to soil shrinkage and subsidence, particularly in clay soil areas. Faster deterioration in
concrete. Internal overheating of some buildings.
External solar shading; solar control window films; mechanical
ventilation (air conditioning;
fans); passive cooling measures (night time ventilation; wind ventilation; opening windows);
enhance thermal mass in light weight constructions.
Drought
(including reduced
summer rainfall)
Risks linked to soil shrinkage and
subsidence, particularly in clay soil areas. Less water for building
maintenance.
Rainwater harvesting, grey water
recycling
Milder
winters
Air quality management systems
in buildings are properly maintained to reduce risk of
spreading infections
Ventilation
Wetter winters
Increased damp risk in buildings. Vigilant maintenance; rain screen cladding
Warmer summers
Increased pests in buildings may cause damage to historic
structures.
Night ventilation
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3 Adaptation Responses
3.1 Overheating
The highest temperature for human thermal comfort is thought to be 25°C.
CIBSE guidelines consider the overheating criteria to be defined as not more
than 1% of occupied hours should be spent at a temperature above 28°C for all
buildings except dwellings. Temperatures exceeding 30°C are rarely acceptable
for office buildings in the UK (CIBSE 2006).
As the climate warms, specific implications for the built environment in the UK
are (Gething 2010):
• mechanical ventilation systems with heat recovery may be less beneficial
as the heating season shortens.
• active cooling will be difficult to avoid by the end of the century.
• lightweight, under-ventilated, over-glazed structures, such as
conservatories, will become ‘intolerable' even with cooling.
The areas of design concern are (Hacker et al 2007):
• High levels of glazing traps heat.
• Inadequate ventilation.
• Thermal mass (temperature): Thermal mass describes the ability of
building materials to store heat. Certain materials (such as stone) have a
high thermal mass meaning that they can cause indoor temperatures to
be cooler than the outside. While this reduces daytime temperatures it
keeps the heat in overnight. High thermal masses need to be combined
with effective night time ventilation.
• Insulation: Usually, insulation will keep a building warmer in the winter as
well as keeping it cool in the summer by acting as a preventative barrier.
• Air-tightness: any draughts, small cracks and other points of ingress can
allow warm air into the building, disrupting controlled air flows. Orme et al
(2003) suggest that building regulations currently favouring high levels of
insulation and air-tightness may intensify future overheating.
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There may be a tendency to assume that we can expect to learn from cities with
warmer climates. Geographical location and latitude may compromise this: for
example, sun angles will be dissimilar (Gething 2010: 14). There will also be
other social and political factors that reduce the transferability of practice. For
example, users may have different expectations and comfort levels depending
on local climate (see section 5 on human behaviour).
3.1.1 Natural ventilation and passive cooling
To reduce overheating yet minimise energy consumption, Hacker and Holmes
(2007) suggest the following passive cooling measures (ordered in terms of
effectiveness):
• Shading from the sun (to exclude solar glare and heat gain).
• Provision for controllable ventilation in daytime; high levels of night
ventilation.
• Use heavier weight building materials along with night ventilation to allow
heat to be absorbed and released.
• Improve insulation; exclude draughts.
Effective night ventilation releases the daytime build-up of heat as well as
purging a building of pests (Gething 2010). It works by opening a building's
windows to allow cooler night air to pass through the building. As the air passes
over the internal fabric it removes heat that has built up during the day to cool
the space to improve the occupant's comfort the following day. Although it is an
option usually associated with new-builds, Birmingham University successfully
refurbished an existing 1960s building to modify it for effective night ventilation
(see case study 1). However, night ventilation may not be an effective strategy
if the night temperature does not drop much below that experienced during
daytime.
Opening windows is one of the easiest means of naturally ventilating a building.
However, this is not an option in all buildings particularly if it combines with a
low thermal mass. This will significantly overheat - a highly glazed 1960s office
block is one example. Moreover, in urban environments, noise and air pollution
may be a barrier to opening windows. In some work places, closed windows can
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be a required security measure (for insurance purposes) or there may be health
and safety implications (particularly tall buildings) (Smith and Levermore 2008).
If there are more days of particularly sunny weather, solar shading can be added
to new and old building stock. Brise soleil; awnings and shutters can reduce
solar gain (heat) and solar glare (light). Other methods of reducing solar glare
include adding window film to the interior or providing blinds. However, this may
need to be offset against the increased use of lighting if occupants feel that the
environment is too dark (Gething 2010).
In a warming climate the potential of natural ventilation to cool a building may
lessen. This may mean that active or mechanical systems can be necessary. In
temperate climates, natural ventilation and passive cooling measures can then
be used for most of the year. Energy efficient mechanical heating and cooling
can be invoked in response to extreme temperatures in either winter or summer
(see Hacker and Holmes 2007). This is ‘mixed mode’ ventilation, an option
recommended by the CIBSE (2006). The second case study describes John
Thompson & Partners refurbishment of a 1920s warehouse to provide office
space for their architectural practice (case study 2). It combines mixed-mode
ventilation with exemplary energy efficiency credentials.
Suspended ceilings can be removed to expose thermal mass in low thermal mass
buildings. Solar rain screen cladding may prevent overheating as well as
providing additional protection during storms. They can help to regulate
temperature by minimising solar gain in the summer. If designed in a way that
creates a void between the cladding and the main wall, they can encourage a
'thermal stack’ effect to draw air through the building spaces. This is an
expensive option, but one with mitigation potential if photovoltaic panels are
used. Due to cost, it should only be regarded as a solution if major
refurbishment is unavoidable, as in the case study of Manchester’s CIS tower
(case study 3). This is only a solution in those types of buildings built around a
frame and will not be appropriate for pre-twentieth century buildings.
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CASE STUDY 1
Building: The Metallurgy and Materials building, University of Birmingham.
Location: Birmingham. Adaptation option: Night time ventilation.
Description: A precast, reinforced concrete, three-storey university building
was retrofitted to provide effective ventilation. Grade II listed in 1993, English
Heritage was involved in the development of the facade's replacement. The
original scheme was based on a single-glazed patent glazing system, with
opening windows, which the replacement facade had to replicate.
The natural ventilation control system was linked to the heating system and an
external weather station to ensure that the system operated efficiently and
effectively when required. A manual override enables the control system to be
overridden by the occupants during normal occupancy hours. By depressing the
top or bottom parts of a rocker-switch, occupants can open or close the
windows. The occupants also have the option of manually opening and closing
the main windows.
The natural ventilation system includes a night purge mechanism that allows
cooler air during the coolest part of the night to lower the internal building fabric
temperature for the following day. An early morning purge strategy was
implemented so that in the mornings warm stale air would be purged out of the
building in preparation of occupant arrival.
Information source: Night purge ventilation for university retrofit, Buildings4Change,
2011.
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CASE STUDY 2
Building: Warehouse conversion to offices Location: London Borough of Islington.
Adaptation example: Mixed-mode ventilation and external shading
Description: John Thompson & Partners converted a former 1920s warehouse
into their practice offices to improve the sustainability of the building.
Amongst the many measures, clay plaster is used instead of gypsum to regulate
air temperature and humidity. The one identified room that requires air
conditioning is the server room, offset with six photo-voltaic panels.
Brise-soleil have been erected horizontally on the south facing façade to reduce
solar glare.
Information source: Green building case studies, Islington Borough Council.
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CASE STUDY 3
Building Type: CIS tower, High-rise 1960s Tower, Grade II Listed Location: Manchester City Centre
Adaptation example: Rainscreen cladding
Partners involved: Co-operative Bank; Arup.
Description: The original mosaic cladding of the Grade II listed CIS tower in
Manchester – a crucial part of the design - was faulty. The proposed solution
created the largest commercial solar façade in Europe to cover the original
mosaic, which is kept in place with a wire mesh. Here, the climate change
agenda conflicted with other design requirements but it demonstrates that
solutions can be found.
The CIS solar tower generates enough electricity to light 61 average three-bed
houses every year. The solar cladding also doubles as a rain screen to offer
additional protection from the weather. The cladding can be readily incorporated
into building refurbishments as an alternative to conventional cladding materials.
Figure 1. CIS Tower, Manchester. Source: licenced for reuse under Creative
Commons © solarcentury.com.
Information source: Institute of Mechanical Engineers.
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3.1.2 Cool and Green Roofs
Increase a building’s reflectivity (albedo) of UV rays can also reduce heat gains.
A white roof, for example, is more reflective than a dark slate one (Sharples and
Lee 2009). ‘Cool roofs’ mitigate excessive interior heat gains by effectively
reflecting and re-emitting solar energy. The two principal cool roofing products
are single-ply sheets or liquid applied paints/coatings. Both can be used within
new or retrofit roofing applications. By preventing extreme temperature changes
in substrates, cool roofs can increase the lifespan of a roof by reducing thermal
fatigue and cracking. However, there is little research on the thermal comfort
benefits of cool roofs for the UK, at building or neighbourhood scale. The Royal
Society found that they would need to produce large local albedo changes to
significantly cool the local climate and consider it to be one of the least cost-
effective methods for responding to rising temperatures in urban areas (Royal
Society 2009: 25). The TCPA (2007: 44) believes that cool roofs work best
where there is a high roof to volume ratio; particularly one- or two-storey
buildings.
Green roofs and facades also increase a building’s capacity to reflect UV rays and
minimise solar gain (Gill et al 2007). They have additional benefits that cool
roofs do not by capturing rainwater and slowing surface water run-off to help
prevent flash flooding at ground level. They are an applicable adaptation option
for flooding in addition to the other measures discussed in section 3.2.
Manchester City Council’s Green Roof Feasibility Study and subsequent Green
Roof Guidance (Manchester City Council 2009b; Manchester City Council 2009c)
strongly advocate the role of green roofs in helping Greater Manchester adapt to
the temperature and water management problems inherent in a changing
climate. They provide numerous case studies from the UK and overseas. The
guidance points to tangible financial benefits since green roofs reduce fire
insurance premiums, drainage costs, and protect property values.
Their design can be low-maintenance with visits required only once or twice a
year to clear gutters and drains and remove any unwanted debris or litter
(Dunnett & Kingsbury 2004; The Green Roof Guidelines 2011). For commercial
organisations, this can be factored into regular planned preventative
maintenance schedules. The following two case studies describe recently
installed green roofs in large city centre buildings at Manchester Metropolitan
University and Number One First Street.
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CASE STUDY 4
Building: All Saints Building, Manchester Metropolitan University Location: Manchester
Adaptation Option: Green roofs
Around 715m² of green roofing has been installed at the All Saints Building,
Manchester Metropolitan University. The roofs are planted with a sedum and
wildflower mix to encourage water storage, and to attract a range of insects. The
All Saints green roofs are part of a wider programme of green roof installation
and climate change adaptation research projects that are being delivered in the
Oxford Road Corridor. The green roofs were funded by Manchester Metropolitan
University, Manchester City Council and the European Union INTERREG IVB fund.
Figure 2. Green roof on the All Saints building, Manchester Metropolitan
University © Red Rose Forest 2011.
Information source: Red Rose Forest.
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CASE STUDY 5
Building: Number One First Street, Commercial Office Development Location: Manchester
Adaptation Option: Green roof
Number One First Street is a significant development scheme that involved the
redevelopment of the former BT building now called Number One First Street.
The 486 m2 green roof was installed in early 2009 at a cost of £150 per m2.
There are a number of features which mean this building should adapt well to
the future climate. Night purging (using the cooler night air to cool the buildings)
is used to reduce the cooling demand for the site.
Figure 3. Number One First Street. © Ingy the Wingy 2010
Information source: Ask! Developments.
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3.1.3 Modelling interior temperatures
Much depends on building occupancy and individual room heating levels.
Adaptation solutions should be flexible to cope with varying occupancy levels,
the position of rooms as well as seasonal fluctuations in temperature.
Competition winners for the TSB’s Design for a Future Climate have modelled
the probabilistic heating temperatures for individual rooms at offices in Church
View, Doncaster to suggest low cost solutions fitted out for each room such as
shuttering, night and cross ventilation (Costello and Kucharek 2011).
For the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine an overheating map and
exceedance map were produced to consider the potentials of proposed
adaptation options. Researchers found that overheating may still occur resulting
in the need for mechanical cooling in the most extreme temperatures. Natural
ventilation should therefore be relied on for most of the spaces for most of the
year (Lim, Cripps & Elder 2011).
CASE STUDY 5
Building: Offices in a Conservation Area. Location: Doncaster.
Adaptation option: Modelling interior temperatures.
For the TSB’s Design for a Future Climate competition, Bauman Lyons Architects
produced an adaptation strategy for a south-facing 1913 character office
building in a conservation area in Doncaster. Used as workspace for small
creative industries with up to 15 employees, its main climate risk was found to
be overheating from large areas of glass.
They assessed overheating on a room-by-room basis to a recommend low-cost
and easy to install adaptation measures to the facilities management company.
Their solutions ranged from shuttering, ceiling fans, external planting and water
features to more conventional approaches including glazing, shading, reducing
IT heat gains, night and cross ventilation.
Their whole life costing indicates that over 70 years the adapted building will be
just under £4m cheaper (a 20% reduction) than if left unadapted, with enhanced
air conditioning.
Source: Costello and Kucharek 2011.
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3.2 Flooding
More rainfall may increase the frequency of flooding, as would an increase in the
intensity of precipitation events. An EcoCities report on the recent impacts of
weather and climate in Greater Manchester identifies flooding as the key risk
causing much disruption (Carter and Lawson 2011). This can include damage to
buildings and infrastructure and can result in the failure of drainage systems.
The Pitt Review (2008), set up after major floods in 2007, estimated the cost of
these floods to the economy was £3.2 billion, not accounting for additional
impacts on human health and wellbeing.
Different building types are affected by flooding in different ways. Large stone
constructions, such as nineteenth century public halls, can withstand low flood
depths with relatively little damage. However, they are challenging and costly to
repair after major floods (English Heritage 2010). Lightweight, framed or
modular constructions are more susceptible to lower flood depths but they are
easier to repair.
There are two approaches that can be taken depending on the depth of water
anticipated. At lower levels, the aim should be to minimise water ingress through
primary access points in a building; a water exclusion strategy. At higher depths,
a water entry strategy may be required that places an emphasis on materials
and products that can assist in draining and consequent drying after a flood
(DCLG 2007: 65).
Specific measures may cost money in the short term, but cause less damage
(and therefore replacement costs) in the future (see Gwilliam et al 2006). All
guidelines advise checking with the Environment Agency’s website to view their
flood mapping and to access their flood warning service. Up-to-date flood zone
and depth maps have been developed for the Strategic Flood Risk Assessment
plan for Manchester, Salford and Trafford and can also be used to determine
future risk (JBA Consulting 2011).
In the first instance, practical measures can be taken such as moving crucial and
valuable services from basement and ground floor level. The structural envelope
should be regularly checked and maintained to prevent unnecessary water
ingress. Drainage pipes can have one-way valves installed to prevent
contaminated water from entering a building. Plasterboard, MDF, gypsum
24
plaster, soft woods, floor claddings and furnishings can be adversely affected in
flooding (Hutton and Marsh 2002). During routine refurbishment, water resistant
materials, such as lime plaster, plastic, vinyl and ceramic tiles, can act as
replacements, particularly at basement and ground floor levels.
Temporary adaptive measures include those applicable to homes: such as air
brick covers and door guards. For larger buildings, demountable or automatic
shutter systems can protect doors and other openings in buildings (RIBA 2007).
3.2.1 Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS)
Manchester City Council’s Guide to Development (2007) contains a dedicated
section on water resource management and flood risk. It proposes the increased
usage of Sustainable Drainage Schemes (SuDS). While most SuDS measures are
at the neighbourhood scale, it is possible to retrofit certain aspects in existing
residential and commercial buildings.
One method is to install green roofs to prevent surface water run-off (see
section 1.1.1). SuDS, including green roofs, can be used in a number of different
building types – from residential to commercial – and are a tried and tested
means of improving resilience to flooding. They can easily be retro-fitted onto
existing developments (Environment Agency 2006, 2.2.2). Other solutions are
rainwater harvesting, greywater recycling and permeable paving. Part H of the
Building Regulations (drainage and waste disposal) is applicable here.
The Environment Agency’s (2006) Building a better environment: guide for
developers publishes a checklist and useful guidance on the entire development
area. CIRIA provide specific and regularly updated information on SuDS along
with freely downloadable design guides.
3.2.2 Rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling
Rainwater harvesting is a well-known measure that has declined in recent
decades due to the availability of clean, reliable and inexpensive mains water.
The process captures rainwater and uses it for non-potable uses such as flushing
toilets. Rainwater harvesting is considered to be particularly suitable for
agricultural, commercial or industrial buildings (CIBSE 2007). Businesses can
disconnect from the drainage infrastructure once a rainwater harvesting system
is installed. Benefits arise from reduced drainage charges and water bills. The
Environment Agency estimate that around 75% of industrial and commercial
premises could adopt rainwater harvesting systems, and 50 per cent of public
buildings, such as schools and hospitals, could do the same (Environment
Agency 2007: 3).
25
It is much easier to plan rainwater harvesting at new build level or when a
buildings is undergoing a complete refurbishment or building an extension.
Larger premises may require more sophisticated systems such as tanks and
filtration systems sunk below ground. This would most likely be done during
building refurbishment programmes. With retrofitting, separate tanks are usually
placed in the roof with gravity used to feed water down. This requires an
extensive amount of spare roof space that only large buildings have. The are
potential conflicts with existing drainage systems that may require their
replacement and add to the overall cost (CIBSE 2007).
Therefore, there are very few public and well-documented case studies of
retrofitting rainwater harvesting to existing buildings in the region at present.
However, the Methodist Central Hall on Oldham Street in central Manchester
installed rainwater harvesting primarily to reduce their carbon footprint and
water bills, it provides a useful case study example of retrofitting such a
measure.
CASE STUDY 6
Building: Church and public venue, Manchester Central Hall. Location: Oldham Street, Manchester
Adaptation Option: Rainwater harvesting
This is a large, multi-functional church containing a large main hall for religious
worship as well as shops, offices and meeting rooms. In order to reduce its
carbon footprint and to save money on water bills, the Methodist Centre at the
Central Hall on Oldham Street utilised large areas of unused space in the roof to
install five 1, 000 litre rainwater harvesting tanks. The water is used to flush
toilets.
Figure 4. Manchester Central Hall, Oldham Street. © Angela Connelly, 2007.
Source: Angela Connelly, personal communication, 2008.
26
3.2.3 Permeable paving
Conventional surfaces for paving and roads, such as concrete, are a key feature
of urban developments. They effectively seal the ground and are impervious, so
that water does not filter through soil. Impervious surfaces increase the volume,
rate and flow of surface water run-off and can contribute to localised flooding.
Typically, these need to be resurfaced every 20 to 40 years and can be replaced
with permeable paving. Any hard standing surfaces, for example, pathways, car
parks or alleys can be retrofitted in this way.
Permeable paving is a form of SuDS that can manage surface water run-off.
There are two general types of pavements: porous ones, which allow water
through their entire surface area, and permeable pavements, which are made up
of impermeable units with gaps between joints (Interpave 2008). Regular
inspection and maintenance are essential – typically three sweep and vacuum
sessions a year. Other maintenance should be instigated when required.
CASE STUDY 7
Building: Salford Sports Village Partners: Urban Vision/ Salford City Council Adaptation Option: Permeable paving
A new development, Salford Sports Village, has been completely sustainable
drainage equipped to deal with a 1 in 100 year flood event. Permeable paving
has been installed in the car park and has petrol interception incorporated into
the design of the infiltration systems to minimise contamination – a common
criticism of porous surface materials.
Figure 5. Salford Sports Village © Aggregate Industries.
Information source: Aggregate Industries.
27
4 Historic Buildings
Because of their life span, buildings continually adapt in use and material form to
suit changing needs (Brand 1994). The climate change agenda is only one facet
of design to consider and can compete with other concerns. Historic structures
pose special problems where compromises may be required between maintaining
the integrity of the original structure and yet adapting it for climate change. For
example, Part L of the building regulations exempts listed buildings and those in
conservation areas. Manchester has some 900 listed buildings and 35
conservation areas, many of these are located in the city centre and are of
exceptional interest.
Much of the present work undertaken by the heritage sector in the UK has
primarily been focussed on flood risk or climate change adaptation in homes
(English Heritage 2008, 2010). According to English Heritage (2010), adaptive
responses may have unintentionally adverse impacts. For example, the need to
provide new and more effective rainwater disposal or storage systems or flood
protection features can significantly alter the character of a premises. However,
in terms of thermal comfort, historic buildings may have the capacity to adapt
well to overheating, particularly masonry constructions with a high thermal
mass.
University College London’s Sustainable Heritage Laboratory has produced two
reports that feed into English Heritage’s publications (Casser 2005; Casser and
Hawkings 2007). These address impacts on particular materials with two case
studies testing brick and sandstone structures (Casser and Hawkings 2007).
Datasets that take account of wind speed and direction, solar radiation,
temperature, and the exact nature of wall construction have been developed.
The authors stress the importance of considering these as well as future weather
data when trying to understand the risks that climate change poses to the
historic built environment (Casser and Hawkings 2007: 97 – 123).
Potential risk factors in the north west of England include heavy rain that may
push outmoded or ill-designed drainage beyond its use (Casser 2005: 55).
Emphasising a pragmatic approach, Casser recognises that: ‘it has never been a
realistic proposition to conserve anything forever or everything for any time at
all’ (Casser 2005: 2). Nevertheless, of six recommendations, two relate to
adaptation of the historic environment:
28
• Preventive maintenance: routine preventive maintenance should be
undertaken to keep gutters, hoppers and down pipes free of debris so that
during a heavy downpour, water can flow safely away from buildings
without wetting walls. Less frequent repairs to failing rainwater goods,
lead flashing or mortar joins will also be needed.
• Adaptation: consider modifying drainage and rainwater goods in historic
buildings.
Another challenge is improving the thermal performance of single-glazed
windows in masonry structures without ruining their character. If a building is
listed, these cannot be easily replaced. Historic Scotland commissioned a study
to compare the thermal values of various adaptive options for single-glazed
windows. This was to look at improving energy efficiency but there are
implications for passive adaptation options (Baker 2008). Using a Georgian sash
window type, a number of measures were tested that did little to alter exterior
aesthetics. Secondary glazing and timber shutters were the most effective
overall option. Internally, curtains and roller blinds were much less effective.
However, the report found that a combination of measures resulted in the
greatest reductions of heat loss. The caveat is that design options for one
solution may impinge on other issues. For example, it will often not be possible
to close blinds all day as this reduces daylight into a building and compel using
lighting energy to ensure human comfort (Baker 2008).
Overall, good maintenance of a structure and its building services is key to
climate change adaptation. Owners of listed structures should ensure that the
costs and benefits of adaptation should be weighed up against irreversible
interventions and likely climate risks. Future research should be directed towards
analyses of particular buildings that may be most at risk from flooding, for
example. The earlier case studies of CIS tower and the Metallurgy and Materials
building at the University of Birmingham, both listed, demonstrate that
compromise solutions can be found.
29
5 Human Behaviour
The discussion ofdesign strategies above requires strategic planning in advance.
However, human behaviour is also crucial to ensuring the functioning of any
system. Most of the research focuses on thermal comfort. Here, ’soft’
adaptation strategies may be more economical and effective, such as changing
working hours so that a building need not be used in the hottest part of the day
or relaxing dress codes.
There are also spontaneous changes that humans and ecosystems make in
response to climate change impacts. This is known as ‘autonomous adaptation’
(Fankhauser et al 1999; Smit et al 2000); a phrase which the IPCC defines as
‘adaptation that does not constitute a conscious response to climatic stimuli, but
is triggered by ecological changes in natural systems and by market or welfare
changes in human systems’ (IPCC 2007). In relation to thermal comfort the
following principle of autonomous adaptation is widely accepted: ‘if a change in
the thermal environment occurs, such as to produce discomfort, people react in
ways which tend to restore their comfort’ (Oseland et al 1998). Moreover,
thermal adaptation is contingent on an individual’s historic thermal environment
and accepted cultural practices: ‘[i]f each and everyone of us could freely adjust
the air temperature and air velocity and his/her activity level or clothing, there
would be no thermal discomfort in buildings to begin with (Van Hoof, Mazej and
Hensen 2010).
Koen Steemers (2003) identifies three adaptive potentials that govern occupant
interactions with buildings. These are:
• Spatial o reconfiguring the office floor space
o making the workspace more flexible (e.g. hot desking)
o introducing working from home policies
• Personal
o changing clothing style
o providing more drinks
• Control
o ability to open windows
o ability to control temperature
30
However, there are also important cultural and geographical differences in the
way that humans cope with a variety of temperatures. People in hotter climates
are more likely to tolerate higher temperatures. Clothing plays a large role but is
often dictated by cultural acceptance of what is the correct attire to a) suit a
particular weather event or b) wear to work (see Hitchings 2011 for a review).
Recent research also shows that individual perceptions are variable. A review of
field studies on thermal adaptation in the built environment found that
occupants in naturally ventilated buildings tolerate a wider range of thermal
conditions than those in air-conditioned buildings. They are also more likely to
be attuned to the local climate outside of the building (De Dear and Brager
2002). This suggests that there is a strong association between what people
expect and know about indoor climate resulting from their knowledge of outdoor
conditions.
Opening a window is the most intuitive and simple response to controlling
overheating in a room. However, it relies on occupants having sufficient
knowledge and control over how to open windows in their office environment to
achieve comfortable results. Therefore, understanding of occupant behaviour is
of significance in the design and evaluation of naturally ventilated buildings. One
survey indicates that there is a close connection between perceived control and
actual control (with respect to window use), and that occupants with a high level
of perceived control more frequently use their windows than others with a low
level of perceived control (Yun et al 2008). Other factors that explain why people
open windows in office environments include the outdoor air temperature, the
season, time of day and occupancy pattern. Window orientation is also
considered as a relevant influencing factor (Zhang and Barrett 2012).
However, it is important to note that it is hard to come to an agreed standard on
levels of comfort (Chappells and Shove 2005). A literature review of almost fifty
laboratory and field studies, mainly of commercial office environments,
demonstrated that females are more likely to find dissatisfaction with cooler
temperatures than males. The author concludes that females have more rigorous
requirements than men regarding indoor thermal environments. Gender
differences indicate that females have, on average, a greater need for individual
temperature control and adaptive actions than males (Karjalainen 2011).
31
Morgan and de Dear (2003) completed an experiment to understand how people
modify their comfort an office. They analysed a working week which constituted
four days of strict dress code and one day (Friday) of causal dress. They found
that a more relaxed dress code resulted in higher levels of satisfaction with their
environment. Women had heightened weather sensitivity in their clothing
patterns than males, especially on their casual Fridays. What people wear is
affected by outdoor temperature knowledge from morning weather forecasts and
previous-day temperatures. In light of this, they suggested that the net result of
strict dress code policies transfer responsibility over comfort to the building’s
facilities management team. Yet, if occupants know the weather forecast and
have a relaxed enough dress policy to adapt to suit, then savings on air
conditioning and heating could be made.
32
6 Conclusion
This review has covered design interventions at building scale and provides a
number of options to be considered in adapting offices to projected climate
change. However, it is important to emphasise that spatial planning policies are
interrelated. For example, the orientation of other buildings has significant
implications for the potential passive cooling of buildings. With historic buildings,
adaptation options may conflict with a need to maintain the design integrity of a
structure.
Buildings, however, do not sit in isolation. The siting of new developments or the
alteration of existing infrastructure may hamper the effectiveness of solutions to
individual buildings. This makes spatial planning policies that influence the form
and function of urban areas at a strategic scale ever more significant. Adaptation
of urban landscapes, using green and blue infrastructure for example, can
reduce the magnitude of climate risks facing individual buildings.
In the construction of this literature review, finding suitable adaptation case
studies was difficult. It may be that buildings adapted to climate change have
not been identified in the GM area. Equally, it could mean that there is a
potential gap in knowledge and practice that needs to be addressed.
However, climate change adaptation cannot be solved by design alone. The role
of human behaviour will be key to exploiting the full worth of many of the
adaptation options covered here, particularly where these are passive. A more
contextual analysis of overheating in different rooms or areas of a building in
light of local climate may enable suggestions for facilities managers on where to
place certain occupants with respect to their number of staff, nature of the work
and type of equipment.
33
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