action causes perception causes action: from sensory substitution to situated robots lecture 1+2,...
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Action Causes Perception Causes Action:From Sensory Substitution to Situated
Robots
Lecture 1+2, Unit 5NUCOG Seminar: Action, Perception, Motivation
Akureyri, Iceland 10.2.-20.2.2006
Marieke RohdeCentre for Computational Neuroscience and Robotics
University of Sussex
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Essays
Students:
• Please sign up soon
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Marking:
• Reviews vs. Original Thinking
• Complexity of the Topic
• Structure/Organisation
• Form: Length, References, …
• No Punishment of Language Difficulties!!!
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This module
Today:
1. History and Motivation
2. The Importance of Situatedness: Empirical Evidence
3. A Sensorimotor Account
Thursday:
4. Robotics
5. The Question of Value
6. Conclusion
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1.) History and Motivation
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The Birth of Cognitive Science
• Dominant psychological Theory in 1950s: Behaviourism
• Cognitive Science, Dartmouth Conference 1956
(Chomsky, Newell, Simon, Minsky, Miller, ...)
• „Cognition as Information Processing“ Metaphor: Ensuring a
scientific framework
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Alternative Views
• Cybernetics: We will learn more about
on thursday
• Russian Psychology and Physiology
• Ethology
• ...
Symbolic Cognitivism is a dream of
separation (Perception, planning,
action)
Situated and Embodied Cognitivism is a
dream of integration.
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Reciprocally Causal Processes
• General hypothesis: many times,
when you have complex,
durable processes with
circular or reciprocal
causality, you will observe the
formation of some spontaneous
invariant organisation.
• Examples:
– Pheromone trails
– Stigmergy (“historical
processes”)
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Reciprocally Causal Processes
Model by Helbing et al. Nature, 388, pp 45 – 50, (1997).
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Reciprocally Causal Processes
• Sensorimotor coordination Can be
viewed as a process of reciprocal
causation. But it’s difficult to be
aware of it.
• Fluid behaviour becomes less and
less conscious as it starts to rely
on coherences of SM
coordination.
• Surprise originates only when SM
coordination is broken. (An
unexpected obstacle, etc.)
• Sensorimotor invariants in behaviour
and perception:
– Preferred postures (Draw circle in the
air)
– Perceptual invariants (e.g. size and
colour constancy)
– No flow associated with voluntary eye
movements
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2.) Empirical Research
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Disease, Sensory Substitution, Perceptual Perturbation
• Functionalist explanations of cognitive behaviour talk – implicitly or
explicitly – about the hazards we encounter and manage as being
predicted
• They assume behavioural programs (written in „genetic code“)
inside the agent/brain.
• Such mechanisms can function only in established situations that
rely on phylogenetic or ontogenetic constancies.
• When established relations break down, things become interesting:
We find changes in the process, that change the relations, and
changes in relations that change the process (Reciprocal causality)
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Experiments with Goggles
• Inversion goggles
– Radical disruption, initial
helplessness
– Gradual adaptation and
recovery
– Relies on action and purpose
– Subjective experience
recovers
• We will learn much more about
this in the afternoon.
• (Classroom demonstration)
Recent replication by Sekiyama, Nature, 407, pp 374-377, (2000)
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Colour Fringes and Curvature vs. Squinting Goggles
• Prism Goggles:– Adaptation to colour
fringes and line curvature
– But not to stereo-colour effects!
Pictures taken from:
Kohler, I. (1962)
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Sensory Substitution
• TVSS:
– Visual tasks mastered after short training.
– Externalisation
• “The use of one human sense to receive
information normally received by another
sense” (Kaczmarek, 1995 with Bach-y-Rita).”
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Sensory?
• (Lenay et Al. 2003) Not sensory:
– Retinal/cochlear implants useful but not innovative
– No perception without action:
• Static: no externalisation, just tickling
• Variations in sensations are related to actions: constitution of a new sensory
modality in the adult
• Tool to study plasticity of brain as well as consciousness and intentionality
• Sensory substitution rests on Information processing methaphor, where you
passively receive through arbitrary channels
– Sensorimotor substitution or perceptual substitution
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Substitution?
• (Lenay et Al. 2003) Not substitution:
– Abusive term, suggests remedy of a deficit
– A new space of coupling between a human being and
the world (not like vision…) without shared qualia
– Perceptual Supplementation or Perceptual
Augmentation
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First Person Experiences
• Visually handicapped persons express disappointment, because they are
unable to give a "content" to the perception (colour, emotional value)
• natural perception != simple capacity to discriminate and categorize.
• Same in operated blind
• Compiegne Hypothesis: Shared meaning has a cultural context and a
personal history.
• Mine and Ezequiel’s Hypothesis: A significance for the subject + more time
may be enough
• Origin and the nature of the value attached to things can be experimentally
investigated.
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Space and Externalisation
• 1 sensor, 1 stimulator, on/off
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Space and Externalisation
• Blocked elbow and wrist:
direction but no distance
• No variation in direction:
Height and width but no distance
• Not “in” but “in front of the space (bidimensional)
• Construction of a space requires:
– Anticipation
– Reversibility
– Continuity
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Space and Externalisation• The proximity of the lightbulb is bound to the speed with which b must be augmented such that a can be reduced
• However, two “contacts” with the lightbulb are not sufficient to give the experience of a distal lightsource.
• The perception of an external object requires a permanent activity that makes the tactile sensation come and disappear constantly.
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Classroom Demonstration
• The amateur minimal perceptual supplementation
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My own experiences…
– Discovery Zone:
• TVSS shape
recognition
• Eye displacement
• Auditory delay
• Visual inversion
• “Be a robot”
• Cheltenham Festival of Science (June 2005, with S. Angliss, S. McGregor
and B. Bigge)
– Introduce sensory substitution/distortion research to public
– Test bed for me and my colleagues
– “The cyborg experiment”: “Retro man” and “Metal man”
Newspaper Article by Roger Highfield, Daily Telegraph, 25.5.2005
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Cyborg Footage
• In the beginning
• After a couple of days
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Auditory Delay
• Demo:
– How comes we perceive things as coincident?
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(Multimodal) Integration of “The Present”
• Interesting empirical findings:
– Recalibration of Audiovisual Simultaneity (worthwile replicating with
emphasis on motion in its own right)
– No adaptation to auditory/visual delays in reading/drawing tasks
– Cunningham et Al. (2001): old studies did not actually induce lag.
– Eagleman et Al.: Illusory reversals in the timing of actions and sensation
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Kittens and Ferrets
• Held (1965)– Kitten Caroussel
• Swindale (2000)– Rewired Ferrets:
• Neuroscientific• Behavioural
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What‘s the point?
• The principles of sensorimotor coordination are far from
unshakable
• What is invariant is meaningful behaviour
• Meaning can be created from „unnatural“ sensorimotor
relationships
• To me it is hard to see how a dedicated mechanism of
adaptation, enclosed in a part of the highly variable
sensorimotor loop, could restore meaningful behaviour
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3.) A Sensorimotor Account
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Noë, Hurley, O‘Regan
• Alternative descriptive Concepts
– Sensorimotor Contingencies (3rd person)
– Cortical Deference/Dominance (1st person)
• Explaining Consciousness (closing the
explanatory gap)
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Explanatory Gap
• Levine (1983): Functionalism can describe material causes,
regularities and mechanisms of experience, but it cannot explain the
phenomenal character of experience (ultimate epistemological
obstacle)
• „Qualia are meant to be properties of experiential states or events.
But experiences, we have argued, are not states. Our claim, rather,
is that it is confused to think of the qualitative character of
experience in terms of the occurrence of something (whether in the
mind or brain). Experience is something we do and its qualitative
features are aspects of this activity. ...“
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Explanatory Gap
• „...Another way to put this point is say that qualia-based accounts of
the phenomenology of experience actually misdescribe the
phenomenological character of experience.“ (O‘Regan & Noe, 2001)
• Category mistake.
• No reduction of phenomenal states to physical states. Instead ???
• „lawful relation of dependence between visual stimulation and what
we do, and this lawful relation is determined by the character of the
visual apparatus“ (O‘Regan & Noe, 2001)
• Is this an enterprise of a hermeneutic mutual information between
phenomenology and brain/behaviour science?
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What is it like to ...?
• The experience of driving a Porsche:
– no defining sensations
– „one’s comfortable exercise of one’s knowledge of the sensorimotor
contingencies governing the behavior of the car“
• Claim: Vision basically the same
• „We have proposed that experience is a temporally extended
activity of exploration as mediated by the perceiver’s knowledge of
sensorimotor contingencies. The differences in the qualitative
character of perceptual experiences correspond to differences in the
character of the relevant sensorimotor contingencies.“
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What is a sensorimotor contingency?
• Rules of sensorimotor contingency = rules of interdependence
between stimulation and movement
• „If you put on inverting lenses, it
is immediately apparent that
eye and head movements
produce surprising patterns,
thus enabling us to direct our
attention to the disruption of
familiar patterns of sensorimotor
contingency.“
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Change Blindness
• See change blindness demos on Kevin O’Regan’s webpage:
http://nivea.psycho.univ-paris5.fr/
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More demos...
A collection of videos by the Visual Cognition group, University of Illinois:
http://viscog.beckman.uiuc.edu/djs_lab/demos.html
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Change blindness demos
• The results of the experiments showed that in many cases
observers have great difficulty seeing changes, even though the
changes are very large, and occur in full view -- they are perfectly
visible to someone who knows what they are.
• In other experiments, O’Regan et al. found that, in many cases,
observers could be looking directly at the change at the moment the
change occurred, and still not see it.
• Change blindness just shows us that details are not always on our
minds.
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Closing the Explanatory Gap?
• „You feel the whole bottle. But the differents parts of your hands make
contact only with isolated parts of its surface. Nevertheless, don’t you feel
the whole bottle as present? That is, phenomenologically speaking, the
feeling of presence of the bottle is not a conjecture or an inference. The
feeling you have is the knowledge that movements of the hand open up and
reveal new aspects of bottle surface. It feels to you as if there’s stuff there to
be touched by movement of the hands. That’s what the feeling of the
presence of the bottle consists in. But the basis of the feeling, then, is not
something occurring now. The basis rather is one’s knowledge now as to
what one can do.“ (O‘Regan & Noe, 2001)
• Claim: With sensorimotor contingencies, you can explain qualitative
phenomenal differences between and within perceptual modalities.
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What are sensory modalities?
• Most scientists seem satisfied with some variant of
Müller’s [1838] classic concept of “specific nerve
energy”.
• On our view, the differences between the sensory
modalities are to be understood in terms of the different
patterns of sensorimotor contingency governing
perceptual exploration in the different modalities.
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Neural Plasticity and Consciousness
• (Hurley & Noe, 2003)
• Cortical Deference vs. Cortical Dominance
– Phantom limbs
– Ferrets
– Braille Reading in blind
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To Sum Up:
• Vision not „in brain“
• Vision is an activity of exploration by the whole situated perceiver
• Needs the perceiver’s understanding of what we do (e.g. Eye
movements) leads to what kind of sensation
• „neural activity could [not] be sufficient, as a matter of law, to
produce visual consciousness.“ (O‘Regan & Noe, 2001) („neural
correlate“ research)
• Alternative ways to scientifically explore cognitive behaviour and
capacity scientifically.
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Summary of Today’s Lecture
• Situated and Embodied View:
– The closed loop
– The rejection of internal localisation of cognitive phenomena and faculties
– Sensorimotor coordination as reciprocally causal process.
• Empirical research Perceptual perturbations
– Perceptual suppleance (sensory substitution)
– Change blindness
– Delay experiments
• Sensorimotor contingencies
– Descriptive concepts for a situated view.
– Can be used to explain cognitive phenomena and faculties (e.g. perceptual
modalities) without localising meaningful cognitive phenomena
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Outlook to Next Lecture
• Computational Modelling of the Closed Loop:– Behaviour Based Robotics– Evolutionary Robotics
• Approaching the hard questions– Autopoiesis and Adaptivity– Values, Emotions and genuine purposes
• Wrapping it all up
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Any questions?
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References• Angliss, S., Rohde, M. McGregor, S. and W.Bigge: The Cyborg Experiment.
Exhibition and Lecture at the Cheltenham festival of Science June 2005.• Bach-y-Rita, P., M. E. Tyler, and K. A Kaczmarek: Seeing With the Brain. Int. J.
Human-Computer Interaction 15(2) 2003. 285-295.• Cunningham, D.W., A. Chatziastros, M. von der Heyde and H.H. Bülthoff: Driving in
the future: Temporal visuomotor adaptation and generalization. Journal of Vision 1(2), 88-98 (2001)
• Cunningham, D.W., Billock, V.A. and Tsou, B.H.: Sensorimotor adaptation to violations of temporal contiguity. Psychological Science 12(6), 532-535 (2001)
• Di Paolo, E.: lecture presentations “Adaptive Systems”, University of Sussex, Spring Term 2006
• Helbing, D., J. Keltsch and P. Molnar: „Modelling the Evolution of Human Trail Systems“ Nature 388 49, 1997.
• Held, R.: Plasticity in Sensory-Motor Systems. Scientific American, 213 (5) 1965. 84-94.
• Highfield, R.: The Girl With Eyes in the Back of Her Head. Daily Telegraph 5.6.2006.• Hurley, S. and A. Noë, "Neural plasticity and consciousness." Biology and Philosophy
18, 1, pp 131-168 2003• Fujisaki, Shimojo, Kashino and Nishida: Recalibration of audiovisual simultaneity by
adaptation to a constant time lag. J. Vis. 3 (9) Oktober 2003. 34-34.
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