accounting for non accountants
TRANSCRIPT
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ACCOUNTING
for
NON-ACCOUNTANTS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
To understand the working of business organizations.
To understand the Importance and Objectives of Accounting
To identify the major users of Accounting information.
To explain the role of Accounting in making economic and business decisions
To identify the branches of Accounting.
To describe the common forms of business entity.
To understand the concept of Accounting Equation.
To understand the Accounting Cycle
To understand the meaning and Classification of Indian GAAP.
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UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS
ORGANIZATIONS
Business entities provide goods and services in order to earn profit.
Business entities that provide goods are of three kinds:
Merchandising (Trading) entities
Manufacturing entities
Service entities
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ACCOUNTING – THE LANGUAGE OF BUSINESS
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Accounting is the information system that...
measures business activities,
processes data into reports, and
communicates results to decision makers
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WHAT IS ACCOUNTING?
Accounting is often called the language of Business.
Accounting, as an information system, is the process of identifying, measuring, and communicating the economic information of an
organization to its users who need the information for decision
making.
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INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
•Recording
•Classifying
•Summarizing
•Analyzing
•Interpreting
Communicating
information to
users
( P&L A/c, B/S,
CFS, etc)
Economic events measured in financial terms
THE ACCOUNTING INFORMATION
SYSTEM
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DEFINITION OF ACCOUNTING
The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA)
defines accounting as “the art of recording, classifying and
summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money
transactions and events which are, in part at least, of a financial
character, and interpreting the results thereof ”.
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OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING
To maintain accounting records.
To calculate the results of operations
To ascertain the financial position
To communicate the information to the users
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USERS OF ACCOUNTING
INFORMATION Internal Users:
Management group:
Board of Directors
Partners
Managers
Officers
External Users:
Financing group: Investors (present and potential)
Lenders
Suppliers
Public Group: Govt and Regulatory
Authorities
Employees and Trade Unions
Customers
Rating Agencies
Others:
Security Analysts
Academicians
Researchers
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ACCOUNTING INFORMATION AND
ECONOMIC DECISIONS
1. Decide when to buy, hold or sell an equity investment.
2. Assess the stewardship or accountability of mgt.
3. Assess the ability of the enterprise to pay and provide other
benefits to its employees.
4. Assess the security for amounts lent to the enterprise.
5. Determine distributable profits and dividends.
6. Determine taxation policies.
7. Prepare and use national income statistics.
8. Regulate the activities of enterprises.
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BRANCHES /CLASSIFICATION OF
ACCOUNTING
Financial
Accounting
Cost
Accounting
Management
Accounting
Human
Resource
A/cing
Responsibility
A/cing
Inflation
A/cing
Other Emerging
Branches
Accounting
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FORMS OF BUSINESS
ORGANIZATION Sole Proprietorship
Single individual
Unlimited Liability
Partnership Firms
A few individuals
Unlimited Liability
Limited company
Numerous individuals, often strangers
Large business
Limited liability
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Balance Sheet Income Statement ASSETS LIABILITIES & CAPITAL
REVENUE
EARNING ASSETS MISCELLANEOUS LIABILITIES
Loan Interest Income
Loans
Less Allowance for Loan and
Lease Losses
Investment Interest Income
Fees and Other Non-Interest
SHARES Income
EXPENSES
Investments
Held -to-Maturity Occupancy
Available-for-Sale Personnel
Trading Provision for Loan Losses
NON-EARNING ASSETS COST OF FUNDS
Building, Equipment, etc. Dividends Paid
NCUSIF Deposit CAPITAL
Regular Reserves
Other Assets Undivided Earnings NET INCOME or LOSS
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Balance Sheet Income Statement ASSETS LIABILITIES & CAPITAL
REVENUE
EARNING ASSETS MISCELLANEOUS LIABILITIES
Loan Interest Income
Loans
Less Allowance for Loan and
Lease Losses
Investment Interest Income
Fees and Other Non-Interest
SHARES Income
EXPENSES
Investments
Held -to-Maturity Occupancy
Available-for-Sale Personnel
Trading Provision for Loan Losses
NON-EARNING ASSETS COST OF FUNDS
Building, Equipment, etc. Dividends Paid
NCUSIF Deposit CAPITAL
Regular Reserves
Other Assets Undivided Earnings NET INCOME or LOSS
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What You Have What You Owe
What Your
Members Own
What Comes
In
What Goes Out
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Balance Sheet Income StatementASSETS LIABILITIES & CAPITAL
REVENUE
EARNING ASSETS MISCELLANEOUS LIABS
Cash 160,000$ Miscellaneous Liabs 151,000$ INTEREST INCOME
LOANS SHARES Loans 563,400$
Unsecured 1,350,000
Vehicle 3,500,000 Share savings 1,680,000 Investments 200,400
Real estate 300,000 Share drafts 3,500,000 Total Int Inc 763,800
Total loans 5,150,000 Money market 3,624,000 Non Interest Inc 78,200
IRAs 41,000
Less allowance (101,875) Other 4,000 TOTAL 842,000
Net Loans 5,048,125
Total Shares 8,849,000 EXPENSES
Occupancy
INVESTMENTS Personnel 332,000
Held to maturity 3,500,000 Provission for
Avail for sale 441,875 Loan Losses 44,000
TOTAL 3,941,875 TOTAL 376,000
NON-EARNING ASSETS CAPITAL COST OF FUNDS
Property and equip 150,000 Regular reserve 80,000
NCUSIF 200,000 Undivided earn 920,000 Dividends Paid 364,000
Other N. E. assets Reserve for
Investment losses
Other assets 500,000 Total Capital 1,000,000 NET INCOME
TOTAL ASSETS 10,000,000$ TOTAL LIABS & CAP 10,000,000$ NET INCOME 102,000$
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FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Profit and Loss A/c
Statement of financial performance
Balance sheet
Statement of financial position
Statement of cash flows
Statement of cash receipts and cash payments
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ASSETS
What a business “owns”
Probable future economic benefits
Examples
Cash
Investments
Buildings
Plant and Machinery
Patents and Copyrights
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LIABILITIES What a business “owes”
Probable future sacrifices of economic benefits
Examples
Loans payable
Warranty obligations
Pensions payable
Income tax payable
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REVENUES
They are amounts received or to be received from customers for sales of products or services.
– sales
– performance of services
– rent
– interest
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They are amounts that have been paid or will be paid later for costs that have been incurred to earn revenue.
– salaries and wages
– utilities
– supplies used
– advertising
EXPENSES
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OWNER’S EQUITY
It is what’s left of the assets after liabilities have been
deducted (Residual interest of owners)
– the same as net assets
– the owner’s claim on the entity’s assets
Examples
Share capital
Share premium
Revenues
Retained profit
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Economic
Resources
Claims to
Economic
Resources
THE ACCOUNTING EQUATION
Assets = Liabilities + Owner’s Equity
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TRANSACTIONS THAT AFFECT
OWNER’S EQUITY
OWNER’S EQUITY INCREASES
OWNER’S EQUITY DECREASES
Owner Investments
in the Business
Revenues Expenses
Owner Withdrawals
from the Business
Owner’s Equity
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF
BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS
On April 1, Susan starts DR Technology for developing
customer-specific computer software. The transactions of
DR Technology during April are now described.
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Investment by Owner:
On April 1, Susan invests PHP 5,000,000 in cash in DR
Technology. The first Balance Sheet of the new business will
be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 1
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP.
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity 5,000,000 Cash 5,000,000
Total 5,000,000 Total 5,000,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Receipt of Loan:
On April 2, Susan takes a loan of PHP 2,000,000 from
Manny for DR Technology. The effect of the transaction will
be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 2
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity 5,000,000 Cash (5,000,000 +
2,000,000)
7,000,000
Liabilities ( Loan from Manny) 2,000,000
Total 7,000,000 Total 7,000,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Purchase of Assets for Cash:
On April 3, DR Technology purchases for cash two
computers each costing PHP 2,900,000. The effect of the
transaction will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 3
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity 5,000,000 Cash
(7,000,000 –5,800,000)
1,200,000
Liabilities (Loan from Manny) 2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,800,000
Total 7,000,000 Total 7,000,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Purchase of Assets on Credit:
On April 4, DR Technology purchases supplies of CD, DVD
Disks and stationery for PHP 60,000 on credit. The effect of
the transaction will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 4
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity 5,000,000 Cash 1,200,000
Creditors ( office Supplies) 60,000 Supplies (Inventory) 60,000
Liabilities ( Loan from Manny) 2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,80,000
Total 7,060,000 Total 7,060,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Receipt of Revenues:
On April 19, DR Technology completes its maiden software
for a retail store and receives a price of PHP 1,200,000. The
effect of the transaction will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 19
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity
(5,000,000 + 1,200,000)
6,200,000 Cash (1,200,000 +
1,200,000)
2,400,000
Creditors ( office Supplies) 60,000 Supplies
(Inventory) 60,000
Liabilities ( Loan from Manny) 2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,800,000
Total 8,800,000 Total 8,800,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Payment of a Liability:
On April 21, DR Technology pays its creditor for supplies,
PHP 20,000. The effect of the transaction will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 21
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity 6,200,000 Cash (2,400,000 - 20,000)
2,380,000
Creditors ( office Supplies)
(60,000 – 20,000)
40,000 Supplies (Inventory) 60,000
Liabilities ( Loan from
Manny)
2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,800,000
Total 8,240,000 Total 8,240,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Payment of Expenses:
On April 29, DR Technology pays salaries to employees, PHP
40,000 and office rent PHP 12,000. The effect of the
transactions will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 29
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity
(6,200,000 – 40,000 – 12,000)
5,680,000 Cash (2,200,000 – 40,000 –
12,000)
1,680,000
Creditors ( office Supplies) 40,000 Supplies (Inventory) 60,000
Liabilities ( Loan from Manny) 2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,800,000
Total 8,080,000 Total 8,080,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Revenues Receivable:
On April 30, DR Technology completes a software package for a
shoe shop. The customer agrees to pay the price of PHP 80,000
a week later. In this case, the revenues has been earned but cash
has not been received. The effect of the transactions will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 30
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity (5,068,000 +
80,000)
6,048,000 Cash 1,068,000
Creditors ( office Supplies) 40,000 Supplies (Inventory) 60,000
Debtors ( Shoe Shop) 80,000
Liabilities ( Loan from Manny) 2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,80,000
Total 8,088,000 Total 8,088,000
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ANALYSING THE EFFECTS OF BUSINESS
TRANSACTIONS
Withdrawal by Owner:
On April 30, Susan withdraws PHP 35,000 for his personal use.
In accordance with the accounting entity assumption, it should
not as a business expense but treated as a withdrawal of capital
by the owner. The effect of the transactions will be:
DR Technology : Balance Sheet as on April 30
Liabilities and Owners’
Equity
Amount
PHP
Assets Amount
PHP
Susan, Equity (6,048,000 –
35,000)
6,013,000 Cash (1,068,000 –
35,000)
1,033,000
Creditors ( office Supplies) 40,000 Supplies (Inventory) 60,000
Debtors ( Shoe Shop) 80,000
Liabilities ( Loan from Manny) 2,000,000 Office Equipment 5,080,000
Total 8,053,000 Total 8,053,000
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING
PRINCIPLES - MEANING Accounting principles may be defined as the set of conventions, rules,
and procedures necessary to define universally accepted accounting practice at a particular time.
These principles enable to a certain extent standardization in recording and reporting of information.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTING
PRINCIPLES
Accounting Concepts:
Postulates i.e. basic assumptions or conditions upon which the science of accounting is based.
Accounting Conventions:
Circumstances or traditions which guide the accountant while preparing the accounting
statements.
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ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES
CONCEPTS
1. Business entity concept
2. Money measurement concept
3. Going concern concept
4. Cost concept
5. Dual aspect concept
6. Accounting period concept
7. Matching concept
8. Realization concept
9. Objective evidence concept
10. Accrual concept
CONVENTIONS
1. Consistency
2. Full disclosure
3. Conservatism
4. Materiality
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING
PRINCIPLES AND BASIC CONCEPTS
The Entity Concept
An accounting entity is an organization that stands apart from other
organizations and individuals as a separate economic unit.
The entity concept helps relate events to a clearly defined area of accountability.
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THE ENTITY CONCEPT
An accounting entity is an
organization that stands apart
as a separate economic unit.
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THE ENTITY CONCEPT EXAMPLE
Assume that John decides to open up a gas station and coffee shop.
The gas station made PHP 250,000 in profits, while the coffee shop lost
PHP 50,000.
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THE ENTITY CONCEPT EXAMPLE
How much money did John make?
At a first glance, we would assume that John made PHP 200,000.
However, by applying the entity concept we realize that the gas station
made PHP 250,000 while the coffee shop lost PHP 50,000.
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The entity will continue
to operate in the future.
GENERALLY ACCEPTED
ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES
AND BASIC CONCEPTS
THE GOING CONCERN CONCEPT
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED
ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES
AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Going Concern Convention
The assumption that in all ordinary situations an entity persists indefinitely
This notion implies that a company’s existing resources will be used to fulfill the business needs of the company rather than be sold.
If the continuity of an entity is in doubt, a liquidation approach to the balance sheet is taken, and the assets and liabilities are valued as if the entity were to be liquidated in the near future.
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•Record fixed assets at original cost and
depreciate over a period of time.
•Take prepaid expenses as assets.
•Business is concerned with net income or
earning capacity as compared to market
values.
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED
ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
Materiality Convention
A financial statement item is material if its omission or misstatement would tend to mislead the reader of the financial statements under consideration
Materiality often depends on the size of the organization – what is material to one company might not be material to another company.
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“An item should be regarded as material if there is reason to believe that
knowledge of it would influence the decision of informed investor”
Disclose only material information.
No overburdening with minute details
Material information differs organization to organization year to year (change in
depreciation method)
Materiality may depend upon amount or may not
be.
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Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles and Basic Concepts
Convention of Conservatism:-
“ Anticipate no profits but provide for all possible losses”
Policy of ‘caution’ & ‘playing safe’
Policy of safeguarding against possible losses in world of uncertainty
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Kobler defines :-
‘Conservatism’ as a guideline which chooses between
acceptable accounting alternatives for recording
events or transactions so that the least favorable
immediate effect on assets , income and owner’s
equity is reported.
Example:-
Making the provision for doubtful debts and discounts
on debtors in anticipation of actual bad debts and
discount
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING
PRINCIPLES AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Cost-Benefit Criterion
A system should be changed when the expected additional benefits of the change exceed its expected additional costs
The benefits of information should exceed the cost of providing that information.
Benefits > Costs
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED
ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
THE STABLE-MONETARY-UNIT
CONCEPT
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The purchasing
power is
stable.
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING
PRINCIPLES AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Stable Monetary Unit
The monetary unit is the principle means for measuring assets and equities.
It is the common denominator for quantifying the effects of transactions.
A stable monetary unit is one that is not expected to significantly change in value over time.
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GENERALLY ACCEPTED
ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
THE COST PRINCIPLE
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Assets and services
acquired
should be recorded
at their actual cost.
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•Record assets at price paid to acquire and take it as base for
subsequent years.
•Makes financial statements more objective.
Limitations
•Financial statements become irrelevant in case of inflation
•Remove cost of fixed assets by writing off their cost while asset
may be in good condition
•Don’t show as asset for which no payment has been made for e.g
knowledge ,skill of Human Resources.
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Cash Basis of Accounting
Accrual Basis of Accounting
TWO METHODS
Reporting Revenue and Expense
Accrual Basis
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Revenue reported when cash is received
Expense reported when cash is paid
Does not properly match revenues and expenses
Cash Basis of Accounting
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Revenue reported when earned
Expense reported when incurred
Properly matches revenues and expenses in
determining net income
Requires adjusting entries at end of period
It just sounds mean – it really isn’t
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Revenue reported when earned
Expense reported when incurred
Properly matches revenues and expenses
Accrual Basis of Accounting
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ACCRUAL VS CASH ACCOUNTING
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ACCRUAL ACCOUNTING -
FOCUSES ON THE
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF
TRANSACTIONS
FIRM MAXIMIZES
ASSETS
CASH ACCOUNTING -
FOCUSES ON WHEN
CASH IS RECEIVED AND
PAID OUT
FIRM MAXIMIZES CASH
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Full Disclosure Principle
Illustration 1-14
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REVENUE PRINCIPLE
When is revenue recognized?
When it is deemed earned.
Recognition of revenue and cash receipts do not necessarily occur at
the same time.
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REVENUE PRINCIPLE
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The revenue principle governs two things:
When to record revenue and…
the amount of revenue to record.
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REVENUE PRINCIPLE
60
Situation 2
The client has taken a trip arranged by
Air & Sea Travel. – Record Revenue
Air & Sea Travel, Inc.
April 2
Air & Sea Travel, Inc.
Situation 1
No transaction has occurred.
– Do Not Record Revenue
March 12 I plan to have you make my travel arrangements.
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RECOGNITION OF REVENUES
Recognition - a test to determine whether revenues should be recorded in the financial statements for a given period
To be recognized, revenue must be:
Earned - goods are delivered or a service is performed
Realized - cash or a claim to cash (credit) is received in exchange for goods or services
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THE MATCHING PRINCIPLE
What is the matching principle?
It is the basis for recording expenses.
Expenses are the costs of assets and the increase in liabilities incurred
in the earning of revenues.
Expenses are recognized when the benefit from the expense is
received.
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THE MATCHING PRINCIPLE
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It is the basis for recording
expenses and includes two steps:
Identify all the expenses incurred
during the accounting period.
Measure the expenses and match
expenses against revenues earned.
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THE MATCHING PRINCIPLE
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Revenue – Expense = Net income
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THE MATCHING PRINCIPLE
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Revenue – Expense = (Net loss)
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EXAMPLE
MATCHING EXPENSES WITH
REVENUES
66
Revenues PHP15,000
Cost of goods sold 8,000
Net income PHP 7,000
May
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ACCOUNTING PERIOD CONCEPT
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Managers adopt an
artificial period of time
to evaluate performance.
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ACCOUNTING PERIOD CONCEPT
It requires that accounting information be reported at regular intervals.
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Interacts with the
revenue principle and
the matching principle
Requires that income
be measured
accurately each period
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ACCOUNTING PERIOD CONCEPT
THE TIME-PERIOD CONCEPT
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Businesses need regular progress reports,
so accountants prepare financial statements
for specific periods and at regular intervals.
Monthly
Quarterly
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DUAL CONCEPT
Accounting information is based on the double entry system.
Under this system, the two-sided effect of a transaction is recorded in the appropriate accounts.
The recording is done by means of a “debit-credit” convention (set of rules) applying to all accounts.
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THE ACCOUNTING EQUATION
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Assets are the economic resources
of a business that are expected to
produce a benefit in the future.
Liabilities are “outsider claims,”
or economic obligations
payable to outsidePHP
Owners’ equity represents the
“insider claims” of a business.
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THE RELIABILITY CONCEPT
The quality of information that assures decision makers that the information captures the conditions or events it
purports to represent
Reliable data are supported by convincing evidence that can be verified by independent parties.
The impact of events should be measured in a systematic, reliable manner.
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THE RELIABILITY (OBJECTIVITY) CONCEPT
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Information must be reasonably
accurate.
Information must be free from bias.
Information must report what
actually happened.
Individuals would arrive at similar
conclusions using same data.
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The Double Entry System
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Double-Entry Accounting
“ Double-entry accounting is based on a
simple concept: each party in a business
transaction will receive something and give
something in return. In bookkeeping terms,
what is received is a debit and what is given
is a credit. The T account is a representation
of a scale or balance.”
Scale or Balance
Receive
DEBIT
Give
CREDIT
T account
Left Side
Receive
DEBIT
Right Side
Give
CREDIT Luca Pacioli
Developer of
Double-Entry
Accounting
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THE DOUBLE-ENTRY SYSTEM
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One debit One credit
Each transaction is recorded with at least:
Total debits must equal total credits.
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THE DOUBLE-ENTRY SYSTEM
Each transaction must still be analyzed to determine which accounts are
involved, whether the accounts increase or decrease, and how much the
balance will change.
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THE DOUBLE-ENTRY SYSTEM
Some businesses enter into thousands of transactions daily or even hourly.
Accountants must carefully keep track of and record these transactions in a systematic manner.
Accountants use a double-entry accounting system in which at least two accounts are always affected by each transaction.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS
There are some asset accounts?
– Cash
– Notes Receivable
– Accounts Receivable
– Prepaid Expenses
– Land
– Building
– Equipment
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CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS
There are some liability accounts?
– Notes Payable
– Accounts Payable
– Accrued Liabilities (for expenses incurred but not paid)
– Long-term Liabilities (bonds)
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CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS
There are some owner’s equity accounts?
– Capital or owner’s interest in the business
– Withdrawals
– Revenues
– Expenses
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CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS
Real Account = Debit –What comes in
Credit- what goes out
Personal Account = Debit –Receiver
Credit - Giver
Nominal Account =Debit –Expenses/Losses
Credit- Incomes/Gains
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The system records the two-sided
effect of transactions
Transaction Two-sided effect
Bought furniture for cash Decrease in one asset
Increase in another asset
Took a loan in cash Increase in an asset
Increase in a liability
THE DOUBLE-ENTRY SYSTEM The Double Entry System
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Note that the accounting equation equality is
maintained after recording each transaction.
THE DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM
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XYZ Ltd.
A Sole Proprietorship
“ On November 1, 2002, A started a sole
proprietorship called XYZ Ltd. The following
double-entry transactions show how amounts
received (debits) always equal amounts given
(credits).”
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Aristotle deposits
PHP25,000 in a
bank account for
XYZ Ltd..
Business Transactions
Journal
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd
(investee)
Aristotle (investor)
give
Credit
Entry A.
Date Description Debit Credit
11/1
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Aristotle deposits
PHP 25,000 in a
bank account for
XYZ Ltd..
Business Transactions
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/1 Cash 25,000
Aristotle, Capital 25,000
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ
Ltd.(investee)
Cash A promise
to the owner
Aristotle (investor)
give
Credit
Entry A.
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XYZ Ltd. buys land
for PHP20,000.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd(buyer)
Land Owner (seller)
give
Credit
Entry B.
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/5
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XYZ Ltd. buys land
for PHP20,000.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd(buyer)
Land
Land Owner (seller)
give
Credit
Entry B.
General Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/5 Land 20,000
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XYZ Ltd. buys land
for PHP 20,000.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd(buyer)
Land Cash
Land Owner (seller)
give
Credit
Entry B.
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/5 Land 20,000
Cash 20,000
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XYZ Ltd. buys
supplies for
PHP1,350,
agreeing to pay in
the near future.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd
(buyer)
Supplier (seller)
give
Credit
Entry C.
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/10
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XYZ Ltd. buys
goods for
PHP1,350,
agreeing to pay in
the near future.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(buyer)
Supplies
Supplier (seller)
give
Credit
Entry C.
General Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/10 Purchases 1,350
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XYZ Ltd. buys
goods for
PHP1,350,
agreeing to pay in
the near future.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(buyer)
Supplies
Supplier (seller)
give
Credit
Entry C.
A promise
to pay later
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/10 purchases 1,350
Accounts Payable 1,350
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XYZ Ltd. earns
fees of PHP7,500,
receiving cash.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(seller)
Cash
Customer (buyer)
give
Credit
Entry D.
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/18 Cash 7,500
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XYZ Ltd. earns
fees of PHP7,500,
receiving cash.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(seller)
Cash
Customer (buyer)
give
Credit
Entry D.
Services
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/18 Cash 7,500
Fees Earned 7,500
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Date Description Debit Credit 11/18 Wages Expense 2,125
Rent Expense 800
Commission 450
Misc. Expense 275
XYZ Ltd. paid: wages,
PHP 2,125; rent, PHP
800; commissions,
PHP450; and
miscellaneous,
PHP275.
Business Transactions
Journal
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(buyer)
Services,
benefits
Various suppliers
give
Credit
Entry E.
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Date Description Debit Credit 11/18 Wages Expense 2,125
Rent Expense 800
Commission 450
Misc. Expense 275
Cash 3,650
XYZ Ltd. paid:
wages, PHP 2,125;
rent, PHP 800;
commissions, PHP
450; and misc PHP
275.
Business Transactions
Journal
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(buyer)
Services,
benefits
Various suppliers
give
Credit
Entry E.
Cash
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XYZ Ltd. pays
PHP950 to
creditors on
account.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(payor)
Reduction in
obligation
Supplier (payee)
give
Credit
Entry F.
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/30 Accounts Payable 950
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XYZ Ltd. pays
PHP950 to
creditors on
account.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(payor)
Reduction in
obligation
Supplier (payee)
give
Credit
Entry F.
Cash
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/30 Accounts Payable 950
Cash 950
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Aristotle
withdraws PHP
2,000 in cash.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(payor)
Reduction in
obligation
Aristotle (payee)
give
Credit
Entry H.
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/30 Aristotle, Drawing 2,000
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Aristotle
withdraws PHP
2,000 in cash.
Business Transactions
receive
Debit
give
Credit XYZ Ltd.
(payor)
Reduction in
obligation
Aristotle (payee)
give
Credit
Entry H.
Cash
Journal
Date Description Debit Credit
11/30 Aristotle, Drawing 2,000
Cash 2,000
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THE ACCOUNTING CYCLE
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THE ACCOUNTING CYCLE:
STEPS
1. Analyze the transaction
2. Journalize the transaction
3. Post the transaction to accounts in ledger
4. Prepare the trial balance
5. Prepare financial statements
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THE RECORDING PROCESS
The sequence of steps in recording transactions:
105
Transactions Documentation Journal
Financial
Statements
Trial
Balance Ledger
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THE RECORDING PROCESS
The process starts with source documents, which are the supporting
original records of any transaction.
Examples are sales slips or invoices, check stubs, purchase orders, receiving reports,
and cash receipt slips.
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THE RECORDING PROCESS
In the second step, an analysis of the transaction is placed in the book of
original entry, which is a chronological record of how the transactions
affect the balances of applicable accounts.
The most common example is the general journal - a diary of all
events (transactions) in an entity’s life.
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THE RECORDING PROCESS
In the third step, transactions are entered into the ledger.
Remember that a transaction is not entered in just one place; it must be entered in
each account that it affects.
Depending on the nature of the organization, analysis of the transactions could occur
continuously or periodically.
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THE RECORDING PROCESS
The fourth step includes the preparation of the trial balance, which is a
simple listing of all accounts from the ledger with their balances.
Aids in verifying accuracy and in preparing the financial
statements
Prepared periodically as necessary
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THE RECORDING PROCESS
In the final step, the financial statements are prepared.
Financial statements may be prepared after each quarter of the year.
the companies may prepare financial statements at
various other intervals to meet the needs of their
users
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December 2002
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1. Transactions are analyzed
and recorded in journal. Documents
Journal
2. Transactions are posted
from journal to ledger.
Journal Ledger
3. Trial balance is prepared.
Journal, Ledger, Trial Balance
Trial Balance
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Manual Accounting Cycle
1. Transactions are analyzed
and recorded in journal. Documents Journal
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Manual Accounting Cycle
1. Transactions are analyzed
and recorded in journal. Documents Journal
2. Transactions are posted
from journal to ledger.
Journal Ledger
3. Trial balance is prepared,
4. Financial statements are
prepared and distributed.
Financial Statements
IS SOE BS
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Computerized Accounting Cycle
1. Transactions are analyzed
and entered in the computer. Documents
Computer
2. Preliminary reports are
analyzed, adjustments are
prepared and entered in the
computer. Computer
Reports
3. Financial statements are
printed and distributed.
Financial Statements
IS SOE BS SCF
Computer
4. Reports are analyzed and
interpreted for decision-
making purposes. ?
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JOURNAL
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JOURNAL
What is a journal?
It is a list in chronological order of all the transactions for a business.
1 Identify transaction from source documents.
2 Specify accounts affected.
3 Apply debit/credit rules.
4 Record transaction with description.
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Journal entry
•Journal entry - an analysis of the effects of a transaction on the accounts, usually accompanied by an explanation of the transaction
–This analysis identifies the accounts to be debited and credited.
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JOURNAL ENTRY
What does a journal entry include?
– date of the transaction
– title of the account debited
– title of the account credited
– amount of the debit and credit
– description of the transaction (narration)
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Record transactions
in the journal.
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JOURNALIZING
Journalizing –
It is the process of entering transactions into the
journal
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JOURNALIZING TRANSACTIONS
THE JOURNAL IS A CHRONOLOGICAL LISTING OF TRANSACTIONS.
ENTER DATE IN FIRST COLUMN
IDENTIFY APPROPRIATE ACCOUNTS
ENTER THE TITLE OF THE ACCOUNT DEBITED
ENTER THE TITLE OF THE ACCOUNT TO BE CREDITED
INSERT APPROPRIATE AMOUNTS IN DEBIT AND CREDIT COLUMN
INSERT A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TRANSACTION
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TYPES OF JOURNAL ENTRIES:
Types of journal entries:
Simple entry - an entry for a transaction that affects only two accounts
Compound entry - an entry for a transaction that affects more than two accounts
Remember: whether the entry is simple or compound, the debits (left side) and credits (right side) must always equal.
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LEDGER
What is a ledger?
It is a digest of all accounts utilized by an entity during an accounting
period.
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Bound books
Computer printout
Cards
Loose leaf pages
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LEDGER ACCOUNTS
Ledger - a group of related accounts kept current in a systematic
manner
Think of a ledger as a book with one page for each account.
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Ledger
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Cash
Ledger
Supplies
Accts. Payable
Ledger
A B C D
Customer Accounts Accts. Receivable
A B C D
Creditor Accounts
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LEDGER ACCOUNTS A simplified version of a ledger account is called the T-account.
They allow us to capture the essence of the accounting process without having to worry about too many details.
The account is divided into two sides for recording increases and decreases in the accounts.
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Account Title
Left Side Right Side
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DEBITS AND CREDITS
Debit (dr.) - an entry or balance on the left side of an account
Credit (cr.) - an entry or balance on the right side of an account
Remember:
Debit is always the left side!
Credit is always the right side!
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Post from the journal
to the ledger.
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POSTING
What is posting?
It is the transfer of information from the journal to the appropriate
accounts in the ledger.
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POSTING TO THE LEDGER
POSTING REFERS TO TRANSFERRING THE INFORMATION IN A JOURNAL ENTRY TO THE APPROPRIATE LEDGER ACCOUNT
ENTER DATE
ENTER AMOUNT IN PROPER DEBIT OR CREDIT COLUMN
ENTER JOURNAL SOURCE INFO
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Date Particulars L.f Amt. Date Particulars L.f Amt.
Debit Credit
Proforma for Account
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THE ACCOUNT
132
Account Title
Debit Credit
LEFT SIDE
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THE ACCOUNT
133
Account Title
Debit Credit
RIGHT SIDE
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LEDGER ACCOUNTS
Balance - difference between total left-side amounts and total right-side amounts at any particular time
Assets have left-side balances.
Increased by entries to the left side
Decreased by entries to the right side
Liabilities and Owners’ Equity have right-side balances.
Decreased by entries to the left side
Increased by entries to the right side
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DETAILS OF JOURNALS AND LEDGERS
135
Date Particulars Debit Credit
April 2 Cash 30,000
Garge Capital 30,000
(Received initial
investment from owner)
Journal Page 1
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Date Ref. Particulars Amount Date Ref Particulars Amount
April 2 1 To G. Cap 30,000
Debit Cash Account Credit
Insert the number of the journal page.
Posting
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137
L.F.
Date Description Debit Credit
12/1 Prepaid Insurance 2,400
Cash 2,400
Journal Page 1
Recording and Posting an Entry
1. Analyze and record the transaction as shown.
2. Post the debit side of the transaction.
3. Post the credit side of the transaction.
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TRIAL BALANCE
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TRIAL BALANCE
What is a Trial balance?
It is an internal document.
It is a listing of all the accounts with their related balances.
It provide a check on accuracy by showing whether total debits equal
total credits.
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TRIAL BALANCE
A listing of all accounts with balances at the end of the accounting
period after all transactions have journalized and posted
Purpose
to determine that debits = credits
to identify accounts to be adjusted
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TRIAL BALANCE
A listing of all accounts with balances at the end of the accounting
period after all transactions have journalized and posted
To determine that debits = credits
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PREPARING THE TRIAL BALANCE
The purposes of the trial balance:
To help check on accuracy of posting by proving whether the total debits equal the total credits
To establish a convenient summary of balances in all accounts for the preparation of formal
financial statements
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PREPARING THE TRIAL BALANCE The trial balance is usually prepared with the balance sheet accounts
first, followed by the income statement accounts.
An example of a trial balance:
Account (Rs)
Number Account Title Debit Credit
100 Cash 3,50,000 3,50,000
130 Merchandise inventory 150,000 150,000
202 Note payable 1000,000 1000,000
300 Paid-in capital 4000,000 4000,000
5000,000 5000,000 ================== ===================
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LOCATING TRIAL BALANCE ERRORS
Note that a trial balance may balance even when errors were made in recording or posting. A transaction may be recorded as different amounts in two different accounts.
A transaction may be recorded in a wrong account.
In both situations, the total debits will still equal total credits on the trial balance.
Dr. = Cr.
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Correcting Errors
Three Types of Errors Journal Entry Ledger Posting
1. incorrect not posted 2. correct incorrectly posted
incorrect
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LOCATING TRIAL BALANCE ERRORS
What if it doesn’t balance ?
Is the addition correct?
Are all accounts listed?
Are the balances listed correctly?
146
DEBITS CREDITS
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LOCATING TRIAL BALANCE ERRORS
Divide the difference by two.
Is there a debit/credit balance for this amount posted in the wrong
column?
Check journal postings.
Review accounts for reasonableness.
Computerized accounting programs usually prohibit out-of-balance
entries.
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SUBSIDIARY BOOKS
148
Cash
Accounts Payable
Purchase Book
Ledger
All subsidiary books
combined make up
the ledger.
Cash transactions
liability accounts
Credit purchases
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Special Journals
Rendering of services or selling of product on account
SELLING
Sales Book
Cash Book
Purchases Book
Cash Book
Receipt of cash from any source
Purchase of items on account
Payment of cash for any purpose
recorded
in
recorded
in
recorded
in
recorded
in
BUYING
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3/2 615 MyMusicClub.com 2,200
3/6 616 RapZone.com 1,750
3/18 617 Web Cantina 2,650
3/27 618 MyMusicClub.com 3,000
Totals 9,600
Sales Journal Invoice
Date No. Particulars Details Amount
Page 35
The Sales Journal
All sales on credit are recorded in this journal. Each
sales invoice is listed in numerical order. This
journal is often referred to as an invoice register.
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3/3 Howard Supplies 600
3/7 Donnelly Supplies 420
3/19 Donnelly Supplies 1,450
3/27 Howard Supplies 960
Totals 3,430
Purchases Journal
Page 11
The Purchases Journal
All purchases on account are recorded in this journal.
Date Particulars Details Amount
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Cash journals
• Single column Cash Book
= Simple cash Book
• Double column Cash Book
= Cash Book with bank column
• Triple column Cash Book
=Cash Book with Bank & Discount Column
• Petty Cash Book
= Record small cash payouts
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THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
153
The financial statements are a picture
of the company in financial terms.
Each financial statement relates to a specific
date or covers a particular period.
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INFORMATION REPORTED ON THE
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
154
1. How well did the
company perform
(or operate) during
the period?
Revenues
– Direct Expenses
Gross income (Gross loss)
Trading
Account
Question Answer Financial Statement
1. How well did the
company perform
(or operate) during
the period?
Gross Profit
– Indirect Expenses
Net income (Net loss)
Profit and
Loss
Account
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INFORMATION REPORTED ON THE
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
155
3. What is the company’s
financial position at the
end of the period?
Assets
= Liabilities
+ Owners’ equity
Balance
sheet
Question Answer Financial Statement
4. How much cash did
the company generate
and spend during
the period?
Operating cash flows
± Investing cash flows
± Financing cash flows
Increase or decrease in cash
Statement
of
cash
flows
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INCOME STATEMENT
156
The income statement, reports the company’s revenues,
expenses, and net income or net loss for the period.
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INTRODUCTION TO THE
INCOME STATEMENT
157
The income statement is a financial tool that provides information about
a company’s past performance.
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THE INCOME STATEMENT
158
Revenues
– Expenses
= Net income (or Net loss)
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INCOME STATEMENT FORMAT
159
Sales revenues
– Cost of goods sold
Gross profit
Operating
income
Selling and
administrative
expenses
– =
Add: Other revenues and gains
Less: Other expenses and losses
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Income Statement
Revenue - the proceeds that come from sales to customers
Cost of Goods Sold - an expense that reflects the cost of the product
or good that generates revenue. .
Gross Margin - also called gross profit, this is revenue minus
COGS
Operating Expenses - any expense that doesn't fit under COGS
such as administration and marketing expenses.
Net Income before Interest and Tax - net income before taking interest
and income tax expenses into account.
Interest Expense - the payments made on the company's
outstanding debt.
Income Tax Expense - the amount payable to government.
Net Income - the final profit after deducting all expenses from
revenue.
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The Income Statement can be divided
into:
• Trading Account
• Profit and Loss Account
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THE ACCOUNTING TERMS
162
Revenues are inflows or other enhancements of assets to an entity.
They result from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities that constitute the entity’s major or central operations.
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THE ACCOUNTING TERMS
163
Expenses are outflows or other using up of assets.
They result from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities that constitute the entity’s major or central operations.
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THE ACCOUNTING TERMS
Gross profit (gross margin) - excess of sales revenue over the cost of inventory that was sold
Operating expenses - a group of recurring expenses that pertain to a firm’s routine operations
Operating income (operating profit) - gross profit less all operating expenses
Other revenues and expenses - items not directly related to the main operations of a firm
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THE ACCOUNTING TERMS
Net income - the remainder after all expenses (including income taxes)
have been deducted from revenue
Often seen as the “bottom line”
Net loss - the excess of expenses over revenues
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THE INCOME STATEMENT
DANIELS COMPANY
Income Statement
for the Year Ended June 30, 2002
Sales PHP 98,600
Expenses:
Wages expense PHP 45,800
Rent expense 12,000
Carriage 6,500
Depreciation expense 5,000
Total expenses 69,300
Net Income PHP 29,300 ==============
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PROFORMA FOR
THE TRADING
ACCOUNT FOR
THE YEAR
ENDING ON
31.12.2005
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168
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
Opening stock
Purchases
Less:- Returns
:-Drawings
Direct Expenses:-
• Carriage inward
• Wages
• Fuel & Power
• Manf. Expenses
• Coal, water & gas
• Foreman/Works
• Manager’s salary
• Royalty on manf.
Goods
• Gross profit c/d(bal)
Sales
Less: Returns
Closing stock
Goods Lost by fire
(Gross Loss c/d)
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PROFORMA FOR
THE PROFIT AND
LOSS ACCOUNT
FOR THE YEAR
ENDING ON
31.12.2005
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Profit and Loss Account for the period ending on -----Debit
Credit
170
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
Gross loss b/d
Selling & Dist Exp :-
• Advertisement
• Traveller’s Salary, exp.
& commission
• Bad Debts
Administration Expenses
• Rent, Rates & Taxes
• Office salaries
• Printing & Stationary
Net Profit c/d (bal)
Gross Profit b/d
Interest Received
Discount Received
Comm. Received
Net Loss c/d
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INTRODUCTION TO THE
BALANCE SHEET
171
The balance sheet is the financial tool that focuses on the present
condition of a business.
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THE BALANCE SHEET
The Balance sheet shows the financial position of a company at a particular point in time.
The balance sheet is also referred to as the statement of financial position or the statement of financial condition.
The left side lists assets – the right side lists liabilities and owners’ equity
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THE ACCOUNTING ELEMENTS
173
Probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactions events.
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THE ACCOUNTING ELEMENTS
174
Probable future sacrifices of economic benefits arising from present obligations of a particular entity to transfer assets or provide services to other entities
in the future as a result of past transactions or events.
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THE ACCOUNTING ELEMENTS
175
The residual interest in the assets of an entity that remains after
deducting its liabilities.
Investment by owners
Earned equity
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FORMATS OF BALANCE SHEETS
Balance sheet formats:
Report format - a classified balance sheet with assets at the top and liabilities and equity below
Account format - a classified balance sheet with assets at the left and liabilities and equity at the right
Regardless of format, balance sheets always contain the same basic information.
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BALANCE SHEET TRANSACTIONS
The balance sheet is affected by every
transaction that an entity encounters
Each transaction has counterbalancing entries that keep total assets equal
to total liabilities and owners’ equity.
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BALANCE SHEET
178
RESOURCES AVAILABLE
FOR USE BY THE FIRM
(ENTITY)
ASSETS - PROBABLE
FUTURE ECONOMIC
BENEFITS
HOW RESOURCES ARE FINANCED
LIABILITIES - DEBT OWED TO OTHERS
OWNERS’ EQUITY - INVESTMENT BY OWNERS
DIRECT
INDIRECT
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THE BALANCE SHEET STEVENS COMPANY
Balance Sheet as on June 30, 2005
Liabilities Assets
179
Owner’s Equity
Hamilton, capital
Reserves
Secured Loans
Unsecured Loans
Current liabilities: Wages payable
Tax payable
Bills Payable
Bank balance
Cash balance
Fixed Assets: Land
Plant Equipment
Total Fixed Asset
Current assets:
Bills Receivable
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LIABILITIES
ASSETS
SHARE CAPITAL
Authorised
Issued
Subscribed
Less:- Calls unpaid
Add:- Forfeited shares
RESERVES AND SURPLUS
SECURED LOANS
UNSECURED LOANS:
CURRENT LIABILITIES AND
PROVISIONS:
A. CURRENT LIABILITIES:
a) Acceptances.
b) Sundry Creditors
c) Subsidiary companies.
d) Advance Payments
e) Unclaimed dividends
f) Other liabilities (if any)
g) Interest accrued but not due on loans.
B. PROVISIONS
a) Provision for taxation.
b) Proposed dividends.
c) For contingencies.
FIXED ASSETS
a) Land , b) Buildings, c) Goodwill,
d) Plant and Machinery e) Furniture and
fittings f) Patents, trade marks and designs.
INVESTMENTS:
a) Investments in Government or Trust
Securities, in shares, debentures or bonds,
b) Immovable Properties.
CURRENT ASSETS, LOANS AND
ADVANCES:
(A) Current Assets:
a) Interest accrued on Investments.
b) Stores and Spare Parts,c) Loose Tools
d) Stock in trade, e) Works in progress.
f) Sundry Debtors, g) Cash balance on
hand
h) Bank balances
(B) LOANS AND ADVANCES:
a) Advances and loans to subsidiaries.
b) Bills of Exchange.
c) Advances recoverable in cash or in kind
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURE:
a) Preliminary expenses.
b) Expenses including commission or
brokerage on underwriting or subscription of
shares or debentures.
c) Discount allowed on the issue of shares
or debentures.
PROFORMA BALANCE SHEET
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THE BALANCE SHEET
Elements of the balance sheet:
Assets - resources of the firm that are expected to
increase or cause future cash flows (everything the firm
owns)
Liabilities - obligations of the firm to outsiders or claims
against its assets by outsiders (debts of the firm)
Owners’ Equity - the residual interest in, or remaining
claims against, the firm’s assets after deducting liabilities
(rights of the owners)
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CLASSIFYING ASSETS AND LIABILITIES
182
Current assets
Long-term assets
Current liabilities
Long-term liabilities
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XYZ Ltd.
Trial Balance
November 30, 2002
Cash 5,900
Purchases 550
Land 20,000
Accounts Payable 400
Aristotle, Capital 25,000
Aristotle, Drawing 2,000
Fees Earned 7,500
Wages Expense 2,125
Rent Expense 800
Commission 450
Supplies Expense 800
Miscellaneous Expense 275
32,900 32,900
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184
XYZ Ltd.
Trial Balance
November 30, 2002
Cash 5,900
Purchases 550
Land 20,000
Accounts Payable 400
Aristotle, Capital 25,000
Aristotle, Drawing 2,000
Fees Earned 7,500
Wages Expense 2,125
Rent Expense 800
Commission 450
Supplies Expense 800
Miscellaneous Expense 275
32,900 32,900
Balance
Sheet
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185
Income
Statement
XYZ Ltd.
Trial Balance
November 30, 2002
Cash 5,900
Purchases 550
Land 20,000
Accounts Payable 400
Aristotle, Capital 25,000
Aristotle, Drawing 2,000
Fees Earned 7,500
Wages Expense 2,125
Rent Expense 800
Commission 450
Supplies Expense 800
Miscellaneous Expense 275
32,900 32,900
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186
XYZ Ltd.
Balance Sheet Income Statement
1. Assets 11 Cash 12 Accounts Receivable 14 purchases 15 Prepaid Insurance 17 Land 18 Office Equipment 2. Liabilities 21 Accounts Payable 23 Unearned Rent 3. Owner’s Equity 31 Aristotle, Capital 32 Aristotle, Drawing
4. Revenue 41 Sales 5. Expenses 51 Wages Expense 52 Rent Expense 54 Commission 55 Supplies Expense 59 Miscellaneous
Expense
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SUMMARY
187
Original evidence
records
Accounting
records
Financial
Statements
Source
documents Journals
Ledger
Trial
Balance
Statement of
cash flows
Balance Sheet
Profit and Loss
Statement
Closing
Entries