ada p tation committeeunfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ac16_7c... · the discussions at ac...

SixteenthmeetingoftheAdaptationCommittee

Bonn,Germany,9to12September2019

Informationpaperonlinkagesbetweenmitigationandadaptation

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introductionandbackground 2 Areviewofscientificliterature 3 LinkagesundertheUNFCCCandwithotherinternationalagendas 7 LinkagesinreportssubmittedbyPartiesUndertheUNFCCCandclimateprojects 10 Challenges,needsandopportunities 14 Conclusions 18 Nextsteps 19

AdaptationCommittee AC/2019/24

5September 2019Agendaitem7(c)

RecommendedactionbytheAdaptationCommittee

Thisinformationpaperpresentsanoverviewoflinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationintheoverallcontextofsustainabledevelopment,withthepurposeofincreasingunderstandingofhowlinkageshavebeenaddressedwithindifferentsectorsandundertheUNFCCC,includingassociatedsynergiesandtrade‐offs.ItdrawsprimarilyonIPCCreportsandreportssubmittedbyPartiestotheUNFCCC.Italsoexplorestheneed,challenges,andopportunitiesfortheintegrationofmitigationandadaptationactionsinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment.TheAdaptationCommittee(AC),atits16thmeeting,willbeinvitedtoconsidertheinformationpapercontainedinthisdocumentandconsidernextsteps,ifany.

AC/2019/24 AdaptationCommittee

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Introductionandbackground

1.1. Mandate

1. Aspartofits2019‐2021flexibleworkplan,inparticularitsworkstreamon“ProvidingtechnicalsupportandguidancetoPartiesonadaptationaction”andtheobjectiveof“EnhancingtheprovisionoftechnicalsupporttodevelopingcountryPartiesforadaptationactioninacoherentmanner”,theAdaptationCommittee(AC)agreedtopreparein2019aninformationpaperonlinkagesbetweenmitigationandadaptation.AtAC15,theACconsideredtheoutlineofthepaperandthetimelineforitspreparationasincludedinascopingnote1andrequestedthesecretariattopreparethepaperbyAC16takingintoaccountthediscussionsatAC15,inparticularthenotionofexploringthelinkagesinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment.

1.2. Overallframing

2. Climatechangeisathreattoequitableandsustainabledevelopment.Adaptation,mitigationandsustainabledevelopmentareinextricablyconnected,withpotentialforsynergiesandtrade‐offs.

3. TheParisAgreementemphasizestheintrinsicrelationshipthatclimatechangeactions,responsesandimpactshavewithequitableaccesstosustainabledevelopmentanderadicationofpoverty.Mitigationactiontoholdtheincreaseintheglobalaveragetemperaturetowellbelow2°Cabovepre‐industriallevelsandtopursueeffortstolimitthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°Cabovepreindustriallevelswilllimitclimatechangerisksandimpacts.Adaptationactiontoenhanceadaptivecapacity,strengthenresilience,andreducevulnerabilitytoclimatechangewillalsocontributetoclimate‐resilientpathwaysforsustainabledevelopment.

4. Thisissuehasalsoreceivedconsiderableattentioninscientificliterature,includingrecentIPCCreports,whichdescribedlinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment.

5. Thispaperelaboratesontheadaptationandmitigationlinkages,andontheirinter‐relationshipwithsustainabledevelopment.

1.3. PurposeandStructure

6. Thepurposeofthispaperistoincreaseunderstandingofhowlinkages2havebeenaddressedwithindifferentsectorsandundertheUNFCCC,includingassociatedsynergiesandtrade‐offs.

7. Followinganintroduction,thispaperincludesthefollowingsections:

8. Sectiontwoprovidesanoverviewoflinkagesbetweenmitigationandadaptationaswellassustainabledevelopmentinscientificliterature,drawingmainlyonfourreportsfromtheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC):

a) TheIPCC’sfourthassessmentreport,inparticularthechapteroninter‐relationshipsbetweenadaptationandmitigation;3

b) TheIPCC’sfifthassessmentreport,inparticularthechapteronclimate‐resilientpathways:adaptation,mitigation,andsustainabledevelopment;4

c) TheIPCC’sspecialreportontheimpactsofglobalwarmingof1.5°Cabovepre‐industriallevelsandrelatedglobalgreenhousegasemissionpathways,inthecontextofstrengtheningtheglobalresponsetothethreatofclimatechange,sustainabledevelopment,andeffortstoeradicatepoverty;5and

1https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ac15_9_linkages_mit_adap.pdf.2Thetermsinter‐relationship,relationshipandlinkagehavebeenusedinterchangeablyacrossthedocument3https://archive.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch18.html.4https://archive.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/.5https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/andhttps://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/summary‐for‐policy‐makers/.


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d) TheIPCC’sspecialreportonclimatechange,desertification,landdegradation,sustainablelandmanagement,foodsecurity,andgreenhousegas(GHG)fluxesinterrestrialecosystems,inparticularthechapteroninterlinkagesbetweendesertification,landdegradation,foodsecurityandGHGfluxes:synergies,trade‐offsandintegratedresponseoptions.6

9. InadditiontotheIPCCreports,scientificliteraturewasconsulted,whereappropriate,includingtoextractexamplesforimprovedunderstandingofthelinkages.

10. SectionthreeelaboratesonlinkagesundertheUNFCCC,theKyotoProtocol,andtheParisAgreement,includingrelevantdecisions.Thissectionalsoconsiderslinkageswithotherinternationalagendas,namelythe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,theConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD),theUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD),andtheworkoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO).

11. SectionfourcapturesinformationonlinkagescontainedinreportssubmittedbyPartiestotheUNFCCC,namelydocumentsrelatedtoNationalAdaptationPlans(NAPs),NationallyDeterminedContributions(NDCs),andNationalCommunications,andonlinkagescontainedinprojectsfundedbytheGCFandGEF.

12. Sectionfiveaddressesneeds,challenges,andopportunitiesassociatedwiththeintegrationofmitigationandadaptationactionsandsustainabledevelopment.Finally,sectionsix,informedbypreviouschapters,presentsasummaryofkeyfindings.

Areviewofscientificliterature13. Thereisincreasingrecognitioninthescientificliteraturethatchoosingandimplementingmitigationandadaptationoptionsinamannerthatincreasessynergiesandavoidstrade‐offsisfeasibleinseveralsectors.Itisalsorecognisedthatbothsynergiesandtrade‐offsexistbetweenadaptationandmitigationoptions,andthatsomesectorshavegreaterpotentialforsynergiesthanothers,includingenergy‐relatedsectors(e.g.properlydesignedbiomassproductionandenergyuseinbuildings)andland‐relatedsectors(e.g.landmanagementandforestry).7

14. ConsistentwiththeIPCC,thepaperdiscussesthreetypesoflinkages:(a)adaptationactionsthathaveconsequencesformitigation,(b)mitigationactionsthathaveconsequencesforadaptation,and(c)inter‐relationshipsbetweenadaptationandmitigationoptionsandsustainabledevelopment,includingthoseunder1.5°Cpathways.

2.1. Adaptationactionsthathaveconsequencesformitigation

15. Adaptationactionsthathaveconsequencesformitigationhavebeenaddressedunderdifferentsectorssuchasecosystems,agriculture,energyandinfrastructure,andatdifferentscales,includingatindividualandcommunitylevels.

16. Adaptationactionssuchasecosystem‐basedadaptationprojectscanhavepositiveeffectsonmitigationthrougheitherincreasingormaintainingcarbonstocks.Forexample,mangrovescontributetostabilizationofthecoastlineandpreventionoferosionfromwavesandstormsaswellastostoringcarbon.Arecentstudyestimatedthatnature‐basedsolutionscouldprovide37percentofcosteffectiveCO2mitigationneededbetweennowand2030tolimittemperatureincreaseto2degrees.8

17. However,trade‐offsmayarisewhenanecosystemisprioritizedoverandattheexpenseoftheother,suchastheimplementationofsomeadaptationprojectsupstreamthatmayhaveeffectsondownstreamcommunities.Itisthereforecriticaltodesignandimplementecosystem‐basedapproachesinarobustmannertoavoidtrade‐offs.9

18. Studieshaveshownlargepotentialforsynergiesbetweenadaptationandmitigationwithintheagriculturesector.Someadaptationoptionsthatcanbenefitmitigation,particularlybyincreasing6https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccl/.7https://archive.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch18.html8https://www.pnas.org/content/114/44/116459https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/9f64/178b/0f6394c5bf422cb156972f95/sbstta‐22‐08‐en.pdf


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efficiencyinnitrogenuseandenhancingsoilcarbonstorage,ifproperlymanaged,include(1)measuresforcroprotationanddiversity,(2)measuresforsoilmoistureconservation,(3)measuresthatreducenitrogenandphosphorusleaching,and(4)soilerosionpreventionmethods.10Moreover,improvementinirrigationtechniquescouldleadtoareductioninwaterandenergydemand.However,agriculturalirrigationcanreducewaterlevelsinriversandlakes,whichcouldleadtonegativeimpactsonbiodiversity,especiallywetlands.11Otheradaptationprojectsintheagriculturesectorthatreducedeforestationhavepositiveeffectsformitigation.

19. TotalnetGHGemissionsfromagriculture,forestry,andotherlanduse(AFOLU)were12.0+/‐3.0GtCO2eqyr‐1during2007‐2016,representing23%oftotalnetanthropogenicemissions.12Thelivestocksector,includingfeedcropfarming,canreduceemissionsconsiderablybyimprovedfeedandstockmanagement.AccordingtotheFAO,thelivestocksector,whichiscurrentlycontributingtoapproximatelyathirdofGHGemissionsfromtheAFOLUsectors,isestimatedtohavethepotentialofemissionsreductionofupto30percentwithinthesector.13

20. Climateresilienturbanplanninganddevelopmenthavegreatpotentialinreducingemissions,14withcitiescontributingtoapproximately70percentoftotalglobalenergy‐relatedcarbonemissions.Adaptationpracticessuchasgreenroofs,whichhelpalleviatethenegativeeffectsofclimatechangeby,forexample,reductionintheurbanheatislandeffect,canbenefitmitigationbyreducingenergydemand,passivecoolingandincreasingcaptureofCO2.15Amongpotentialtrade‐offsistheincreasedemissionsassociatedwithinfrastructuredevelopment.However,thereisanewtrendinlow‐carboninfrastructuredevelopmentmainlyresultingfromlowercostsduetotechnologyimprovementsandcompetitiveprocurement.16

21. Attheindividualandcommunitylevel,responsibleconsumptioncanreduceGHGemissions.Forexample,efficientuseandconservationofwaterinurbanareasthatreduceenergyusedinheatingwaterhavepositiveeffectsonemissionsreduction.Ontheotherhand,anexampleofnegativeconsequenceformitigationistheuseofair‐conditioninginresponsetoheatwaves,whichincreaseselectricitydemand.

2.2. Mitigationactionsthathaveconsequencesforadaptation

22. Moreefficientenergyuseandrenewablesources,bettermanagementoflanduseandforests,emissionreductionsinagriculturalpractices,andmitigationthroughurbanplanningcanhavepositiveeffectsforadaptationbypromotinglocaleconomiesandlivelihoodsandenhancingadaptivecapacity.

23. Positiveeffectsofmitigationactionsandpoliciesonadaptationintheenergysector,particularlywithregardtoenergyefficiencyandrenewableenergy,includeeconomicbenefits,improvedenergysecurityandreductioninlocalpollutantemissionswithsubsequenthealthbenefits.Hydropowerreservoirswerealsoconsideredmajorsourcesoflow‐carbonelectricityandakeyareaofmitigationintheenergysector.Theyhavebenefitsforadaptationastheycanbesourcesofirrigationwaterforagriculture,andenhancetheeconomicdevelopment,especiallyinareashighlydependentonagriculturesuchasSenegal,MaliandMauritaniawhichsufferdeficitsinstaplecerealcrops.However,hydropowerreservoirscanhavenegativeeffectsonbiodiversitybychangingthephysicalcharacteristicsoftheriversuchaswatertemperatures,waterchemistry,andriverflowcharacteristics.17Additionally,theimpactofcarbontaxesandenergypricescanleadtoreductioninresourceuse;forexample,highercostsoffuelscanreducetheuseofmobilemachinery(tractorsandotherfarmingvehicles)insemi‐subsistencefarming.However,theIPCC’sfourth

10https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal‐of‐agricultural‐science/article/synergies‐between‐the‐mitigation‐of‐and‐adaptation‐to‐climate‐change‐in‐agriculture/20FFDF69A92646BBE7390A2B54B10B5811https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584‐014‐1214‐0.12https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/Edited‐SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf13http://www.fao.org/3/a‐i7175e.pdf.14https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/EnergyTechnologyPerspectives2016_ExecutiveSummary_EnglishVersion.pdf.15https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670713000048.16https://www.oecd‐ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264308114‐en.pdf?expires=1563966350&id=id&accname=ocid57015269&checksum=8A27A9BA8CAF9321B8C8524FEEFA5229.17https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydropower/hydropower‐and‐the‐environment.php


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assessmentreportunderscoredtheimportanceofenergyinproducinggoodsandprovidingservicesinmanysectorsoftheeconomy;hence,therearenegativeeffectsassociatedwithreducingtheavailabilityorincreasingthepriceofenergyoneconomicdevelopmentandtheeconomiccomponentsofadaptivecapacity.Thereisadegreeofuncertaintywithregardtothemagnitudeofthiseffect.

24. Moreover,astudyonlinkingmitigationandadaptationinlong‐termstrategiesshowedthattheleastdevelopedcountries(LDCs)thatareparticularlyvulnerabletoclimatechangewillfacethelargestimpactsofclimatechangebefore2050,oranytimebeforethebenefitsofmitigationmaterialize,sotheimpactscanonlybeavoidedbyadaptationandthathigherenergypricecouldhavenegativeconsequencesfortheirresilientdevelopment.Thestudysuggeststhat“theprimarynarrativeforLDCsislikelytobetowardsintegratingcosteffectivemitigationinlongtermLDCadaptationplans”.18

25. Forestryandotherland‐usechangesinvolvecomplexlinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigation.Forestconservationandincreasingforestcoverhavebeenamongthemitigationoptionswithsignificantpositiveeffectsonadaptation.Thebenefitsofreducingdeforestationcanbesignificantonbiodiversity,soilandwaterconservation.Afforestationcanhavemanypositiveeffects,suchassoilconservationandfloodcontrolinareaswithabundantwaterresources.Itcanaffectregionalclimateandreducethefrequencyofclimateextremes,suchasheatwaves,whichconsequentlyreducethevulnerabilityofpeopleandecosystemsandimproveadaptationtoclimatechange.Nevertheless,inaridandsemi‐aridregions,afforestationcanreducewateryieldssignificantly,whichconsequentlyhasadverseeffectsonirrigationintheagriculturesector,oncoolingtowersinpowergeneration,andonecosystemprotection.Therefore,theregionalconditionsandtheimplementationmethodsshouldbetakenintoaccountwhendevelopingmitigationoptionsandactions.

26. Furthermore,positiveconsequencesforadaptationhavebeenreportedinmitigationprojectsrelatingtoforestry,includingconservingbiodiversityandimprovinglocalecosystemservicesforlocalcommunities.However,thereareconcernsthatsuchprojectscouldrestricttherightsandaccessoflocalcommunitiestolandandforestresourcesorincreasetheirdependenceonunpredictableexternalfunding.19

27. Thepotentialoftheagriculturesectorinemissionreductionissignificant,withtheglobalmitigationpotentialestimatedtobebetween1600and4200metrictonsofCO2equivalent(MtCO2Eq.)peryear.20Alltheoptionsthataffectthecarbonand/ornitrogencycleoftheagroecosystemhavethepotentialtoreduceemissions.Carbonsequestrationinagriculturalsoilsoffersanotherpositivelinkfrommitigationtoadaptation.Itimprovessoilpropertiesandnutrientcyclinginagroecosystems,thusenhancingboththeeconomicandenvironmentalcomponentsofadaptivecapacity.

28. Urbanplanningstudieshaveidentifiedbothsynergiesandtrade‐offsofmitigationactionswithadaptation.Examplesofpositiveconsequencesincludestandardsforbuildingsthatsupportenergyefficiency,passivebuildingdesign(e.g.passivecoolingofbuildingscombinedwithnightventilation)andusingbuildingmaterialsthatincreaseresilienceofthebuilding.However,densificationoftheurbanstructureinanattempttoreducingemissionsfromtransportationcancauseurbanheatislands,thusincreasesurbantemperature.21

2.3. Inter‐relationshipsbetweenadaptationandmitigationoptionsandsustainabledevelopment,includingthoseunder1.5°Cpathways

29. Theintegrationofadaptationandmitigationresponsesintosustainabledevelopmentplanningcanoptimizeeffortstoachieveclimateandsustainabledevelopmentgoals.Adaptationoptionsshouldbedesignedandimplementedwhiletakingintoconsiderationthegoalofsustainabledevelopmenttoensurethatadaptationactionsatonescaleorsectordonotleadtoinequitableandunsustainableoutcomesorincreasingvulnerabilityinanother,suchasincreasedGHGemissionsandwateruse,increasedhumanencroachmentintonaturalsystems,andincreasedgenderandsocialinequality.22Mitigationoptionsalso18DiscussionpaperbyGIZ,availableathttps://www.weadapt.org/system/files_force/18wk_giz.pdf?download=119https://www.cifor.org/fileadmin/fileupload/cobam/ENGLISH‐Definitions%26ConceptualFramework.pdf20https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal‐of‐agricultural‐science/article/synergies‐between‐the‐mitigation‐of‐and‐adaptation‐to‐climate‐change‐in‐agriculture/20FFDF69A92646BBE7390A2B54B10B5821https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584‐015‐1395‐122https://archive.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/


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needtobedesignedwellinordertoavoidunderminingsustainabledevelopment.Forexample,plantationsforbioenergyproduction,ifpoorlydesignedormanaged,canencroachonagriculturallands,forests,orindigenousorlocalownership.

30. Someclimatechangeresponsesaimtofindanappropriatemixbetweenmitigation,adaptation,andsustainabledevelopmentthatcanleadto“win‐win”and“triple‐win”byprovidingpositiveeffectswhileavoidingpotentialtrade‐offsbetweenthem.Oneexamplethathasledto“triple‐win”isacasestudyfromChina.Theinitiative,throughwater‐savingirrigationpractices,saved61.82–129.66billioncubicmeterwaterfrom2007to2009whichaccountedfor5.6–11.8%ofthenationaltotalwaterconsumption,andreducedthetotalCO2emissionsby21.83–47.48MtofCO2,withallhavingpositiveeffectsindealingwithclimatechangeandpromotingregionalsustainabledevelopmentinChina.

31. Anotherexampleofmechanismswithco‐benefits,mentionedintheIPCCfifthassessmentreportinthecontextofexternalities,isREDD+.Itrefersto"reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradationindevelopingcountries,andtheroleofconservation,sustainablemanagementofforests,andenhancementofforestcarbonstocksindevelopingcountries".Thismechanismhasshowntriple‐wininsomecasesbyreducingcarbonemissions,enhancinglivelihoodsofforestdwellers,andprovidingbenefitstosocialequity.ThegovernmentofEthiopiasupportstheREDD+mechanismandhasbeenintheprocessofdevelopingitsREDD+programincriticalsectorsoftheeconomysince2008.23

32. However,notalltheprojectsthataimedtoreduceemissionsandcontributetosustainabledevelopmenthaveresultedinwin‐winoutcomes.Anassessmentof16CleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM)24projectshasshownthattheprojectscouldmeet72percentoftheiremissionsreductiongoals,butlessthan1percentmighthavecontributedsignificantlytosustainabledevelopmentinthehostcountries.25

33. TheIPCC,initsfifthassessmentreport,addressedarangeofissueswithregardtotheintegrationofadaptationandmitigationactionsintosustainabledevelopment,includingtheconceptofadditionality26formitigationprojectswhichisneededtomakeprojectsattractivetointernationalsupport,ordisconnectbetweenaccesstointernationaladaptationfundsanddevelopingcountries’developmentagendasthathindermainstreamingofadaptationintodevelopment.Theseissuesarediscussedinmoredetailinsectionfive“Challenges,needs,andopportunities”.

2.3.1. Linkagesunder1.5°Cpathways

34. TheIPCC,initsspecialreportontheimpactsofglobalwarmingof1.5°Cabovepre‐industriallevelsandrelatedglobalgreenhousegasemissionpathways,elaboratedonadaptationandmitigationoptionsconsistentwith1.5°Cpathways.Theseareassociatedwithpotentialpositiveeffects(synergies)ornegativeeffects(trade‐offs)acrosstheSDGs.27Thereporthighlightedthattheimpactofclimatechangeonsustainabledevelopment,eradicationofpovertyandreducinginequalitieswouldbelesserwith1.5°Cpathwaysratherthan2°C,consideringthatmitigationandadaptationsynergiesaremaximizedwhiletrade‐offsareminimized.

35. Adaptationoptions,withglobalwarmingof1.5°C,thataretargetedtoreducethevulnerabilityofhumanandnaturalsystemswillhavemanysynergieswithsustainabledevelopmentandpovertyreduction,ifwellmanagedandifnationalcontextsandenablingconditionsaretakenintoaccounts.Thepositiveeffectsincludepromotingfoodandwatersecurity,reducingdisasterrisks,improvinghealthconditions,maintainingecosystemservices,andreducingpovertyandinequality.Thekeyenablingconditionwasstatedasincreasedinvestmentinphysicalandsocialinfrastructuretoenhancesocieties’resilienceandadaptivecapacity.Trade‐offsarealsopossiblebetweenadaptationandmitigation,whenlimitingglobalwarmingto1.5°C.Forexample,theencroachmentofreforestationorafforestationprojectsonlandthatis

23https://ethiopiareddplus.gov.et/24CDMisamechanismundertheKyotoProtocoltoassistPartiesnotincludedinAnnexIinachievingsustainabledevelopmentandincontributingtotheultimateobjectiveoftheConvention,andtoassistPartiesincludedinAnnexIinachievingcompliancewiththeirquantifiedemissionlimitationandreductioncommitmentsunderArticle3.25SutterandParreno(2007)intheIPCCAR5.26AdditionalityundertheCDMwasdefinedbyDecision3/CMP.1para43:“ACDMprojectactivityisadditionalifanthropogenicemissionsofgreenhousegasesbysourcesarereducedbelowthosethatwouldhaveoccurredintheabsenceoftheregisteredCDMprojectactivity.”27https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/summary‐for‐policy‐makers/


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neededforagriculturalproductioncanunderminefoodsecurityandotherdimensionsofsustainabledevelopment.

36. Severalpotentialsynergiesandtrade‐offswereaddressedbetweenmitigationoptionsconsistentwith1.5°Cpathwaysandsustainabledevelopment(andSDGs).Thepotentialforsynergiesortrade‐offsdependsonarangeoffactorsincludingthecompositionofthemitigationportfolio,mitigationpolicydesign,andlocalcircumstancesandcontext.Mitigationoptionsthathavegreatersynergiesandlessertrade‐offswithrespecttosustainabledevelopmentincludethosethatarelinkedwithlowenergydemand,lowmaterialconsumption,andlowGHG‐intensivefoodconsumption.Thereportstatedthatthepotentialforsynergiesisparticularlylargerthanfortrade‐offsintheenergy‐demandsector.Italsomentionedthatmitigationconsistentwith1.5°Cpathwayscreatesrisksforsustainabledevelopmentinregionshighlydependentonfossilfuelsforrevenueandemploymentgeneration;hence,itsuggestedthatpoliciesshouldbedevelopedtopromotediversificationoftheeconomyandtheenergysectorinaddressingtheassociatedchallenges.

37. Thereporthighlightedrobustsynergiesbetweenmitigationoptionsconsistentwith1.5°CpathwaysandmultipleSDGs,“particularlyfortheSDGs3(health),7(cleanenergy),11(citiesandcommunities),12(responsibleconsumptionandproduction)and14(oceans)(veryhighconfidence).Some1.5°Cpathwaysshowpotentialtrade‐offswithmitigationforSDGs1(poverty),2(hunger),6(water)and7(energyaccess),ifnotmanagedcarefully(highconfidence)”.

LinkagesundertheUNFCCCandwithotherinternationalagendas38. ThissectiondescribeshowlinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationhavebeenaddressedundertheUNFCCC,theKyotoProtocol,andtheParisAgreement,includingrelevantdecisions.Thelinkagesareclassifiedintotwogroups,firstthosethatexplicitlyaddresssynergiesbetweenadaptationandmitigation,andthesecondgrouppresentsthelinkbetweenadaptationand/ormitigationwithsustainabledevelopmentand/orsomedimensionsofit.

39. Additionally,thesectionextendstoincludelinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationactionsandsustainabledevelopment,biodiversity,desertification,andfoodandagricultureundertheSDGs,CBD,UNCCD,andFAOrespectively.Figure1illustratesthelinkagesdiscussedinthissection.

3.1. LinkagesundertheUNFCCC

40. Objectivesofadaptationandmitigationdiffer.Whilemitigationaddressesthecausesofclimatechangeandaimstoreduceemissions,adaptationdealswithreducingthenegativeimpactsofclimatechange,andifany“seekstoexploitbeneficialopportunities”.

Linkagesbetweenmitigationandadaptation

LinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationhavebeenaddressedundertheParisAgreement.AninversecorrelationbetweenthemhasbeenreflectedinArticle7oftheParisAgreement.Paragraph4ofArticle7recognisestheinterlinkagebetweenthecurrentneedforadaptationandthelevelsofmitigationachieved;thatis,greaterlevelsofmitigationcanreducetheneedforadditionaladaptationefforts.28Article5oftheParisAgreementencouragesPartiestotakeactiontoimplementandsupportalternativepolicyapproaches,suchasjointmitigationandadaptationapproachesfortheintegralandsustainablemanagementofforests,whilereaffirmingtheimportanceofincentivizing,asappropriate,non‐carbonbenefitsassociatedwithsuchapproaches.29Moreover,Article4(para7)oftheParisAgreementstatesthatmitigationco‐benefitsresultingfromParties'adaptationactionsand/oreconomicdiversificationplanscancontributetomitigationoutcomes.30

41. ThelinkagesarealsoaddressedinanumberofCOPdecisions,forexample:

28SeetheParisAgreement,Article7,para4.29SeetheParisAgreement,Article5,para2.30SeetheParisAgreement,Article4,para7.


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a) COP21alsorecognisedthesocial,economicandenvironmentalvalueofvoluntarymitigationactionsandtheirco‐benefitsforadaptation,healthandsustainabledevelopment.31

b) InthedecisionrelatingtheKoroniviajointworkonagriculture,thePartiesandobserverswereinvitedtosubmittheirviewsonissuesrelatedtoagricultureandotherfuturetopicsincludingmethodsandapproachesforassessingadaptation,adaptationco‐benefitsandresilience.32

c) Inthedecisionrelatedthetechnicalexaminationprocessonmitigationintheperiod2016–2020,COPrequestedtoreflectthemitigationbenefitsandco‐benefitsofpolicies,practicesandactionsforenhancingmitigationambition,aswellasonoptionsforsupportingtheirimplementation.33

d) Indefiningthetechnicalexaminationprocessonadaptation,COPrequestedtoincludeconsiderationofactionsthatcouldenhanceeconomicdiversificationandhavemitigationco‐benefits.34

Linkagesbetweenmitigationandadaptationactionsandsustainabledevelopment

42. LinkagesbetweenclimatechangemitigationandadaptationactionsandsustainabledevelopmenthavebeenalsoaddressedintheConvention,theKyotoProtocol,andtheParisAgreement.IntheConvection,forexample,therelationshipbetweenmitigation,adaptationandsustainabledevelopmenthasbeenreflectedinArticle2oftheConvention.Thearticlestatesthatmitigationactionsshouldbeachievedwithinatime‐framesufficienttoallowecosystemstoadaptnaturallytoclimatechange,toensurethatfoodproductionisnotthreatened,andtoenableeconomicdevelopmenttoproceedinasustainablemanner.35Additionally,underthecommitmentsoftheConvention,Parties“shalltakeclimatechangeconsiderationsintoaccount,totheextentfeasible,intheirrelevantsocial,economicandenvironmentalpoliciesandactions,andemployappropriatemethods,forexampleimpactassessments,formulatedanddeterminednationally,withaviewtominimizingadverseeffectsontheeconomy,onpublichealthandonthequalityoftheenvironment,ofprojectsormeasuresundertakenbythemtomitigateoradapttoclimatechange.”36AnexampleoflinkagesistheCDMundertheKyotoProtocol,thepurposeofwhichistoassistdevelopingcountriesinachievingsustainabledevelopmentandincontributingtotheultimateobjectiveoftheConvention.37

43. Article2oftheParisAgreementaimstostrengthentheglobalresponsetothethreatofclimatechange,inthecontextofsustainabledevelopmentandeffortstoeradicatepoverty.Italsonotesthatadaptationandlowgreenhousegasdevelopmentshouldbeundertakeninamannerthatdoesnotthreatenfoodproduction.38

3.2. Linkageswithotherinternationalagendas

44. The2030agendaforsustainabledevelopmentandtheRioconventions(CBD,UNCCD,UNFCCC)addressclimatechangeintheiractivitiesandareworkingtogethertoenhanceeffectiveclimateactionsandtoachievesustainabledevelopment.Inaddition,climatechangeisconsideredacross‐cuttingcorporateprioritybytheFAOandthishasbeenreflectedintheFAO’srecentstrategyonclimatechange.

45. Resolution70/1oftheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblycallsforaplanforactions,with17goalsfocusingonthethreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopment,comprisingtheeconomic,socialand

31SeeDecision1/CP.21para108.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10a01.pdf#page=232Seedecision4/CP.23.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/2017/cop23/eng/11a01.pdf33SeeDecision1/CP.21para111.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10a01.pdf#page=234SeeDecision1/CP.21para127(b).35SeetheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange,Article2:Objective.36SeetheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange,Article4:Commitments,para1(f).37TheKyotoProtocol,Article12.38SeetheParisAgreement,Article2.


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environmental.39Goal13inspiresurgentactionstocombatclimatechangeanditseffects.TheCBDprocessincludesspecificactivitiesonbiodiversityandclimatechange.DecisionV/3ofthefifthsessionoftheCOPtotheCBDonmarineandcoastalbiodiversityincludedadaptationwithintheframeworkof“priorityareasforactiononcoralbleaching”,40anddecisionVIII/30on“Biodiversityandclimatechange:guidancetopromotesynergyamongactivitiesforbiodiversityconservation,mitigatingoradaptingtoclimatechangeandcombatinglanddegradation”,theConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDencouragedthedevelopmentofrapidassessmenttoolsforthedesignandimplementationofbiodiversityconservationandsustainableuseactivitiesthatcontributetoadaptation.ItalsoencouragedPartiesandothergovernments,whenaddressingresearchneedsandactivitiesontheimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversity,toinvolveindigenousandlocalcommunitiesandotherrelevantstakeholders,particularlyonissuesrelatedtoecosystemhealth,humanhealth,traditionalknowledge,andlivelihoods.41

46. UNCCD’sArticle10addresses,throughtheformulationofNationalActionProgrammes,theimplementationofadaptationmeasurestomitigatetheeffectsofdrought,includingdroughtearlywarning,assistingenvironmentallydisplacedpersons,strengtheningofdroughtpreparednessandmanagement,establishmentoffoodsecuritysystemsandofalternativelivelihoodprojects,anddevelopmentofsustainableirrigationprogrammesforbothcropsandlivestock.42TheFAO’srecentstrategyonclimatechangefocuseson,interalia,improvedintegrationoffoodsecurity,agriculture,forestry,andfisherieswithintheinternationalagendaonclimatechangethroughreinforcedFAOengagement.43

Figure1.LinkagesundertheUNFCCCandwithotherinternationalagendas

39https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_RES_70_1_E.pdf40https://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=714541https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop‐08/cop‐08‐dec‐30‐en.doc42http://catalogue.unccd.int/936_UNCCD_Convention_ENG.pdf43http://catalogue.unccd.int/936_UNCCD_Convention_ENG.pdf,FAOStrategyonClimateChange,availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a‐i7175e.pdf


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LinkagesinreportssubmittedbyPartiesUndertheUNFCCCandclimateprojects

4.1. Plansandstrategies

47. ThissectionoffersinsightsgainedfromreportssubmittedbyPartiestotheUNFCCCdrawnfromthreesources,comprisingtheNAPs,NDCs,andNationalCommunications.Partiesaddressedthelinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationpredominantlyintheformofpotentialmitigationco‐benefitsresultingfromadaptationactionsandviceversa.Theyalsomentionedco‐benefitsofmitigationandadaptationactions,inabroadercontext,forhealthandwellbeingofpeople,povertyreduction,low‐emissioneconomyandclimate‐resilientdevelopment.Synergiesarebeingsoughtacrossseveralsectors,includingenergy,agricultureandlivestock,forestry,ecosystems,andurbandevelopmentandinfrastructure.

4.1.1. Energy

48. Partiesreportedbothadaptationoptionsthatdeliverpotentialco‐benefitsformitigation,andmitigationoptionsthatdeliverpotentialadaptationco‐benefitsintheenergysector.Mitigationmeasureswithadaptationco‐benefitsincludethosethatresultinsocio‐economicbenefits(e.g.jobcreationandincreasedruralhouseholdincomes),andimprovedelectricityaccessandsecurity.Forexample,onePartyreportedinitsNDCthatabout6000greenjobscanbecreatedby2030throughimplementingenergyefficiencymeasuresinbuildingsandintroducinglow‐carbonenergysupplytechnologies.

49. Examplesofadaptationmeasureswithmitigationco‐benefitsintheenergysectorincludeenergyefficiencyandtheroleofrenewableenergydevelopmentinincreasingtheresilienceoftheenergy,landuse,waterandhealthsectors.OnePartyestimatedthatitsadaptationmeasureswouldgenerateemissionreductionsofupto130MiotCO2eq.

4.1.2. Agriculture

50. Withregardtotheagriculturesector,countriesreportedthedevelopmentofsomeguidelines/adaptationmeasuresforagriculturalprogrammesandactionplansthattakeaccountofGHGmitigationtoincreasethesustainabilityofthesector.Frequentlyhighlightedadaptationmeasuresofferingco‐benefitsformitigationincludefarmingpracticesthatcontributetoreducingGHGemissionsandimprovedlivestockproductionpractices(seeBox1foranexampleofreducingnitrogenfertilizerinemissionreduction).Engagementintheprocessofclimate‐smartagriculture(CSA)wasalsoaddressedinthecontextoffoodsecurityandincreasingresilienceanddecreasingemissions.

Box1.NitrogenuseefficiencyinUKagriculture

Nitrousoxideisanimportantgreenhousegaswithaglobalwarmingpotentialof265–298timesthatofcarbondioxidefora100‐yeartimescale.Theapplicationofnitrogenfertilizertoagriculturalsoils,whichhasbeendrivenbytheneedforgreatercropyields,isthemaincontributortoN2Oemissions.TheUKDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(Defra)hasinvestedsignificantresourcestoimproveunderstandingaboutuncertaintiesassociatedwithestimatingemissionsfromsoilsandhasreviseditsguidelinesonagriculturalpracticesandefficientuseoffertilizers.Implementationofchangesinagriculturalmanagementsuchasreducingnitrogenfertilizer,improvedtimingofmineralfertilizernitrogenapplication,improvinglanddrainageandadoptingsystemslessreliantoninputscanincreasetheeconomicefficiencyoffarmingsystemsaswellasreducingemissions.Astudyestimated4.3 t CO2e ha−1 y−1GHGreductionintheUKasaresultoftheimprovementinagriculturalmanagement.Sources:https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/19603845_United%20Kingdom‐NC7‐BR3‐1‐gbr%20NC7%20and%20BR3%20with%20Annexes%20%281%29.pdf;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00380768.2012.733869


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4.1.3. ForestryandBiodiversity

51. Somecountrieshighlighted,whilesupportingeffortstocombatdeforestation,thatreducingdeforestationhasclimatechangemitigationbenefitsandithelpsreducepovertyandprotectbiodiversity,withcorrespondingbenefitsforresilienceandadaptation.Interventionstrategiesforreducingdeforestationandforestsdegradationwerementionedasconsiderationsforprioritizationofadaptationmeasures.

52. AdaptationmeasuresaimedatbiodiversityconservationandsoilandwaterprotectionaddressedbysomePartiestoprovideco‐benefitsforGHGmitigation.Protectionofmarineandterrestrialecosystems,drought‐tolerantspecies,wetlands,andmangroves(seeBox2foranexampleofprotectingmangrovesinBelize)wereamongadaptationmeasuresofbiodiversityconservationwithpositiveeffectsincreatingcarbonsinks.OneParty,whilerecognisingtheco‐benefitsofadaptationandmitigationwithsustainabledevelopment,referredtoitsplanforprotectionofallremainingwetlandsandwatershedswithcarbonsequestrationpotentialby2030.

53. Partiesrecognisedtheroleofecosystemservicessuchasecosystem‐basedadaptation(EbA)indeliveringmultiplebenefitsbeyondadaptation.FijiinitsNAPemphasisedthepromotionofEbAanditsroleinthealignmentofNAPwithnationalframeworksandplans,andtheco‐benefitsitcanofferfordisasterriskreductionandmitigation(Box3).

Box2.ProtectionofexistingmangrovesfromdeforestationinBelize

Box3.Promotionofecosystem‐basedadaptationoptioninFiji’sNAP

BelizeinitsNDCrecognizedthatmanymitigationactionswillproduceco‐benefitsthatpromoteadaptation,reducetheriskofdisasters,andenhanceresiliencetoclimatechange.Forestprotectionandreplantingofmangrovesareexpectedtoprotectthecoastlineagainstimpactofstormsandsoilerosion.Mangroveforestsarealsohabitatsforregionalfishstocksandmaritimeecosystems.Protectionofexistingmangrovesfromdeforestationandrestorationoflostmangroveshavethecarbonsequestrationpotentialofaround11.2Ggcarbondioxideannuallyandremovingadditional2.2–35GgCO2peryearbetween2020and2030.Source:https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Belize%20First/BELIZE's%20%20NDC.pdf

ClimatechangehasplayedaroleindeteriorationofecosystemsinFiji,withoceanwarmingandacidificationhaveledtocoralbleachingevents.Thedeteriorationofecosystemsandnaturalresourceshadnegativeeffectsonbiodiversity,foodsecurity,livelihoods,andprotectionagainststorms.Assessmentofecosystem‐basedadaptationsinFijishowedthattheecosystem‐basedadaptationwascost‐effectiveandthattheyhaveprovidedsocial,economic,andenvironmentalco‐benefitsaswellasmitigationco‐benefits.Fiji’sNAP’sisviewedastheprocessofimplementingtheadaptationcomponentofthenewNationalClimateChangePolicy(NCCP).ThepromotionofEBAhelpstoaligntheNAPwiththeNCCPandtohighlightvaluesassociatedwithecosystemsandtheservicestheyprovidetobeincorporatedintosub‐nationaladaptationplanning.ThepromotionofEBAalsocontributestowardsaligningtheNAPwithothernationalframeworksandplansaswellasinternationalagreements.Theseinclude(1)theIntegratedCoastalManagementFramework,(2)NationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan,(3)theStateoftheEnvironmentreporting,aswellas(4)theUnitedNationsConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Source:https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NAPC/Documents/Parties/National%20Adaptation%20Plan_Fiji.pdf


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4.1.4. Urbandevelopmentandtransport

54. Urbandevelopmentandarchitecturewasmentionedtohavethepotentialtodesignsolutionscombiningmitigationandadaptationinamannertowardslowcarbonandsustainabledevelopment.OnePartyidentifiedgreatpotentialofsynergiesinthisfield,referringtothestrategicplanofitsministryofenvironmentandurbanization.Thestrategyconsistsofthreepillarsenvironmental,urbanization,andinstitutionalcapacityintegratingenvironmentalsustainabilityandclimatechangeactionsintotheurbanizationstrategiesandpolicies.

55. Anothercountryidentifiedanumberofmeasuresforemissionreductiontobeimplementedduring2015and2030.Amongtheintendedactionsisthedevelopmentofroadnetworkforpublictransport.InadditiontoGHGemissionsreduction,thisactivitywillleadtoreductioninotherpollutants(nitrogenoxidesandsulphuroxides)andimproveairqualitywhichwillconsequentlyhaveco‐benefitsforhumanhealth.

4.1.5. Crosscuttingsectors

56. SeveralPartiescitedclimatechangeasacross‐cuttingtheme,hencesuggestedthatpoliciesandstrategiesforadaptationandmitigationshouldbeintegratedintodevelopmentpoliciesandprogrammes.Thiswouldenhancesynergieswithexistingrelevantdevelopmentpolicies,buildnationalcapacityforlow‐emissiondevelopment,andincreaseefficiencyandcost‐effectivenessacrossmultiplesectors,includingprovisionsforcross‐cuttingissuesfordatacollection,monitoringandassessment.

57. Countriescurrenteffortsondisasterriskreduction,suchasimprovementofextremeweathereventsmonitoringsystem,werementionedtobebeneficialforadaptationtoclimatechange.OnePartystatedthatoneofitsNAP’sobjectivesistoenhancesynergiesbetweenadaptationandmitigationactions,andtoachievealowcarbonclimateresilienteconomythroughmainstreamingdisasterriskreductionapproachesinvarioussectors.

58. Mostreportedtheirprovisionofpublicbilateralandmultilateralfinancialsupporttobedividedintomitigation,adaptationandcross‐cutting.Forexample,onePartymentionedthatmostpublicclimatefinancesupportedcross‐cuttingactivitiesduetosubstantialcontributionstoactivitiesthroughmultilateralandotherchannelsthatsupportbothadaptationandmitigation,with913millioneurosspentin116cross‐cuttingactivitiesintheperiodbetween2013and2016.

59. Somecountriesrecognizedthatsomeclimatechangemitigationactivitieshavethepotentialforadaptationco‐benefits,sointheirprioritizingadaptationoptions,mitigationco‐benefitswereconsideredasoneofthecriteria.OneNAPmentionedthatsometechnologiesformitigationmayrelatetosectorssensitivetoclimatechangeimpactsand,helpmeettheiradaptationrequirements.

60. OneParty,initsNAP,acknowledgedthereductionofgreenhousegasemissionsasbeingcriticalforaddressingtheadverseeffectsofclimatechangeandforstrengtheningresilience.ThisNAPintendstofocusoncapacitybuildingofresearcherswiththeaimtoproduceknowledgeanddeepenunderstandingaboutemissionfactorsacrosssectors.

61. Theimportanceofaddressingadaptationoptionsthatinvolvetrade‐offswasunderscoredbyafewParties.Thiswassuggestedtobeundertakenthroughevaluationoftheoptionsusing,amongsomeothermethods,participatorymulti‐criteriaanalysistodeterminetrade‐offsandtofindalternativeoptions,withtheaimtobalancetheneedsofallstakeholders.OneNAP,whilerecognizingtheco‐benefitsofsomemitigationactivitiesforadaptationandenhancedresilience,addressedthenegativeimpactsofsomemitigationpoliciesonitseconomy;forexample,carbontaxesandincreasedcostsoflongdistanceaviationmayresultitpotentialdeclineintourismindustry.

4.2. Climateprojects

62. TheConventionestablishedaFinancialMechanismtoprovidefundstoassistdevelopingcountryPartieswithrespecttobothmitigationandadaptationinfulfillingtheirobligationsundertheConvention.FundsarecurrentlybeingprovidedthroughtheAdaptationFund,theGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)andtheGreenClimateFund(GCF).


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63. TheAdaptationFundhasaclearmandatetofocusonadaptationonly.Eventhoughthemitigationco‐benefitsarenotsoughtexplicitly,manyagricultureandEbAprojectscanofferco‐benefitsformitigation.Forexample,aproject,fundedbytheAF,inEcuadorconsistsofacomponentofconservationofvegetationcoveronanareaof230,000ha,throughactivesustainableforestmanagementandtheintroductionofconservationtechnologies.44

64. TheGEFthroughthethreeGEF‐7cross‐cuttingImpactPrograms(SustainableCities;FoodSystems,LandandRestoration;andSustainableForestManagement)considerslinkagesbetweenmitigationoptionsandclimateresiliencemeasures,topromoteandharnesssynergiesacrossthevariousmultilateralenvironmentalagreementsinanintegratedmanner.

65. TheGCFhasacross‐cuttingportfoliotoallowforfundingcross‐cuttingprojectsandprogrammesindevelopingcountries.Cross‐cuttingprojectsrepresentabout34%oftheportfolioprovidingbothmitigationandadaptationancillarybenefitstovaryingdegrees.Itisimportanttomentionthatthebreakdownsbymitigationandadaptationforcross‐cuttingprojectsarepreliminaryestimates,andtheGCFiscurrentlyreviewingitsmethodologytoimprovesegregationofmitigationandadaptationcomponentsandthediscountrate.

66. Followingaremitigation‐adaptationlinkagesillustratedbycross‐cuttingprojects,aswellastheirlikelyco‐benefits.

67.

Figure2.GCFprojectsfundedbytargetarea(%oftotalfunding)

DataSource:GCF2019

68. Contributiontoinstitutionaltransformation,climateinvestmentandregulatorypolicy:TheGCF’scross‐cuttingprogrammeshaveprovidedaninvestmentintheinstitutionalandhumancapacityneededfordevelopingcountriestofullyintegrateclimateinformationandriskintoplanning,policyframeworks,projectdesignanddelivery.ThiswouldalsosupporttheevolutionofNDCsandcountryprioritiesovertime.Forexample,projectsinMorocco,PakistanandMongolia,supportmulti‐yearfundingtotargetbuildingofmanagementcapacitiesofinstitutionalstakeholders,electedrepresentativesandprofessionalorganizations.Thelikelybenefitsofbuildinglong‐termcapacityalsosupportclimatepolicycoherencebetweenmitigationandadaptationobjectivesandpoliciesacrossagriculture,waterandenergysectors.

69. TheclimatemitigationstrategyoftheGEFSmallGrantsProgram(SGP)aimstoscaleuplow‐carbon,viabletechnologiesandapproachestoimprovecommunityenergyaccess.TheSGPhassupportedmorethan23,500projectsimplementedbycivilsocietyandcommunity‐basedgroupsin131countries.TheSGPportfoliohasthe“potentialforcarbonemissionsreductionsthroughinitialcatalyticfinancingaimedatgeneratingco‐benefits,suchasincreasingclimateresilience,reducingpoverty,enhancinggenderequality,andachievingrelevantSDGs”.45

70. Cross‐cuttingprojectstargetingagriculturesectorofferseveralopportunitiesforsupportpoliciestobuildsynergiescross‐sectors,e.g.agrifood/water/energynexus.Cross‐cuttingprojectsintheagriculturesectorinElSalvador,Cambodia,Guatemala,MexicoandRwandaareaddressingsmallholderfarmervulnerabilitytoclimateshocks,landaccessandcreditbyleverageprivatesectorforresilienceofagriculturalvaluechains.ProjectsinGuatemalaandMexicoalsoleverageinsuranceandriskguarantee/financemarkets,andlikelyco‐benefitsincludecrowding‐inofexternalfinanceviacreationofa

44https://www.adaptation‐fund.org/project/increasing‐adaptive‐capacity‐local‐communities‐ecosystems‐hydroelectric‐systems‐rio‐blanco‐upper‐watershed‐toachi‐pilaton‐watershed/45ReportoftheGEFtoCOP25http://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/council‐meeting‐documents/EN_GEF.C.55.Inf_.XX_UNFCCC_CoP_Report.pdf


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risksharingfacilitytounlockinnovativeandscalablefinancialinstrumentsformicro‐,small‐andmedium‐sizedenterprises.46

71. Withinthewatersector,significantchallengesremainindevelopingcountriesinwaterresourcemanagement,efficiencyofuse,agriculturalirrigationpractices,wastewatertreatmentandsanitation.47GCFinterventionsinthewatersectoraimtopromoteasynergisticapproachtotacklingthewater‐energy‐foodsecuritynexus.Forexample,inBarbados,KiribatiandSolomonIslands,projectshaveenabledthescalingupinnovativefinancingmodelsandadoptionoftechnologiesbyleveragingpartnershipswithnationalwater,sanitationandenergysectorsprivatesectorindevelopingcountries.Thelikelyco‐benefitsofthewaterandenergyprojectsincludeaccesstolow‐emissionpower,watersecurityandenergystorageandimprovedhumanhealthandwellbeing.48

72. Ecosystem‐basedprojectsconserveecosystems(andthuscarbon),canbenefitthecleanenergysector,preserveagriculturalyieldinachangingclimateandavoiddisplacementofagriculturetoforestedareas.Forexample,projectsinNiger,PeruandBhutanaimtofacilitateforestryandlanduseclimatemitigation(carbonsinksandreservoirs),betterland‐useplanningandmanagementofwetlands,disasterriskmanagement,commercialbio‐businessesofnon‐timberforestproducts.AlargecomponentofthePeruprojectalsosupportsbio‐businesses,includingdevelopmentofbusinessplans,marketingandmanagement,developmentofsolarenergyandpotentiallivelihoodbenefitsforlocalcommunities.49Similarly,inBhutan,thedevelopmentofprotectedareashelpstoconservecarbonandhasco‐benefitssuchasprotectionofecosystemfunctionsandservices,naturalresourcemanagementandincomeandlivelihoods.50

73. AprojectinMauritaniaaimstoincreasetheadaptivecapacityofruralcommunitiesinthreearidregionsofAdrar,Inchiri,andTrarza.Theprojectwilldirectlybenefit3,500peopleandplace1,300hectaresoflandunderclimateresilientmanagementthroughseveraladaptationmeasures,includingreducingsoilerosion,improvingwatersupply,providingnon‐foresttimberproducts,andimprovingfoodsecurity.TheprojectincludesEbAapproachwhichisinnovativeintheSahelianandSaharanecosystemcontext.Inadditiontoreducingclimatevulnerability,thisprojectalsoprovidesco‐benefitsformitigation,includingthroughcarbonsequestration.51

74. Givenitscross‐cuttingnature,citiesandurbangrowthisanareawhereadaptationandmitigationsynergiescancross‐sectoralandtheco‐benefitscanbemaximizedbystrengtheningtheresilienceofurbaninfrastructurewhilereducingassociatedemissions.Forexample,theUlaanbaatarGreenAffordableHousingandResilientUrbanRenewalProject,inMongoliaissupportingthecreationofeco‐districtsinthesehighlyclimate‐vulnerableandpollutingareas(traditionalMongoliandwellings).52Theeco‐districtsarelow‐carbon,climateresilientandaffordable.Thisisbeingdonethroughlow‐costgreeninfrastructure,publicfacilities,andsocialhousingunits.Manyoftheco‐benefitsincludetheimprovementoflocalairqualityandtheassociatedhealthbenefits(byreducinggreenhouseemissionsandimprovingairpollution).

Challenges,needsandopportunities75. Thissectionaddresseschallenges,needs,andopportunities,drawnfromthescientificliterateandprojectsandreportsfromParties,whenlinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigationactionsandpolicesweresoughtand/orwhenintegrationofadaptationandmitigationprojectswithsustainabledevelopmentweredesired.

46GCF.2017.FP048Climate‐SmartAgriculture(CSA)RiskSharingFacilityforMSMEs.Songdo:GreenClimateFund.47GCF.2019.Adaptation:Acceleratingactiontowardsaclimateresilientfuture.GreenClimateFundworkingpaperNo.1.Songdo:GreenClimateFund.48GCF.2018.FP091SouthTarawaWaterSupplyProject.Songdo:GreenClimateFund.49GCF.2015.FP001BuildingtheResilienceofWetlandsintheProvinceofDatemdelMarañón,Peru.Songdo:GreenClimateFund.50GCF.2017.FP050BhutanforLife.Songdo:GreenClimateFund51ReportoftheGEFtoCOP25http://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/council‐meeting‐documents/EN_GEF.C.55.Inf_.XX_UNFCCC_CoP_Report.pdf52GCF.2018.FP077UlaanbaatarGreenAffordableHousingandResilientUrbanRenewalProject(AHURP).Songdo:GreenClimateFund.


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5.1. Challenges

5.1.1. Difficultiesinachievingwin‐winandtriple‐win

76. Someclimatechangeinterventionsaimtointegrateadaptationandmitigationintogoalsofsustainabledevelopmentwiththehopeofachievingatriple‐win,bysimultaneouslyreducingemissionsandincreasingadaptivecapacityofcommunitiesinamannerresultinginlow‐emissionclimate‐resilienteconomyanddevelopment.However,enhancingpositivesynergiesbetweenmitigation,adaptation,andsustainabledevelopmentwhileminimizingpotentialtrade‐offsbetweenthemhasbeendifficultinpractice,withCDMbeingthemostprominentexampleofnotachievingwin‐wingoals.Researchhasshownthattriple‐wininterventions,evenwhenrelativelysuccessful,mayresultinunequaldistributionofbenefitsacrossmitigation,adaptation,andsustainabledevelopmentduetodifferentburdenoftrade‐offsbornebyeachgoal(IPCCAR5).

77. Furthermore,researchsuggeststhattoomuchemphasisontheintegrationofadaptationandmitigationintoSDGscouldresultindivertingattentiononimportantissues,suchaspovertyreduction,andthatthefocusshouldbeonmainstreamingofclimatechangeintodevelopmentpolicyandplanning,ratherthanintegrationinclimatechangeprojectsorpolicies.(IPCCAR5).

5.1.2. Complementarityvs.synergic

78. Astudyontheinter‐relationshipsbetweenmitigationandadaptationinthelandusesectorhasarguedthatcurrentclimatepoliciesfocusoncomplementarityratherthanasynergicapproach,byfocusingonmitigationprojectsprovidingadaptationco‐benefitsandadaptationprojectswithco‐benefitsformitigation.Itexplainsthatinthecomplementaritycontext,eitheradaptationormitigationisusedasapointofentryandtheotheraco‐benefit(minor),andthatinthisapproachcompetitionforresourcesbetweenmitigationandadaptationisunavoidable.While,thesynergicapproachfocusesontheoptimalmixofadaptationandmitigationinterventions(incontrasttoprioritizationofinterventionsincomplementarity)inafunctionallysustainablesystem. 53

5.1.3. Anoverlycomplexprocess

79. Anotherchallengewithseekingsynergiesbetweenadaptationandmitigationiscreatingcomplexitiesinprojectsandprocesses.Forexample,integratingadaptationandmitigationprojectsrequiresengagementwithlargegroupofstakeholderswithdivergingexpertiseandinterests,morereportingrequirements,anddealingwithmoreobjectives,henceitbringsdifficultiesincoordinatingsuchprojects. 54

80. Evenwhereintegrationofmitigationandadaptationprojectsarereasonablywellcoordinated,bureaucraticcomplexitiescanimpedetheimplementationofprojects;forexample,inMexico,lackofresourcesandlimitedsocietalinvolvementconstraintheactualimplementationofmitigationandadaptationactionsdespitethegovernmentaldiscoursesupportingclimatechangepolicy.55

5.1.4. Accesstofunding

81. Alongwiththeissueofthecomplexprocessassociatedwithintegrationofadaptationandmitigationprojects,thereisanaccompanyingchallengeinapplyingandreportingtomultipleclimatefunds.Thiscanaddaburdenforbeneficiarycountriesandprojectdeveloperswithlowtechnicalexpertiseandawarenessandwidentheunevendistributionofclimatefinancebetweenleastdevelopedcountriesandothercountries.56

82. Moreover,thechallengeoffulfillingadditionalityrequirementsinaccessingfinancialsupporthasbeendiscussedintheIPCC’sAR5.Theadditionalityconcepttakesthepositionthatfinancialsupportshouldbeencouragedformitigationprojectsthatreapglobalenvironmentalbenefitsinadditiontowhatwouldbehappeningindevelopmentprocessesotherwise.Itwasstatedthatthisconcepthasbeenappliedinfinancialsupportforadaptationaswell.

53https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2504727554http://hal.cirad.fr/cirad‐01213126/document55https://archive.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/56http://hal.cirad.fr/cirad‐01213126/document


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83. AstudyfocusingonadditionalityintheCDMsuggeststhattheinvestmentadditionalitytestsshouldbedroppedwhereitisnotpossibletobeused,suchasinthecaseofgreen‐field57projects.58

5.1.5. Challengeswithmainstreaming

84. Despiteallthechallengesmentionedabove,thereismountingconsensustointegrateclimateprojectsandpolicieswithdevelopment.However,researchfocusingontheNationalAdaptationProgrammesofAction(NAPAs)andtheStrategicProgrammesforClimateResilience(SPCRs)hasfoundthisdifficultduetolackofcoordinationbetweengovernmentsectors,lackoftechnicalcapacity,andmismatchesinshort‐termadaptationinterventionsandlong‐termdevelopmentgoals.

85. Furthermore,amainchallengefordevelopingcountriesinmainstreamingofclimateadaptationintodevelopmentisthedisconnectbetweenthecountriesdevelopmentagendasandglobaladaptationfunds.Thiscanhindertheprogressoflocalorganizationsthatintegrateclimatechangeconsiderationsintodevelopmentpriorities.

5.2. Needs

5.2.1. Monitoringandevaluation

86. TheCBD,initstechnicalreportontheintegrationofbiodiversityconsiderationsintotheimplementationoftheUNFCCCandtheKyotoProtocol,highlightstheneedforbaselinedataandmonitoringsystemsinordertomeasuretheimpactofmitigationprojectsuchasCDMandjointimplementationonbiodiversity.Forexample,CDMprojectsinBelizeandCostaRicacanmonitorandmeasurecarbonandcertainaspectsofbiodiversityduetotheavailabilityofdata,whereastheSudanprojectdiscontinuedthebiodiversityinventoryandmonitoringbecauseofresourceconstraints.

87. Intheviewofcurrentdebatesontheinstitutionalarrangementsthatattempttocombinemitigationandsustainabledevelopment(e.g.CDM)notachievingwin‐wingoals,theIPCCfifthassessmentreportindicates“theneedforrapidlydevelopingmeansforevaluating,changing,andimprovingcurrentpolicyinstrumentsandmechanisms”.

5.2.2. Asetofinternationalenvironmentalandsocialstandards

88. TheCBDemphasizestheimportanceofdevelopingasetofinternationalenvironmentalandsocialstandardsthatcanbeusedconsistentlytoensurethatmitigationprojectsarenotadverselyaffectingbiodiversityandlocalcommunitiesofthehostcountries.Thiswouldassistcountriestoimplementmitigationprojectsinasocially,economicallyandenvironmentallysustainablemanner,whichisalsoconsistentwiththeprovisionoftheMarrakeshAccords“affirmingthatitisthehostParty’sprerogativetoconfirmwhetheranArticle6projectactivityassistsitinachievingsustainabledevelopment”.

5.2.3. Furtherresearchneededontherelationshipbetweenmitigation,adaptation,andsustainabledevelopment

89. Integrationofmitigationandadaptationintosustainabledevelopmentisarelativelynewareaandmoreresearchisrequiredtoimproveunderstandingsoftherelationshipbetweenthem,particularlywithregardtounderstandingsynergiesandtrade‐offsinawidevarietyofregionalandsectoralcontexts,toinformstrategies,decisionmakingandactions.

90. Althoughallsectorswouldbenefitfrommoreresearchthatshedslightonthematter,studiesonagriculturerevealedthatchallengesfacingtheagriculturesectorarethree‐fold:toincreaseagriculturalproductivitytosupportfoodsecurity,toreduceemissions,andtoadapttoawarmerandmorevariableclimate.Hencethereisanurgentneedforscientificresearch,innovation,transformationofknowledgeatalllevelstoaddressthismatter.

57TheGreenfieldprojectreferstoaworkwhichisnotfollowingapriorwork58https://oxfordclimatepolicy.org/publications/documents/EV44.pdf


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91. Researchisalsorequiredtoidentifytherightfinancialmechanismorrightcriteriaforenablingtheflowofglobalfundstosupportclimateactionswhileconsideringtheimportanceofadaptationandmitigationactionsthatareinlinewithsustainabledevelopment.

5.3. Opportunities

5.3.1. Jointimplementationofclimateprojectsandpolicieswithbiodiversityanddesertificationcontrolprojects

92. OpportunitiesexisttoimplementmutuallybeneficialactivitiesthattakeadvantageofthesynergiesbetweentheUNFCCC,theKyotoProtocol,theCBDandbroadernationaldevelopmentobjectives.AUNDP‐GEFprojecton“HarmonizationofInformationmanagementforimprovedknowledgeandmonitoringoftheGlobalenvironmentinGeorgia”isintendedtodevelopcapacitiesinGeorgiaforaneffectivenationalenvironmentalmanagementframeworkthataddressesdifferentarticlesundertheUNFCCC,UNCCDandCBD.59

93. Thereisroomforimprovementinbettercoordinationamongsectorsatthenationallevelandindesignofpolicymeasuresthatseekpotentialsynergiesbetweennationaleconomicdevelopmentobjectivesandenvironmentallyfocusedpoliciestomakethejointimplementationofclimateandbiodiversityprojectspossible.

94. TheIPCCspecialreporton“climatechange,desertification,landdegradation,sustainablelandmanagement,foodsecurity,andgreenhousegasfluxesinterrestrialecosystems”highlightedthatactionstocombatdesertification,includingagroforestry,agriculturaldiversification,andimprovedcropland,gazingland,andlivestockmanagement,cancontributeconsiderablytoclimatechangeadaptationwithmitigationco‐benefits.Theycanalsobeparticularlyusefulforbiodiversityconservation,withsustainabledevelopmentco‐benefitstosociety.

5.3.2. Benefitstoinstitutions

95. Integrationofadaptationandmitigationpoliciesandactionshasinstitutionalbenefitsforcountries,includingbycreatingnewpartnerships,encouragingcollaborationamongpractitionersandbetweennationalministries,buildingcapacityatdifferentlevels,anddiscoursesbetweendevelopmentpartnersandbeneficiarycountries.60

5.3.3. Applicationofappropriateanalyticaltoolsandinstruments

96. Employmentofappropriatemethods,forexampleimpactassessments,thatcanassessbothadaptationandmitigationhasbeenemphasisedinArticle4oftheConvention.61TheCBDhasillustratedtheapplicationofenvironmentalimpactassessmentsinseveralcasestudiesandtheinfluenceofsuchassessmentsininformingpolicy.Forexample,theapplicationofstrategicenvironmentalassessmentsinFinlandledtoarequestbytheParliamentforinclusionoflonger‐termanalysesandbroaderspectrumofscenariosinitsclimatechangestrategy,whilescenariosinitiallychosenforthestrategyhadbeentoonarrowlydefined.

5.3.4. Lowhangingfruitintheland‐relatedsectors

97. Astudy(in2015)whichinterviewedrepresentativesofclimatefundsonhowtheyperceiveanintegratedadaptationmitigationapproachshowed62consistentfindingswiththediscussionsoftheIPCCfourthassessmentreport,63suggestingthatopportunitiesforsynergybetweenadaptationandmitigationaregreaterinland‐relatedsectors.Mostparticipantsbelievedthatadaptationmeasuresinmitigation

59https://www.thegef.org/project/harmonization‐information‐management‐improved‐knowledge‐and‐monitoring‐global‐environment60http://hal.cirad.fr/cirad‐01213126/document61SeetheUNFCCC,Article4,paragraph1(f).62http://hal.cirad.fr/cirad‐01213126/document63KleinRJTetal(2007)Interrelationshipsbetweenadaptationandmitigation.ClimateChange2007:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheFourthAssessmentReportofIPCC.


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projects,especiallywithregardtothelandsector,couldaddressclimaterisksandmakingmitigationprojectsmoreresilient,andconsequentlyhavebenefitsforlocalcommunitiesandprojectdevelopers.Insharingtheirviews,theymentionedREDD+projectsandthatwithoutintegratingadaptationmeasuressuchasincreasingtheresilienceofforest‐dependentlocalcommunities,greeninfrastructureforcoastalprotectione.g.mangroves,andforestconservationinpreventinglandslidesandfloods,theseprojectscouldnotbesuccessful.64

98. Moreover,considerationofcommunitylivelihoodundertheCDMwasconsideredimportantinthesuccessoftheprojects.Forexample,successoftheCDMprojectsinCostaRicaandSudanwasmentionedtobeasresultofcombiningkeylocaldevelopmentandlivelihoodconcernswiththoserelatingtocarbonsequestrationandbiodiversityconservation.Ontheotherhand,therestrictionsimposedonthelivelihoodsofthelocalcommunitiesinthecaseofUganda/Netherlandsalmostledtoprojectfailure.

Conclusions99. Amixtureofsynergiesandtrade‐offsbetweenadaptationandmitigationexistinseveralsectors.Thesevaryinmagnitudefromsectortosectorandbetweenandwithinregionsandnations,dependingon,interalia,localcircumstancesandimplementationpractices.ClimatechangeadaptationandmitigationoptionscanexhibitbothpositiveandnegativeconsequencesforsustainabledevelopmentinthescientificliteratureandsubmissionsfromParties.

100. Inadditiontointer‐relationshipswithsustainabledevelopment,adaptationandmitigationactionsarelinkedtobiodiversity,desertification,andfoodandagricultureunderotherinternationalagenda,andthereisgreatpotentialtoimplementmutuallybeneficialactivitiesthattakeadvantageofsynergiesbetweenthelegalinstrumentsundertheUNFCCCandthoseunderCBD,UNCCD,andFAOinparticular.Asynergeticmovementcanenablesysteminnovationandsocietaltransformationforambitiousmitigationandadaptation.

101. Ecosystems,agriculture,energyandinfrastructurearethekeysectorswhereadaptationactionscanhavepositiveeffectsonmitigation.Similarly,energy,forests,agriculture,urbanplanningtendtooffersignificantmitigationco‐benefitsforadaptation.Inallthesectorsmentioned,trade‐offsexistbutcanbeminimizedifdecisionmakingandgovernanceareenhancedbyinvolvingallstakeholders,includinglocalcommunities,andifadaptationandmitigationprojectsareproperlydesignedandimplemented.

102. InParties’reportsandprojects,synergiesarebeingsoughtatproject,sectororlandscapelevel,inplanningorinstitutionalframeworksatnational,regionalorlocallevelandinurbanandruralsettings.Inadditiontothesynergiesbetweenadaptationandmitigationinkeysectors,Partiesreportedthatcurrenteffortsondisasterriskreductioncanofferco‐benefitsforadaptation,andalsohighlightedthesocio‐economicbenefitsofmitigationprojects,suchasthecreationofgreenjobs.Itwasnotalwaysclearwhethertheco‐benefitsortrade‐offswerehomogenousontemporalorspatialscales.Forexample,whethershorttermco‐benefitswouldchangeinthelongterm,oriflocalco‐benefitsfromaclimatepolicyhadresultedinsimilareffectsonabroaderscale.

103. TheConvention,theKyotoProtocol,andtheParisAgreementemphasizedthestrengtheningoftheglobalresponsetothethreatofclimatechangetoachievesustainabledevelopmentandeffortstoeradicatepoverty.However,inreality,notallactionshaveresultedinthedesiredoutcomes.Thiswarrantsanurgentneedfordevelopingeffectivemeansformonitoringandevaluationtomakesurethatmitigationandadaptationactionsdonotadverselyaffectpeopleandtheenvironment,andtoimprovecurrentpolicyinstrumentsandmechanismsaccordingly.

104. Arangeofchallengesandneedswereidentifiedwithregardtotheintegrationofadaptationandmitigationactions,andintosustainabledevelopment.Focusingtoomuchonmitigationprojectsprovidingadaptationco‐benefitsandviceversawouldnotnecessarilyleadtoanoptimalmixofadaptationandmitigationinterventions.Furthermore,theprocessoftheintegrationofadaptationandmitigationprojectscanbecomplexandcanbringdifficultiesincoordinatingsuchprojects.Italsoaddsaburdenforbeneficiarycountriesandprojectdeveloperswithlowtechnicalexpertiseandawarenessifapplyingandreportingto

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multipleclimatefunds.Futureresearchisrequiredtoenhanceourunderstandingofchallengesandofinnovativesolutions.

105. Toprovidein‐depthunderstandingofco‐benefits,includingthosethatcannotbemonetised,andtoenablethedesignofindicatorsformonitoringandevaluationonatemporalandspatialscale,aframeworkneedstobedevelopedtointegratelinkagesbetweenmitigationandadaptationactions,takingaccountofbothpositiveandnegativeeffectsthattheycanhaveoneachotherinkeysectorsandtoenabletheconsiderationsofsynergieswithsustainabledevelopmentandrelevantlegalinstrumentsunderotherUNprocesses.

Nextsteps106. TheACmaywishtoconsiderinformationcontainedinthisreportandelaboraterecommendationsforconsiderationatCOP25,asnecessary.