according to the classical idea functions...
TRANSCRIPT
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ACCORDING TO THE CLASSICAL IDEA FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM, VISCERAL AND WAYS, CONDUCTING FLUID, CONTROLLED BY SYSTEMS THAT CONDUCTS IRRITATION; LATEST COMBINED INTO SEPARATE DEPARTMENTS - THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (SYSTEMA NERVOSUM).
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NERVOUS SYSTEM CARRIES:
THE UNION OF THE BODY INTO A COHERENT WHOLE;
PROVIDES REGULATION OF VARIOUS PROCESSES;
COORDINATING THE FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS ORGANS AND TISSUES;
INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT.
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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
“COMMAND CENTRAL”
PNS (PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM)
INCLUDE NERVES THAT GO OUT TO TARGETS
IN THE BODY
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PROTECTIONS Skull and Vertebrae
3 protective layers called meninges
1. Dura Mater (outer layer): consists of connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves.
2. Arachnoid Mater (middle layer): elastic and weblike membrane.
3. Pia Mater (inner layer): contains nerves and blood vessels.
4. Cerebrospinal fluid a clear watery liquid
separates the middle and inner layers
acts as a shock absorber
exchange of nutrients between blood and nervous system
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Pons
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Cerebrum
Medulla oblongata Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Pineal gland
Thalamus
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THE BRAIN
THE BRAIN IS THE CONTROL CENTER OF THE BODY
IT IS ABOUT 2% OF YOUR BODY WEIGHT AND USES 20% OF YOUR BODY’S OXYGEN
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PARTS OF THE BRAIN
DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS
CEREBRUM
CEREBELLUM
BRAIN STEM
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Cerebrum
1. Largest part of the brain
– The main structures:
2 hemispheres - Right and Left
Connected by the Corpus Callosum
Right side controls - left side of the body
Left side controls – right side of the body
Six LOBES
1. Frontal Lobe 4. Temporal Lobe
2. Parietal Lobe 5. Insular Lobe
3. Occipital Lobe 6. Limbic Lobe
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Gray Matter vs. White Matter
Gray Matter – Absence of myelin in
masses of neurons accounts for gray
matter of the brain – Cerebral Cortex
White Matter - Myelinated neurons gives
neurons a white appearance – inner layer
of cerebrum
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Cerebellum
The second largest
part of the brain
Located below the
cerebrum at back of
the skull
This part is
responsible for the
balance and muscle
coordination
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Brain Stem
Connects the brain to spinal cord
The Two Regions act as “switchboard”
Medulla Oblongata – Controls heart rate,
breathing rate, and flow of blood through
the blood vessels.
Pons – Relays signals between the
cerebrum and the cerebellum
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Other Structures inside the Brain
Thalamus – receives messages from
sensory receptors; relays information to
proper regions of cerebrum
Hypothalamus - regulates hunger, thirst,
fatigue, anger, etc.
Controls the pituitary gland for endocrine
function
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Pons
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Cerebrum
Medulla oblongata Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Pineal
gland
Thalamus
Section 35-3
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Spinal nerve
Central canal Gray matter
White matter
Meninges
Cross Section of the Spinal Cord
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Spinal nerves
Part of the peripheral nervous system
31 pairs attach through dorsal and ventral nerve roots
Lie in intervertebral foramina
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Spinal nerves continued
Division based on vertebral locations
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal
Cauda equina (“horse‟s tail”): collection of nerve
roots at inferior end of vertebral canal
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Spinal nerves continued
Note: cervical spinal nerves exit from
above the respective vertebra
The root of 1 spinal nerve - from above
C1
The root of 2 spinal nerve from between
C1 and C2, etc.
Clinically, for example when referring
to disc impingement, both levels of
vertebra mentioned, e.g. C6-C7 disc
impinging on root 7
Symptoms usually indicate which
level is damaged More about spinal nerves in the peripheral nervous system lecture
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Protection: Bone
Meninges
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) 3 meninges:
dura mater (outer)
arachnoid mater (middle)
pia mater (inner)
3 potential spaces
epidural: outside dura
subdural: between dura &
arachnoid
subarachnoid: deep to arachnoid
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Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
Spinal cord
coverings
and spaces
http://www.eorthopod.com/images/ContentImages/pm/pm_general_esi/pmp_g
eneral_esi_epidural_space.jpg
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LP (lumbar puncure) = spinal tap
(needle introduced into subdural space to collect CSF)
Lumbar spine has
to be flexed so the
needle can pass
between spinous
processes
Epidural space is external to dura
Anesthestics are often injected into epidural space
Injection into correct space is vital; mistakes can be lethal
Originally thought to be a narrow
fluid-filled interval between the dural
and arachnoid; now known to be an
artificial space created by the
separation of the arachnoid from the
dura as the result of trauma or some
ongoing pathologic process; in the
healthy state, the arachnoid is
attached to the dura and a naturally
occurring subdural space is not
present.
http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-
bin/omd?subdural+space
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Spinal cord anatomy
Posterior median sulcus (“p”)
Anterior median fissure (“a”)
White matter (yellow here)
Gray matter (brown here)
“p”
“a”
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Gray/White in the spinal cord
Hollow central cavity (“central canal”)
Gray matter surrounds cavity
White matter surrounds gray matter (white: ascending and descending tracts of axons)
“H” shaped on cross section
Dorsal half of “H”: cell bodies of interneurons
Ventral half of “H”: cell bodies of motor neurons
No cortex (as in the brain)
Dorsal (posterior)
white
gray
Ventral (anterior)
Central canal______
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Spinal cord anatomy
Gray commissure with central canal
Columns of gray running the length of the spinal
cord
Posterior (dorsal) horns (cell bodies of interneurons)
Anterior (ventral) horns (cell bodies of motor neurons)
Lateral horns in thoracic and superior lumbar cord
* *
*
*
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Spinal Cord
Connects the brain and rest of the body
(PNS)
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Reflexes processed directly by spinal cord
Reflex – quick, automatic, unconscious
responses Result of reflex arcs – shortest nerve pathways
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White matter of the spinal cord (myelinated and unmyelinated axons)
Ascending fibers: sensory information from sensory neurons of the body up to the brain
Descending fibers: motor instructions from the brain to spinal cord Stimulates contraction of body‟s muscles
Stimulates secretion from body‟s glands
Commissural fibers: white-matter fibers crossing from one side of cord to the other
Most pathways cross (or decussate) at some point
Most synapse switch two or three times along the way, e.g. in the brain stem, thalamus or other
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The Brain: embryonic development
Develops from neural tube
The brain subdivides into Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
These further divide, each with a fluid filled region: ventricle, aqueduct or canal Spinal cord also has a canal
Two major bends, or flexures, occur (midbrain and cervical)
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Brain development Learn forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain in (b)
See next color coded pics in reference to (d)
Learn (e)
Encephalon means „‟brain‟‟ (otherwise you do not need to learn “c”)
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Space restrictions force cerebral hemispheres to grow posteriorly over the rest of the brain, enveloping it
Cerebral hemispheres grow into horseshoe shape (b and c)
Continued growth causes creases, folds and wrinkles
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Anatomical classification
Cerebral hemispheres
Diencephalon Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Brain stem Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
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Parts of Brain
Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Brainstem
Cerebellum
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Usual pattern of gray/white in CNS
White exterior to gray
Gray surrounds hollow central cavity
Two regions with additional gray called “cortex” Cerebrum: “cerebral cortex”
Cerebellum: “cerebellar cortex”
_________________
____________________________
_____________________________
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Gray and White Matter
Like spinal cord but with another layer of gray outside the white Called cortex
Cerebrum and cerebellum have
Inner gray: “brain nuclei” (not cell nuclei) Clusters of cell bodies
Remember, in PNS clusters of cell bodies called “ganglia”
More words: brains stem is caudal (toward tail)
to the more rostral (noseward) cerebrum
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Ventricles
Central cavities expanded
Filled with CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
Lined by ependymal cells (these cells
lining the choroid plexus make the CSF:
see later slides)
Continuous with each other and central
canal of the spinal cord
In the following slides, the ventricles are the parts colored in blue
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Lateral ventricles
Pair, horseshoe shape
In cerebral hemispheres
Anterior are close, separated only by thin
Septum pellucidum
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Third ventricle
In diencephalon
Connections
Interventricular foramen
Cerebral aqueduct
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Fourth ventricle
In the brainstem
Dorsal to pons and top of medulla
Holes connect it with subarachnoid space
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Subarachnoid space
Aqua is blue on this
pic
Under thick cover of
the brain
Filled with CSF also
Red: choroid plexus
(more later)
________
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Anatomy of Surface
Gyri (plural of gyrus)
Elevated ridges
Entire surface
Grooves separate gyri
A sulcus is a shallow
groove (plural, sulci)
Deeper grooves are
fissures
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Gyri (plural of gyrus)
Elevated ridges
Entire surface
Grooves separate gyri
A sulcus is a shallow groove (plural, sulci)
Deeper grooves are fissures
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Parts of Brain
Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Brainstem
Cerebellum
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simplified…
Back of the brain: perception
Top of the brain: movement
Front of the brain: thinking
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Drugs and the Nervous
System
Drug – any substance, other than food that
changes the structure or function of the
body
Legal
Illegal
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Neuron: Nerve Cell Basic structural unit of the nervous
system
Consists of:
nucleus
nerve fibers/dentrites
axon
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Nerves
Sensory Nerves:
carry messages to the brain and spinal
cord from the body
Motor Nerves:
carry messages from the brain and spinal
cord to the body
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Connecting or Mixed Nerves:
Carry both sensory and motor messages
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Divisions of CNS
CNS - central nervous system:
consists of the brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
a. any nerves outside the brain and spinal
cord
b. Autonomic nervous system: controls
involuntary body functions
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Central Nervous System
1. Brain:
a. Mass of nerve tissue
b. Protected by membranes & the cranium
or skull
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C. Cerebrum
Largest section of the brain
Responsible for:
reasoning, thought, memory, speaking,
sensation, sight, hearing, voluntary body
movement
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D. Cerebellum
Responsible for:
coordination of muscles, balance, posture,
& muscle tone
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E. Midbrain
Responsible for:
conducting impulses between brain parts
certain eye reflexes
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Pons
Responsible for:
conducting messages to other parts of the
brain
Reflex actions such as chewing, production
of saliva
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G. Medulla Oblongata Lowest part of the brain stem
Connects to the spinal cord
Responsible for:
regulating heart beat, respirations,
swallowing, coughing, b/p
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2. Spinal Cord
Goes down back of the body from Medulla
Oblongata
Surrounded and protected by vertebrae
Responsible for reflex actions
Carries sensory and motor messages
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3. Meninges
Consists of 3 membranes
Covers and protects the brain and
spinal cord
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Three Membranes
C. Dura mater
thick, tough outer layer
D. Arachnoid mater
middle delicate weblike layer
E. Pia mater
inner most layer with blood vessels to nourish the
nerves
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4. Ventricles
Four hallow spaces located in the middle
of the brain.
Connected to each other
Filled with fluid called cerebrospinal fluid
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
Circulates continuously
Serves as shock absorber to protect the
brain and spinal cord
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carries nurients to parts of the brain and
spinal cord
helps to remove metabolic products &
wastes
after circulation, absorbed into the blood
vessels of the dura mater.
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Peripheral Nervous System
Made of all nerves outside the brain and
spinal cord
Consists of cranial and spinal nerves
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A. Cranial Nerves
12 pairs & their branches
Some responsible for special senses: sight,
hearing, taste, smell
Others receive sensations: touch, pressure,
pain, temperature
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B. Spinal Nerves
31 pairs & their branches
Carries messages to & from the spinal
cord
Both sensory and motor nerves
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31 spinal nerves:
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal
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3. Autonomic Nervous
System
Helps maintain a balance in involuntary
functions of the body. But allows the body
to react in times of emergency.
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2 divisions of ANS
Sympathetic
nervous system
acts in
emergency
cases
Parasympathetic
counter acts the
sympathetic NS
after the
emergency
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SNS
increase heart
rate
increase resp.
rate
increase b/p
decrease
digestive
system activity
PNS
decrease heart
rate
decrease resp.
rate
decrease b/p
increase
digestive
system activity
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Cerebral hemispheres: note lobes
Divided by longitudinal fissure into right &
left sides
Central sulcus divides frontal from parietal
lobes
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Lateral sulcus separates temporal lobe from
parietal lobe
Parieto-occipital sulcus divides occipital and
parietal lobes (not seen from outside)
Transverse cerebral fissure separates
cerebral hemispheres from cerebellum
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Coronal section Note: longitudinal fissure, lateral sulcus, insula
Note: cerebral cortex (external sheet of gray matter), cerebral white, deep gray matter (basal ganglia)
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Cerebral cortex
Executive functioning capability
Gray matter: of neuron‟s bodies, dendrites, short unmyelinated axons 100 billion neurons with average of 10,000 contacts each
No fiber tracts (would be white)
2-4 mm thick (about 1/8 inch)
Brodmann areas (historical: 52 structurally different areas given #s)
Neuroimaging: functional organization (example later)
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Prenatal life: genes are responsible for creating the architecture of the brain Cortex is the last to develop and very immature at birth
Birth: excess of neurons but not inter-connected 1st month of life: a million synapses/sec are made; this is genetic
1st 3 years of life: synaptic overgrowth (connections) After this the density remains constant though some grow, some die
Preadolescence: another increase in synaptic formation
Adolescence until 25: brain becomes a reconstruction site Connections important for self-regulation (in prefrontal cortex) are
being remodeled: important for a sense of wholeness
Causes personal turbulence
Susceptible to stress and toxins (like alcohol and drugs) during these years; affects the rest of one‟s life
The mind changes the brain (throughout life) Where brain activation occurs, synapses happen
When pay attention & focus mind, neural firing occurs and brain structure changes (synapses are formed)
Human connections impact neural connections (ongoing experiences and learning include the interpersonal ones)
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Cerebral cortex
All the neurons are interneurons
By definition confined to the CNS
They have to synapse somewhere before the info passes to the peripheral nerves
Three kinds of functional areas
Motor areas: movement
Sensory areas: perception
Association areas: integrate diverse information to enable purposeful action
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Sensory areas Posterior to central sulcus
Primary somatosensory
cortex: postcentral
gyrus of parietal lobe (allows conscious awareness of
sensation and the ability to
localize it: where the sensation is
from)
Somatosensory
association area:
behind it (understanding of what is being
felt: the meaning of it)
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From special sense organs Sight: occipital lobe
Primary visual cortex (17) Handles info from
contralateral retina (right ½ of visual field is on left side)
Map of visual space
If damaged: functionally blind because no conscious awareness of sight
Visual association area (18 & 19) Face recognition is usually
on the right side
Hearing: temporal lobe Primary auditory area (41)
Auditory association area (22)
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Refer back to this labeled version as needed
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fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging
Cerebral cortex of person speaking & hearing
Activity (blood flow) in posterior frontal and
superior temporal lobes respectively
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Primary motor area continued
Precentral gyrus of frontal lobe
Precise, conscious or voluntary movement of
skeletal muscles
Large neurons called pyramidal cells
Their axons: form massive pyramidal or
corticospinal tracts
Decend through the brain stem and spinal cord
Cross to contralateral (the other) side in the
brainstem
Therefore: right side of the brain controls the
left side of the body, and the left side of the
brain controls the right side of the body
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Motor areas – continued
Broca‟s area (44): specialized motor speech area
Base of precentral gyrus just above lateral sulcus in only
one hemisphere, usually left
Word articulation: the movements necessary for speech
Damage: can understand but can‟t speak; or if can still
speak, words are right but difficult to understand
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Motor areas – continued
Premotor cortex (6): complex movements
asociated with highly processed sensory
info; also planning of movements
Frontal eye fields (inferior 8): voluntary
movements of eyes
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Homunculus – “little man”
Body map: human body spatially represented
Where on cortex; upside down
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Association Areas
Remember…
Three kinds of functional areas
(cerebrum)
1. Motor areas: movement
2. Sensory areas: perception
3. Association areas: everything else
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Association Areas
Tie together different kinds of sensory
input
Associate new input with memories
Is to be renamed “higher-order
processing“ areas
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Prefrontal cortex: cognition
Executive functioning
e.g. multiple step problem solving requiring temporary storage of info (working memory)
This area is remodeled during adolescence until the age of 25 and is very important
for well-being; it coordinates the brain/body and inter-personal world as a whole
Social skills
Appreciating
humor
Conscience
Mood
Mental
flexibility
Empathy
Intellect
Abstract ideas
Judgment
Personality
Impulse control
Persistence
Complex
Reasoning
Long-term
planning
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Wernicke‟s area
Junction of parietal and temporal lobes
One hemisphere only, usually left
(Outlined by dashes)
Pathology: comprehension impaired for written and spoken language: output fluent and voluminous
but incoherent
(words understandable
but do not make sense;
as opposed to the
opposite with Broca‟s
area)
Region involved in recognizing and understanding spoken words
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Cerebral white matter
Extensive communication
Areas of cortex with each other
Areas of cortex with brain stem and spinal cord
Via (mostly) myelinated axon fibers bundled into tracts
Commissures
Association fibers
Projection fibers
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Commissures: interconnect right and left hemispheres so can act as a whole
Corpus callosum is largest
Association fibers: connect different parts of the same hemisphere; can be long or short
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Projection fibers: run vertically
Cerebral cortex running down (with motor
instructions)
Or ascend to cerebral cortex from below
(sensory info to the cortex)
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Corona radiata: spray of projection fibers
From precentral (motor) gyrus
Combines with sensory fibers traveling to
sensory cortex
Form a band of fibers called internal capsule*
___________Sensory input to brain Motor output from brain__________
*
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Projection fibers
Corona radiata: fanning out of the fibers
Internal capsule: bundled, pass down
Commisure
Corpus callosum: connects right and left hemispheres
Decussation: crossing of pyramidal tracts
_________________
___________________
________________
_____________________
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Cerebral hemisphere gray matter
Cortex – already reviewed
Basal forebrain nuclei: near hypothalamus - related to
arousal, learning, memory and motor control
“Islands” of gray matter: nuclei (clusters of neuron cell
bodies)
Important group is basal ganglia
(here “ganglia” doesn’t refer to PNS cell bodies)
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Basal ganglia Subcortical motor nuclei
Part of “extrapyramidal system”
Cooperate with cerebral cortex in controlling movements
Most important ones: caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus composed of putamen and globus pallidus
Not part of basal forebrain nuclei (which are related to arousal, learning, memory and motor control)
Transverse section
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Internal capsule passes between
diencephalon and basal ganglia and give
them a striped appearance
Caudate and lentiform sometimes called
corpus striatum because of this
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Basal ganglia
Cooperate with cerebral cortex in controlling movements
Communicate with cerebral cortex, receive input from cortical areas, send most of output back to motor cortex through thalamus
Involved with stopping/starting & intensity of movements
“Dyskinesias” – “bad movements” Parkinson‟s disease: loss of inhibition from substantia
nigra of midbrain – everything slows down
Huntington disease: overstimulation (“choreoathetosis”) – degeneration of corpus striatum which inhibits; eventual degeneration of cerebral cortex (AD; genetic test available)
Extrapyramidal drug side effects: “tardive dyskinesia” Can be irreversible; haloperidol, thorazine and similar drugs
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Basal ganglia
Note relationship of basal ganglia to
thalamus and ventricles
Transverse section again
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Diencephalon (part of forebrain) Contains dozens of nuclei of gray matter
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus (mainly pineal)
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Thalamus (egg shaped; means inner room) Two large lobes of gray matter (over a dozen nuclei)
Laterally enclose the 3rd ventricle
Gateway to cerebral cortex: every part of the brain that communicates with cerebral cortex relays signals through a nucleus in the thalamus (e.g. certain nucleus for info from retina, another from ears, etc.)
Processing (editing) occurs also in thalamus
Coronal section
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Hypothalamus Forms inferolateral walls of 3rd ventricle
Many named nuclei
Coronal section
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Diencephalon – surface anatomy Hypothalamus is between optic chiasma to and
including mamillary bodies
Olfactory bulbs
Olfactory tracts
Optic nerves
Optic chiasma
(partial cross over)
Optic tracts
Mammillary bodies
(looking at brain from below)
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Diencephalon – surface anatomy Hypothalamus is between optic chiasma to and
including mamillary bodies
(from Ch 14: cranial nerve diagram)
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Cranial Nerve names Identify as many as you can when looking at model and sheep brain
(they will be more fully discussed in Chapter 14)
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Hypothalamus
“Below thalamus”
Main visceral control center
Autonomic nervous system (peripheral motor neurons
controlling smooth and cardiac muscle and gland
secretions): heart rate, blood pressure,
gastrointestinal tract, sweat and salivary glands, etc.
Emotional responses (pleasure, rage, sex drive, fear)
Body temperature, hunger, thirst sensations
Some behaviors
Regulation of sleep-wake centers: circadian rhythm
(receives info on light/dark cycles from optic nerve)
Control of endocrine system through pituitary gland
Involved, with other sites, in formation of memory
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Hypothalamus
(one example of its functioning)
Control of
endocrine system
through the
pituitary gland
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Epithalamus Third and most dorsal part of diencephalon
Part of roof of 3rd ventricle
Pineal gland or body (unpaired): produces melatonin
signaling nighttime sleep
Also a tiny group of nuclei Coronal section
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Brain Stem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Rigidly programmed automatic behavior necessary for survival
Passageway for fiber tracts running between cerebrum and spinal cord
Heavily involved with innvervation of face and head (10 of the12 cranial
nerves attach to it)
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Brain stem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
oblongata
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__Cerebral peduncles____ Contain pyramidal motor tracts
Corpora quadrigemina:
XVisual reflexes
XAuditory reflexes
Midbrain
______Substantia nigra
(degeneration causes Parkingson‟s disease)
_______Periaqueductal gray
(flight/flight; nausea with visceral pain; some
cranial nerve nuclei)
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__Middle cerebellar peduncles_
Pons
3 cerebellar peduncles__
Also contains several CN and other nuclei
(one to each of the three parts of the brain stem)
Dorsal view
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__Middle cerebellar peduncles_
Pons
3 cerebellar peduncles__
Also contains several CN and other nuclei
(one to each of the three parts of the brain stem)
Dorsal view
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Medulla oblongata Relays sensory info to cerebral cortex and cerebellum
Contains many CN and other nuclei
Autonomic centers controlling heart rate, respiratory
rhythm, blood pressure; involuntary centers of
vomiting, swallowing, etc.
Dorsal view
_______Pyramids
____pyramidal decussation
“Pyramidal”=corticospinal tracts; these are motor tracts
which cross over in the decussation. They are named
pyramids because they supposedly look like them, and also
they originate from “pyramidal” neurons in the motor cortex.
The tracts have the name of origin 1st, therefore
“corticospinal” tells you they go from the cortex (“cortico-”)
to the spinal cord (“-spinal”)
see later slides
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With all labels….
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Brain Stem in mid-sagittal plane Note cerebral aqueduct and fourth ventricle*
*
*
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Cerebellum Two major hemispheres: three lobes each
Anterior
Posterior
Floculonodular
Vermis: midline lobe connecting
hemispheres
Outer cortex of gray
Inner branching white matter, called
“arbor vitae”
Separated from brain stem by 4th ventricle
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Functions of cerebellum
Smooths, coordinates & fine tunes bodily movements
Helps maintain body posture
Helps maintain equilibrium
How? Gets info from cerebrum re: movements being planned
Gets info from inner ear re: equilibrium
Gets info from proprioceptors (sensory receptors informing where the parts of the body actually are)
Using feedback, adjustments are made
Also some role in cognition
Damage: ataxia, incoordination, wide-based gait, overshooting, proprioception problems
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Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 48.20
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cerebrum corpus callosum
thalamus
cerebellum
medulla oblongata
hypothalamus
pituitary
pons
spinal cord
Pineal gland
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The mammalian PNS has the ability to repair
itself, the CNS does not.
Research on nerve cell development and
neural stem cells may be the future of
treatment for damage to the CNS.
Research on neuron development
and neural stem cells may lead to
new approaches for treating CNS
injuries and diseases
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Neural Stem Cells.
The adult human brain does produce new nerve cells.
New nerve cells have been found in the hippocampus.
Since mature human brain cells cannot undergo cell division the new cells must have arisen from stem cells.
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Thalamus
Relay center for sensory tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
Contains centers for sensation of pain, temperature, and touch.
Involved with emotions and alerting or arousal mechanisms.
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The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.
The reticular activating system (RAS) of
the reticular formation.
Regulates sleep
and arousal.
Acts as a
sensory filter.
Fig. 48.21
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Sleep and wakefulness produces patterns
of electrical activity in the brain that can be
recorded as an electroencephalogram
(EEG).
Most dreaming
occurs during
REM (rapid
eye movement)
sleep.
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Hypothalamus
• autonomic control center- blood pressure,
rate and force of heart contraction, center for emotional response and behavior
• body temperature • water balance and thirst • sleep/wake cycles • appetite • sexual arousal • control of endocrine functioning: Acts on the pituitary gland through the
release of neurosecretions.
Regulates:
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Hypothalamus
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Pituitary
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Cerebellar peduncles
Tectum
Superior colliculi
Inferior colliculi
Substantia nigra
Red nuclei
Midbrain
thalamus
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
Posterior
Anterior
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Midbrain
Contains ascending and descending tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus.
Reflex center for eye muscles.
Also involved with processing visual and auditory information (connects head movements with visual and auditory stimuli).
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Pons
Connects the two
halves of the
cerebellum.
Regulates breathing.
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Medulla Oblongata
• Composed of nerve tracts
to and from the brain
(these tracts cross over
left to right and right to left)
• May be regarded as an
extension of the spinal
cord
• Almost all of the cranial
nerves arise from this
region
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Medulla Oblongata Contains control centers for
many subconscious
activities
• Respiratory rate
• Heart rate
• Arteriole constriction
• Swallowing
• Hiccupping
• Coughing
• Sneezing
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Cerebellum
Controls and coordinates
muscular activity.
Important in equilibrium,
posture and movement.