ERSTE FoundationFellowship for Social Research

Labour Market and Employment in Central and Eastern Europe

2013–2014

Activation (Works) without mobility, labour and structural vulnerability in neo-liberalising SlovakiaJan Grill

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Butji&pro&výboris&

Activation)(Works))without)mobility,)labour)and)

structural)vulnerability)in)neo:liberalising)Slovakia1)

!

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Jan"Grill"

University"of"Manchester"

ERSTE"Foundation"

Fellowship"for"Social"Research"

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Abstract)

This" paper" explores" how" Roma" in" eastern" Slovakia" navigate" their" formal" unemployment" and"

manage"their"income"generating"strategies"in"the"context"of"state"policies"of"activation,"economic"

crisis"and"neoCliberal"workfare"reforms."It"examines"ethnographically"the"concept"of"‘activation’"

(to)"work"against"the"backdrop"of"increasing"imCmobilities"faced"by"longCterm"unemployed"Roma"

in" Slovakia." Based" on" anthropological" fieldwork" in" Eastern" Slovakia," the" present" paper"will" be"

situated" within" the" larger" processes" of" reCdrawing" lines" of" economic" precariousness,"

formal/informal" distinctions," insecurity," and"politics" of" deservingness" and"moral" citizenship" in"

the"transforming"modes"of"governing"minorities"in"Slovakia."Being"officially"categorized"as"longC

term"unemployed,"and"even"‘unemployable’"in"public"discourses"in"Slovakia,"most"Roma"combine"

various"precarious"economic" strategies,"welfare"and"state"workfare" ‘activation’"programmes" in"

Slovakia" and" project" their" hopes" to" dreams" associated" with" labour" migration." This" paper"

interrogates"ethnographically" some"normative"assumptions"underlying"discourses"surrounding"

policies"targeting"longCterm"unemployed"in"Slovakia,"which"evolve"around"their"alleged"‘activity’"

and" ‘inactivity’." More" specifically," it" explores" how" ideologies" and" policies" of" labour" activation"

operate" on" various" scales" and" in" everyday"practices" of" those"who" are" implementing" them"and"

those"who"are"targeted"by"these.""

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1"The"Social"Research"Fellowship"of"ERSTE"Foundation"generously"supported"this"research"

project."The"main"bulk"of"data"for"this"paper"was"collected"during"the"research"carried"out"

between"2012C2014."

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INTRODUCTION)

"

The"past"two"decades"have"witnessed"dramatic"changes"in"the"forms"of"public"aid"

for" the" poor" in" Slovakia." In"winter" 2004," Slovak" government" trumpeted" a" new"

shift"in"the"governance"of"poverty"under"the"banner"of"the"soCcalled"‘New"Social"

Policy’" (Nová!Sociálna!Politika!C"NSP)."This"has"been"a"part"of"wider"neoCliberal"

socioCeconomic" reCstructuring" and" forms" of" governance," which" started" to" take"

place" throughout" the" 1990" (see"Marušák"&" Singer" 2009;" Jurajda"&"Maternova"

2004;" van" Baar" 2011," 2012)." It" was" indexed" by" a"move" from"more" protective"

forms"of"welfare"towards"more"disciplinary"workfare"(Wacquant"2010)2."""Based"

on"the"moralising"assumption"that"the"previous"welfare"system"gave"a"rise"to"a"

growing" generation" of" people" dependent" on" the" allegedly" generous" welfare"

system"of" social"benefits," the" coalition" introduced" radical" cuts" into" the"existing"

social"system"and"benefits."This"has"initiated"a"redefinition"of"the"criteria"of"what"

constitute" the" public" help" for" the" poorest" citizens" and" who" deserves" to" be"

entitled" for" it." This" change" has" shifted" the" optics" through" which" a" longCterm"

unemployment"was"seen,"and"how"it"should"be"dealt"with." It"also"meant" that" it"

was" no" longer" the" unemployment" and" increasing" amount" of" people" struggling"

with"poverty,"which"was"seen"as"a"problem"the"state"needs" to"address."Rather,"

the"state"deployed"a"line"of"defining"and"tackling"the"problem"as"that"of"‘benefitC

dependence’"of"certain"category"of"people,"implicitly"deeming"these"as"failing"and"

immoral" citizens." In" this" logic," the" state" shifts" responsibility" to" these" ‘failed"

citizens’"(Anderson"2013),"who"are"seen"as"in"need"of"changing"their"individual"

attitudes" and"working" habits." The" lowering" of" the" unemployment" benefits" and"

social" welfare" was" accompanied" by" an" introduction" of" policies" of" activation3"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2"This"was"also"accompanied"by"state"efforts,"often"pouring"large"financial"investments"and"

subsidies,"to"attract"large"international"companies"to"invest"in"Slovakia"with"a"hope"of"creating"

job"opportunities"in"a"labour"market"struck"by"a"rising"unemployment."For"example,"Slovakia"has"

become"one"of"the"biggest"producers"of"car"industries"in"Central"Eastern"Europe."The"Slovak"

policy"makers"in"the"early"2000"aimed"at"incorporation"of"Slovakia"into"a"global"economy."For"an"

overall"historical"overview"on"the"Slovak"‘national"trajectory’"with"regards"to"industry,"see"e.g."

Buzalka"&"Ferencova"2012.""3"These"policies"can"be"seen"as"a"part"of"what"van"Berkel"and"Borghi"(2008)"call"‘governance"of"

activation’"in"which"activation"refers"to"a"mandatory"part"of"workfare"for"the"longCterm"

unemployed"who"must"participate"in"various"(often"unpaid"and"voluntary"based)"policies"and"

programmes"designed"by"the"state"in"order"to"be"eligible"for"receiving"the"social"assistance"or"

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targeting" the" nationCstate’s" longCterm" unemployed" citizens." These" efforts" at"

‘labour" activation’," in" the" forms" of" temporary" training" courses," EUCfunded"

projects" of" ‘reClearning’" working" skills," workCtoCdeserveCwelfare" programmes"

and"many" others," have" proliferated" across" Europe" in" the" last" decade" (Serrano"

Pascual"and"Magnusson"2007;"van"Berkel"&"Borghi"2008).""

"

This" shift" represented" a" new" effort" in" managing" the" historically" ambivalent"

public" attitudes" towards" poverty" in" Slovakia," shifting" the" emphasis" on" the"

continuum" of" deserving" and" undeserving" poor" alongside" the" moralising"

yardstick" assessing" individual’s" efforts," motivation" and" proCactive" search" for"

formal" jobs"indexed"by"active"carving"out"of"selfCentrepreneurial"self."The"longC

term"unemployed"citizens"were" interpellated"as" subjects" in"need"of" ‘activation’"

through" soCcalled" Activation" Works," which" were" meant" to" lead" into" their" reC

incorporation" into" the" formal" labour"market" and" enhancing" their" prospects" at"

socioCeconomic" mobility." " Ultimately," I" shall" argue" that" this" particular" reC

fashioning" also" contributed" to" reCinscribing" moral" distinctions" between" ‘good’"

and" ‘bad’"citizens," those"who"are"seen"as"trying"actively"to" find"wage"work"and"

those"who"are"passively"waiting"for"receiving"different"forms"of"state"support."In"

Slovakia," these"moral"distinctions"were" firmly"entangled"within" the"historically"

developed" racialised" hierarchies" and" marginalisation" of" Roma/Gypsies," which"

continued"to"be"reanimated"and"vested"in"the"new"forms."

"

The" changes" were" not" explicitly" defined" as" targeting" primarily" Roma/Gypsy"

groups" and" public" debates" and" discourses" surrounding" its" introduction" rested"

primarily" on" socially" defined" rhetoric" regarding" the" general" characteristics" of"

unemployed" and" their" conditions." However," the" frames" and" representations"

overlapped"with"historically"ethnicised"vision"of"those"seen"as"‘lacking"workingC

habits’"–" i.e." in"the"Slovak"context"this"was"the"case"of"Roma"minority"(see"Dráľ"

2008)."Considering"the"relative"overrepresentation"of"Roma"amongst"the"poorest"

and"most"marginalised" segments" of" Slovakian" society" (Filadelfiova" et" al." 2007;"

Gerbery" et" al." 2007)," the" effects" of" these" reforms" were" disproportionally" and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""benefits"(ibid."332)."For"an"interesting"critical"assessment"of"this"‘activation"governance’,"see"

Newman"2007;"Serrano"Pascual"&"Magnusson"2007;"van"Baar"2011,"2012.""

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significantly" felt" by" the" majority" of" the" Roma." The" Roma" in" Slovakia" occupy"

locations" of" ‘structural" vulnerability’" (Quesada" et" al." 2011)" reinforced" by" the"

racialised"practices"of"discrimination"experienced"in"their"efforts"at"entering"the"

labour"market." "With" the" state" social" assistance" suddenly"halved" and" the"basic"

benefits"fallen"under"the"subsistence"minimum,"most"of"the"poor"had"to"readjust"

to" the" new" conditions" and" develop" new" survival" strategies." Although" these"

responses"varied"depending"on"the"particular"regional"and" local"contexts,"most"

of"poor"Roma"experienced"greater" level"of"material"deprivation"paralleled"by"a"

growing"significance"of"informal"economic"practices"combined"with"the"lowered"

state" support" and" the" newly" created" soCcalled" ‘Activation" Works.’" In" local"

settings," a" successful" combination" of" these" strategies" have" become" the" only"

avenue,"albeit" significantly" reduced"and"shrinking"since"2004" to"date,"available"

for"maintaining"an" income"sufficient" for"survival."These"changes"also"propelled"

many" Roma" to" migrate" westwards" with" prospects" of" greater" socioCeconomic"

opportunities"and"existential"movement,"with"the"Slovakian"accession"to"the"EU"

being"seen"in"particular"as"providing"new"hopes"for"securing"better"futures"(Grill"

2011;" 2012;"Pine"&"Kaneff" 2011)."Many"Roma" considered" the" state" reforms" in"

winter" 2004" as" a" symbolic" ‘last" drop’" to"what" they" saw" as" already" unbearable"

prospects" for" living" conditions" in" Slovakia" and," especially" those"with" sufficient"

volumes"of"social,"economic"and"cultural"capitals,"oriented"their"futures"towards"

the"opening"of"British"labour"market"for"Slovak"citizens"in"May"2014.""But"while"

some"succeeded" in"materialising" this"vital" illusion"and"strivings" for"better" lives"

abroad," many" were" left" behind" or" returned" without" attaining" the" mobilities"

embodied"in"the"‘going"up"to"England’"(Grill"2012).""

"

This" paper" explores" how" one" particular" form" of" the" new" policies" of" labour"

activation," ‘Activation" Works’," was" implemented" on" the" ground?" It" asks" what"

effects"have" it" had"on" the" long" term"unemployed"Roma" in" two" localities" at" the"

rural" margins" of" Slovakia?" What" kinds" of" responses" have" these" policies"

encountered" in" relation" to" the" particular" social" locations" and" historical"

trajectories"of"the"Roma"participants?"How"do"the"Roma"actors"understand"these"

‘activation" works’?" And" to" what" extent" do" the" reCdrawing" of" the" criteria" for"

recognised"as"‘actively"searching’"shape"and"influence"their"identities,"capacities"

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and" sense" of" belonging" located" within" the" local" and" nationCstate" hierarchies?"

What"kind"of"strategies"and"dispositions"do"they"develop"in"response"to"different"

types"of"projects"envisioning"labour"activation"in"conjunction"with"specific"kinds"

of"moral" agents" and" citizens?"What" relations" and" location"did" these"policies" of"

activation"occupy" in"comparison" to"other"potential"avenues" for"socioCeconomic"

mobility"embraced"by"the"poor"Roma?"By"drawing"on"empirical"examples"from"

an"anthropological"research" in"one"particular"region"of"east"Slovakia," it"aims"to"

empirically" contribute" to" the" larger" theoretical" discussions" of" the" relationship"

between" the" new" forms" of" neoliberal" governing" of" poverty" and" Roma"

(im)mobilities" (van" Baar" 2011;" 2012)," as" well" as" comparative" studies" of"

workings" and" effects" of" policies" of" labour" activation" (see" e.g." Larsen" 2001;"

Roberman" 2014)." Spaces" of" activation" can" be" seen" as" sites" of" struggles" for"

imposing" different" principles" vision" and" division" structuring" and" distributing"

unequally" the" negotiations" surrounding" social" citizenship" in" which" various"

situated"actors"play"an"important"role"in"reCdistribution"of"state"assistance"to"the"

poor"(cf."Thelen"et"al."2011;"Matejskova"2013;"Roberman"2014)."This"paper"aims"

to" explore"ways" in"which"policies" of" labour" activation" get" implemented"within"

particular"power"hierarchies," across"nested" scales"of" state" institutions," and" the"

experiences"of"those"participating"in"these"projects.""

"

The" paper" starts" by" introducing" the" research" setting," methodology" and" field"

research." I" will" provide" a" brief" contextualisation" of" the" research" localities" and"

deployed" ethnographic" methodology." The" paper" then" outlines" the" field" of"

activation"in"social"policies"and"locates"it"within"the"changing"landscapes"of"postC

socialist" forms"of"unemployment"and"state’s"shift" towards"neoliberal"governing"

of" the" poor" and" workfarism." Drawing" on" comparative" literature," it" shows" the"

forms"of"reasoning"and"assumptions"behind"the"shift" form"welfare"to"workfare,"

and"provides"a"brief"overview"of"how"the"Activation"Works"developed"since"their"

first" implementation" in" 2004." Particular" attention" will" be" paid" to" analytically"

scrutinising" key" notions" present" in" the" Activation" Works," such" as" ‘working"

habits,’" ‘spaces" of" socialisation’" and" the" implicit" theory" of"moral" behaviourism"

blaming"the"individuals’"skills"and"motivations"for"their"status"of"unemployment"

(rather" than" wider" structural" inequalities)" while" also" resting" in" essentialising"

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assumptions" about" Roma" collective" characteristics." In" the" second" part" of" the"

paper," these" theoretical" and" largeCscale" analytical" implications" are" then"

compared"with"ethnographic"findings."

"

Rather"than"deploying"ethnographic"tools"to"capture"simplistically"some"kind"of"

imagined"‘local’"or"even"a"generic"‘natives’"point"of"view’,"the"ethnographic"tools"

are" deployed" to" situate" a" multiplicity" of" competing" perspectives" within" the"

location" these" occupy" in" social" fields" and" with" varying" volumes" of," unequally"

distributed," accumulated" forms" of" capitals.4"This" also"means" studying" different"

scales" and" shifting" nested" hierarchies" of" the" state" and" its" local" citizens" rather"

than" relying" on" a" binary" opposition" between" ‘state’" and" ‘ordinary" people’" (cf."

Herzfeld"1997)."For"the"matter"of"clarity"and"a"lack"of"space,"my"writing"strategy"

follows"what"we"can"broadly"define"as"several"particular"points"of"view"on" the"

realities" of" Activation" Works." Thus," I" introduce" vacillations," ambiguities,"

similarities" and" differences" between" perspectives" of" particularly" situated" local"

mayors," the" coordinators’" of" activation"works," social" and" community"workers,"

and" the" longCterm" unemployed" Roma" participants" in" the" Activation" works."

Finally,"the"paper"concludes"by"way"of"discussing"the"key"issues"emerging"from"

the"research."

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RESEARCH)SETTINGS)AND)METHODOLOGY))

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The"research"is"based"on"a"comparative"fieldwork"among"Roma"groups"from"two"

localities" in" the" east" of" Slovakia" and" the" transnational" networks" of" Roma"

migrants" originating" from" this" region." I" shall" call" these" two" localities"Tarkovce"

and"Rijava,"both"situated"in"Zemplín"region"of"Slovakia.5""

Once"a"show"box"of"trumpeted"socialist"progress"embodied"by"various"factories,"

since"1989"this"region"has"been"particularly"hit"by" the"closing"down"of"various"

industries"and"companies"previously"providing"an"employment" for"most"of" the"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""4"This"approach"draws"on"theoretical"and"methodological"framework"of"Pierre"Bourdieu"

(Bourdieu"1986,"2000;"Bourdieu"&"Wacquant"1992)."5"The"real"names"of"the"villages"have"been"changed"by"the"author."These"two"localities"differ"in"

their"size."According"to"the"official"information"provided"by"the"municipalities"(statistics"from"

2009),"Tarkovce"has"4333"inhabitants"and"Rijava"has"about"635"inhabitants."

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Roma" men" and" women." " During" the" socialist" period," state’s" efforts" at"

incorporating"Roma"into"the"production"process"via"formal"employment"formed"

one"of"the"key"principles"of"official"policies"and"discourses"ascribing"‘citizens"of"

Gypsy" origins’"more" equal" social" citizenship" (see" Stewart" 1997;" Donert" 2008)."

Roma" in"Rijava"and"Tarkovce"were"no"exceptions"and"practically"all"worked" in"

factories," construction" work" companies," shoe" factories" and" local" agricultural"

cooperative" collectives." " Following" the" end"of" socialism,"most" of" the"Roma" lost"

their"previously"stable" jobs"amidst" the"socioCeconomic" restructuring" leading" to"

privatisation"and"closing"down"of" industries"and"agricultural" farms."This"socioC

economic" restructuring" was" accompanied" by" a" withdrawal" of" welfare" state"

services"and"reCemergence"of"ethnicised"and"racialised"categorization"of"Gypsies"

frequently" overlapping" with" being" labelled" as" workCshy" and" notions" of" (unC

)deservingness." Thus," the" structural" disadvantaged" position" occupied" by" the"

Roma" amalgamated" with" the" ethnic" stigmatization" and" discrimination" in" the"

context"of"accessing"the"formal"labour"market.""

Due"to"a"high"percentage"of"impoverished"population"and"regional"asymmetries,"

itself" partially" reinforced" by" the" outmigration" of" young" and" highly" educated"

residents"westwards,"these"eastern"borderlands"of"Slovakia"has"now"become"one"

of" the" most" emblematic" areas" symbolizing" rural" poverty" in" Slovakia"

characterized" by" one" of" the" highest" rates" of" longCterm" unemployment." In"May"

2013,"19.35%"of" the"population"of"Michalovce"area"was"unemployed."This" rate"

has"slightly"decreased"to"17.87%"by"October"2013."Its"unemployment"rate"would"

have"been"even"higher"if"not"for"the"migration"to"western"parts"of"Slovakia,"Czech"

Republic" and"western"European" countries.6"Being" already" a" region"with" one"of"

the"highest"labour"migration"rates"in"the"former"Czechoslovakia"(and"even"prior"

to"its"birth),"this"survival"strategy"increased"in"its"significance"amidst"the"socioC

economic"discord"and"neoCliberal"transition"in"1990s."""

For" the" local" Roma" inhabitants" mobile" during" the" socialist" period," the" postC

socialist" period" brought" about" transformation" structure" and" forms" of" labour"

migration." They" were" no" longer" Czechoslovak" citizens" with" stable" and" secure"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""6"Additionally,"the"official"unemployment"rates"do"not"include"those"who"participate"in"the"

Activation"Works"and"similar"types"of"training"projects."

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jobs" employed" by" various" stateCowned" construction" companies" requiring"

spending" several" weeks" away" from" their" homes." The" new" conditions" turned"

them"into"Slovak"migrants"working"within"the"field"of"unstable"and"frequently"as"

undocumented" cheap" labour" force" on" various" construction" sites" in" Czech"

Republic"(e.g."road"or"railway)."This"type"of"migration"also"reCdrawn"the"gender"

lines" and"divisions" as" it" required"mostly"men"migrating" to"work"while"women"

with" children" tending" to" stay" behind" in" their" Slovak" homes." In" addition" to" the"

effects" of" labour" migration" to" the" Czech" Republic," some" of" the" Roma" families"

(especially" from" Tarkovce)" sought" political" asylum" in" the" Western" European"

countries" throughout" the" late" 1990s" and" early" 2000s." Most" of" them" were"

deported"back"to"Slovakia"but"constituted"a"majority"of"migrants"to"Great"Britain"

following"Slovak"accession"to" the"EU" in"May"2004."Unlike"Tarkovce"Roma,"who"

built"on"their"previous"migration"experiences,"started"to"migrate"to"Great"Britain"

since" 2004" and"have" established" a"wide" range" of" connections" constituting" this"

transnational" field," Roma" from" Rijava" started" to" take" part" in" this" migration"

relatively" later." With" the" deepening" economic" crisis" and" state’s" cuts" in" social"

system,"migration" crystallised" as" one" of" the"main"mechanisms" simultaneously"

providing"economic"opportunities" and"possibilities"of"hope" for"Roma" (see"Grill"

2011,"2012).""

Methodologically," this"paper"draws"on"a"participant"observation"among"Roma"

groups" with" a" particular" attention" being" paid" to" their" participation" and"

relationship" to" state" policies" of" activation" and" formal" unemployment" status.7"I"

accompanied"local"unemployed"villagers"during"their"Activation"Works"and"also"

visited" them" at" their" homes" afterwards." Most" of" the" participants" consisted" of"

Roma."In"addition"to"participant"observation"and"hanging"out"with"them"at"their"

work"places"and"at"home,"I"conducted"informal"and"semiCstructured"interviews"

with" openCended" questions." Apart" from" the" classic" anthropological" method" of"

participant" observation," I" have" also" carried" out" research" with" various" state"

representatives" and" NGO" workers" in" the" region" and" in" the" capital" city" of"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""7"This"paper"draws"on"ethnographic"fieldwork"conducted"during"the"summer"2013"for"a"project"

examining"Roma"migrations"and"socioCeconomic"mobilities"of"labour"markets"in"Central"Eastern"

Europe"(2012C13)."Additional"followCup"fieldwork"was"carried"out"during"summer"2014."

Moreover,""some"of"the"research"findings"include"data"collected"during"my"previous"longCterm"

research"in"East"Slovakia"and"among"Roma"migrants"in"Great"Britain."

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Bratislava8." Informal" interviews" and" discussions" were" held" with" social" and"

community" workers" in" the" selected" localities," as" well" as" with" regional"

coordinator"of"the"Social"Development"Fund"(SDF)."In"constructing"my"argument"

I"also"draw"on"the"information"obtained"through"interviews"with"village"mayors"

who" were" representing" the" state" authorities" responsible" for" coordinating" the"

Activation"Works"on"the"local"level."Interviews"with"the"Roma"respondents"were"

conducted" in"Romani"and"Slovak,"while" the" interviews"with"official"authorities,"

institutional" workers" and" nonCSlovak" villagers" in" Slovak." In" addition" to"

ethnographic" research," I" conducted" a" desk" research" focusing" on" policy"

documents," changing" legislation," analysis" of" representations"of" various"policies"

and"tools"of"activation"in"Slovak"media,"and"reviewed"existing"research"on"labour"

markets"and"employment"in"Central"Eastern"Europe."

"

It"must"be"noted"that"some"of"the"data"were"collected"during"my"previous"longC

term"research"among"Roma"migrants"in"Slovakia,"the"Czech"Republic"and"Great"

Britain" (Grill" 2009;" 2012)," and" during" my" follow" up" research" stays" with" the"

networks"of"Roma"in"east"Slovakia"and"in"their"labour"migratory"pathways.9"This"

longCterm"immersion"and"engagement"with"the"social"world"of"Tarkovce"village"

enables" me" to" reconstruct" changes" that" happened" between" 2006C2013" in" the"

area"of"unemployment"and"within"the" field"of"Activation"Works."Before"delving"

into"findings"illustrated"through"ethnographic"data,"I"outline"a"brief"overview"of"

Activation"Works"and"contextualise"them"within"a"wider"historical"development"

and"a"body"of"literature."

"

ACTIVATION)WORKS:)FROM)‘WORK)PAYS’)TO)‘NO)PAIN,)NO)GAIN’)APPROACHES10)

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

8"The"Social"Development"Fund"is"‘the"main"body"in"Slovakia"promoting"social"inclusion"by"

supporting"projects"coCfinanced"by"the"European"Social"Fund"(ESF)."The"SDF"acts"as"an"

intermediary"body"under"the"Managing"Authority"of"Slovak"Ministry"of"Employment,"Social"

Affairs"and"Family.’"(See"http://www.fsr.gov.sk/en/home)""

9"Additionally,"comparative"perspectives"and"insights"could"be"drawn"from"other"research"

projects"assessing"effects"of"projects"targeting"unemployed"Roma"through"various"trainings"

programmes"supported"by"EQUAL"EU"and"European"Social"Funds"(Hurrle"&"Grill"2007,"2012)."10"The"Slovak"motto"used"by"the"official"ministry’s"materials"was"‘Pracovat"sa"oplati’."It"is"

translated"here"as"‘work"pays’"(though"the"ministry"translates"it"as"‘making"work"pay’)."Dral"

10"

"

"

Several"international"organisations"characterised"the"Roma’s"recent"situation"in"

the" field" of" employment" as" falling" into" an" ‘inactivity" trap,’" being" ‘outside" the"

labour" force’,"or"as"being" ‘economically" inactive’" (World"Bank"2005,"2008)"and"

facing" a" ‘dependency" trap’" (UNDP" 2002)." The" Roma" are" often" classified" as"

‘inactive,’"‘unskilled’"and"largely"dependent"on"social"benefits"or"associated"with"

a"high"participation"in"informal"economies." "As"a"part"of"neoliberal"reforms"and"

new" forms"of" governing" social" and"minorityCrelated"affairs," the"Slovakian" state"

introduced" a" set" of" tools" aimed" at" the" ‘activation’" of" longCterm" unemployed" in"

2004."In"contrast"to"the"benefit"dependence"and"economic"‘inactivity’,"these"were"

seen"as"a"first"step"for"the"poor"to"contribute"to"society"in"which"it"is"a"‘work"pays"

(off)’."Although"the"policy"makers"might"not"have"been"explicit"in"discussing"the"

seemingly" deCethnicised" law" reforms," their" referent" was" implicitly" addressing"

the"racialised"poor" largely"overlapping"with"Roma"minority" in"the" imaginary"of"

Slovak" public." This" was" apparent," for" example," in" the" official" reasoning" of"

‘Activation" Works," which" policyCmakers" describe" in" terms" of" preserving," reC

learning"and" reCacquiring" ‘working"habits’" and" increasing"motivation" for"work."

These"works"were"aimed"to"target"those"‘who"lack"deepCrooted"working"habits,"

have" generally" lower" standards" of" living" and" more" numerous" families" as" is"

common" in"society.’11"This"particular"conjunction"of" ‘working"habits’"and" ‘more"

numerous" families’" merged" together" echoed" two" key" tropes" through" which"

Roma/Gypsies"has"been" stereotypically" represented" in"dominant"discourses" as"

benefit" scroungers"who" ‘lost’" their"working"habits" and" those"who"preferred" to"

have"‘more"children’"(than"the"‘decent’"nonCRoma"Slovaks)"in"order"to"live"out"of"

benefits.""

"

In" the" official" state" rhetoric," the" ‘Activation" Works’" were" conceived" as" a"

temporary" tool" for" reCentering" official" labour" market." LongCterm" unemployed"

can"receive"an"extra"incentive"of"63,07"EUR/month"(in"2013)"in"addition"to"their"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""(2006;"2008)"translates"it"as"‘working"pays"off’."Similarly,"the"Slovak"idiomatic"expression"‘bez"

práce"nie"su"koláče’"can"be"literally"translated"as"‘there"are"no"cakes"without"a"work’"but"I"

translate"it"here"into"the"similar"English"idiom"of"‘no"pain,"no"gain’."11"Zakon"c."5"99/2003"Z.z."o"pomoci"v"hmotnej"nudzi"(Act"on"Assistance"in"Material"Need"

No."599/2003);"Zakon"c."601/2003"Z.z."o"zivotnom"minime"(Act"on"Subsistence"Minimum"

No."601/2003"Coll)."

11"

"

unemployment"benefits"by"participating"in"practical"works,"educational"activities"

and" trainings" for" local" municipalities," state" or" NGO" organisations." In" the" last"

decade," the"Activation"Works" has" become"one" of" the" key" active" labour"market"

policy"measures,"with"55,000"activation"allowances"paid"out"per"month"in"2013"

(Kureková" Mýtna" 2013). 12 "Its" overall" aim" is" to" ‘support" acquirement,"

maintenance," deepening" or" enhancement" of" knowledge," professional" skills,"

practical" experiences,"working" habits" in" order" to" enhancing" (chances" in)"work"

careers"on" the" labour"market.’13"For"most"of" the"unemployed"Roma"enrolled" in"

this" programme," this" is" in" practice" translated" into" working" for" local"

municipalities" for" up" to" 20" hours" per" week." Despite" the" possibility" of"

participating" in" various" educational" trainings" preparing" the" longCterm"

unemployed" for" the" reCentering" of" labour" market," most" of" the" Roma" work"

predominantly"in"lowCskilled"physical"jobs"on"the"level"of"local"municipalities.""

"

Underlying"the"state’s"‘activation’"reforms"was"the"idea"that"unemployed"people"

suffer" not" only" from"deprived"material" conditions," but" also" from" some" kind" of"

intellectual" and" psychological" poverty" or" ‘idleness’" due" to" their" state" as" ‘longC

term" unemployed’." The" poorest" people" receiving" benefits" were" casted"

homogeneously"as"‘passive’"to"their"fate;"dependent"on"benefits;"not"able"to"find"

themselves" a" job;" or" as" not" able" to"manage" their" livelihood" and" living" for" the"

moment.""In"the"interviews"with"various"social"workers"and"state"officers,"these"

tropes"appeared"frequently"as:" ‘they"don’t"know"how"to" live’,"or" ‘they" live"from"

day" to" day’." Thus," the" idea" of" ‘activation’" becomes" closely" associated" with"

moralising"assumptions"about" ‘deservingness’" and" ‘willingness’" to"work"among"

the"poor"in"Slovakia.""

)

The" reform" resonated" with" the" dominant" discourses" of" ‘ethnicised" laziness’"

associated" with" the" Roma" groups" in" Slovakia" (Dráľ" 2006)." In" his" insightful"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""12"Although"there"are"no"available"statistical"data"including"information"based"on"ethnic"

categories,"several"reports"indicate"that"Roma"participation"in"Activation"Works"are"

disproportionally"higher"than"the"nonCRoma"Slovaks"(Filadelfiova"et"al."2007;"COLSAF"2012;"

Kurekova"et"al."2013)."For"example,"COLSAF"report"estimates"80%"of"participants"being"Roma"

(2012).""13"Predpis"č."417/2013"Z."z."Zákon"o"pomoci"v"hmotnej"núdzi"a"o"zmene"a"doplnení"niektorých"

zákonov"(http://www.zakonypreludi.sk/zz/2013C417/suvislosti)"

12"

"

analysis"of"the"discourses"surrounding"the"new"social"policies"and"reforms,"Peter"

Dráľ"(2006;"2008)"illustrates"how"seemingly"universalist"reforms"reproduce"and"

further"contribute"to"the"symbolic"exclusion"of"marginalised"Roma."Although"not"

phased,"the"reforms"drawn"on"very"implicit"ethnicised"vision"of"social"problems"

and"deeply"ingrained"stereotype"of" ‘ethnicised"laziness’"ascribed"to"Roma." "Dráľ"

argues"that"the"reform"simultaneously"pivoted"on"this"ethnoCculturalist"framing"

and" thus" also" contributed" to" its" further" reCentrenchment" through" the"

implementation"of"policy"reforms."Immediately"after"its"initial"implementation"in"

2004,"the"new"reform"stirred"a"heated"political"debate"and"also"resulted"in"forms"

of"social"unrest"and"largely"peaceful"protests"in"several"localities"across"eastern"

Slovakia" (Dráľ" 2008;" Marušák" &" Singer" 2009;" Makovicky" 2013)." The" state"

labelled"these"forms"of"protests"as" ‘ethnic"riots’"and"looting,"evoking"ethnicised"

image" of" the" ‘Roma" riots’" and" called" for" a" military" intervention." Makovicky"

(2013)"shows"how"the"ethnicised"framing"of"the"reforms"and"political"responses"

to"the"wave"of"social"unrest"relates"to"the"historical"continuation"of"the"soCcalled"

‘Gypsy"problem’"formulated"during"the"communist"period"in"Czechoslovakia"and"

further"permutated"throughout"the"1990s"and"beginning"of"21st"century"(see"also"

Scheffel"2005;"Donert"2008;"Sokolová"2008).14"""

"

The"2004"new"policy’s"rhetoric"of" ‘work"pays’"operated"within"an"ambiguously"

defined" term"pracovat!(referring" to"work"as" a"productive"activity" and"a" labour"

practice)"rather"than"zamestnanie!(employment),"and"thus"allowed"to"construct"

the" problem" in" terms" of" moral" commitments" and" civilizational" values" (cf."

Makovicky" 2013)." " In" her" study" of" Slovak" neoliberalism" as" ‘authoritarian"

populism,’" Makovicky" (2013)" shows" how," by" circumscribing" the" reforms" and"

protests" as" ‘Roma" problem’," the" policy" makers" refracted" the" optics" from"

unpopular" political" reforms" (affecting" not" only" the" Roma" but" all" vulnerable"

groups"in"society)"and"from"deepening"of"class"inequalities"by"appealing"on"the"

populist" sentiments" of" being" themselves" hardCworking" and" spokespersons"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""14"During"the"socialist"period,"the"existing"inequalities"were"explained"by"reference"to"problems"

related"to"social"class"and"public"discourses"avoided"ethnicisation"of"what"tended"to"be"seen"as"

‘social"problem’"(though"still"framed"and"addressed"under"the"rubric"of"‘citizens"of"Gypsy"

origins’)"(see"also"Donert"2008)."However,"as"Horváth"and"Kovai"(2012)"shown,"this"silence"and"

avoidance"of"the"uses"of"‘Gypsy’"category"in"public"did"not"mean"that"the"Roma/nonCRoma"

distinction"ceased"to"exist"on"the"local"level."

13"

"

located" ‘on" the" side" of" decent" people’." The" policyCmakers" contrasted" this" by"

foregrounding"the"essentialised"image"of"Roma"people"who"were"constructed"as"

lacking" not" only" working" habits" but" crucially" also" a" willingness" and" selfC

responsibility"for"finding"work"(ibid."86;"cf."van"Baar"2011,"2012).""The"image"of"

hardCtoCgovern," troublesome" minority" and" then" moral" panic" linked" to" alleged"

criminalised" behaviour," they" implemented" neoCliberal" reforms" hinging" on" the"

ideas"of"selfChelp"and"of"being"a"good"citizen"through"‘honest"work’"(Makovicky"

2013:86)."

"

The"reforms"introduced"in"2004"in"Slovakia"initiated"the"move"from"the"right"and"

entitlement"for"welfare"to"workfare."The"significant"downsizing"of"public"aid"was"

accompanied" by" the" symbolic" ‘offered" hand’" of" the" state," which" guaranteed"

reduced" income" and" possibility" to" gain" an" extra" topCup" activation" allowance"

throughout" the" first" decade" of" 21st" century." This" shift" entailed" moving" the"

responsibility"to"individual"citizens"for"coping"with"poverty."But"it"also"crucially"

indexed"a"change"in"defining"the"optics"and"scope"of"the" ‘problem’" from"that"of"

dealing"with"poverty"to"fighting"longCterm"welfare"benefits"dependency"(Serrano"

Pascual"2007:"15)."This"shift"reflected"a"wider"tendency"within"Europe’s"political"

landscape"(Serrano"Pascual"and"Magnusson"2007;"van"Berkel"and"Borghi"2008;"

Roberman"2014)"but"acquired"particular"dynamics"with"the"process"of"Slovakian"

accession" to" the" EU" in" 2004." " Serrano" Pascual" (2007:14)" identifies" three"

distinctive" features" of" this" ‘paradigmatic" shift’" centering" around:" 1)"

individualisation"in"which"it"is"individual’s"behaviour,"attitude"and"morality"that"

has" to"be"changed"(rather" than" fairer" redistribution"of"wealth"or"conditions"on"

labour"markets);" 2)" the" ultimate" goal" and" extent" of" successful" citizen" revolves"

around" the" status" of" ‘being" formally" employed’" and" autonomous;" 3)"

‘contractualisation’"as"the"key"principle"in"which"citizens’"entitlements"for"state"

support" and" ‘deservingness’" are" directly" derived" from" their" alleged" morality,"

assessments"of"their"efforts"and"(un)employment"status.""

"

In" Slovakia," one" can" trace" the" transforming" nature" of" Activation" Works’"

implementation"since"2004."The"reforms"in"2004"were"trumpeted"by"the"ruling"

parties"under"the"banner"of"progressive"politics"C"as"painful"for"some"in"a"shortC

14"

"

term" but" as" inevitable," healthy" and" beneficial" in" a" longCterm" horizon." This"

rhetoric"was"even"accentuated"in"light"of"the"coming"Slovakian"accession"to"EU"in"

May" 2004." In" the" context" of" 2004" reform" the" responsibility"was" shifted" to" the"

individual"unemployed"people"who"were"portrayed"as"being"given"hand"but"the"

responsible" to" take" the" initiative" themselves." In" other"words," the" state" can" be"

seen"as"setting"up"a"scheme"through"which"people"can"be"activated"if"they"show"

an" effort" to" selfChelp." While" the" policies" of" Activation"Works" and" its" practical"

implementation"on"the"local"level"came"under"criticism"in"political"and"academic"

debates" (see" e.g." Oravec" and" Bošelová" 2006)," the" principle" of" activation"

continued" to" underpin" further" state" reforms," as" well" as" international" intraC

governmental"and"nonCgovernmental"organisation’s"project"(Hurrle"et"al."2012)."

Moreover," as"Škobla" (2011)"agues," this"development"coCexisted"simultaneously"

with" trends" towards" rhetoric" of" punitive" paternalism" articulated" in" political"

debates" and" public" policies" addressing" the" soCcalled" ‘Roma" question’." In"

2013/14,"Slovakian"government"introduced"further"reforms"completing"the"shift"

towards" obligatory" welfare." These" changes" legally" anchored" the" enforced"

participation"in"mostly"subpar"employment"as"a"precondition"for"public"support"

of" the" longCterm" unemployed.15"If" ‘Work" pays’" motto" proposed" the" optional"

activation," the" new" ‘Roma" reform’" forces" participation" in"workfare" in" order" to"

deserve"the"state"benefits’"support."One"of"the"main"proponents"and"coCdesigner"

of" the" reforms" in" 2013" was" the" plenipotentiary" for" Roma" communities" in"

Slovakia."Criticising"all"the"previous"social"policy"measurements"as"ineffective,"he"

frequently"characterises"the"reform"as"signalling"a"new"orientation"towards"the"

philosophy" of" ‘no" pain," no" gain.’" The" reform" introduces" not" only" the" general"

condition"for"unemployed"to"work"for"their"benefits,"but"it"also"gives"a"power"to"

state" authorities" to" withdraw" the" state" support" in" case" of" children’s" high"

absenteeism" in" school" attendance," lack" of" willingness" to" work," or" punitive"

penalisation"of"public"offenses.""These"recent"changes"further"evidenced"the"shift,"

which" happened" between" 2004C2013." " While" the" principle" of" activation" was"

initially" framed"as"a" tool" for" ‘reCsocialisation’" at"workplace"and" for" ‘reClearning"

lost"working"habits’,"by"the"2013"it"has"become"a"tool"for"enforcing"the"poor"to"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""15"At"the"time"of"the"writing,"it"remains"unclear"how"these"reforms"get"implemented"and"work"in"

practice"and"what"will"be"the"role"of"Activation"Works"in"these"new"conditions."

15"

"

work"if"they"want"to"deserve"the"state’s"help"(cf."Škobla"2011)."Moreover,"the"setC

up"of"activation"works,"similarly"to"the"examples"discussed"by"Sveta"Roberman"

in" the" case" of" similar" schemes" in" Germany" (Roberman" 2014)," often" led" those"

engaged"in"these"works"to"‘performances"of"the"seriousness"of"work’"and"acts"of"

simulation"of"work"and"employability"(ibid.)."

"

Several"other"studies"discussed"the"concept"and"practices"of" ‘Activation"Works’"

in" Slovakia" (Oravec" &" Bošelová" 2006;" van" Baar" 2011," 2012;" Kureková" Mýtna"

2013)."In"one"of"the"early"assessments"of"its"effects,"Oravec"and"Bošelová"(2006)"

point" out" several" problematic" aspects." They" suggest" that" participation" in" the"

Activation"Works"does"not"increase"chances"for"entering"the"labour"market"and"

instead" results" into" a" ‘new" form" of" modern" slavery’" (2006:15)." The" Roma"

employed"through"the"Activation"Works"continued"to"do"the"same"tasks"but"were"

being"paid"much"less"due"to"their"enrolment"in"the"Activation"Works."Rather"than"

helping" the" stigmatised" unemployed" the" Activation" Works" have" the" opposite"

effect"by"cementing"their"position"at"the"bottom"of"the"social"ladder"by"assigning"

the"heaviest"or" the"most"meaningless" jobs" to" the"Roma."Combining"Oravec"and"

Bošelová’s" empirical" findings" (2006)" with" theoretical" studies" informed" by"

Foucault’s" notion" of" governmentality" (Foucault" 1991)," Huub" van" Baar" argues"

that"the"failure"to"deliver"the"proposed"goals"the"Activation"Works:"

actually" function" as" a" form" of" ethnicityCbased" neoCliberal" governmentality" that"

racialises" postC" communist" class" formations," naturalises" ethnic" differences" and"

maintains," rather" than" reduces," ‘the" habits’" of" the"majority" to" subChumanise" or"

even"dehumanise"the"Roma"(van"Baar"2012:1297)"

In" his" view," the" bioCpolitics" of" Activation"Works" had" ‘dehumanising" effects’" on"

the"already"marginalized"Roma"who"were"constructed"as"subjects"of"neoCliberal"

governance" of" Slovak" state" and" forced" to" perform" the" deeply" ingrained"

stereotypes"as"lazy"and"workshy"by"participation"in"the"Activation"Works."This,"

in" turn," contributed" to" their" racialization" as" simultaneously" inCactive" and"

exploitable"labourers"rather"than"to"their"proclaimed"socioCeconomic"mobilities."

Van"Baar" develops" some" conceptual" tools" and" theoretical" frameworks" through"

which"we"could"examine"the"Activation"Works"in"relation"to"wider"socioCpolitical"

16"

"

process" and"what" he" calls" ‘neoCliberal" governmentality’." However," his" account"

does"not"provide"more"empirically"grounded"examples"of"how"do"those"who"are"

the"subjects"of"these"policies,"how"are"they"located"and"how"do"they"respond"to"

their" practical" implementation" on" the" local" level."16"While" van" Baar’s" work"

provides"theoretically"sophisticated"account,"he"does"not"address"how"the"local"

hierarchies"and"power"relationships"in"particular"localities"influence"the"ways"in"

which"the"Activation"Works"operate"and"how"state"operates"on"different"scales."

Rather" than" contributing" to" the" theoretical" debates" regarding" neoCliberal"

governmentality," in" the" rest" of" this" paper" I" aim" to" focus" on" the" experiential"

dimensions"of"the"Activation"Works"as"they"relate"to"their"subjects’"struggles"to"

navigate"in"the"highly"uncertain"terrains"of"socioCeconomic"changes"and"broader"

reCengineering"of" the"state"on"the" local"scales."Moreover," I"will" investigate"how"

particularly" racialised" section" of" Slovak" society" participating" in" the" activation"

workfare" find" themselves" under" the" increasing" pressure" to" earn" and" deserve"

their"social"support"and"social"citizenship"amidst" the"socioCeconomic"crisis"and"

further"reproduction"of"their"marginalized"location."

"

ETHNOGRAPHIC)FINDINGS:) COMPARATIVE)PERSPECTIVES)ON)TWO)LOCALITIES) IN)EAST)

SLOVAKIA)

In" what" follows" I" try" to" ethnographically" unpack" some" of" the" key" issues" and"

themes"encountered"during"my"research."For"the"sake"of"clarity"in"presenting"my"

findings," I" delineate" several" perspectives" reflecting" particular" locations" within"

the" social" space;" mayors," social" and" community" workers," coordinators," and"

people" participating" in" the" Activation" Works." I" reconstruct" these" views" and"

experiences" for" the" purposes" of" analysis" and" interpretation" here." These"

categories"do"not"reflect"any"clearCcut"divisions"and"homogenous"groups" in"the"

social"reality."In"fact,"they"are"often"ambiguous,"shifting"and"conflictual."And"I"try"

to" show" the" similarities" but" also" point" out" differences" within" the" particular"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""16"But"see"Kurekova"et"al."(2013)"research,"which"provides"one"of"the"most"comprehensive"

evaluation"of"Activation"Works"based"on"original"empirical"research"to"date."However,"even"their"

report"suffers"from"a"lack"of"observational"data"and"the"main"bulk"of"data"comes"from"interviews"

and"desk"research"whereby"largely"ignoring"some"historically"constituted"hierarchies."

17"

"

categories" in" relation" to" individual" trajectories" and" positions"within" the" social"

space."

"

1.)From)the)mayors’)point)of)view)and)uses)of)Activation)Work(:ers):)

Acts) of) compassion,) actions) of) meaningful) work) or) grey) zones) of)

exploitation?)

The"perspectives"of" individual"mayors"concerning"the"uses"and"meaningfulness"

of" the" Activation" Works" varied" depending" on" their" particular" social" location,"

historical" trajectory" and" politicalCcumCmoral" orientation." In" both" Rijava" and"

Tarkovce," the" mayors" have" been" actively" participating" in" the" local" political"

sphere" since" the" late" socialist" period."Both"have" a" very" good"knowledge"of" the"

local" villagers" and"were" embedded"within" various" local" hierarchies" and"power"

factions," which" contributed" to" the" selection" of" possible" candidates" and" to" the"

ways" in"which" they"managed"and"used" the"Activation"Works" in" their" localities."

Considering"its"smaller"size,"the"mayor"of"Rijava"knew"most"of"its"inhabitants"and"

also" played" a"more" central" figure" in" organising" and" supervising" the" Activation"

Works.""

"

The"two"mayors"illustrate"different"approaches"in"utilising"the"Activation"Works."

Although"both"used"the"activation"workers"for"maintaining"order"and"cleaning"of"

public"spaces"inside"the"villages,"the"mayor"of"Rijava"also"deployed"the"activation"

workers"as" cheap(Cer)" labour" force" for"more"qualified" tasks."As"he"puts" it:" ‘I’m"

using"them"for"everything"–"even"qualified"jobs."Here"who"wants"(to"work)"I"can"

employ.’"In"contrast"to"many"villages"where"activation"workers"spend"long"hours"

brushing" streets" several" times" a" week," the" Activation" Works" in" Rijava" led" to"

construction" of" new" playground" for" children," a" small" wooden" bridge," a" new"

graves"at"the"local"cemetery,"or"a"creation"of"new"park"with"wooden"seats."As"he"

proudly" emphasises," all" this" was" done" only" with" the" help" of" ‘the" ones" on"

activation"(works).’"He"saw"the"uses"of"activation"workers"in"meaningful"ways"as"

positive:"‘Rather"than"paying"some"‘foreign’"[i.e."nonClocal]"companies"big"money,"

I"will" train" them"[i.e." activation"workers]"myself"and" then"do" these" things"with"

them."I"train"them"and"they"can"do"even"these"types"of"jobs.’"The"mayor"criticised"

the" financial" incentives" provided" through" the" Activation"Works" and" even" ‘felt"

18"

"

sorry" for" them" –" that" they" are" paying" them" so" little" and" one" has" to" still" chase"

them" ’"But"he"also"suggested" that"he"could"employ"even"more"people:" ‘I"would"

employ"them"without"any"problem."There"is"a"work"(to"be"done"in"the"village).’""

These" material" outcomes" of" Activation" Works" were" positively" appreciated" by"

most"of"the"Rijava"villagers,"and"even"some"of"the"activation"workers"themselves"

saw"the"outcomes"of"their"efforts"as"doing"at"least"some"meaningful"works.""

"

In" practice," it" also" meant" that" the" mayor" could" replace" the" more" expensive"

service"providers"and"companies"with"the"cheap"and"exploitable"labour"force"of"

the" activation" workers." The" issue" of" exploitation" was" also" highlighted" by" a"

number"of"activation"workers"who"were"aware"of"the"fact"that"the"same"type"of"

jobs"are"paid"much"better"on"formal"and"informal"labour"markets."At"times,"they"

also"suggested"that"the"mayor"is"too"demanding"and"ask"for"too"much"work"for"a"

person."One"of"his"selfCinvented"regulatory"mechanisms"to"measure"work"results"

was"to"divide"work"and"assign"allCyear"maintenance"of"particular"spatial"unit"in"

the"village"for"individual"activation"workers.""In"other"words,"an"individual"has"to"

cut" the"grass,"collect"rubbish"or"remove"snow"in"a"particular"public"area"of" the"

village"for"which"they"were"responsible."Individual"workers"are"given"the"task"to"

be"responsible" for"cleaning"and"maintaining"one"spatial"unit" in" the"village"over"

an"extended"period"of"time."He"explained"this"as"an"easy"way"in"which"one"makes"

sure"that"‘they"work’"and"‘I"can"control"it"easily.’"The"issue"of"control"was"seen"as"

important" because" ‘if" you" wouldn’t" control" them," they" wouldn’t" work.’" His"

individualised"assignments,"however,"were"also"a"site"of" contention"as"some"of"

the"activation"workers" complained"about" the"hard"work"and"demands"without"

considering" gender," age" or" health" situation" of" the" workers." For" example," one"

woman"complained"to"me"that"she"had"to"‘work"as"hard"as"man."This"is"a"hard"job"

–"even"men"have"difficulties"to"keep"up.’""

"

In"contrast"to"Rijava,"the"situation"in"Tarkovce"differed"in"several"aspects"as"most"

of" the" Activation" Works" were" focusing" on" the" cleaning" of" public" areas" of" the"

village"and"mostly"consisted"of" lowCskilled"menial" tasks."For"the"more"qualified"

jobs,"the"mayor"employed"a"team"of"workers"on"regular"contracts"(none"of"which"

was" Roma)." " Although" they" differed" in" the" actual" deployment" of" activation"

19"

"

workers" for" more" qualified" jobs," the" mayors" and" their" village" share" some"

similarities." One" of" the" striking" similarities" was" the" rhetorical" denial" of"

ethnicisation"of"the"issue"of"activation,"which"was"almost"instantly"accompanied"

by"the"differentiating"criteria"a"willingness"to"work."This"was"despite"the"fact"that"

the"majority"of"activation"workers"in"both"localities"were"Roma."For"example,"the"

mayor" in"Rijava" summed" this" up" as:" ‘I" don’t" have" any"Gypsies" here…" if" people"

want"to"work,"I"give"them"work.’""

"

This" line" of" reasoning" was" also" resonating" with" the" perspective" of" Tarkovce’s"

mayor" who," in" response" to" my" explanations" regarding" my" research" context,"

asserted:" ‘We’ve" got" no" problem" here." We" don’t" make" any" differences" [i.e."

between" Roma" and" nonCRoma]" here." I" only" have" good" and" bad" people.’" As" I"

nodded,"she"continued:""

You"know"how"hard"working"our"Roma"are"and"we"have"no"problems"here…"I"

don’t" have" here" these" backward" and" inadaptable" Gypsies" [as" other"

municipalities" do]." We" only" have" few" families" that" are" problematic." " But" our"

Roma"have"always"worked…"whether"they"were"going"to"Czech"Republic,"doing"

fušky17!at"home"or"now"going"to"England."They"always"wanted"to"work."

"

She"reiterated"the"same"positive"words"for"how"they"manage"activation"schemes"

in"Tarkovce.""She"then"continued"by"confining"in"me"with"almost"whispering"‘just"

between"me" and" you," I"wouldn’t" need" that"many" positions" for" that" amount" of"

work"that"is"here"(i.e."in"Tarkovce),"but"I"pity"them.’"She"referred"to"employing"a"

greater"amount"of"workers"in"the"‘activation"schemes’"than"it"would"be"necessary"

for"the"tasks"and"amount"of"work"they"were"doing"but" felt"pity"considering"the"

poverty"conditions"and" joblessness"of" the"poorest" families.18""And"yet,"only" few"

minutes"later,"she"commented"to"me"in"a"more"critical"and"worried"tone:"

"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""17"Fušky"refer"to"oneCoff"informal"types"of"jobs"(generic"term"including"all"kinds"of"jobs"located"outside"of"the"official"labour"market)."18"The"amount"of"workers"differed"significantly"from"locality"to"locality"and"depended"on"the"local"

politics"of"the"municipality."Some"mayors"in"Spiš"region,"for"example,"were"accused"of"employing"

too"many"Roma"without"a"real"need"and"without"them"actually"attending"the"Activation"Works"

regularly."Such"‘abuses"of"Activation"Works’"were"often"reported"to"the"higher"institutions"and"

resulted"in"fueling"political"debates"and"strengthening"of"surveillance"modes"from"the"side"of"

monitoring"institutions."

20"

"

But" you" know" how" they" are." A" person" would" have" to" ‘stand" above" them’"

[invigilating]"them"all"the"time."They"work"one"hour"and"already"want"to"have"a"

break."They"work"a"tiny"bit"and"would"already"want"to"go"home."

"

This"encounter"with"the"mayor"is"telling"on"several"counts."It"draws"our"attention"

to" ambiguities" surrounding" particular"ways" in"which"Roma" are" constructed" as"

economically" ‘inactive’" in" public" discourses." It" also" highlights" a" denial" of"

‘problem’" implying" a" ‘Roma" problem’," or" problems" between" a" Roma" and" nonC

Roma" whereby" reCinscribing" the" dichotomous" logic" of" two" collectivities" and"

philosophy" of" moral" behaviourism." On" one" hand," the" mayor" recognises" the"

hardening"prospects"of"everyday"economic"precariousness"and"uncertainties"and"

acknowledges"how"difficult"it"is"to"get"by"for"the"poorest."She"draws"an"attention"

to"the"historical"experiences"and"practices"of"work"and" labour"practiced"by"the"

local"Tarkovce"Roma,"which"points" rather" to" the" constant"ways"of" finding"new"

economic" niches" rather" than" passive" ‘inactivity’." She" openly" mentions" the" coC

existence"of"various"informal"jobs"(fušky)"as"a"legitimate"economic"strategy."She"

is"well"aware"of"how"most"people"in"East"Slovakia,"practiced"by"Roma"and"nonC

Roma" alike," frequently" combine" various" forms" of" income" within" the" blurred"

boundaries"between"informality"and"formality."She"also"expresses"a"compassion"

with"the"poor"Roma"eliciting"empathic"understanding"of"their"situation"and"thus"

incorporating"more"persons"in"the"Activation"Works"than"she"‘realistically"needs’"

for" that" type"of" jobs."Her"use"of" the"notion"of"pity"and"compassion"also"reveals"

some" of" the" criteria" in" selecting" participants" based" on" her" definition" of"

‘neediness’" (as" well" as" deservingness" and" proactive" willingness" to" work)." Her"

words"also"highlights"the"way"in"which"she"conceptualises"the"Activation"Works"

as" rather" useless" works" that" could" be" done" by" smaller" number" of" person."

Although"pitying" ‘them’,"she"also"raised"moralizing"critique"regarding"their"(i.e."

Roma)" work" ethics" and" working" habits." In" doing" so," thus," she" inadvertently"

reproduces" and" reCdraws" a" line" between" the" deserving" and" undeserving" poor"

occupying"particular"subject"positions"visCàCvis" the"state"structures."She"clearly"

ascribes"moral" characteristics" to" the" longCterm" unemployed" Roma" and" evokes"

the"necessity" of" constant" surveillance" and" techniques"of" control" if" ‘they’" are" to"

work.""

21"

"

"

2.)Within)the)state)but)outside)of)the)mayors’)power:)perspectives)of)other)

officials))

Despite"the"key"role"of"mayors"in"managing"and"using"the"Activation"Works,"it"is"

important"to" introduce"perspectives"of"other"state"actors"who"are"participating"

in" this"social" field"and"who"often"provided"bridge"between"the"authority"of" the"

mayors"on"the"local"level"and"regional"and"state"levels"(e.g."as"they"were"part"of"

the" Fund" of" Social"Development’s" funding" coordinated" on" the" nationCwide" and"

regional"levels)."I"will"do"this"by"contrasting"views"of"the"regional"coordinator"of"

EU" supported"Fund" for" Social"Development"with" the"views"of" local" community"

worker" in"Tarkovce."They"represent"other"perspectives"not"easily"fitting"within"

the" narratives" of" the" mayors" and" are" also" not" directly" shaped" by" their"

relationship"to"the"mayors."

"

When"I"discussed"the"role"of"activation"with"the"community"worker"in"Tarkovce,"

she"was"very"critical"in"her"appraisal:"

Look,"all"these"people"who"are"(employed)"on"the"activation"(works),"they"won’t"

be"working"anyway."All"these"(talks)"that"they"acquire"working"habits"C"it"is"not"

truth."These"people"are"attending"(the"Activation"Works)"because"they"want"to"

earn"the"60"or"so"EURO"in"addition"to"their"benefit."But" there" is"nothing"more."

These"are"people"who"wouldn’t"be"able"to"get"employed"elsewhere."You"see,"for"

example" often" (these" are)" women" in" their" 50s" or" that" kind" (of" people)." But"

globally19"these"activation"(works)"do"not"have"any"meanings."It’s"about"nothing."

"

She"pointed"out"to"what"she"saw"as"the"hard"facts"reality,"which"shows"that"there"

is" no" correlation" between" one’s" participation" in" Activation" Works" and" the"

increasing"possibilities"of"finding"a"job"on"legal"market."Being"a"nonCRoma"Slovak"

herself" from" the" area," she" considered" their" chances" minimal" given" the"

multiplicity"of" factors"putting" them" into"disadvantaged"position" in" their" search"

for"entering"legal"markets."It"was"their"age"and"social"position,"which"she"evoked."

‘Aside" from" that," they" are" Gypsies" so" who" is" going" to" employ" them’," she"

acknowledged" the" racialised" stigma"as" yet" another"hurdle" in" finding" a" job." She"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""19"This"is"an"exact"translation"but"its"meaning"in"English"is"closer"to"‘generally’."

22"

"

suggested" that" the" situation" in" East" Slovakia" was" so" desperate" that" even" a"

qualified"worker"with" years" of" experiences"would" find" it" difficult" to" get" a" job."

What" has" come" to" be" a" more" popular" strategy" was" a" labour" migration" as" an"

alternative" to" joblessness" or" underpaid" jobs" (in" a" better" case" scenario). 20"

Working" for" several" years"with" Tarkovce" Roma," she" observed" that" ‘those"who"

could," they"have" already"departed" (towards" the"UK).’" In" contrast" to" those"who"

could"afford,"or"those"who"were"helped"by"others,"to"migrate,"the"participants"in"

the"Activation"Works"belonged"to"those"classed"as"the"‘socially"weaker’"Roma"in"

the"village"or"elderly"who"would"find"it"difficult"to"migrate.""

))

But" the" perspectives" of" one" of" the" local" community" workers" come" to" stark"

contrast"with"the"ones"of"her"direct"job"superior,"a"regional"coordinator"of"Social"

Development" Fund" (SDF)." In" one" of" our" discussions" regarding" the" effects" of"

‘Activation"Works’,"he"suggested"that:"

It"was" a" financial" contribution" for" the" family"budget." I" think" it’s" a" good" tool" of"

active"social"politics."Persons"who"were"employed"[in"Activation"Works]"did"not"

lose"their"working"habits."This"is"needed"in"case"they"would"find"a"normal"fullC

time" employment." To" put" it" simply:" they" didn’t" lose" the" practice" (nevyšli! ze!

cviku)."Another"bonus"is"that"a"family"can"benefit"financially"and"if"both"dad"and"

mother"are"working,"then"it’s"a"fairly"good"for"family"in"material"need."Another"

asset"is"also"the"fact"that"a"person"who"works,"or"just"attends"a"school,"is"simply"

moving"around"people,"which" is"good" for"his"psyche." It" is"better" than"sitting"at"

home"and"having"the"same"cycle."

"

Being"a"young"Roma"himself"with"University"degree"who"has"worked"in"various"

NGOs," local" municipalities" and" also" had" a" short" stint" of" working" in" the" UK" in"

order" to" learn" English" after"which" he" returned" back" to" East" Slovakia"with" his"

family," he" differed" in" his" trajectory" from" the"majority" of" unemployed"Roma" in"

Slovakia."He"has"never"been" longCterm"unemployed"and," regardless"of"whether"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""20"Her"perspectives"were"related"to"her"own"trajectory."Being"a"mother"of"two"teenage"sons,"she"

and"her"husband"found"it"difficult"to"support"the"household"despite"both"having"jobs."Her"

husband"chose"to"exchange"his"underpaid"job"as"a"welder"for"working"in"a"pizzeria"in"the"UK."But"

the"temporary"separation"with"his"work"in"England"and"her"staying"with"their"children"in"

Slovakia"came"to"its"end"after"one"year"where"they"both"found"it"emotionally"strenuous"and"

financially"not"too"beneficial"(contrary"to"their"initial"expectations"and"hopes"associated"with"

migration)."

23"

"

he"worked" in" the"human" right" or" social" office" sector," he"has" always" supported"

himself"with"side"jobs"of"reCselling"smuggled"brand"design"goods"or"helping"with"

admin"paperwork"tasks"for"small"monetary"rewards."But"being"confident" in"his"

own" skills" stemming" from" his" upbringing," socioCeconomic" mobility" and"

educational"trajectory,"he"transposed"this"underpinning"ideological"stance"to"the"

other"Roma/Gypsies"who"lacked"his"accumulated"social"and"cultural"capitals,"of"

having" contacts" with" various" institutions" and" being" seen" as" an" educated" and"

capable"Roma," of" knowing"how" to" speak"with" the" institutions," and" of" knowing"

how"to"behave.""

"

When" I" asked" him" what" does" he" think" about" the" financial" side" of" Activation"

Works,"he"replied:""

As" for" the" (activation)"money"…" it" could" be"more," but" the"working" habits" it’s"

really" true." I"don’t"know"if"you’ve"ever"been" in"such"a"state" in"which"you"were"

unemployed"and"you"weren’t" even" studying"and"doing"anything." "A"person" (in"

such"conditions)"welcomes"even"working" for" free" in"order" to"be"among"people"

(collective)" and" to" have" some" kind" of" regime" of" getting" up," going" to" work,"

packing"a"snack,"etc.""

"

The"view" that"people"gain"some"extra"additional" income" to" their" tight"monthly"

budget" was" shared" by" all" participants" of" Activation" Works." In" contrast" to" his"

vision," however," most" people" employed" in" Activation"Works" did" not" see" their"

practices" in" terms" of" being" beneficial" for" maintaining" working" habits."

Additionally," the" effects" of" Activation" Works" on" the" chances" of" longCterm"

unemployed"to"gain"a"full"time"employment"are"highly"dubious"as"most"of"them"

did"not"find"any"longCterm"jobs"after"the"Activation"Works.""It"is"the"daily"social"

organisation" of" the" Activation" Works" and" the" experiences" of" those" who"

coordinated" these" works," and" those" who" were" the" ultimate" targets" of" these"

policies"and"participated"in"these"that"I"will"turn"now"in"the"next"sections.""

"

3.)Everyday)politics)of)Activation)Works:) ‘coordinating’,) in:between(ness))

and)reproduction)of)local)hierarchies)

24"

"

When"referring"to"the"constant"necessity"to"‘stand"over’"and"invigilate"how"Roma"

perform"at" their"Activation"Works," the"mayor"of"Tarkovce"also"told"me:" ‘Thank"

God,"I"have"a"Gejza"who"keeps"an"eye"on"them.’""Gejza,"an"older"Roma"man"in"his"

50s," was" also" formally" registered" as" unemployed" and" was" also" working" on"

‘Activation"Works’"but"unlike"others,"he"was"given"more"supervisory"role"due"to"

his"particular"social"relationship"with"the"mayor21,"and"a"historically"developed"

status" of" more" ‘adaptable’" Roma" dating" back" to" socialist" times." He" knew" the"

mayor"for"a"long"time,"as"well"as"lived"in"a"closed"proximity"to"her.22"Although"he"

returned" from" England" only" relatively" recently," he" was" a" part" of" the" local"

municipality" committee," supporting" and" even" convincing"Roma" to" vote" for" the"

mayor"during"the"last"elections."Prior"to"migrating"to"Britain"in"2006,"he"used"to"

work" as" a" foreman" for" a" construction" company" run" by" one" Tarkovce" Roma"

businessman." " All" his" children" live" in" Great" Britain." He" considered" his" stay" in"

Tarkovce" only" as" a" temporary" one:" ‘only" for" my" wife" to" get" better’" after" her"

recent"medical" operation" and" ‘to" arrange" few" things" at" home," install" an" alarm"

system"protecting"his"the"house"from"burglaries’"in"his"absence"after"he"will"reC

join"his"children"and"their"families"in"Britain."Given"his"trusting"relationship"with"

the"mayor," it"was"mainly"Gejza"who"was" instructed"by" the"mayor"and"acted"as"

her"extended"hand"in"organizing"the"routine"daily"tasks"and"assigned"particular"

works" to" people" on" ‘Activation"Works’." He" not" only" supervised" the" activation"

workers"and"oversaw"their"work"performances,"but"also"helped"with"work"when"

needed"–"some"times"even"outside"of"working"hours"or"weekends"if"needed,"as"he"

was"keen" to" emphasise"as" a"prove"of"his" loyalty," reliability" and"an" indicator"of"

being" a" good" worker" (which" can" be" extended" to" the" understanding" of" moral"

citizen)."

"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""21"This"arrangement,"however,"has"been"rather"exceptional"in"comparison"with"other"localities"

with"Activation"Works."Most"of"the"supervisors"in"the"Activation"Works"have"been"usually"nonC

Roma"Slovaks."For"example,"this"was"the"case"in"Rijava."Even"in"Tarkovce"Gejza"was"paired"in"his"

supervisory"role"with"a"nonCRoma"Slovak"woman."22"His"family"belonged"to"the"segment"of"Tarkovce"Roma"who"took"up"state"loans"during"socialism"

allowing"them"to"move"out"from"the"old"‘Gypsy"settlement’."Within"the"socialist"framework,"this"

was"seen"as"voluntarily"abandoning"the"‘Gypsy"way"of"life’"characterized"by"‘backwardness’"(cf."

Grill"2014).""""

25"

"

A"typical"day"at"the"Activation"Works"in"Tarkovce,"then,"begins"shortly"before"7"

am"outside"of" the" local"municipality"building.23"Gejza," assisted"by" another"nonC

Roma" lady24"from" the" village," fill" in" the" attendance" register" while" the" waiting"

‘activation" workers’" gather" in" smaller," spontaneously" formed" and" bustling"

groupings"animated"by"lively"banter"and"teasing."After"the"tasks"are"distributed"

and"allocated"to"smaller"working"groups"(frequently"called"partijas),"workers"are"

given"tools."Each"individual"is"hold"responsible"for"the"tools."At"the"end"of"their"

working" days," they" must" return" their" tools." This" individualization" of"

responsibilities,"I"was"told"by"the"nonCRoma"Slovak"woman"who"was"partnering"

Gejza"in"the"supervisory"role,"has"twofold"role"of"making"sure"that"‘nothing"goes"

missing"at"the"end"of"the"day’,"and"of"instilling"and"creating"a"sense"of"individual"

responsibility" and" care" for" things." " These" two" are" inevitably" intertwined" and"

reflect" the" corrective" ideological" underpinning" of" seeing"Roma" subjects" as" less"

responsible"(so"that"they"would"leave"or"lost"their"things),"or"as"prone"to"stealing"

(circulating" in" the" forms" of" stories" of" individual" thefts" of" tools" or" a" gas)," or" as"

having" less" skilful" bodies" (as" lacking"or" losing"working"habits)" that"might" lead"

into"a"breaking"the"tools."This"illustrates"an"important"aspect"of"this"supervisory"

workfare"guided"by"the"moral"and"practical"efforts" to" ‘correct’" the"conduct"and"

behaviour" of" their" targeted" participants" (Wacquant" 2012:208)." Thus," the"

supervisory" role" in" Activation" works" operates" simultaneously" as" disciplinary,"

corrective"and"educational."Additionally,"these"roles"and"power"hierarchies"were"

often" exemplified" by" the" unequal" distribution" of," and" invigilation" of" practical"

performances" of" actual"work," in"which" the"more" expensive" tools" tended" to" be"

preferentially" given" to" nonCRoma" workers." At" the" same" time," they" were"

exemptions"to"the"rule"and"several"Roma"workers"earned"a"reputation"of"skilled"

workers"who"were"then"trusted"with"working"with"more"expensive"tools."

"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""23"The"organisation"of"Activation"Works"in"Tarkovce"and"Rijava"are"largely"similar."The"only"

difference"is"the"smaller"amount"of"Activation"Workers"in"Rijava"due"to"its"smaller"size,"the"nonC

Roma"coordinator,"and"also"frequently"more"individually"assigned"working"tasks"in"Rijava."In"

Tarkovce,"most"of"the"participants"work"in"smaller"groups"(partija)."24"Both"Gejza"and"her"were"also"registered"as"‘activation"workers’"but"both"enjoyed"more"

privileged"position"with"the"mayor."In"the"case"of"the"Slovak"female"supervisor,"the"mayor"

employed"her"temporary"in"this"position"after"she"lost"her"job"in"the"dairy"and"was"struggling"

financially"as"a"single"mother"of"four"children."The"mayor"employed"her"in"the"Activation"Works"

in"order"to"help."

26"

"

The" division" of" activation" workers" into" smaller" groups" and" distribution" of"

assigned" tasks" can" reveal" particular" connections" made" alongside" different"

vectors" of" difference" and" embedded" within" local" hierarchies" and" forms" of"

relationships."Consideration"of"gender"differences"played"the"most"obvious"role"

in"the"basic"distribution"of"work."For"example,"while"groups"of"women"were"sent"

to"water" the" flowers" in" public" spaces" and" for" sweeping" the" streets,"men"were"

frequently" assigned" physically" more" demanding" tasks" such" as" digging,"

construction"works"at" the" local"cemetery"or"cutting"grass"with"a"scythe."But,"at"

times,"the"division"of"types"of"work"and"its"spatial"distribution"in"the"locality"also"

reflected" the" preCexisting" local" hierarchies" and" intersected" with" other" power"

asymmetries" and" categories" of" difference." Some" of" the" poorest" and" socioC

symbolically" most" marginalised" Roma" participating" in" the" Activation" Works,"

which" occupied" very" low" status" in" the" village" and" also" suffered" from" weaker"

connections" with" mayors" or" coordinators," were" frequently" assigned" tasks"

considered"as"the"least"desirable"and"frequently"symbolically"humiliating"by"the"

participants." They" were" also" less" trusted" in" assigning" tools." These" were" the"

participants"who"were"recruited"out"of"‘compassion’"(because"in"other"everyday"

contexts" they" were" often" seen" as" ‘lost" cases’)," to" paraphrase" the" mayor’s"

sentiment."Magdalena,"a"woman"in"her"late"30s,"was"a"clear"case"in"point."Having"

an"alcoholic"husband"and"involved"in"constant"troubles"with"social"workers"due"

to" the" high" absenteeism," accusations" of" lacking" basic" hygienic" standards" and"

general"neglect"of"her"children"(one"of"which"was" taken" from"her"by" the"social"

services),"she"was"often"seen"as"a"fool"or"as"one"of"the"‘worst"social"cases’"in"the"

village."Her"marginal"status"was"also"reflected"in"the"types"of"tasks"she"was"often"

repeatedly" given," such" as" picking" up" rubbish"with" her" bare" hands."Magdalena"

was" often" treated" as" useless" for" other" kinds" of"works" C" other" than" picking" up"

rubbish"–"both"by"other"workers"and"municipality"workers"assigning"the"tasks."

As"another"participants"pointed"out:"‘Look"at"her."She"has"to"pick"up"all"the"worst"

rubbish"with"her"(bare)"hands."They"won’t"even"give"her"(protective)"gloves"and"

they"are"getting"money"for"that.’"Picking"up"different"kinds"of"rubbish"from"the"

streets" only" with" one’s" bare" hands" and" plastic" bag" was" seen" as" dirty" and"

humiliating," as" well" as" potentially" dangerous." This" comment" is" telling" as" it"

encapsulates" a" critique" of" differential" treatment" and" unequal" distribution" in"

27"

"

assigning" tasks"but"also" the"assumed" lack"of"values"ascribed" to" the" lives"of" the"

most" impoverished" and" marginalised" reflected" in" the" failure" to" provide" them"

with"some"elementary"safety"tools,"such"as"gloves,"for"carrying"out"these"works"

(despite"having"the"resources"to"do"so).""

"

In"addition"to"the"local"hierarchies"of"worth"corresponding"to"the"types"of"work,"

its" heaviness" and" relative" easiness," dirtiness" and" cleanliness," the" allocation" of"

spatial"location"for"work"(i.e."for"cleaning)"presented"another"contentious"issue."

One"of"the"least"desirable"jobs"to"be"given"to"the"Roma"was"the"cleaning"of"Hukot,"

the"stigmatised"Gypsy"neighbourhood"lying"at"the"margins"of"the"village,"streets"

and"surroundings."This"was"especially"the"case"for"those"whose"families"did"not"

live"in"the"area"and"who"considered"themselves"as"socially"‘on"a"better"level’"and"

civilizationally" ‘more" advanced’." These" participants" often" considered" the"

cleaning"‘after"the"Gypsies’"as"rather"humiliating."While"for"the"majority"of"nonC

Roma" in" the" village" this" work"was" simply" a"matter" of" ‘sending" the" Gypsies" to"

clean" after" themselves’," for" the" Roma" themselves" this" was" one" of" the" most"

humiliating"jobs"as"they"had"to"clean"‘after"the"(other)"Gypsies’"(whom"they"often"

saw" as" ‘disorderly’)" and" were" also" exposed" to" the" omnipresent" gazes" and"

frequent" teasing" and"mocking" comments" of" the" Roma" residing" in" the" area." In"

these"categorisations," some"of" the"Roma"clearly"differentiated" themselves" from"

the" stigmatised" category" by" transposing" the" stigma" of" Gypsyness" to" other"

‘Gypsies’"and"internalised"the"dominant"representations."

"

When" Gejza" took" me" around" the" village" in" the" footsteps" of" the" activation"

workers,"he"often"embraced"a"discourse"resembling" that"of" the"mayor"pointing"

out"how"‘you"have"to"constantly"bike"around"to"check"on"them"if"they"are"really"

working.’"He"cycles" from"one"partija!of"workers"to"another" in"order"to"monitor"

their"work."Sometimes" the"mayor"also"comes" to"check."And"couple"of" times,"he"

says:" ‘we"also"had"sociálka"(labour"office"inspector"from"regional"town)"coming"

and"imagine"what"a"problem"would"it"be"if"they"would"find"that"not"all"of"them"

are"at"work.’"His"comment"highlighted"the"nested"hierarchies"at"work"in"the"case"

of"Activation"Works."He" is"coordinating"and"overseeing" the"actual"performance"

and"delivery"of"work."He"is"worried"that"the"mayor"might"come"to"criticise"him,"

28"

"

or" that"even"someone" from"the"regional" labour"office"might"pay"an"unexpected"

visit." This" atmosphere" of" constant" alertness" on" different" levels" of" Activation"

Works," from" the" ordinary" activation" clients" to" the" mayors," has" developed" in"

recent" years" with" the" state" apparatuses" shifting" towards" more" disciplinary"

mechanism" and" surveillance" controls." During" my" first" fieldwork" in" Tarkovce"

between" 2006C2008," the" organisation" was" more" flexible" and" the" local"

municipalities" often" had" particular" modes" of" arrangements" allowing" the"

activation"workers"to"do"other"things."Rather"than"coming"every"day"for"4"hours"

of" work," most" of" the" workers" were" allowed" to" come" only" twice" a" week" for" 8"

hours" per" day." This" arrangement" allowed" better" organisation" of" time" for" the"

activation"workers"and"left"them"with"greater"spaces"of"possibilities"for"working"

in"various"informal"jobs."However,"this"flexibility"and"space"of"negotiation"shrank"

and"practically"disappeared"by"2013"as"the"Activation"Works"came"under"greater"

scrutiny"and"state"surveillance"and"punitive"mechanisms."These"were"frequently"

supported" by" various" gossips" and" stories" about" localities" in" which" registered"

clients"on"Activation"Works"do"not"actually"come"to"work"and"only"receive" the"

activation"allowances"for"their"‘fictional’"work.25"

"

This" increasing"disciplining"and"controlling"of" the"Activation"Works"permeated"

not"only"the"level"of"workers"but"also"of"municipalities"reflected"larger"shifts"in"

Slovakia"(as"outlined"elsewhere"in"this"text)."When"one"day,"three"of"the"workers"

did"not"show"up,"Gejza" told"me:" ‘we"should"tick" them"absence"but"what"should"

we"do?’"Gejza"wanted"to"clarify"this"dilemma"with"their"absences"a"bit"more:"‘but"

you"don’t"know"what"has"happened"to"them."It"can"be"that"they"have"a"sick"child"

and" have" to" go" to" hospital." Or," that" the"man" got" drunk" and" can’t" come." So" I’d"

rather" take"my"bike" and" go" to" find" out"why"didn’t" they" come" today.’" If" Gejza’s"

approach" allowed" for" considering" particular" circumstances" leading" into" work"

absences," the" general" trend" in" Slovakia"was" to" deploy" lower" (or" zero)" level" of"

tolerance" for" absences" and" missing" three" times" without" an" authorised"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""25"A"good"case"in"point"illustrating"this"logic"can"be"found"in"political"debates."For"example,"a"

politician"Lucia"Nicholsonova"emphasized"that"the"abuses"of"the"welfare"and"workfare"systems"in"

Slovakia"as"a"symptomatic"of"the"constant"failure"of"the"state"policies"of"activation"in"practice."See"

e.g."https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iCTR8yixjG4;"or,"

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BRpCVyrX8U""

29"

"

permission"can"lead"to"the"removal"from"the"activation"schemes."This"tendency"

towards" ‘heavyCfist’" approach" (see" Hurrle" et" al." 2012:" 77C80)" seems" to" be"

replicated" on" various" scales" of" functioning" of" Slovak" state" in" relation" to" the"

governing" of"minorities." At" times," some"mayors" seem" to" embrace" this" position"

and"the"only"way,"which"‘works"with"them’"(ibid.).""

"

Gejza’s"daily"works"also"highlighted"his"ambiguous"feelings"about"the"volume"of"

assigned"work" in" light"of" the" financial" rewards" linked" to" the"Activation"Works."

While"he"repeatedly"suggested"that"‘one"has"to"constantly"watch"out"(if"they"are"

working)’" and" that" ‘some" of" them" don’t" even" want" to" work.’" His" remarks"

resonated"with"some"of" the"dominant" tropes"of"moral"behaviourism"present" in"

the" public" discourses." And" yet," as" he" puts" it," switching" into" Romani" language"

after" talking" to" me" mostly" in" Slovak" previously:" ‘but" what" can" you" ask" from"

them?"For" this"amount"of"money,"what"would"you"want" them"to"do?" I"only" tell"

them"to"work"a"bit"and"then"let"them"take"breaks….it’s"impossible"to"live"out"of"

this"miserable"support.’"The"activation"workers"often"take"smaller"breaks"and"eat"

their"snacks.""Some"of"them,"if"working"close"to"their"homes,"stop"by"for"a"snack"

at" home." His" comments" show" certain" ambiguity" present" in" his" vision" of" the"

insufficient" forms"of"state"support"and"moral" failings"of"Roma"on"activations" in"

their" work." During" my" research," I" constantly" noticed" his" movement" between"

conflicting," switching" and" overlapping," forms" of" categorisations" of" work" and"

assessment"of"activation"workers."He"wanted"to"be"seen"as"a"good"coordinator"in"

the" eyes" of" the" mayor," often" embodied" in" his" management" skills" but" also"

authority."At"the"same"time,"he"encouraged"the"activation"workers"only"to"work"

so"they"do"their"bit"and"perform"being"good"workers.""

"

In" the"microcosm"of"Activation"Works" in"Tarkovce" in" the" summer"2013,"Gejza"

acts"as"some"kind"of"coordinating"middleman,"between"different"Roma"working"

in"the"Activation"Works"and"the"mayor.26"For"the"mayor,"he"acted"as"an"extended"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""26"It"must"be"noted"that"forms"of"relationship"to,"and"the"position"of"a"figure"coordinating"the"job"

tasks"assigned"to"people"at"Activation"works"was"crucial.""Although"Gejza"occupied"a"particular"

position"within"a"village"hierarchy"and"forms"of"connections"to"the"mayor"and"other"nonCRoma"

and"Roma,"another"man"replaced"him"after"he"returned"to"work"and"to"rejoin"his"family"living"in"

England"later"during"the"year."The"new"‘supervisor’"faced"similar"conditions"of"maneuvering"

30"

"

hand"with" the" necessary" authority" in" the" context" of" Activation"Works." For" the"

Roma"workers,"it"was"important"that"they"maintained"a"good"relation"to"him"as"

he"was"the"one"who"could"report"someone"not"working"well"(which"might"lead"to"

a"loss"of"his"position);"or"he"could"help"with"ticking"one’s"presence"when"a"child"

is"ill"or"a"person"got"oneCoff"job"elsewhere"–"with"all"these"scenarios"presenting"a"

risk"of"having"to"miss"the"‘activation’"works."So"being"on"good"terms"with"Gejza,"

and"with"others"practically"coordinating"the"works"in"different"localities,"played"

a"crucial"role"for"keeping"in"the"‘Activation"Works’.27""

"

But" what" Gejza’s" role," experiences" and" views" also" highlight" ambiguities"

surrounding" the" ‘Activation"Works’,"which"were"played"out"on"different" scales."

This" ambiguities" are" clearly" illustrated" in" the" following" statement," which" I"

recorded" in" different" versions" from" several" coordinators" and" also" one"mayor:"

‘but"I’m"not"asking"them"to"do"too"much…"if"only"they"would"want"only"a"bit,"then"

everything"would"be"fine."If"they"would"just"do"things"when"they"should,"it’s"not"

too"much"of"work"really.’"Similarly,"he"also"remarked"to"me"in"the"tone"carrying"

out"certain"complicity:" ‘if" (only)" they"would" listen"to"me"and"work"accordingly,"

then"there"would"be"no"problem.’"His"perspective"is"telling"on"several"counts."It"

suggests" that"Gejza"himself" does"not" think"of" the"Activation"works" as"not" very"

motivating"or"effective"tools"to" fulfil" its"proclaimed"goals."He"does"not"consider"

his"role"to"be"to"ask"people"to"work"too"hard."For"him,"this"is"almost"selfCevident"

as" the" jobs" frequently" performed"by"Activation"works" are" relatively" slow," take"

longer" to" complete," or" are" performed" by" larger" number" of" workers" (than"

necessary" for" these" tasks)." The" statement" also" highlights" particular" forms" of"

complicity" between" the" coordinator’s" expectations" of" performing" tasks" at" a"

working" rhythm" punctuated" with" frequent" breaks," with" a" slower" pace" and" a"

lower" intensity." This" could" be" summarised" in" the" way" that" some" the" workers"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""within"different"relationships"and"ambiguous"loyalties"to"other"Roma"and"to"the"mayor"and"other"

municipality"workers.""27"Being"on"good"terms"was"actually"often"described"by"a"particular"expression"and"gesture"–"‘on"

kake"laha’"or"‘le"bossoha’"–"[gesture"of"tightly"crossing"fingers]"–"he"can"do"him"a"favour,"he"can"

twist"the"relations"to"his"advantage,"give"a"leeway"–"this"type"of"relationship"is"important"for"

getting"things"done"(so,"for"example,"Gejza"was"said"to"be"kake"close"with"the"mayor)."These"particular"forms"of"relationship"with"work"superior"did"not"apply"only"within"the"realm"of"

Activation"works"or"local"municipality’s"politics"but"played"a"crucial"role"in"other"incomeC

generating"practices."

31"

"

would" be" asked" to" ‘get" their" job" done’" but" without" getting" ‘overworked’" (i.e."

without"toiling"too"hard)."One"can"further"illustrate"this"by"the"fact"that"the"daily"

work"was"divided"by"collective"tasks,"such"as"cleaning"up"of"certain"areas,"rather"

than"by"working"hours"and"expectance"of" fullCintensity"work"during"these"time"

slots." Upon" completing" their" tasks" assigned" for" each" ‘working" group’" in" the"

morning,"workers" often" rested," had" a" snack" or" just" sat" around" and" engaged" in"

mutual"teasing,"banter"and"newsCcumCgossips"filling"the"time."When"seeing"that"

the" tasks" for" the" day" were" completed" earlier" during" the" working" day," the"

coordinators"would"frequently"tolerate"seeming"inactivity"and"allow"the"workers"

to" chat" without" further" work" while" waiting" until" the" end" of" official" working"

hours.""But"they"would"be"also"careful"not"to"allow"the"workers"to"be"too"visible"

to" public" gaze" in" their" inactivity28"or" to" go" home" earlier" for" a" fear" that" the"

superior"(i.e."mayor)"or"other"form"of"control"(from"regional"Labour"office)." "As"

one"of"the"coordinators"said:"‘Just"wait"a"bit"more"here"and"then"you"can"go"home"

already.’""They"were"asked"to"stay"at"workplaces,"to"prolong"or"to"simulate"works"

(after"already"finishing"what"they"were"asked"to"do)"or"just"to"wait"until"closer"to"

the"end"of"their"working"hours."

"

Similar"forms"of"complicity"are"echoed"by"statements"such"as:"‘I"know"one"can’t"

really"ask"them"for"much’"(as"another"municipality"worker"put"it);"or"‘work"so"it"

is"good’."The"latter"expression"refers"to"an"order"of"working"in"a"way"that"is"‘good"

enough’"to"everyone’s"satisfaction."This"can"often"mean"working"and"doing"a"lip"

service"Cso"it" looks" ‘good’."This"then"manifests" itself"not"only"in"the"practices"of"

work" but" also" in" the" underlying" assumptions," to" some" varying" degrees" shared"

between"Gejza"and"those"working"in"Activation"Works"schemes,"of"these"works"

being"special"kind"of"jobs"with"no"particular"motivating"effects"and"largely"failing"

to"attain"the"pedagogical"effects"of"‘reClearning"working"habits’"trumpeted"by"the"

official"state"ideological"underpinning.""

"

Although" these" forms" of" emerging" complicity" was" to" some" extent" shared"

between"the"mayorsCcoordinatorsCworkers,"there"were"also"limits"and"cracks"in"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""28"For"example,"sitting"alongside"the"main"road"in"the"center"of"the"village"during"the"expected"

‘working"time’"would"not"be"tolerated"for"a"fear"that"someone"could"inform"on"their"lack"of"

working"and"inCactivity."

32"

"

these"shared"meanings,"which"were"veiled"in"ambiguity"and"contested"depending"

on"shifting"power"hierarchies"and"contexts."Some"workers"felt"that"Gejza"(or,"the"

mayors" of" Tarkovce" and" Rijava)" was" too" demanding," pedantically" disciplining"

and" generally" unnecessarily" bossing" around" due" to" his" power" position." Their"

expectations" and" criteria" differed." The" workers" disagreed" with" what" is" the"

acceptable" and" reasonable" amount" of" works" and" there" was" no" unified"

perspective."At"times,"their"views"differed"greatly"from"those"of"the"coordinators"

or"the"mayors."What"might"have"appeared"as" ‘not"much"work’" for"some,"others"

saw"as"‘too"much"work"for"the"alms"we’re"getting"(paid)"for"it’."

"

"The"power"asymmetries" framing" the" situation"and"everyday"encounters" led" to"

some"workers" performances" of" good"work" in" the" presence" of" the" supervisory"

gazes"(by"Gejza"or"mayors)"or"in"anticipation"of"their"arrival"to"the"workplace"in"

order"to"control"the"results"of"work.""At"times,"one"could"overhear"the"workers"to"

say:" ‘Gejza" will" come" soon" (to" our" work" place)," so" let’s" just" raked" this" bit" (of"

park)" and" that’s" it’." These" comments" and" also" observable" differences" in"

intensities" of" performed" work" (depending" on" the" presence/absence" of"

supervisory" gaze)" seem" to" point" out" to" certain" types" of" occasional" ‘work"

simulation’"on"the"side"of"some"workers"employed"in"the"Activation"Works."""

"

In"her"work"on"postCSoviet" immigrants’"experiences"with"activation"schemes"in"

Germany," Sveta" Roberman" (2014)" characterises" these" acts" of" simulation" as"

‘performances"of"the"seriousness"of"work’"by"those"participating"in"the"activation"

projects."Activation"Works"in"Slovakia"did"not"entail"only"simulation"of"work"on"

the" side" of" those" who" are" enrolled" in" these" programmes" but" crucially" also"

implicated" those" who" were" in" supervisory" and" coordinating" roles" in" the"

particular"forms"of"complicity."This"complicity"includes"an"additional"paradox"in"

which" both" coordinator" and" the" supposedly" Activating" worker" knowing" that"

these" works" will" not" help" them" to" get" jobs" on" formal" labour" market." " When"

hearing" frequent" criticism" from" the"participants" of"Activation"works" about" the"

pointless" directions" and" uselessness" of" these" activities," the" coordinators" and"

mayors" often" retorted" that" they" are" ‘only" doing" what" they" told" us" to" do" in"

Bratislava"[i.e."Slovakia’s"capital"city]."We"don’t"have"anything"to"do"with"this"and"

33"

"

we’re"only"doing"what"we"were"asked"to"do.’"By"saying"this," they"decentralised"

responsibility" and" refracted" the" criticism" to" other" power" structures" and"

highlighted"the"regional"and"ruralCurban"asymmetries"between"the"state’s"center"

power"structures"and"its"marginal"borderlands.29""

"

Gejza’s"vacillation"between"ascribing"the"moral"characteristics" to" the" longCterm"

unemployed"(Roma)"and"the"somehow"pointless"and"hardly"motivating"nature"of"

Activation" Works" provides" an" interesting" linkage" to" the" ways" in" which" the"

dominant"nonCRoma"Slovak"villagers"(and"to"some"extent"also"the"Roma"who"did"

not" participate" in" these" works," or" who" successfully" migrated)" perceived" the"

Activation" Works." For" most" of" the" local" Slovaks," the" Activation" Works" were"

generally" seen" as" rather" an" ineffective" activity." As" one" villager" put" it:" ‘I’m" not"

saying"(anything"bad/no"offense"but)…"they"do"keep"the"village"clean"but"nothing"

else" really" (that’s" about" it)’." If" there" were" some" positive" evaluations" of" the"

outcomes"of"Activation"Works,"then"it"was"certainly"not"seen"the"potential"these"

might" play" for" the" reCacquiring" the" soCcalled" ‘working" habits.’30"In" Rijava," the"

effects"of"the"more"qualified"tasks"produced"by"the"Activation"Workers"certainly"

contributed"to"the"more"positive"assessment"of" the"work"done"by"the"Roma." In"

Tarkovce," however," most" of" the" tasks" and" the" general" rhythm" of" the" work,"

punctuated"by"the"breaks"and"repetition"of" jobs"seen"as" ‘artificially"created’" for"

the"sake"of"giving"the"Activation"Workers"some"kind"of"activity,"such"as"sweeping"

of"streets"or"watering"flowers,"did"only"little"to"challenge"the"racialised"stigma"of"

laziness" and" unskilled" labour" associated" with" the" Gypsies" in" general" public."

Rather," many" of" the" local" villagers" characterised" the" Activation" Works"

dismissively" as" not" really" doing" much." In" certain" sense," their" representations"

were"not"far"from"those"held"by"the"Roma"participants"of"the"Activation"Works"

themselves"to"which"I"will"turn"next."

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""29"This"rhetorical"strategy"of"portraying"oneself"only"as"a"‘cog"in"the"machine’"also"produced"

particular"forms"of"powerlessness"in"articulating"critiques"of"the"activationClike"tools"of"policies,"

which"only"contributed"to"a"sense"of"‘endurance’"and"‘getting"on’"with"life"despite"the"draconian"

reforms"and"forms"of"governance.""This"attitude"further"reinforced"and"legitimized"a"

reproduction"of"societal"hierarchies"and"policies"imposed"from"the"Bratislava’s"center.""30"In"fact,"most"of"them"ascribed"to"the"‘Gypsies’"innate"characteristics,"one"of"which"was"the"

crafty"disposition"for"‘speculations’"(špekulanstvo)"displayed"through"the"stereotypical"image"of"‘benefit"scrounging’,"avoidance"of"‘proper"work’"and"being"workshy"as"group"characteristics"in"

general.""But,"on"an"individual"level,"most"have"made"distinctions"between"the"‘decent’"Roma"and"

the"‘inadaptable’"Roma."

34"

"

"

4.)Butji&pro&výboris:)Contested)meanings)of)labour,)work)and)activation)

The"ordinary"Roma"participants"of"the"Activation"Works"did"not"usually"used"the"

official" name" Activation"Works" (Aktivačné! práce)" and" rather" referred" to" these"

works" as" butji! pro! výboris! (‘work" for" municipality" committee’31"in" Romani)" or"

work" ‘at" the" municipality’" (robim! na! výbore/na! obci" in" Slovak)." The" Roma"

employed" through" this" scheme" usually" made" distinction" between" what" they"

considered"to"be"a" ‘normal"work’"(normálno!butji)"and"‘Activation"Works’"(butji!

pro! výboris)." When" asked" if" they" are" working" somewhere," most" of" my"

interlocutors"replied:"‘No,"(I"am)"only"working"at"the"municipality.’"This"has"to"do"

with" the" local" Roma"understanding" of"work32"than"with" the" alleged" distinction"

between" informal" and" formal" labour"market." It" was" also" related" to" an" income"

generating" activity" and" the" financial" valuation" and" earnings" one" can" secure"

through"such"activities."Despite" the"popular"dominant"representations"of"Roma"

as" illiterate" and"workshy," the" Roma"were" very"much" aware" of" how"much" one"

could" earn" for" another" type" of" formal" or" informal"work" rather" than" ‘toiling" in"

activations" for"nothing.’"From"these"perspectives," the"Activation"Works"did"not"

appear" as" ‘proper"work’" (poriadna!robota)" and"were" ranked" as" additional" and"

somehow"stable"contribution"to"the"family"income."

"

The"status"of"‘Activation"Works’"as"a"‘job’"was"veiled"with"ambiguities."Contrary"

to" Oravec" and" Bošelová’s" argument" that" the" unemployed" Roma" saw" the"

Activation"Works"as"an"equivalent"of"‘normal"work’"leading"them"to"not"actively"

searching" for" work" on" formal" labour" market" (Oravec" &" Bošelová" 2006)," the"

Roma" in" Tarkovce" and" Rijava" differed" in" their" categorisation" and" valuation" of"

these" works." While" they" frequently" ended" up" in" a" relatively" longCterm"

participation"in"the"Activation"Works,"this"was"not"due"to"seeing"these"works"as"

equal"to"jobs"on"the"legal"labour"market."Rather,"given"the"lack"of"available"jobs"

for"the"structurally"vulnerable"and"racially"stigmatised"Roma,"the"combination"of"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""31"The"notion"výboris!can"be"literally"translated"as"a"(municipality)"committee"but"its"uses"must"be"traced"back"to"the"socialist"period"in"which"the"official"classification"referred"to"the"‘local"

municipality"committees’"(Mestský!Narodni!Výbor!–!MNV)."32"For"a"historical"development"of"the"Tarkovce"Roma"concepts"of"work"and"labour,"see"Grill"

2014."

35"

"

social" benefits" and" activation" allowances," and" in" a" betterCcase" scenario," small"

oneCoff"informal"jobs"for"the"more"skilful"and"wellCconnected,"often"meant"more"

security" (albeit" a" very" fragile" one)." Unlike" in" Oravec" and" Bošelová’s" case," the"

Roma"in"Rijava"and"Tarkovce"did"not"end"up"in"another"‘dependency"trap’"–"this"

time"on" the"Activation"Works.33"Thus," the"activation"allowances"one"could"earn"

through"the"participation" in" the"activation"schemes"were"seen"as"one"small"yet"

invaluably" important" element" in" the" very" fragile" and" low" income" for" the"

households"of"the"poorest.""

"

When"asked"if"they"have"a"job,"some"interlocutors"responded"as"‘yes,"I’m"working"

at" the"municipality" [works]’" (i.e." referring" to" the" Activation"Works)." However,"

most"of"them"would"also"use"the"expression"čak!avka!kerav!…"kerav!pro!výboris"

(‘I’m"only"working"‘as"if’"…"am"working"at"the"municipality’),"or"oda!čak!ajsi!butji!

(‘it’s"just"that"[not"quite]"kind"of"work’)"implying"that"they"did"not"consider"the"

Activation"Works"as"proper"jobs."Some"times"they"would"rhetorically"ask"with"an"

ironic"and"dissatisfied" tone:" ‘So"what"kind"of"work" this" is?’"This"was"related" to"

the"low"amount"of"financial"gain"but"also"the"type"of"works"that"they"were"given"

that" was" often" stigmatising" for" some" of" the" participants." Additionally," the"

perceptions" also"depended"on" the" varied"by"prior" job"history," age" and" gender."

For"example,"the"representations"and"meanings"were"often"gendered"and"many"

men" did" not" consider"watering" flowers" or" cleaning" streets" as" a" ‘proper"work’."

Men," especially" those"with"previous" experiences" of" financially" rewarding"work"

and"strongly"patriarchal"selfCunderstanding"of"being"the"families’"breadwinners"

found"it"difficult"to"be"doing"these"types"of"jobs"without"earning"any"substantial"

amount"of"money."In"some"contexts,"their"sense"of"masculinity"was"compromised"

by" participation" in" Activation" Works," and" by" being" asked" to" perform" certain"

tasks" they"did"not"consider"being" ‘real"work’"worthy"of"men,"or"well"below"the"

skilled"labour"they"used"to"do."For"example,"being"reduced"to"the"role"of"auxiliary"

workers"in"construction"works"rather"than"being"‘masters’"(during"the"activation"

works)," after" priding" themselves" of" literally" ‘building" Košice’s" metal" works"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""33"This"was"further"excluded"by"the"state’s"changes"in"the"maximum"length"of"participation"in"the"

Activation"Works"to"18"months"(see"Kurekova"et"al."2013)."

36"

"

complex’34"during" socialism" (as" skilled" bricklayers" operating" as" ‘masters’),"was"

often" accepted" with" a" strongly" ambiguous" feelings" and" resentment." " Most"

women," in" contrast," did" not" see" their" participation" in" Activation" Work" as"

compromising," and" some" even" found" it" relatively" flexible," easy" to" do" and"

convenient" in" terms" of" allowing" them" to" bring" some" additional" money" into"

household" income" while" managing" other" stereotypical" roles" performed" in"

gendered" family" obligations." Thus" the" ‘work" for"municipality’"meant" that" they"

did"not"have"to"commute"to"work"(which"the"majority"of"other"jobs"required)"and"

managed"to"combine"doing"house"work,"cooking"and"being"able"to"be"at"home"at"

times"their"children"finished"school.""""

"

When" discussing" the" practical" value" of" Activation" Works," most" of" the" people"

referred" to" them" as" ‘meaningless’" but" were" quick" to" assert" that" these" were"

‘better" than"nothing’," highlighting" their" significance" for" the"household" financial"

budget"despite"what"they"considered"as"very"low"financial"valuation."They"would"

often" say" that" these" are" simultaneously" o! ničom" (‘about" nothing’" or" ‘good" for"

nothing’)"and"yet"still"‘better"than"nothing.’""Many"of"the"Roma"would"only"work"

in" these" out" of" the" ultimate" necessity" of" feder! sar! nič" [better" than" nothing]"

responding" to" the"63.07"EUR" they"can"earn"on" top"of" their"benefits." Some,"and"

those"with"experience"of"working"abroad"in"particular,"would"call"this"zobračina"

(‘alms’/literally" money" gained" from" ‘begging’)" referring" to" its" small" amount."

Their"critique"articulated"alongside" ‘good" for"nothing’" lines"reflected"what" they"

perceived"seeming"practical"meaningfulness"of"these"types"of"jobs"and"ritualised"

forms"of"work"performance.35"

"

From" the" point" of" view" of" the" participants," the" Activation"Works" did" not" help"

with" maintaining" any" practical" function" akin" to" the" official" discourses" of" ‘reC

learning"of"working"habits.’"For"example,"in"Tarkovce"Roma"often"contrasted"the"

work" in"Activation"Works"with" their"working"experiences" in" the"UK."As"one"of"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""34"VSZ"Kosice"metal"works"were"one"of"the"biggest"industrial"complexes"in"the"former"socialist"

Czechoslovakia."35"In"this"sense,"their"claim"resonates"with"what"J."E."Larsen"described"as"‘empty"ritual"acts’"in"his"

study"of"labour"activation"projects"among"marginalized"residents"of"one"of"the"most"deprived"

neighborhoods"of"Copenhagen"(Larsen"2001)."

37"

"

the"participants"put"it:"‘Here"(i.e."in"Slovakia)"you"can’t"get"a"job"if"you’re"a"Gypsy."

Look"there"we"can"get"a"job"and"no"one"looks"who"you"are."And"it"is"not"like"here"

(in"SK)"–"where"you"are"suffering" for" this"abject"support.’"When" I"asked"one"of"

the"women"working"in"the"activation"schemes"in"Rijava"whether"she"has"learned"

some" new" skills" and" maintain" working" habits" that" could" be" useful" for" her"

searching"for"a"job"on"legal"labour"market,"she"replied:""

No"way!"It’s"this"kind"of"work"about"nothing"[dismissively]!"At"least"if"it"would"be"

some"kind"of"reasonable"work."But"this"kind"of"work?"C""raking,"cutting"grass,"and"

other" kinds" of" toiling" and" suffering?…." The" only" thing" I" obtain" (during" this"

process)"are"calluses"on"hands!"

"

For"most"Roma"working"at"Activation"Works,"it"was"more"a"matter"of"getting"the"

extra"money" than"anything"else"and" tried" to"get"some"oneCoff" fušky" in"order" to"

bring"them"more"significant,"albeit"more"unstable"and"insecure,"income."Some"of"

them"commented"that"it"feels"like"graje!lake!keren"–"‘we’re"being"horses"for"her’"

(for"the"mayor)"than"anything"else."They"deployed"this"idiomatic"expression"for"

asymmetrical" and" exploitative" relationships." To" illustrate" this," in" their" view,"

rather"pointless"direction"of"their"Activation"Works"in"Tarkovce,"one"women"told"

me,"‘well,"nothing."We"are"here"only"to"water"her"[i.e."mayor’s]"plants.’"She"made"

the"statement"in"reference"to"mayor’s"efforts"at"aesthetically"improve"the"image"

of"the"village,"particularly"with"a"prospect"of"Tarkovce’s"candidacy"for"the"‘village"

of"the"year’"award."As"a"part"of"these"efforts,"the"mayor"decided"to"plant"various"

flowers"at"various" locations" in"the"village"and"urged"to"maintain"a"high" level"of"

cleanliness"and"order"in"the"public"spaces"and"parks."

"

"

DISCUSSION)

)

Situated)evaluation)of)Activation)Works)

Despite" the" widespread" agreement" regarding" the" meaningless" and" possibly"

exploitative" set" up" of" the" Activation" Works," the" concrete" evaluations" differed"

depending"on"individual’s"trajectories"and"location"within"the"social"field.""

"

38"

"

Rather" than" analysing" the" effects" in" terms" of" generalising" models" resting" on"

reified"understanding"of"group"formations"and"quest"for"the"clearCcut"moralising"

evaluations" focusing" on" the" 'successful" vs." failing’" impacts" of" the" Activation"

Works,"we"must" locate" these" by"means" of" relational" analytical" tools." This" also"

means"not"reducing"the"complexity"of"the"Activation"Works"and"rather"situating"

particular"perspectives"in"relation"to"the"interlocutor’s"location"in"social"field"and"

in"their"struggles"in"imposing"certain"visions"and"divisions"of"social"space."In"the"

context" of" the" most" materially" impoverished" and" spatially" segregated" Roma,"

often"located"in"the"abject"poverty"conditions"and"disconnected"from"social"and"

cultural" capitals," participation" in" Activation" Works" might" have" appeared" as"

somehow"more"positive."Considering"the"stiff"competition" for"being"enrolled" in"

Activation" Works" in" many" localities" and" the" social" conditions" of"

disconnectedness," the" Activation"Works" have" become" one" of" the" only" avenues"

available" for" securing" certain" stable" (albeit" minimal)" income" in" addition" to"

otherwise" radically" downsized" state" benefits." Thus," for" a" young" generation" of"

unskilled"Roma"who"have"never"worked" in" the" formal" labour"market"and"have"

been"cut"off"other"avenues"of"betterment"and"possibilities,"the"Activation"Works"

might"appear"as"one"of"the"relatively"normal(ised)"survival"strategy."However,"in"

localities"with"other"possible"avenues"for"socioCeconomic"mobility"–"in"Tarkovce"

case,"the"labour"migration"to"Britain"–"Activation"Works"appeared"less"attractive"

and" were" seen" as" a" patchyClike" strategy" of" those" who" were" disconnected" and"

otherwise" marginalised." That" is" why" for" so" many" people" with" migration"

experiences" the" Activation" Works" appeared" as" ‘good" for" nothing’" (with" no"

meaningful" purpose" or" effects)" where" one" works" ‘for" nothing’" (i.e." very"

‘miserable’" financial" reward)." Simply" put," these" were" seen" as" symptomatic" of"

stasis"and"of"being"stuck,"rather"than"augmenting"stimulus"for"movement."

"

In"addition"to"the"alleged"reClearning"to"work," the"proponents"of" the"Activation"

Works" emphasised" the" benefit" of" ‘Activation" Works’" becoming" a" site" of"

socialisation"for"the"longCterm"unemployed"(cf."Makovicky"2013:85;"Hajdúchová"

2004)."The" idea"of" the"socialisation"rests"on"the"assumption"that" the" longCterm"

unemployed" poor" are" stripped" not" only" of" the" source" of" income" but" that" the"

whole"mode" of" being" is" reCconfigured" and" results" in" some" kind" of" isolation" in"

39"

"

inhabiting"a"social"space"that"are"not"conductive"of"social"habits"and"moral"values"

crucial"for"the"reCentering"of"labour"market."This"idea"reflects"similar"philosophy"

of"moral"behaviourism"that" is"ascribed"not"only"to"the"poor"and"Roma"but"also"

reCinscribed" spatially" onto" the" landscape" of" marginalised" settlements" or"

impoverished"neighbourhood"inhabited"mainly"by"Roma"families.""

"

In" the" case" of" Tarkovce" and" Rijava" Activation" Works," some" interlocutors"

identified" some" positive" aspects" of" Activation" Works" as" being" sites" of"

socialisation." For" those"who" enjoyed" the" company" of" other" activation"workers"

and" formed" a" good" partija!at" workplace," the" space" of" activation" provided" not"

only" a" working" space" but" also" a" social" milieu" consisting" of" banter," mutual"

teasings," shared" stories" and" exchanged" gossips." The" Activation" Works" also"

structured" the" spatioCtemporal" organisation" of" the" poor" by" requiring" regular"

attendance."However," these"practical"outcomes"of" ‘socialisation’"did"not" lead" to"

the"results"anticipated"by"the"policy"makers."The"daily"socialisation"and"regular"

rhythm" of" activation" works" did" not" lead" to" reCgaining" a" sense" of" usefulness,"

recognition"and"motivation.36"The" idea" that"participants"would" reCacquire" their"

working"habits,"learn"new"skills,"reinvigorate"work"ethics,"get"new"incentives"for"

reCentering" the" labour" market" simply" by" learning" the" skills" assumes" a" very"

reductionists"understanding"of"mechanisms"of" getting" an" employment."What" it"

does,"however,"is"that"it"successfully"shifts"the"blame"for"one’s"unemployment"to"

one’s" individual" lack" of" certain" skills,"motivation," habits," or" education,"without"

understanding" larger" structural" inequalities" and"key" role" of" the" social," cultural"

and"symbolic"capital"for"finding"a"job."While"the"Activation"Works"did"provide"a"

space" for"socialisation," this"did"not"augment"social"and"symbolic"capital" for" the"

participants" who" interacted" only" among" themselves." Moreover," I" would" argue"

that" by" participating" in" the" Activation" Works" they" were" all" symbolically"

circumscribe"into"a"collective"category"that"did"not"serve"as"an"extra"bonus"in"the"

struggles" for" searching" for" work." They" did" not" contribute" much" practically" in"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""36"Participants"sense"of"usefulness"or"recognition"derived"from"working"in"activation"like"works"

or"volunteering"sector"might"differ"significantly"in"relation"to"particular"historically"formed"

morality,"social"and"work"trajectory,"types"of"activities"and"works"performed,"and"many"others."

For"example,"in"her"insightful"study"A."Muehlbach"(2011)"shows"how"volunteering"activities"

among"certain"segment"of"longCterm"unemployed"in"Italy"manage"to"reCestablish"a"sense"of"

belonging"and"partial"recognition"linked"to"moral"usefulness"for/in"society."""

40"

"

terms"of"the"acquiring"new"skills"and"habits,"but"perhaps"more"crucially"did"not"

endow" its" participants" with" social" and" symbolic" capitals" in" the" form" of" social"

connections"and"recognition"of"being"a"good"worker"for"the"potential"employees."

Working"at"Activation"Works"indexed"one’s"passivity"and"inability"to"find"other"

forms"of"work"in"the"eyes"of"potential"employers."So,"rather"than"increasing"one’s"

chances"on" the" labour"market" it" further"contributed" to" the" reproduction"of" the"

stigmatised" position" of" Roma" seen" as" yet" again" dependent" (this" time)" on" the"

‘useless’"Activation"Works.""

"

Writing"about"effects"of"activation"policies"in"Denmark,"Larsen"(2001)"discusses"

these" policies" as" simultaneously" potentially" enabling" but" also" coercive" and"

disciplinary."In"theory,"the"enabling"potential"of"the"activities"would"envisage"the"

activation"work"as"a"springboard"for"reClaunching"one’s"trajectory"on"the"labour"

market." However," the" case" of" Slovakia" shows" how" in" their" practical"

implementation" the" activation" policies" fail" to" deliver" its" proclaimed" ‘enabling’"

objectives." And" it" is" its" disciplinary" pole" of" the" continuum,"which" seems" to" be"

predominant"in"the"cases"under"consideration."""

"

Spaces) of) activation) as) a) social) field:) composition,) social) fabrics) and)

disconnections)

The"space"of"‘activation’"can"be"seen"as"situated"within"social"fields"–""systems"of"

social" positions" structured" alongside" power" relationships" and" struggles" for"

augmenting"social"being"through"combined"accumulation"of"capitals"(Bourdieu"&"

Wacquant" 1992;" Bourdieu" 2000)." It" shows" how"most" people"working" in" these"

‘Activation"Works’"are"in"most"cases"those"who"are"somehow"cut"off"from"other"

channels"of"possible" socioCeconomic"mobility"–"whether" these"are"migration" to"

the"UK37,"labour"migration"to"Czech"Republic,"or"only"other"formal"and"informal"

works"that"would"bring"them"more"money."Perhaps"‘cut"off’"is"not"the"right"word"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""37"Most"of"the"Roma"in"Tarkovce"(and"to"some"extent"also"in"Rijava)"had"some"kind"of"experience"

of"migration,"whether"through"their"relatives"who"were"in"the"UK,"or"through"their"own"personal"

experience." Some" of" them" returned" home" more" impoverished" and" with" their" previous" social"

networks" significantly" reduced" and" altered." Yet" others," who" were" hoping" to" migrate," were"

searching"for"someone"to"help"them."Or,"as"they"literally"said,"‘to"take"them’"(niko!les!nalen)"and"‘there"is"no"one"who"would"help’"(nane!man!niko!ko!te!pomožinen)."""

41"

"

here."They"are"all"embedded"within"these"networks"and"channels."Most"of"them"

have"been"‘helped’"in"one"way"or"another"by"a"friend"or"a"relative"who"succeeded"

in"the"migration.")

"

With"an"exception"of"few,"most"people"employed"in"these"Activation"Works"were"

poorer" Roma" who" were" somehow" less" connected" or" ‘disconnected’" (i.e." they"

were"in"the"UK"but"came"back"seen"as" ‘failures’)"to"the"migration"networks."Or,"

they"were" connected" but" for" various" reasons"were" not" helped"by" their" friends"

and"relatives"in"the"UK."In"contrast"to"the"idealized"figure"of"successful"migrant,"

those"who"stayed"behind"are"often"seen"as"stuck,"struggling"financially"in"efforts"

of" combining" various" formal" and" informal" economic" practices." " While" the"

successful"migrants"would"only"rarely"enter"the"Activation"Works,"the"poor"who"

are" left" behind"and/or" those"who"are" returning" as"unsuccessful"migrants" form"

the"majority"of" those"who"participate" in" the"Activation"Works" in"Tarkovce"and"

Rijava."Most"significantly,"those"who"would"enter"the"space"of"Activation"Works"

would" be" those"who" are" disconnected" from" other" forms" of" social" and" cultural"

capitals" (Bourdieu" 1986)" linking" them" to" other" socioCeconomic" possibilities."

Alternatively," in" the" case" of" Tarkovce," some" of" the" Roma" participating" in" the"

Activation"Works"would" be" returning"migrants"who" saw" the"Activation"Works"

and" unemployment" benefits" as" a" temporary"measurement" before" returning" to"

their" migration" pathways" or" waiting" for" their" retirement" (these" participants"

would"be"in"their"50s).""

"

At"the"same"time,"the"participants"in"the"Activation"Works"would"have"some"kind"

of"social"capital"as"it"was"often"through"specific"connections"that"influenced"the"

selection" into" the" Activation" Works" by" the" mayor.38"Though" the" selection" of"

participants" is" done" either" through" the" municipality" or" through" the" regional"

labour"office,"the"role"of"the"mayor"in"choosing"the"candidates"and"managing"the"

Activation"Works" is"crucial."Due"to" the"growing"poverty"and" lack"of" formal"and"

informal" opportunities" following" the" economic" crisis" and"downsizing" of" state’s"

support,"the"structural"vulnerability"of"Roma"intensified"in"the"last"few"years"and"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""38"This"was"relatively"less"important"when"the"selection"of"candidates"was"recommended"by"the"

regional"Labour"Office.""

42"

"

in"many"localities"the"demand"for"Activation"Works"exceeds"the"actual"amount"of"

available"posts"(see"also"Kureková"2013)."The"increasing"competition"makes"the"

selection" process" a" site" of" struggle," which" is" always" filled" with" struggles" for"

proving" and" performing" one’s" worthiness" to" be" considered" for" the" Activation"

Works."These"often"leads"to"the"performances"of"certain"subjectivity"in"order"to"

elicit"a"pity"in"the"eyes"of"the"state"representatives"as"someone"who"has"material"

hardships" and" has" many" children" in" need," or" someone" who" deserves" to" be"

chosen" according" to" his/her" willingness" or" someone" who" has" proved" to" be" a"

‘good" worker’." The" power" for" assessing" the" extent" to" which" Roma" fulfil" these"

criteria" lie" exclusively" in" the" hands" of" the" state" representatives" at" the"

municipality"level"(or"that"of"the"local"labour"officers).""

"

The)political)costs)of)Activation)Works"

The"Activation"Works" has" become" an" important" part" of" the" survival" strategies"

leading"to"some"additional"(though"minimal)"source"of"income"for"the"poor,"but"

they"are"not"without"costs."One"of"the"possible"costs"for"the"poor"is"that"there"has"

been"a"growing"stigma"against"the"Activation"Works"in"general,"and"workers"in"

particular."Similarly"to"the"case"of"claimants"of"disability"social"security"in"the"US"

described"by"Hansen"et"al."(2014),"this"type"of"backlash"stigma"can"be"seen"in"the"

political"discussions"and"in"widespread"media"representing"the"Activation"Works"

as" constantly" failing" for"delivering" the"original"goals"–" i.e." activating"people" for"

reCentering"the"labour"market"–"simultaneously"due"to"the"corruption"and"lack"of"

enforcement" means" on" the" side" of" authorities" in" charge" with" the" reported"

complicity"of"the"‘cheaters’."Thus,"the"stigma"of"the"‘benefit"scroungers’"has"only"

be"reCinscribed"through"various"media"stories"and"public"gossips"concerning"the"

‘Activation" Workers’" who" not" only" do" not" do" nothing," do" not" even" come" to"

(activation)" work," but" often" continue" to" receive" the" welfare" and" workfare"

benefits"while"being"abroad"(the"last"version"receiving"the"biggest"public"outcry"

in"media"and"politics)." "This"backlash"not"only"accentuates" the"stigma,"but"also"

presents"a"clear"continuation"and"acceleration"of"the"previous"waves"of"‘blaming’"

and"singling"out" the" ‘Gypsies’"as" the" truly" ‘undeserving"poor’" (cf."Hansen"2014:"

82;"Howe"1998;"Bourgois"2001)."""

43"

"

The" failings" of" Activation" Works" have" been" explained" by" blaming" individual"

failures,"or"by"referencing"some"kind"of" innate"cultural"dispositions"and"habits,"

rather" than"structural" inequalities,"growing"ethnoCracial"closure"and"deepening"

of" economic" crisis." As" a" response" to" this" alleged" ineffectiveness" and" abuses,"

political" critiques" and" journalists" called" for" strengthening" the" disciplinary"

mechanisms" and" punitive" techniques." Out" of" many" symptoms" of" these" shifts"

towards"more" stringent" social" policies" and" practices," one" could" name" just" the"

examples"of"the"random"monitoring"controls,"which"have"become"more"frequent"

in" recent" times." One" could" also" illustrate" it" with" a" lowering" tolerance" for"

recognising"acceptable" reasons" for" absences" from"Activation"Works."Moreover,"

the" intensified" stigma" leads" to" the" increased" suspicion" of" ‘benefit" cheating’,"

which" transpires" in"materially" very" tangible" ways" as"many" social" benefits" are"

suspended," personal" and" family" circumstances" scrutinised" and" claims" reC

investigates" by" the" state" officers." Of" course," this" scrutinisation" is" closely"

intertwined"with"the"political"economy"of"stigma"ascribed"to"the"Gypsies"and"to"

particular"social,"cultural"and"spatial"spaces"seen"as"nourishing"moral"decay"and"

potential"abuses"(e.g."notorious"‘Gypsy"settlements’)."However,"to"suspend"one’s"

social" benefits" in" order" to" verify" their" righteousness" (on"mutually" intertwined"

moral" and" legal" grounds)" represents" a" radical" rupture" to" the" already" delicate"

economic"balance"stretched"to"its"material"extremes."Even"a"relatively"short"time"

suspension" strips" an" individual" and" household" off" its" fragile" socioCeconomic"

security"and"increases"the"structural"vulnerability."This"situation"means"that"the"

poor"slip"easily"into"crisis"and"enter"the"vicious"cycles"of"shark"loans"provided"by"

formal"and"informal"usurers39"whose"exorbitant"interest"rates"locks"one"into"the"

endless" chain" of" chronic" indebtness" accruing" sums" of" astronomic" heights" and"

living"under"permanent"state"of" threats"of"physical"violence"(from"the" informal"

usurers)" or" of" further" dispossession" and" danger" legal" enforcement" by" legal"

claims"(from"the"executors).""

"

Throughout" the" 2013," the" idea" of" activation" gained" wider" significance" in" the"

context"of"proposed"new"laws"suggesting"to"make"all" the"unemployed"work"for"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""39"The"usurer"subjects"can"take"form"of"informal"usurer,"or"formal"and"legalised"forms"of"usury"

provided"by"various"bank"and"companies"offering"personal"credit"at"exorbitant"interest"rates."

44"

"

32"hours/month" in"order" to" ‘deserve’" their"social"benefits."Despite" the"political"

debate" and"opposition"of"NGO" sector"warning"of" the"potential" negative" effects,"

the"new"law"was"introduced"in"January"2014."This"proposition"was"made"in"light"

of"the"criticism"of"the"previous" implementation"of" ‘Activation"Works’." Its"critics"

among" the" policy"makers" pointed" out" at" their" ‘abuses’" and" ‘ineffectiveness’" in"

practices."These" failures"were"ascribed" to" the" ineffective" functioning"of"welfare"

and"workfare"system,"often"related"to"the"problems"of"practical"implementations"

and"enforcement"of"order.40""

"

The"idea"of"‘activation’"continues"to"spread"across"the"policy"making"and"there"is"

certain" assumption" ingrained" in" most" of" these" state" and" NGO" projects" about"

individual"self."Self"is"conceived"as"autonomous"moral"subject"whose"actions"are"

judged" against" some" kind" of" effort," selfCresponsible" and" also" crucially" selfC

entrepreneurial" (cf." Bourdieu" 1998;" Roberman" 2014)." But" this" selfC

entrepreneurial" subject" is" assumed" to" act" entrepreneurially" only" within" the"

domains" delineated" by" the" state" and" its" vision" of" what" is" seen" as" ‘legal’" vs."

‘illegal’." Emphasising" a" combination" of" individual" skills," education," practical"

experiences"of"works"and"entrepreneurial" spirit"as"a"key" for"actively"searching"

and" for" successful" finding" of" work" in" Slovakia," however," crucially" omits" the"

mechanisms" through" one" actually" gets" employed" formally" and" informally."

Drawing"on"Bourdieu’s" analytical" tools" (Bourdieu"&"Wacquant"1992;"Bourdieu"

2000)," these" mechanisms" consist" of" a" successful" mastery" and" combination" of"

social"capital"(social"connections"that"can"be"activated),"cultural"capital"(not"only"

practical" skills," educational" achievements" but" crucially" knowledge" of" how" to"

present"these"so"it"resonates"with"the"potential"employer’s")"and,"perhaps"most"

importantly," of" symbolic" capital" (having" achieved"a"public" recognition"of" ‘good"

worker’" and" thus" escaping" the" stigma" of" Gypsyness" in" the" eye)." However," the"

social"capital"must"be"going"outside"and"beyond"the"scope"of"the"restricted"and"

limiting" social" spaces" consisting" of" other" unemployed," or" state" programmes"

targeting" the" unemployed." In" other" words," the" accumulated" volume" of" social"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""40"Critics"from"the"opposite"pole"of"the"political"continuum,"mainly"from"the"ranks"of"leftCleaning"

NGO"workers,"criticised"the"Activation"Works"as"ineffective"and"as"bordering"with"the"new"forms"

of"slavery,"reproducing"marginality"rather"than"helping"to"alleviate"poverty"(Oravec&Bošelová"

2006;"Lajcakova"2013;"Kriglerova"2013)."

45"

"

capital" must" contain" the" actual" potentiality" of" getting" a" job" through" that"

connection" to" someone"who" can" either"mediate" or" directly" provide"work." The"

successful" combination" of" social" capital" and" symbolic" capital" consisting" of" the"

public"recognition"of"being"good"worker"is"an"almost"Sisyphus"task."It"entails"an"

effort" to" reverse" the" historically" entrenched" racialised" ‘curse" of" negative"

symbolic" capital’" (Bourdieu" 2000:241)" of" ‘being" Gypsy’" in" Slovakia" not" only"

through"one’s" individual" skilfulness"at"work"but" crucially" through"achieving" its"

public" recognition" by" those" who" are" in" powerful" positions" (e.g." of" potential"

providers" of" work)." In" practice," this" frequently" means" to" go" beyond" the" local"

social" fields,"which" are" subordinated" to" the"wider" configuration"of" asymmetric"

symbolic" power" enmeshed" with" class" relations.41"If" successfully" achieving" this"

task," the" individual" Roma" also" acquires" the" status" of" moral" worthiness" in" the"

eyes"of"the"dominant"others."

"

Additionally," the" state" officials" seem" to" increasing" phrasing" the" question" of"

benefits"as"a"matter"of"some"kind"of"moral"debt"to"the"state,"which"would"often"

be"related"to"the" idea"of"gratitude"to"the"state" for"providing"the"benefits." It" is"a"

relationship" in"which" an" unemployed" citizens" need" to" show" an" active" attitude"

and"in"which"the"category"of"Gypsies"appear"to"be"reCdescribed"as"undeserving"

poor," as" scroungers" who" are" lacking" efforts." Roma" who" can" match" such"

expectations" via" various" forms" of" connections," recognition" are" often" given" as"

examples"of"‘you"see"it’s"possible"if"you"really"want’;"they"are"those"who"‘took"up"

the"opportunity"given"to"them’." "These"Roma,"however,"are" frequently"the"ones"

who" are" in" local" hierarchies" somehow" escaping" the" derogatory" ethnicised"

category"of"‘Gypsyness’"in"public"discourses."A"clear"case"in"point"would"be"Gejza"

(introduced"earlier"in"this"text)"who"on"one"level"in"the"local"context"occupies"the"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""41"This"point"can"be"well"illustrated"by"one"of"the"most"common"economic"strategy"among"the"

poorest"Roma"men"who"were"often"employed"‘without"papers’"(i.e."legal"documents,"social"and"

health"insurance,"etc.)"to"work"as"cheap"labour"force"for"the"local"Roma"businessmen"whose"

companies"were"subcontracted"by"big"construction"work"companies"for"building,"maintenance"

and"reconstructions"of"the"Czech"roads"and"railways."In"contrast"to"this"way"of"finding"job"

through"the"relationships"composing"the"local"social"field"familiar"to"the"workers,"most"of"who"

come"from"the"same"or"neighbouring"villages,"the"individual"attempts"of"Roma"to"find"work"in"

Slovakia"or"Czech"Republic"as"individual"entrepreneurs"or"cheap"labour"force"hired"directly"by"

companies"or"via"job"agencies,"were"minimal"and"only"rarely"successful."

46"

"

figure"of" ‘good"worker’" in"the"mayor’s"discursive"denial"of"racial"differentiation"

and"redrawing"alongside"the"axis"of"(moral)"worthiness.""

"

The"Activation"Works"represents"yet"another"example"of"projecting"a"particular"

kind" of" moral" subject" onto" unemployed" people." By" assuming" the" close"

relationship"between"their"‘economic’"inCactivity"having"an"impact"on"particular"

set"of"morality"and"habits"(resignation,"lack"of"interest,"immorality,"apathy)."The"

increasing"policing"of"the"poor,"illustrated"for"example"by"the"case"of"Activation"

Works,"shows"a"recent"convergence"of"socioCeconomic"crisis,"state"reforms"and"

shifts"towards"disciplinary"workfare"and"punitive"penalisation"rendering" illegal"

various" informal"economic"strategies"of"the"poor"and"enforcing"participation"in"

the"‘activation’"in"order"to"‘deserve’"state"welfare."These"shifts,"in"turn,"increased"

everyday" uncertainties" and" left" many" Roma" with" a" sense" of" growing"

disconnection"and"strengthening"their"hopes"attached"to"the"potential"migration."

Though"many"of"the"social"policies"are"aimed"–"at"least"in"theory"C"at"increasing"

participation" on" legal" labour"market," greater" transparency" and" antiCcorruption"

measures"C"what"their"implementation"meant"in"practice"only"highlights"the"ever"

increasing" dependence" (at" least" in" the" context" of" Eastern" Slovakia)" on" social"

connections,"networks"and"symbolic"capitals,"which"are"very"often"embedded"in"

the" historically" crystallised" ‘economy" of" favours’" through" which" one" tend" to"

access"the"formal"labour"market.""

"

"

47"

"

"

)

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