academic writing skills sob 2008
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Academic Wri t ing Ski l ls
School of Business
A resource of useful examples
Prepared by:Dr Glen ice J WoodStatus Vers ion 2 10 January 2008
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ACADEMIC WRITING IN THE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS
SOME USEFUL EXAMPLES
The following material is provided as an example of the standard required in academic
writing for the undergraduate programs of the School of Business, University of Ballarat. It is
essential that you check with individual lecturing staff to ensure you are meeting their
particular requirements for each assessable task.
The purpose of this booklet is to provide you with sufficient guidelines to assist you
understanding the expectations of academic writing. For each topic area, an example has
been provided on the facing page.
Please note that the citation method employed throughout this booklet is the APA style,
which is recommended for subjects in the areas of Business/Management. Please refer to
the General Guide for the Presentation of Academic Work for further information.
www.ballarat.edu.au/aasp/student/learning_support/generalguide/
Content:
Title page
Abstract, Synopsis or Executive Summary
Table of Contents
Introduction
Middle section
Conclusion
Citations in the body of the work
Appendices
Acknowledgements
Reference List Electronic citation
Plagiarism
Notes on essay format and report format
If you have any queries about the presentation of your academic work, please speak to your
lecturer during the delivery of the unit prior to submission of your work.
Dr Glenice Wood
Deputy Head of School
(Learning & Teaching)
School of Business
University of Ballarat
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PageIntroduction
1 Title Page 2
2 Title Page (example) 3
3 Abstract, Synopsis or Executive Summary 4
4 Abstract, Synopsis or Executive Summary (example) 5
5 Table of Contents 6
6 Table of Contents (example) 7
7 Introduction 8
8 Introduction (example) 9
9 Middle Section (Body) 10
10 Middle Section (Body) example 11
11 Conclusion 12
12 Conclusion (example) 13
13 Citations in the body of the work 14
14 Citations in the body of the work (example) 15
15 Appendices 16
16 Appendices (example) 17
17 Acknowledgements 18
18 Acknowledgements (example) 19
19 Reference List 20
20 Reference List (example) 21-22
21 Electronic citation 24
22 Electronic citation (example) 25
23 Plagiarism 26
24 Plagiarism (example) 27
25 Notes on essay format and report format 28-29
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1 Title Page:
Each piece of written work should have a separate cover-sheet or title page. This should
include the title of the piece of work, your name and student number, the unit number and
name of lecturer, and the date of submission.
(See following page for example).
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TITLE: LEARNING CONTRACT
TIME MANAGEMENT
NAME:
STUDENT NUMBER
UNIT NUMBER J N601
UNIT NAME: MANAGERIAL SKILLS
LECTURER: GLENICE WOOD
TUTOR: MAREE GREIG
TUTORIAL GROUP: WEDNESDAY 4:30 PM-6:30 PM
DATE SUBMITTED: WEDNESDAY 18 AUGUST 9:30 AM
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2 Abstract, Synopsis or Executive Summary:
Essays, reports, research or major studies, and some other assignments should always be
prefaced by an abstract or synopsis. This should be on a separate page, and should be
between 100-150 words and be written in connected English prose (i.e. not in dot point
style).
An abstract or synopsis is NOT a table of contents, nor is it an Introduction. It is a summary
or prcis of the whole work, outlining the problem being investigated, the main argument,
and the results or conclusions reached. When used with a report of a research study, it may
include a brief statement of the method or procedure used. It needs to be factual and
precise.
(See following page for an example).
An Executive Summary is usually defined as: Executive summaries are provided for
business reports that include conclusions or recommendations intended to be executed
(acted on). In a real life setting, such reports would be presented to an organisations
executives. An executive summary includes the actual recommendations made in the report
and the reasons (in brief) why these were made. Executive summaries are often formatted in
sections with numbered headings.
Please see page 13, General Guide for the Presentation of Academic Work, New Edition
January 2007. www.ballarat.edu.au/aasp/student/learning_support/generalguide/
Further information relating to Executive Summaries can also be found at
www.businessdictionary.com/definition/executive-summary.html
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CONTEMPORARY WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT:SOCIAL-ROLE THEORY REVISITED.
Various theories have been proposed to account for the fact that women
make up a very small proportion of senior managers. For example, the person-c en t red theo ryhas suggested that such disparity in the numbers of men andwomen who achieved senior management positions was due to significantsex differences in behaviour and attitudes. (Morrison and von Ginlow, 1990).
However the So c ia l Ro le th e o ry(Eagly, 1987) perspec tive, which hypothesisedthat differences in soc ial behaviour occurred because of a traditional division
of labour, societal expectations, and the subsequent different skills and beliefsbeing acquired by men and women. In addition, this theory predicted that as
men and women filled more similar roles, their behaviour would becomemore similar, and sex differences would tend to erode (Eagly and Wood,
1999, p 4133).
This study explored this possibility with 507 Australian middle managers (351
males and 156 females) drawn from Australian industry divisions. Perceptionsof various managerial competencies, and attitudes toward promotionrequirements to senior positions were analysed to ascertain if sex differences
in managerial mens and womens behaviours and skills existed in these
areas.
The results substantially supported the soc ial role theory prediction. Male andfemale middle managers who had expressed similar aspirations to more
senior positions exhibited similar self-reported behaviour and skills, when theseareas were within their control. The implications of these findings on the
disproportionate numbers of women in senior management are considered.
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3 Table of contents:
Where an essay or report is organised under section or chapter headings , a table of
contents should be provided. This should be on a separate page, should list each section,
and show on which page that part of the work begins.
(See following page for an example).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Number
Executive Summary 2
Acknowledgements 9
1 Introduction 10
1.1.The Rural Content 101.2.The rise of small business choice and constraint 11
1.3.The significance of women in the growth of small business 121.4.Objectives 13
2 Literature Review 14
2.1.Gender and research 14
2.2.Individual Characteristics of Business Women 16
2.2.1. Motivation and success 162.2.2.Training and experience 192.2.3. Networking 19
2.3.Institutional discrimination 21
2.3.1. Banks and finance 212.3.2.The law 22
2.4.The gender division of labour: the nexusbetween domestic and other work 22
2.4.1. Industry 23
2.4.2. Business 232.4.3. Household 24
2.5.Summary 24
3 Methods of Research 26
3.1.The survey 273.2.Group and individual discussions 30
4 Results 31
4.1.Introduction 31
4.2.Sample Description 314.2.1. Age 31
4.2.2. Ethnicity 324.2.3. Education 32
4.2.4. Residence 344.2.5. Household unit 35
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4 Introduction:
The best introductions get to the point quickly and capture the readers interest. They should
not leave the reader guessing about your purpose and direction; but should provide a
concise statement of your idea or set out clearly the direction and argument you will be
developing. It is often a good idea to begin with a general statement, than move to the details
in the body of the essay, and return to the general in the conclusion. A good rule of thumb:
this is so/ this is why this is so/ hence it is supportable that this is so. (Source: adapted from
Bate & Sharpe, 1996 (pp.16-18). (See the following page for an excerpt from the Bate &
Sharpe book, with an example of one Introduction).
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STRUCTURING THE INTRODUCTION,BODY AND CONCLUSION
At the time of writing your outline you should also consider how to structure the
introduction, body and conc lusion of your essay.
Introduction
1 The best introductions are those that get to the point quickly and capture thereaders interest. They do not leave the reader guessing about your purpose
and direction; rather they provide a concise statement of your thesis or they
establish c learly the lines of discussion, analysis, description, comparison and so
on that you will be developing. Beware of building up all the details so as to
arrive at a general statement in the conclusion; it is better to let your reader
know what you are going and where you are going from the start. Often the
best way to begin is to open with a general statement, then move to the details
in the body of the essay, and return to the general in the conc lusion. The basicmovement is something like: this is so/ this is why it is so/ hence it is supportable
that this is so.
In your introduction, avoid including general information that has no obvious
relationship to your theme; repeating the whole essay topic; apologising for
deficiencies in what is to follow; and making promises that the essay will not fulfil.
Some essay topics do not call for a clear thesis statement in the introduction. Instead
they may invite you to establish the contexts of discussion, identify the subject of the
essay, or clarify your understanding of the topic itself. In the following example, the
writer heads straight into providing information that identifies the subject.
Topic
Analyse and discuss Rembrandts landscape etching The Thre e Tree s interms of its subject, composition and historical context.
IntroductionThe Thre e Tree s, signed and dated 1643. is Rembrandts largest, if not most
impressive landscape etching. Though its size is a mere 213 x 280 mm, the
evocative use of light and shade, and the combination of realism with
pictorial dramatics, lend the etching an illusionistic monumentality that has
led many to compare it to the virtuosity and quality of a Rembrandtpainting.
Source: Bate, D & Sharpe, P (1996). Writers Handbook for University Students. Marrickville, NSS:
Harcourt Brace. Pp. 16-18.
The a b ove is taken f rom th is tex tboo k, w h ic h is an exce llen t resource b oo k for a c a d em ic
w rit ing.
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5 Body:
In the body of your essay, list all main points that will develop what you have set up as your
introduction. You should aim to select from your reading and notes the points that are
relevant to your theme and develop your argument. Imagine a thread weaving throughout the
essay linking the introduction to the body and the conclusion. The most common reasons
for the body of an essay to fail are: straying from the theme; trying to say too much within a
given word limit, or padding and repeating to meet the word limit; failure to give proper
emphasis and balance to all parts of the essay topic; and illogical, confusing sequencing of
material.
(Source: adapted from Bate & Sharpe,1996, p.20). (See the following page for one exampleof the body of an essay).
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Body
In outlining the body of your essay, you will be concerned with listing the main points
that will develop what you have set up as your introduction. Your aim should be to
select from your reading and class-notes only those points that are relevant to your
theme and develop your thesis. The most common reasons for the body of an essayto fail are: straying from the theme; trying to say too much within a given word limit,
or padding and repeating to meet the word limit; failure to give proper emphasis
and balance to all parts of the essay topic; and illogical, confusing sequencing of
your material.
Many students find that the most useful way to outline the body is with paragraph
topics. Since paragraphs are units of writing dealing with a key idea or new aspect of
an idea, you can select those ideas that are most relevant, and then determine the
order in which they will appear and be developed. Paragraph topics can be
expressed in a word, a phrase or a sentence in your outline. Major and minor points
can be indicated for each paragraph, as can the evidence you will use or thereferences you will cite. If you are unable to come up with enough ideas to develop
your essay topic, this process can alert you to the need for more reading, research or
thinking. All paragraph topics should be selected for the outline in terms of how they
relate to the theme and develop the thesis, and how they progress logically towards
your conclusion.
Source: Bate, D & Sharpe, P (1996). Writers Handbook for University Students. Marrickville, NSS:
Harcourt Brace. Pp. 20.
The a b ove is taken f rom th is tex tboo k, w h ic h is an exce llen t resource b oo k for a c a d em ic
w rit ing.
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6 Conclusion:
The conclusion should follow logically from what you have set up and promised in your
introduction, and from what you have outlined as the main ideas to be developed
sequentially in the body. It should tie the whole work together. A conclusion usually consists
of one final paragraph, and generally should bring together the different parts of the essay
and supports its main message. Aim for a conclusion that adds strength to and supports
what has already been written, and do not leave questions hanging by raising new issues.
(Source: adapted from Bate & Sharpe,1996 pp. 20-21). (See the following page for oneexample of a Conclusion).
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Conclusion
Your conclusion should follow logically from what you have set up and promised in
your introduction, and from what you have outlined as the main ideas to be
developed sequentially in the body. A conclusion usually consists of one final
paragraph. Sometimes two or three paragraphs are appropriate if severalqualifications need to be made. Generally, a conclusion should bring together the
different parts of the essay and support its main message. It should not leave the
reader with an impression that you have suddenly run out of ideas. Aim for balance
between an ending that is too abrupt and one that rambles. Like the introduction,
the conclusion can take many different forms. The main consideration is the final
impression you want to leave with your reader. You may wish to stress the main point
or summarise several important points, but avoid merely repeating a point made
earlier, especially in shorter essays. Aim for a conclusion that adds strength to and
supports what has already been written, and do not leave questions handing by
raising new issues.
Source: Bate, D & Sharpe, P (1996). Writers Handbook for University Students. Marrickville, NSS:Harcourt Brace. Pp. 20-21.
The a b ove is taken f rom th is tex tboo k, w h ic h is an exce llen t resource b oo k for a c a d em ic
w rit ing.
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7 Citation in the body of the work:
The APA or name/date system is preferred in some disciplines the School of Business. At
the appropriate place in the text, the source is indicated by stating, in brackets, the
surname(s) or the author(s), the publication date, and if appropriate, the page number(s)
being quoted or referred to. References in the text should correspond with entries in the list
of references at the end of the piece of work (see section 10, page 20).
Examples of correct citation are as follows:
As indicated in recent research (Jones, 2000), follow up interviews needs to be made
A common belief (Jones & Smith, 2001) was that
Several texts (Adams, 1998; Cummings, 2002; Granger, 2001) have concluded
For less usual citations, please refer to the General Guide for the Presentation of Academic
Work provided by the University of Ballarat (see page 34 of the General Guide).
(See the following page for an example of citation in the body of an essay, or report).
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2.2 Individual Characteristics Of Business Women
2.2.1 Motivation and Success
Attempts to isolate factors leading to success have historically been difficult. An
Australian case study looking at success factors in small to medium enterprises
involved in high technology, concluded that strength of the partnership
between two (male) founding members, based on trust and respect was most
significant (Warren & Hutchison, 2000). Such a finding may have implications for
understandings of small family business. Most studies, however, focus on
individual motivations and perceptions of success and they also problematise
both the definition of success as well as the characteristics that might be
assoc iated with it (Marlow & Strange, 1994).
Gilligan, a feminist psychologist, says that a defining feature of women's
business is the 'intimate integration between the business and the social' (cited
in Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.18). Self-employment is as much a life strategy as
a business strategy (Richardson & Hartshorn, 1993; Moore, 1999). It can be a
household response to the effects of economic restructuring on a peripheral
labour market' (Wheelock, 1997, p.163). Many studies suggest that women's
motivations are different to those of men and also that their views of success
may differ (eg. Moore, 1999; Still & Timms 2000). Some authors have even
argued that women have a fear of success (Horner 1972). However, Marlow
and Strange (1994) argue that definitions of success traditionally used in small
business research, like profitability and turnover are inappropriate to the study of
many ventures and what should be taken into account is what the original
motivations and aims are. They argue that a major aim of many women is to
reconcile the competing demands of waged and domestic labour and that ifthey manage to achieve this by undertaking business ownership, they have
been successful. This discussion has led to debate about typology of female
entrepreneurship.
Goffee and Sease's (1985) typology of female entrepreneurs recognises the
classic entrepreneur committed to individualism and self-reliance and others
committed to traditional, often subservient, gender roles. Recognition of
difference within females is sound but a finer ..
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8 Appendices:
It is possible to include in an appendix bulky material, which may support your argument, but
is not appropriate (or convenient) to include in the body of your essay or report. For example,
questionnaires or raw data may be included, if appropriate in an Appendix.
(See following page for an example of how an Appendices index page should be written up).
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APPENDICES Page
Attributes considered important to achieve promotion 20
Ethics Approval, Monash University 23
Ten questions deleted from the pilot study 26
Final survey instrument 27
Covering letter, Monash University 37
Middle Manager interview schedule 38
Senior Manager Interview schedule 39
Final interview format 40
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9 Acknowledgements:
People who have given assistance should be acknowledged, in a simple and concise
statement of acknowledgement. This is often necessary, for example, when interviews or
focus groups have been conducted to gather data for a report or research project.
(See following page for an example).
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have helped in this research in terms of their willingness to attend
meetings and to fill out the survey. Special thanks must go to those busy women who
gave their valuable time.
Thanks must especially be given to the members of the Steering Committee for their
encouragement, enthusiasm and practical advice: Linette Penhall (DSRD Ballarat),
Fiona Davey (City of Ballarat), Dr Mandy Charman (NRE); Alice Dwelly (DSRD) and to
Kathy Coultas (DSRD) for instigating support for the project.
Neroli Sawyer undertook the survey data entry and helped greatly with analysis. J ill
Blee and Leanne Spain gave clerical support and telephoned potential respondents.
Kara Hodgson, School of Business, helped with formatting of the report and Monika
Heim with management of finances.
Council staff in the ten Local Government areas were very helpful providing maps,community and business lists and setting up meeting venues. Other people have
helped give out surveys or alerted those who may have been interested in being
part of the research include Pauline Fort (BRAC E), J ohn Maguire and Dot Carpenter
(Ballarat); Bev Blaskett (Gordon) Dennis Witmitz (Executive Officer, Horsham and
District Commerce Assoc iation, Horsham), Mary Ashdown (Hepburn), J oan Bennett
(Nhill), Geoffrey Gray (Pyrenees), Margaret Hill (CWA Horsham), Donna Lindner
(Dimboola), Kay Macaulay (AIG), J oe McLelland (CEC Rainbow), Michelle Morrow
(Moorabool), Jen Murray (Central Highlands Rural Counselling Service), Jo
Postlethwaite (St Arnaud), Rosemary Robertson (Bacchus March Village), J odie Ryan(Ballarat DSRD), Jenny Stewart (Warracknabeal) and Mark Troeth (CEC Nhill).
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10 Reference List:
The appropriate manner of preparing a list of References is to compile all of the citations
mentioned throughout the essay or report into an alphabetically ordered list at the back of the
work. The format when referring to booksshould be as follows:
Adams, S.J. (1998). Management in 2000 and Beyond. Melbourne: Prentice Hall.
Castles, F.G., Davidson, M.J., Baker, P.M. & Jackson, A.B. (2001). The future ofManagement Sydney: Wiley.
When referring tojournal art ic les , the following is appropriate:
Davidson, M.J. & Pollitt, B.C. (2002). Motivating a demoralised workforce. Women inManagement Review, 4,200-250.
When the author is unknown, the title may be used as follows:
How to manage effectively (2001). London: British Academy of Management.
For less common examples of entries into a list of References, please refer to the General
Guide for the Presentation of Academic Work,
www.ballarat.edu.au/aasp/student/learning_support/general
(See the following pages for examples of appropriate APA style of referencing in a Reference
list).
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REFERENCESABC Landline [on line] Available www.abc.net.au/landline. [14/12/1997, 12/10/1998,
10/1/1999].
Allen, S. & Truman, C. (1993) Women and men entrepreneurs, life strategies, business
strategies, in Allen, S .& Truman, C . pp.1-13. Wom en 'in Busine ss: p e rsp e c t ive s o nw om en e nt rep rene urs. London: Routledge.
Alston, M. (1991) Fam ily Fa rm ing Aust ra lia a nd New Zea la nd. Centre for Rural Soc ial
Research, Wagga Wagga: Charles Sturt University.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996) C ensus.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997) Ag ric ultura l Austra lia1996-7, 7113.0, 2, ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1997) Special Article - Women m Small Business, ABS
1301.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999a) Agricultural Industries, 1998-9, 7506.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999b) Charac teristics of Small Business, 8127.0.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999c) Sm a ll Busine ss in Austra lia ,1321.0, ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999d) Special Article Employment Generation by
the Small Business Sector, Austra lia No w - A Sta tist ic a l Pro file Ind ustry O ve rviewYea r Bo o k Au stra lia, 1301.01.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2000) 2901.0 Statistical Subdivisions of North and South
Wimmera, Ballarat City, Western and Eastern Central Highlands.
AusStats 8127. 1[online](1998) More small businesses and more women business
operators. Available: www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01.]
AusStats 8127.0 [online] (1999a) Women turn away from small business. Available:www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01.]
AusStats 8127.0 [online] (1999b). Growth in small business sector slows. Available:
www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01.]
AusStats 3218.0: [online] (1999c) Population: population distribution Available:
www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01].
AusStats 3218.0 [online](1999d) Australian Social Trends 1998, Population - population
distribution: Small towns: which ones are in decline? Available:
www.abs.gov.au/ausstats [12/2/01].
Baines, S. & Wheelock, J . (1998) Working for each other: gender, the household and
micro-business survival and growth, Inte rna tion a l Sm a ll Busine ss Joum a l,17, (1),
pp.16-35.
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Boden, R. & Nucci, A. (1997*) On the survival prospects of men's and women's new
business ventures. Jou rna l of Busine ss Ve nt uring. 15, pp.347-362.
Bradley, H., Erickson, M., Stephenson, C . & Williams, S. (2000) Myths at work,
Cambridge: Polity.
Burton, C. (1991). The p rom ise a nd the p ric e: The st rug g le fo r eq ua l op p o rtuni ty in
wo me n 's em p loyme n t . North Sydney, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin.
Caley, K., Chell, E., Chittenden, F. & Mason, C. (1992) Sm a ll Ente rp rise De ve lo pm e nt:
po l i cy and prac t i ce i n ac t i on UK Enterprise Management and Research
Assoc iation, London: Paul Chapman Publishing:
Carter, S. (1993) Female business ownership: current research and possibilities for the
future. In Allen, S & Truman, C. Wom en in Busine ss: pe rsp ec t ive s o n w om en
ent repreneurs. pp 144-160. London: Routledge.
Carter, S. (1999) Multiple business ownership in the farm sector: assessing the farm
enterprise and employment contributions of farmers in Cambridgeshire, Journal
o f Rura l Stud ie s. 15, (4), pp. 417-429.
Clayton, K. (1998).Wom en's w o rk: Suc c e ss in sm a ll b usine ss.
[http://www.cpaonline.com.au/html/aa/9811J
Collins, J ock Gibson, Katherine, Alcorso, Caroline, Castles, Stephen & Tait,
David.(1995) A sho p full of d re a m s: eth nic sm a ll bu sine ss in Au stra lia. Leichardt:Pluto Press.
Craig, R. (c1990) Partners or Helpers - farm .wives and dec ision making. CVAH:
unpublished paper. .
Cromie, S. & Hayes, J . (1988). Towards a typology of female entrepreneurs.So c iolog ic a l Rev iew, 36, (1), pp.87-113.
Cullinen, Kate (2001) Unpublished thesis. Current research for Masters in Business,University of Ballarat.
Davidson M. & C ooper, C. (1992). Sha tte ring the G la ss C e iling. The Woman Manager.
London: Paul Chapman.
Deery, S., Plowman, D., Walsh, J ., & Brown, M. (2001) Industrial relations: a
contemporary analysis. Boston: McGraw Hill. Dempsey, K. (1992) A m a n's tow n:
ineq ua lit y be tw ee n w om en a nd m en in rura l Aust ra lia. Melbourne: Oxford
University Press.
Egan, M. (1997) Getting down to business and off welfare: rural women
entrepreneurs. Aff ilia : Journa l o f Wom en a nd So c ia l Wo rk, 12: 2, EBSCOhost
1999, 10 pp.
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11 Electronic Citation:
Increasingly, students have the opportunity to access material from electronic data bases.
Such material must be acknowledged appropriately. The following page sets out some
examples of electronic citations. In addition, some style guides, such as the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001), include a useful section on
Elements of references to on-line informationon pages 268 281.
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CITATION AND REFERENCING - APA STYLE
Websites
Although material located via the Web may present itself in many formats, the APA
manual (2001, p. 269) indicates that:
at a minimum, a reference of an Internet source should provide adocument title or description, a date (either the date of publication orupdate or date of retrieval), and a URL. Whenever possible, identify the
authors of a document as well.
The following examples represent the more commonly used formats for referencing
websites. For more examples and further information, please consult
www.ballarat.edu.au/aasp/ is/ library/research/citation/apa/readings.shtmlfor the
APA style.
Entire website Pa rlia m ent o f Au stra lia. (2006). Retrieved November 1,2006, from http://www.aph.gov.au
Document/webpage
within a website
ALIA's ro le in e d uc a t ion of l ib ra ry a nd informa t io n
p ro fe ssio na ls.(2005). Retrieved November 6, 2006, from
Australian Library and Information Association Web site:
http://www.alia.org.au/policies/education.role.html
Online book Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1888). The c omm unist m a nifesto[online book]. Retrieved November 6, 2006, from Project
Gutenberg Web site: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/61
Article in onlinedatabase
Mackey, T. P. (2004). Integrating information literacy in
lower and upper-Level courses: developing scalable
models for higher education. Journa l of G ene ra l
Ed uc a t ion , 53, 201-24. Retrieved November 6, 2006, from
MLA International Bibliography database.
Online governmentpublication
Standing Committee on Family and Human Services.
(2006, November 2).Inq u iry in to b a la nc ing w ork a nd
fami ly. Retrieved November 6, 2006, from Parliament of
Australia, House of Representatives Web site:
http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/fhs/workandfamily/index.htm
This information has been taken from the following University webpage:
http://www.ballarat.edu.au/aasp/ is/library/research/citation/apa/websites.shtml
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12 Plagiarism:
Academic writing requires that you draw on the ideas and writing of other people.
Consequently, you are expected to acknowledge all of the words and ideas that you have
quoted or discussed in your own writing. If this is not done, you may be accused of
plagiarism, which can carry heavy penalties particularly in University settings.
Presenting someone elses ideas or writing as your own is a form of dishonesty that
undermines a fundamental principle of scholarship ideas are to be shared, borrowed with
acknowledgment, but not stolen (Bate & Sharpe, 1996, p.39).
Some students plagiarise quite inadvertently because they are unfamiliar with the concept, or
do not know how to cite the sources they use in their own writing. Clearly following the
guidelines set out in sections 7 (Citations in the body of the work), and 10(Reference List)
will ensure that students are protected from accusations of plagiarism in their writing.
The following page elaborates on the distinction between quoting, paraphrasing andplagiarism.
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QUOTING AND PARAPHRASING VERSUS PLAGIARISM
When taking notes, paraphrases or summaries can be combined with verbatim
quotes but always use quotation marks for direct quotes. It is too easy later to forget
that certain phrases belong to other writers and so be guilty of plagiarism. An
authors ideas, even if stated in other words, need to be acknowledged.
Plagiarism is generally defined as the deliberate incorporation in an essay or paper
of material drawn from the work of another person without acknowledgement. The
penalty for plagiarism is high: in some departments it results in a failure for the essay
and sometimes an automatic failure in a course. Yet a narrow line often separates
plagiarism from good scholarship. In scholarly writing, it is nearly always essential to
refer to the work of others. Since essay writing, assignment or project is individual
work, it is important to document any indebtedness in the appropriate way.
A quotation from the paragraph above, for example, might be acknowledged in
the following way:
Anderson and Pool (1993) state that a narrow line often separates
plagiarism from good scholarship.
A paraphrase of the same idea, on the other hand could be acknowledged as
follows:
A subtle distinction often exists between plagiarism and good
scholarship (Anderson and Poole 1993).
The correct use of quotations and accurate referencing in acknowledging the workof others, detailed further in Chapters 9 and 12, are evidence of scholarly writing.
Anderson, J & Poole, M (1994). Thesis and Assignment Writing, (2nd
edition). Queensland: John Wiley& Sons, p 16 & 17.
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University of BallaratSchool of Business
General Notes on Essay Format and Report Format
IntroductionThese notes are designed to advance your knowledge of essay format and report format, to
highlight common errors of presentation in these two formats, and to develop your ability to
present information effectively, especially in an academic context.
Key features of essay format
The essay is a literary form. It is useful for writing on a theme and developing ideas around
a comparatively unified topic. The structure of an essay is not made explicit-internal headings
are not used for essay format. As a literary form, sentence structure in essays is often a little
more complex. Sentences are longer rather than shorter. Diagrams and point form are rarely
used. The essay is a widely used academic format because it is useful for developing and
expressing ideas on a topic.
Key features of report format
By comparison, report format is more instrumental and pragmatic. It is used, quite literally,
to report typically on a situation or state of affairs. It is widely used in a practical
management context. Its structure is made obvious through headings and sub headings.
Transmitting information, rather than developing abstract concepts, is a primary aim, so
sentences are comparatively short, and diagrams and point form are widely used.
Conventional construction of reports
The University of Ballarat General Guide for the Presentation of Academic Work gives detail
on the conventional construction of reports, based on the IBCAR framework, that is:
introduction, body, conclusion and recommendations. Note that while the terms introduction,
conclusion and recommendations are often used as headings in report writing, the term
body is never used. Your task may make some adaptation of the IBCAR framework
appropriate- but remember its the CAR (conclusion and recommendations) that most
students fail to adequately develop.
A numbering system (such as that used in the General guide) and/or a table of contents can
be used in report format to help retrieve specific material quickly. These features are not
used for essay format, which does not have explicitly specified sections.
The synopsis
Both formats benefit from a synopsis. In report format this is usually called a summary (or
executive summary). In essay format it is usually called an abstract. The synopsis gives the
reader the essence of your argument or material. It is not a defacto introduction DO NOT
add any material additional to the body of your work. Write (or rewrite) the synopsis when
you have finished your work. JUST SUMMARISE WHAT YOU HAVE WRITTEN. Because it
is expected this summary will consist of your own words, and because all material drawn
from other authors will be fully referenced in the body of your work, you are not obliged to
reference within the synopsis.
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For essays or short reports, the synopsis should be presented as a single paragraph, of
approximately 100 to 300 words, on a separate page. For longer reports an executive
summary outlining the substance and recommendations in brief can run to several pages,
but this is not typical of student reports, where the report is not intended to be actioned.
Acknowledging source materialFor all academic work, or any time when the work of others is used, acknowledge all
sources. This includes the ideas of others as well as direct quotations. This means: you are
not in effect, stealing ideas or words; it gives credibility to your work; it showcases your
reading; and it helps you (or others) trace material. For more information on acknowledging
source material, refer to the General guide for the presentation of academic work. Generally,
for management writing, the APA name-date, system should be used. It is more modern
and streamlined than footnoting or endnoting. Use the APA style for your list of references.
Strictly speaking, with the APA style, only a reference list, rather than a bibliography, should
be provided. A bibliography is, literally a list of books (and other sources) that you have read
in the course of preparing for your assignment. A reference list is a list of what you have
actually referred to. The APA style implies if you havent actually cited it in the body of your
work, it isnt important enough to mention. Generally, the use of both a reference list and a
bibliography is redundant and a stylistic error.
Grammar, spelling, punctuation and layout
The following tips could help improve your essay or report. Reading your work out loud can
often help pick up grammatical errors. Use the spellchecker on the word processor to help
pick up spelling errors, but look out for errors the spellchecker wont pick up- correctly spelt
words used incorrectly (e.g. their/there). When using punctuation marks, make sure the
sequence is word-punctuation mar-space-next word. Generally, dont leave spaces beforepunctuation marks.
Figure out where you want to start a new paragraph and indicate it clearly. Leave a line (fully
blocked style like this sheet) or indent the first line of your paragraph. Be consistent and
dont start some sentences in a paragraph on a new line (creating a kind of half paragraph).
Leave good margins and decide if youve left enough white modern readers dont like too
much text on a page.
Style of presentation
The ability to present information effectively is a valuable one. The ability to follow a
particular format or style is an important academic skill which has relevance in other, nonacademic, areas. Using a style guide (a set of presentation rules) such as the University of
Ballarat General guide for the presentation of academic work is fiddly, and possibly boring,
but it is not difficult. It helps develop skills in the presentation of information as well as
improving your chances of getting a good grade. Use it.
These notes were prepared by Lindon Marks. Lecturer in management.