International Air Transport Association (IATA)   

Definition

Private organization promoting cooperation among theworld's scheduled airlines

to ensure safe, secure, reliable, and economical air services. Through IATA, local airlines

have combined their individual ticketing and reservation networks  into

a global system that overcomes differences incurrencies, customs, languages,

and laws. Founded in Hague in 1919 as International Air Traffic Association, it was given

the current name in 1945 in Havana and now includes280 airlines from

130 countries which handle over 95percent of the world's scheduled air traffic. IATA

accredits the travel agents all over the world, except the US where a local organization

(Airline Reporting Corporation) provides accreditation . IATA's headquarters are in

Montreal, Canada and the executive offices are in Geneva, Switzerland. Not to be

confused with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) which is

a governmental organization.

Airport

An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and

land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport. An airport consists of at least one surface such as

a runway for a plane to take off and land, a helipad, or water for takeoffs and landings, and often includes

buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminal buildings.

Larger airports may have fixed base operator services, seaplane docks and ramps, air traffic control,

passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. A military airport is known

as an airbase or air station. The terms aerodrome, airdrome, airfield, and airstrip may also be used to

refer to airports, and the terms heliport, seaplane base, and STOLport refer to airports dedicated

exclusively to helicopters, seaplanes, or short take-off and landing aircraft.

Runway

1. A strip of level, usually paved ground on which aircraft take off and land.2. A path, channel, or track over which something runs.3. The channel of a stream.4. A chute down which logs are skidded.5. A narrow track in a bowling lane on which balls are returned after they are bowled.6. A smooth ramp for wheeled vehicles.7. A narrow walkway extending from a stage into an auditorium.

4. Taxiways

TaxiwayFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

F-22 Raptors taxiing at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, USA

A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars,terminals and other facilities.

They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt orconcrete, although smaller airports sometimes

use gravel or grass.

Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the

runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land

or depart in a shorter space of time.

5.apron

1.a. A garment, usually fastened in the back, worn over all or part of the front of the body to protect clothing.b. Something, such as a protective shield for a machine, that resembles this garment in appearance or function.2. The paved strip in front of and around airport hangars and terminal buildings.3. The part of a stage in a theater extending in front of the curtain.4. A platform, as of planking, at the entrance to a dock.

5.a. A covering or structure along a shoreline for protection against erosion.b. A platform serving a similar purpose below a dam or in a sluiceway.6. A continuous conveyor belt.7. An area covered by sand and gravel deposited at the front of a glacial moraine.8. A border of slightly longer grass that surrounds a green on a golf course.9. The part of a boxing ring floor that extends beyond the ropes.

6.Airport Location Factors

The location of an airport site in the case of an isotropic plain can be viewed as a balance between two opposing forces:

Benefits. The closer an airport is to the city center, the more benefits are derived because of shorter average commuting times from the airport to centers of activity. The airport is then able to conveniently service a metropolitan area. The commuting radius represents a tolerable commuting distance / time from the city center, which is in the range of 1 hour. Beyond that threshold an airport does not serve its metropolitan area well as an undue amount of time must be spent to reach it. The integration of rail systems with airport development, such as in Hong Kong and Paris, reduces this friction of distance by connecting it efficiently to the urban core. However, many airports, especially Narita and New York-JFK, still have poor connections with their metropolitan areas because of congestion and the lack of alternatives to road access.

Externalities. As the location of an airport gets closer to the city center, more externalities are incurred. The opportunity cost for the land devoted to the airport, the number of people adversely affected by noise, and incompatibilities with local land uses all rise. Externalities have been a strong factor in recent airport development, such as Denver and Hong Kong. Under such circumstances, an airport site should be as far as possible from the city center. In the case of Hong Kong for instance, approximately 380,000 people lived within the 65 dB noise contour of the old Kai Tak airport; but no one lived within the 65 dB contour of the new airport when it opened.

Suitability. Benefits and externalities functions tend to be inversely proportional to the other. Consequently, a compromise is sought by choosing a site that is close enough to provide significant benefits and far enough to minimize externalities. A location ring of high suitability is derived from an overlay of the benefits and externalities curves.

Clearway

An area at the end of the take-off run available, selected or prepared as a

suitable area over which an aircraft may make a portion of its initial climb to a

specified height.  ICAO

(1) For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after August 29, 1959, an

area beyond the runway, not less than 500 feet wide, centrally located about

the extended centerline of the runway, and under the control of the airport

authorities. The clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending

from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25 percent,

above which no object nor any terrain protrudes. However, threshold lights

may protrude above the plane if their height above the end of the runway is 26

inches or less and if they are located to each side of the runway.

(2) For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after September 30,

1958, but before August 30, 1959, an area beyond the takeoff runway

extending no less than 300 feet on either side of the extended centerline of the

runway, at an elevation no higher than the elevation of the end of the runway,

clear of all fixed obstacles, and under the control of the airport authorities.

Stop way

Stopway means an area beyond the takeoff runway, no less wide than the

runway and centered upon the extended centerline of the runway, able to

support the airplane during an aborted takeoff, without causing structural

damage to the airplane, and designated by the airport authorities for use in

decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff.

TORA [4]

Takeoff Run Available – The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run

of an airplane taking off.[5]

TODA [4]

Takeoff Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of

theclearway, if clearway is provided.[5]

(The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary. According to

the Federal Aviation Regulations and Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) TODA is the lesser of

TORA plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).

ASDA 

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Visual flight rulesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations which allow a pilot to operate an aircraft in weather

conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. Specifically, the

weather must be better than basic VFR weather minimums, as specified in the rules of the relevant

aviation authority.[1] If the weather is worse than VFR minimums, pilots are required to use instrument

flight rules.

[edit]Requirements

VFR require a pilot to be able to see outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's attitude, navigate, and

avoid obstacles and other aircraft. [2]

To avoid collisions, the VFR pilot is expected to "see and avoid" obstacles and other aircraft. Pilots flying

under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned

routes or altitudes by air traffic control. Near busier airports, and while operating within certain types

of airspace, VFR aircraft are required to have a transponder to help identify the aircraft on radar.

Governing agencies establish specific requirements for VFR flight, including minimum visibility, and

distance from clouds, to ensure that aircraft operating under VFR are visible from enough distance to

ensure safety.

From a regulatory perspective, airspace is categorized as controlled and uncontrolled. In controlled

airspace known as Class B for example (note that Class B does not exist in the UK), Air Traffic

Control (ATC) will separate VFR aircraft from all other aircraft. In most other types of controlled airspace,

ATC is only required to maintain separation to aircraft operating under instrument flight rules (IFR), but

workload permitting will assist all aircraft. In the United States, a pilot operating VFR outside of class B

airspace can request "VFR flight following" from ATC. This service is provided by ATC if workload permits

it, but is an advisory service only. The responsibility for maintaining separation with other aircraft and

proper navigation still remains with the pilot. In the United Kingdom, a pilot can request for "Deconfliction

Service", which is similar to flight following.

Meteorological conditions that meet the minimum requirements for VFR flight are termed visual

meteorological conditions (VMC). If they are not met, the conditions are considered instrument

meteorological conditions(IMC), and a flight may only operate under IFR.

IFR operations have specific training requirements—usually placing a pilot in simulated IMC environment

using a view limiting device and recency of experience, equipment, and inspection requirements for both

the pilot and aircraft. Additionally, an IFR flight plan must usually be filed in advance. For efficiency of

operations, some ATC operations will routinely provide "pop-up" IFR clearances for aircraft operating

VFR, but that are arriving at an airport that does not meet VMC requirements. For example, in the United

States, at least California's Oakland (KOAK), Monterey (KMRY) and Santa Ana (KSNA) airports do so

routinely when a low coastal overcast forces instrument approaches while essentially the entire state of

California is basking in sunshine.

In the United States and Canada, VFR pilots also have an option for requesting Special VFR when

meteorological conditions at an airport are below normal VMC minimums, but above Special VFR

requirements. Special VFR is only intended to enable takeoffs and landings from airports that are near to

VMC conditions, and may only be performed during daytime hours if a pilot does not possess

an instrument rating.

VFR flight is not allowed in airspace known as class A, regardless of the meteorological conditions. In the

United States, class A airspace begins at 18,000 feet msl, and extends to an altitude of 60,000 feet msl.

[edit]Pilot certifications

In the United States and Canada, any certified pilot who meets specific recency of experience criteria may

operate an airworthy aircraft under VFR.

[edit]Controlled visual flight rules

Section of CVFR flight routes map of Tel Aviv (Israel) area. Flight altitude in each direction is notated in yellow arrow-box.

Compulsory reporting points are marked with triangles and airports are marked by yellow circles.

CVFR flight is used in locations where aviation authorities have determined that VFR flight should be

allowed, but that ATC separation and minimal guidance are necessary. In this respect, CVFR is similar

to Instrument flight rules (IFR) in that ATC will give pilots headings and altitudes at which to fly, and will

provide separation and conflict resolution. However, pilots and aircraft do not need to be IFR rated to fly in

CVFR areas, which is highly advantageous. An example of airspace where CVFR is common would

be Canadian Class B airspace.[3]

The CVFR concept is used in Canada and certain European countries, but not in theU.S., where

the Private Pilot certificate itself authorizes the pilot to accept clearances under VFR.

In Israel and the Palestinian territory, for example, VFR does not exist. All visual flights must be

performed under CVFR rules.

[edit]Low Flying Rules

In the UK, the Rules of the Air define clearly in the principles of Low Flying Rules in Rule 5. The main

principle is that an aircraft must always be able to perform an emergency landing in a case of engine

failure. Hence these three criteria:

500ft provision An aircraft must not fly closer than 500ft to any person, vessel, vehicle, building or

structure.

1000ft provision If an aircraft is flying over a congested area (town, settlement, etc.) it must fly high

enough so that in the case of an engine failure, it is able to land clear without being a danger to

people or it must not fly less than 1000ft above the highest fixed object within 600m of the aircraft.

Instrument flight rulesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"IFR" redirects here. For other uses, see IFR (disambiguation).

Instrument flight rules (IFR) are one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects of civil

aviation aircraft operations; the other are visual flight rules (VFR).

Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) defines IFR as: “Rules and regulations established by the FAA to

govern flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR flight depends

upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to

electronic signals.[1]” It is also referred to as, “a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of

flight plan an aircraft is flying,” such as an IFR or VFR flight plan.[2]

Contents

[hide]

1 Basic Information

o 1.1 Visual flight rules

o 1.2 Instrument flight rules

o 1.3 Confusing flight rules with weather conditions

2 Separation and clearance

3 Weather

4 Navigation

5 Procedures

6 Qualifications

7 References

8 External links

9 See also

[edit]Basic Information

[edit]Visual flight rules

To put instrument flight rules into context, a brief overview of VFR is necessary. Flights operating under

VFR are flown solely by reference to outside visual cues, which permit navigation, orientation, and

separation from terrain and other traffic. Thus, cloud ceiling and flight visibility are the most important

variables for safe operations during all phases of flight.[3] The minimum weather conditions for ceiling and

visibility for VFR flights are defined in FAR Part 91.155, and vary depending on the type of airspace in

which the aircraft is operating, and on whether the flight is conducted during daytime or nighttime.

However, typical daytime VFR minimums for most airspace is 3 statute miles of flight visibility and a cloud

distance of 500' below, 1,000' above, and 2,000' feet horizontally.[4] Flight conditions reported as equal to

or greater than these VFR minimums are referred to as visual meteorological conditions (VMC).

Visual flight rules are much simpler than IFR, and require significantly less training and practice. VFR

provides a great degree of freedom, allowing pilots to go where they want, when they want, and allows

them a much wider latitude in determining how they get there.[5] Pilots are not required to file a flight plan,

do not have to communicate with ATC (unless flying in certain types of "busier" airspace), and are not

limited to following predefined published routes or flight procedures.

VFR pilots may use cockpit instruments as secondary aids to navigation and orientation, but are not

required to. Instead, the view outside of the aircraft is the primary source for keeping the aircraft straight

and level (orientation), flying where you intended to fly (navigation), and for not hitting anything

(separation).[6]

[edit]Instrument flight rules

Instrument flight rules permit an aircraft to operate in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), which

have much lower weather minimums than VFR. Procedures and training are significantly more complex

as a pilot must demonstrate competency in conducting an entire cross-country flight in IMC conditions,

while controlling the aircraft solely by reference to instruments.[7]

As compared to VFR flight, instrument pilots must meticulously evaluate weather, create a very detailed

flight plan based around specific instrument departure, en route, and arrival procedures, and dispatch the

flight. Once airborne, the IFR pilot is then challenged to fly the aircraft in the same air traffic control (ATC)

environment and weather systems that two-crew jet aircraft are using at the same time.[6][8]

[edit]Confusing flight rules with weather conditions

It is essential to differentiate between flight plan type (IFR or VFR) and weather conditions (VMC or IMC).

While current and forecasted weather may be a factor in deciding which type of flight plan to file, weather

conditions themselves do not affect one's filed flight plan. For example, an IFR flight that

encounters VMC en route does not automatically change to a VFR flight, and the flight must still follow all

IFR procedures regardless of weather conditions.

[edit]Separation and clearance

The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed separation. The most

important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of weather conditions.

In controlled airspace, Air Traffic Control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other aircraft

using a flight clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude. ATC monitors IFR flights

on radar, or through aircraft position reports in areas where radar coverage is not available. Aircraft

position reports are sent as voice radio transmissions. Aircraft position reports are not necessary if ATC

reports that the aircraft is in radar contact. In the United States, a flight operating under IFR is required to

provide position reports unless ATC advises a pilot that the plane is in radar contact. The pilot must

resume position reports after ATC advises that radar contact has been lost, or that radar services are

terminated.

IFR flights in controlled airspace require an ATC clearance for each part of the flight. A clearance always

specifies a clearance limit, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a

clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such

as frequencies and transponder codes.

In uncontrolled airspace, ATC clearances are unavailable. In some states a form of separation is provided

to certain aircraft in uncontrolled airspace as far as is practical (often known under ICAO as an advisory

service in class F airspace), but separation is not mandated nor widely provided.

Despite the protection offered by flight in controlled airspace under IFR, the ultimate responsibility for the

safety of the aircraft rests with the pilot in command, who can refuse clearances.

[edit]Weather

Above clouds, but still IFR

The main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in Instrument Meteorological Conditions(IMC).

The weather is considered to be IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements forVisual

Meteorological Conditions (VMC). To operate safely in IMC, a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight

instruments, and ATC provides separation.[9]

It is important not to confuse IFR with IMC. A significant amount of IFR flying is conducted in Visual

Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Any time a flight is operating in VMC, the crew is responsible for seeing

and avoiding VFR traffic; however, since the flight is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules, ATC still

provides separation services from other IFR traffic. Although dangerous and illegal, a certain amount of

VFR flying is conducted in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). A common scenario is a VFR pilot

taking off in VMC conditions, but encountering deteriorating visibility while en route. "Continued VFR flight

into IMC", as it is known, is responsible for a significant number of light-airplane crashes.

During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, so flying through clouds is permitted. There

are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off and land; these will

vary according to the kind of operation, the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of

terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and the qualifications of the

crew. For example, landing at mountain airports such as Reno (KRNO) offer significantly

different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway, but from opposite directions.

Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than a

flight approaching from the south, because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport.{FAA approach

plate AL 346} This higher altitude allows a flight crew to clear the obstacle if a landing is not feasible.

Although large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain awareness and

warning system TAWS,[citation needed]these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a

sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.[citation needed]

[edit]Navigation

Under IFR, the primary means of navigation are either via radio beacons on the ground, such

as VORs and NDBs, or GPS. In areas of radar coverage, ATC may also assign headings to IFR aircraft,

also known as radar vectors. Radar vectors are one of several methods which ATC uses to provide

separation between aircraft for landing, especially in busy traffic environments; in less congested

airspace, aircraft are increasingly responsible for their own traffic awareness and collision avoidance.[citation

needed]

Modern Flight Management Systems have evolved sufficiently to allow a crew to plan a flight not only as

to route and altitude, but to specific time of arrival at specific locations.[citation needed] This capability is used in

several trial projects experimenting with four dimensional approach clearances for commercial aircraft,

with time as the fourth dimension.[citation needed] These clearances allow ATC to optimize the arrival of aircraft

at major airports, which increases airport capacity, and uses less fuel providing monetary and

environmental benefits to airlines and the public at large respectively.

VHF omnidirectional rangeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. (December 2009)

This article is about the radio navigation aid, see VOR for other uses.

D-VOR (Doppler VOR) ground station, co-located with DME.

VOR, short for VHF omnidirectional radio range, is a type of radio navigation system foraircraft. A VOR ground station

broadcasts a VHF radio composite signal including the station's identifier, voice (if equipped), and navigation signal. The

identifier is morse code. The voice signal is usually station name, in-flight recorded advisories, or live flight service broadcasts.

The navigation signal allows the airborne receiving equipment to determine a magnetic bearing from the station to the aircraft

(direction from the VOR station in relation to the Earth's magnetic North at the time of installation). VOR stations in areas of

magnetic compass unreliability are oriented with respect toTrue North. This line of position is called the "radial" from the VOR.

The intersection of two radials from different VOR stations on a chart provides the position of the aircraft.

Foreign object damageFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

FOD to the compressor blades of aHoneywell LTS101 turboshaft engine on aBell 222, caused by a small bolt that passed

through the protective inlet screen.

FOD deflection system on a PT6Tinstalled on a Bell 412. Air enters from upper right, and pure air follows the curved ramp

down to the turbine inlet (also covered by a screen). Any debris being sucked in will have enough momentum that it won't

make such a sharp bend, and will hit the screen on the upper left, and will be carried out to the left, getting blown overboard.

Potential foreign object debris found and rescued from the wheel well of an F/A-18 Hornet on the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier

USS Harry S. Truman.

Foreign Object Debris (FOD) is a substance, debris or article alien to a vehicle or system which would potentially cause damage.

Foreign Object Damage (also abbreviated FOD) is any damage attributed to a foreign object that can be expressed in physical or

economic terms that may or may not degrade the product's required safety and/or performance characteristics. Typically, FOD is an

aviation term used to describe debris on or around an aircraft or damage done to an aircraft.[1] Foreign Object Damage is any

damage attributed to a foreign object (i.e. any object that is not part of the vehicle) that can be expressed in physical or economic

terms and may or may not degrade the product's required safety or performance characteristics. FOD is an abbreviation often used

in aviation to describe both the damage done to aircraft by foreign objects, and the foreign objects themselves.[2]

"Internal FOD" is used to refer to damage or hazards caused by foreign objects inside the aircraft. For example, "Cockpit FOD"

might be used to describe a situation where an item gets loose in the cockpit and jams or restricts the operation of the controls.

"Tool FOD" is a serious hazard caused by tools left inside the aircraft after manufacturing or servicing. Tools or other items can get

tangled in control cables, jam moving parts, short out electrical connections, or otherwise interfere with safe flight. Aircraft

maintenance teams usually have strict tool control procedures including toolbox inventories to make sure all tools have been

removed from an aircraft before it is released for flight. Tools used during manufacturing are tagged with a serial number so if

they're found they can be traced.

Instrument landing systemFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Localizer station for runway 27R atHannover Airport in Germany

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides

precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio

signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument

meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing

snow.

Instrument approach procedure charts (or approach plates) are published for each ILS approach,

providing pilots with the needed information to fly an ILS approach during instrument flight rules

(IFR) operations, including the radio frequencies used by the ILS components or navaids and the

minimum visibility requirements prescribed for the specific approach.

Radio-navigation aids must keep a certain degree of accuracy (set by international standards of

CAST/ICAO); to assure this is the case, flight inspection organizations periodically check critical

parameters with properly equipped aircraft to calibrate and certify ILS precision.

AAI FUNCTIONS OR RESPONSIBILITIES

Functions of the Directorate of Aviation Safety 1. Monitor the Aerodrome operations and detect the safety hazards and point out to the ATM Directorate and the other concerned Directorates.

2. Monitor the Air Navigation operations and detect the safety hazards and point out to the ATM Directorate and the other concerned Directorates.

3. Monitor the Aerodrome design activities of the Planning and Engineering Directorates and detect the non-compliances of regulations and point out to the concerned Directorates.

4. Guide the various departments for SMS documentation.

5. Assist all the Directorates to establish the Safety Management System, throughout the organization, including the education and training.

6. Coordinate the safety matters of AAI with DGCA, ICAO and other stake holders.

7. Promote the safety of aerodromes and air navigation services.

8. Present the safety reports to the Safety Review Board (SRB) and implement the directions, given on safety matters, by SRB.

9. Detect the weaknesses in the functions and the practices in the activities of all departments of AAI which may effect the safety of the system(s).

10. Develop the new tools and methods of audit and inspections and mitigation procedures.

11. Implement effective safety programmes in all areas of operations and passenger facilities with a view to provide safe environment for aircraft operations and passengers at all AAI airports.

12. Carry out annual audit of all AAI airports, civil enclaves and other facilities with the objective of identifying operational and system deficiencies, hazards and trends at ground level.

13. To monitor that air traffic services, communication, navigational and landing aids, rescue and fire fighting services at AAI aerodromes are provided and maintained inconformity with ICAO standards and recommended practices and civil aviation requirements issued from time to time.

14. Recommend appropriate accident/incident preventive actions to senior management.

15. Promote and develop activities that increase knowledge and safety awareness amongst all department personnel of AAI and to the extent possible amongst all personnel of other departments working at the Airport.