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2. ABSOLUTEJAVA 5th Edition 3. This page intentionally left blank 4. ABSOLUTEJAVA5th EditionWalter Savitch University of California, San DiegoContributorKenrick Mock University of Alaska AnchorageBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montral Toronto Delhi Mexico City So Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo 5. Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia Horton Editor in Chief: Michael Hirsch Executive Editor: Matt Goldstein Editorial Assistant: Emma Snider Vice President Marketing: Patrice Jones Marketing Manager: Yez Alayan Marketing Coordinator: Kathryn Ferranti Vice President and Director of Production: Vince OBrien Managing Editor: Jeff Holcomb Senior Production Project Manager: Marilyn Lloyd Manufacturing Manager: Nick SkilitisOperations Specialist: Lisa McDowell Text Designer: Joyce Cosentino Wells Cover Designer: Anthony Gemmellaro Cover Image: B0NGR1 Alamy Media Editor: Dan Sandin Text Permissionsassessment: Dana Weightman Text Permissionsclearance: Jenn Kennett/Creative Compliance Full-Service Vendor: GEX Publishing Services Project Management: GEX Publishing Services Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix ColorThis book was composed in InDesign. Basal font is Adobe Garamond 10/12. Display font is Optima LT Std. Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text. Copyright 2013, 2010, 2008, 2006, 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. CIP data available upon request10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1ISBN 10: 0-13-283031-0 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-283031-7 6. PrefaceThis book is designed to serve as a textbook and reference for programming in the Java language. Although it does include programming techniques, it is organized around the features of the Java language rather than any particular curriculum of programming techniques. The main audience I had in mind when writing this book was undergraduate students who have not had extensive programming experience with the Java language. As such, it would be a suitable Java text or reference for either a first programming course or a later computer science course that uses Java. This book is designed to accommodate a wide range of users. The introductory chapters are written at a level that is accessible to beginners, while the boxed sections of those chapters serve to quickly introduce more experienced programmers to basic Java syntax. Later chapters are still designed to be accessible, but are written at a level suitable for students who have progressed to these more advanced topics.CHANGES IN THIS EDITION This fifth edition presents the same programming philosophy as the fourth edition. For instructors, you can teach the same course, presenting the same topics in the same order with no changes in the material covered or the chapters assigned. The changes to this edition consist almost exclusively of supplementary material added to the chapters of the previous edition, namely: Updates have been made for language changes in Java 7, such as allowing strings in switch statements. Twenty-five new programming projects have been added. By request, some of these are longer and less prescriptive projects to give the student more practice designing programming solutions. 15 new video notes have been created for a total of 46 video notes. These videos cover specific topics and offer solutions to the programming projects; they have been added to the books website. The solutions walk students through the process of problem solving and coding to reinforce key programming concepts. An icon appears in the margin of the book when a video is available regarding the corresponding topic in the text. Chapter 2 now describes how to use the Scanner class to read from a text file so databased programming projects can be explored prior to detailed coverage of File I/O in Chapter 10. A brief introduction to the Random class has been added to Chapter 3. Chapter 9 on exception handling begins with a new introduction of try/catch for handling input mismatch exceptions before discussing how to throw custom exceptions. A recursive algorithm to search the file system has been added to Chapter 11. Material on race conditions and thread synchronization has been added to Chapter 19. Ten new self-test exercises have been added along with the new material.v 7. viPrefaceNO NONSTANDARD SOFTWARE Only classes in the standard Java libraries are used. No nonstandard software is used anywhere in the book.JAVA COVERAGE All programs have been tested with Java 7. Oracle is not proposing any changes to future versions of Java that would affect the approach in this book.OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING This book gives extensive coverage of encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism as realized in the Java language. The chapters on Swing GUIs provide coverage of and extensive practice with event driven programming. A chapter on UML and patterns gives additional coverage of OOP-related material.FLEXIBILITY IN TOPIC ORDERING This book allows instructors wide latitude in reordering the material. This is important if a book is to serve as a reference. It is also in keeping with my philosophy of writing books that accommodate themselves to an instructors style rather than tying the instructor to an authors personal preference of topic ordering. With this in mind, each chapter has a prerequisite section at the beginning; this section explains what material must be covered before doing each section of the chapter. Starred sections, which are explained next, further add to flexibility.STARRED SECTIONS Each chapter has a number of starred () sections, which can be considered optional. These sections contain material that beginners might find difficult and that can be omitted or delayed without hurting the continuity of the text. It is hoped that eventually the reader would return and cover this material. For more advanced students, the starred sections should not be viewed as optional.ACCESSIBLE TO STUDENTS It is not enough for a book to present the right topics in the right order. It is not even enough for it to be clear and correct when read by an instructor or other expert. The material needs to be presented in a way that is accessible to the person who does not yet know the content. Like my other textbooks that have proven to be very popular, this book was written to be friendly and accessible to the student.SUMMARY BOXES Each major point is summarized in a short boxed section. These boxed sections are spread throughout each chapter. They serve as summaries of the material, as a quick reference source, and as a way to quickly learn the Java syntax for features the reader knows about in general but for which he or she needs to know the Java particulars. 8. PrefaceSELF-TEST EXERCISES Each chapter contains numerous Self-Test Exercises at strategic points in the chapter. Complete answers for all the Self-Test Exercises are given at the end of each chapter.VIDEO NOTES VideoNoteVideoNotes are step-by-step videos that guide readers through the solution to an endof-chapter problem or further illuminate a concept presented in the text. Icons in the text indicate where a VideoNote enhances a topic. Fully navigable problems allow for self-paced instruction. VideoNotes are located at www.pearsonhighered.com/savitch.OTHER FEATURES Pitfall sections, programming tip sections, and examples of complete programs with sample I/O are given throughout each chapter. Each chapter ends with a summary section and a collection of programming projects suitable to assign to students.ONLINE PRACTICE AND ASSESSMENT WITH MyProgrammingLab MyProgrammingLab helps students fully grasp the logic, semantics, and syntax of programming. Through practice exercises and immediate, personalized feedback, MyProgrammingLab improves the programming competence of beginning students who often struggle with the basic concepts and paradigms of popular high-level programming languages. A self-study and homework tool, a MyProgrammingLab course consists of hundreds of small practice problems organized around the structure of this textbook. For students, the system automatically detects errors in the logic and syntax of their code submissions and offers targeted hints that enable students to figure out what went wrongand why. For instructors, a comprehensive gradebook tracks correct and incorrect answers and stores the code inputted by students for review. MyProgrammingLab is offered to users of this book in partnership with Turings Craft, the makers of the CodeLab interactive programming exercise system. For a full demonstration, to see feedback from instructors and students, or to get started using MyProgrammingLab in your course, visit www.myprogramminglab.com.SUPPORT MATERIAL The following support materials are available to all users of this book at www. pearsonhighered.com/cssupport: Source code from the bookThe following resources are available to qualied instructors only at www.pearsonhighered. com/irc. Please contact your local sales representative for access information: Instructors Manual with Solutions PowerPoint slidesvii 9. viiiPrefaceIntegrated Development Environment Resource Kits Professors who adopt this text can order it for students with a kit containing seven popular Java IDEs (the most recent JDK from Oracle, Eclipse, NetBeans, jGRASP, DrJava, BlueJ, and TextPad). The kit also includes access to a website containing written and video tutorials for getting started in each IDE. For ordering information, please contact your campus Pearson Education representative or visit www.pearsonhighered.com.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Numerous individuals have contributed invaluable help and support in making this book happen: My former editor, Susan Hartman at Addison-Wesley, rst conceived of the idea for this book and worked with me on the rst editions; My current editor, Matt Goldstein, provided support and inspiration for getting subsequent editions reviewed, revised, and out the door; Chelsea Kharakozova, Marilyn Lloyd, Yez Alayan, and the other ne people at Pearson also provided valuable assistance and encouragement. Thanks also to GEX Publishing Services for their expert work in producing the nal typeset book. The following reviewers provided corrections and suggestions for this book. Their contributions were a great help. I thank them all. In alphabetical order they are: Jim Adams Gerald W. Adkins Dr. Bay Arinze Prof. Richard G. Baldwin Kevin Bierre Jon Bjornstad Janet Brown-Sederberg Tom Brown Charlotte Busch Stephen Chandler KY Daisy Fan Adrienne Decker Brian Downs Keith Frikken Ahmad Ghafarian Arthur Geis Massoud Ghyam Susan G. Glenn Nigel Gwee Judy Hankins May HouChandler-Gilbert Community College Georgia College & State University Drexel University Austin Community College Rochester Institute of Technology Gavilan College Massasoit Community College Texas A&M University, Commerce Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi NW Shoals Community College Cornell University University of Buffalo Century College Miami University North Georgia College & State University College of DuPage University of Southern California Gordon College Louisiana State University Middle Tennessee State University Norfolk State University 10. PrefaceSterling Hough Chris Howard Eliot Jacobson Balaji Janamanchi Suresh Kalathur Edwin Kay Dr. Clifford R. Kettemborough Frank Levey Xia Lin Mark M. Meysenburg Sridhar P. Nerur Hoang M. Nguyen Rick Ord Prof. Bryson R. Payne David Primeaux Neil Rhodes W. Brent Seales Lili Shashaani Riyaz Sikora Jeff Six Donald J Smith Tom Smith Xueqing (Clare) Tang Ronald F. Taylor Thomas VanDrunen Shon Vick Natalie S. Wear Dale Welch David A. Wheeler Wook-Sung YooNHTI DeVry University University of California, Santa Barbara Texas Tech University Boston University Lehigh University IT Consultant and Professor Manatee Community College Drexel University Doane College The University of Texas at Arlington Deanza College University of California, San Diego North Georgia College & State University Virginia Commonwealth University University of California, San Diego University of Kentucky Duquesne University The University of Texas at Arlington University of Delaware Community College of Allegheny County Skidmore College Governors State University Wright State University Wheaton College University of Maryland, Baltimore County University of South Florida University of West Florida Gannon UniversitySpecial thanks goes to Kenrick Mock (University of Alaska Anchorage) who executed the updating of this edition. He once again had the difficult job of satisfying me, the editor, and himself. I thank him for a truly excellent job. Walter Savitchix 11. LOCATION OF VIDEONOTES IN THE TEXTVideoNotewww.pearsonhighered.com/savitchChapter 1Compiling a Java Program, page 10 Solution to Programming Project 1.7, page 56Chapter 2Pitfalls Involving nextLine(), page 83 Solution to Programming Project 2.11, page 97 Solution to Programming Project 2.12, page 98Chapter 3Nested Loop Example, page 145 Debugging Walkthrough, page 152 Solution to Programming Project 3.9, page 170 Solution to Programming Project 3.13, page 171Chapter 4Information Hiding Example, page 207 Example Using the StringTokenizer Class on a CSV File, page 247 Solution to Programming Project 4.9, page 255Chapter 5Deep Copy vs. Shallow Copy Example, page 321 Solution to Programming Project 5.9, page 344Chapter 6Arrays of Objects, page 358 Solution to Programming Project 6.8, page 422 Solution to Programming Project 6.15, page 424Chapter 7Inheritance Walkthrough, page 432 Solution to Programming Project 7.3, page 477 Solution to Programming Project 7.5, page 479Chapter 8Late Binding Example, page 486 Solution to Programming Project 8.1, page 518 Solution to Programming Project 8.9, page 521Chapter 9Solution to Programming Project 9.1, page 574 Solution to Programming Project 9.7, page 576Chapter 10Reading a Text File, page 589 Solution to Programming Project 10.1, page 643 Solution to Programming Project 10.8, page 645Chapter 11Recursion and the Stack, page 660 Solution to Programming Project 11.3, page 684Chapter 12Solution to Programming Project 12.9, page 710Chapter 13Solution to Programming Project 13.1, page 754 Solution to Programming Project 13.11, page 757Chapter 14Solution to Programming Project 14.7, page 801Chapter 15Walkthrough of the Hash Table Class, page 868 Solution to Programming Project 15.1, page 893 12. Chapter 16Solution to Programming Project 16.3, page 937 Solution to Programming Project 16.5, page 938Chapter 17GUI Layout Using an IDE, page 969 Solution to Programming Project 17.1, page 1013Chapter 18Walkthrough of a Simple Drawing Program, page 1042 Solution to Programming Project 18.7, page 1077Chapter 19Walkthrough of a Program with Race Conditions, page 1094 Solution to Programming Project 19.3, page 1135 Solution to Programming Project 19.11, page 1136Chapter 20No video notes (Chapter on website) 13. This page intentionally left blank 14. Brief ContentsChapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5GETTING STARTED 1 CONSOLE INPUT AND OUTPUT 57 FLOW OF CONTROL 99 DEFINING CLASSES I 173 DEFINING CLASSES II 259 ARRAYS 345 INHERITANCE427POLYMORPHISM AND ABSTRACT CLASSES 483 EXCEPTION HANDLING 523 FILE I/O577RECURSION 647 UML AND PATTERNS 689 INTERFACES AND INNER CLASSES 711 GENERICS AND THE ArrayList CLASS 759 LINKED DATA STRUCTURES 801 COLLECTIONS, MAPS AND ITERATORS 897 SWING I SWING II941 1017JAVA NEVER ENDS 1079 APPLETS AND HTML 1137 KEYWORDS 1139 PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY RULES 1141 ASCII CHARACTER SET 1143 FORMAT SPECIFICATIONS FOR printf1145SUMMARY OF CLASSES AND INTERFACES 1147 INDEX 1215xiii 15. This page intentionally left blank 16. ContentsChapter 1 1.11.2Getting Started 1 INTRODUCTION TO JAVA 2Origins of the Java Language 2 Objects and Methods 3 Applets 4 A Sample Java Application Program 5 Byte-Code and the Java Virtual Machine 8 Class Loader 10 Compiling a Java Program or Class 10 Running a Java Program 11 TIP: Error Messages 12EXPRESSIONS AND ASSIGNMENT STATEMENTS 13 Identifiers 13 Variables 15 Assignment Statements 16 TIP: Initialize Variables 18 More Assignment Statements 19 Assignment Compatibility 20 Constants 21 Arithmetic Operators and Expressions 23 Parentheses and Precedence Rules 24 Integer and Floating-Point Division 26 PITFALL: Round-Off Errors in Floating-Point Numbers PITFALL: Division with Whole Numbers 28 Type Casting 29 Increment and Decrement Operators 301.327THE CLASS String 33 String Constants and Variables 33 Concatenation of Strings 34 Classes 35 String Methods 37 Escape Sequences 42 String Processing 43 The Unicode Character Set 43xv 17. xviContents1.4PROGRAM STYLE46Naming Constants 46 Java Spelling Conventions 48 Comments 49 Indenting 50 Chapter Summary 51 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 52 Programming Projects 54Chapter 2 2.1Console Input and Output SCREEN OUTPUT575858 TIP: Different Approaches to Formatting Output 61 Formatting Output with printf 61 TIP: Formatting Monetary Amounts with printf 65 TIP: Legacy Code 66 Money Formats Using NumberFormat 67 Importing Packages and Classes 70 The DecimalFormat Class 72 System.out.println2.2CONSOLE INPUT USING THE Scanner CLASS The Scanner Class 76 PITFALL: Dealing with the Line Terminator, 'n' The Empty String 84 TIP: Prompt for Input 84 TIP: Echo Input 84 EXAMPLE: Self-Service Checkout 86 Other Input Delimiters 872.3INTRODUCTION TO FILE INPUT 89 The Scanner Class for Text File Input Chapter Summary 92 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 92 Programming Projects 95Chapter 3 3.1Flow of Control99BRANCHING MECHANISM if-else Statements 100 Omitting the else 101Compound Statements 102 TIP: Placing of Braces 103 Nested Statements 104100898376 18. Contents Multiway if-else Statement 104 EXAMPLE: State Income Tax 105 The switch Statement 107 PITFALL: Forgetting a break in a switch Statement The Conditional Operator 1123.2111BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS 113 Simple Boolean Expressions 113 PITFALL: Using = in Place of == 114 PITFALL: Using == with Strings 115 Lexicographic and Alphabetical Order 116 Building Boolean Expressions 119 PITFALL: Strings of Inequalities 120 Evaluating Boolean Expressions 120 TIP: Naming Boolean Variables 123 Short-Circuit and Complete Evaluation 124 Precedence and Associativity Rules 1253.3LOOPS132while Statement and do-while Statement132 Algorithms and Pseudocode 134 EXAMPLE: Averaging a List of Scores 137 The for Statement 138 The Comma in for Statements 141 TIP: Repeat N Times Loops 143 PITFALL: Extra Semicolon in a for Statement 143 PITFALL: Infinite Loops 144 Nested Loops 145 The break and continue Statements 148 The exit Statement 1493.4DEBUGGING150Loop Bugs 150 Tracing Variables 150 General Debugging Techniques 151 EXAMPLE: Debugging an Input Validation Loop Preventive Coding 156 Assertion Checks 1573.5RANDOM NUMBER GENERATION The Random Object 160 The Math.random() Method 161 Chapter Summary 162 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 162 Programming Projects 168159152xvii 19. xviiiContentsChapter 4 4.1Defining Classes I173CLASS DEFINITIONS 174 Instance Variables and Methods 177 More about Methods 180 TIP: Any Method Can Be Used as a void Method 184 Local Variables 186 Blocks 187 TIP: Declaring Variables in a for Statement 188 Parameters of a Primitive Type 188 PITFALL: Use of the Terms Parameter and Argument 195 Simple Cases with Class Parameters 197 The this Parameter 197 Methods That Return a Boolean Value 199 The Methods equals and toString 202 Recursive Methods 205 TIP: Testing Methods 2054.2INFORMATION HIDING AND ENCAPSULATION 207 public and private Modifiers208 EXAMPLE: Yet Another Date Class 209 Accessor and Mutator Methods 210 TIP: A Class Has Access to Private Members of All Objects of the Class 215 TIP: Mutator Methods Can Return a Boolean Value 216 Preconditions and Postconditions 2174.3OVERLOADING 218 Rules for Overloading 218 PITFALL: Overloading and Automatic Type Conversion 222 PITFALL: You Cannot Overload Based on the Type Returned 2244.4CONSTRUCTORS226Constructor Definitions 226 TIP: You Can Invoke Another Method in a Constructor 234 TIP: A Constructor Has a this Parameter 234 TIP: Include a No-Argument Constructor 235 EXAMPLE: The Final Date Class 236 Default Variable Initializations 237 An Alternative Way to Initialize Instance Variables 237 EXAMPLE: A Pet Record Class 238 The StringTokenizer Class 242 Chapter Summary 247 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 248 Programming Projects 253 20. ContentsChapter 5 5.1Defining Classes II 259 STATIC METHODS AND STATIC VARIABLES 261 Static Methods 261 PITFALL: Invoking a Nonstatic Method Within a Static Method 263 TIP: You Can Put a main in Any Class 264 Static Variables 268 The Math Class 273 Wrapper Classes 277 Automatic Boxing and Unboxing 278 Static Methods in Wrapper Classes 280 PITFALL: A Wrapper Class Does Not Have a No-Argument Constructor5.2REFERENCES AND CLASS PARAMETERS 284 Variables and Memory 285 References 286 Class Parameters 291 PITFALL: Use of = and == with Variables of a Class Type 295 The Constant null 297 PITFALL: Null Pointer Exception 298 The new Operator and Anonymous Objects 298 EXAMPLE: Another Approach to Keyboard Input 299 TIP: Use Static Imports 3015.3USING AND MISUSING REFERENCES 303 EXAMPLE: A Person Class 304 PITFALL: null Can Be an Argument to a Method 309 Copy Constructors 313 PITFALL: Privacy Leaks 315 Mutable and Immutable Classes 319 TIP: Deep Copy versus Shallow Copy 321 TIP: Assume Your Coworkers Are Malicious 3225.4PACKAGES AND javadoc 322 Packages and import Statements 323 The Package java.lang 324 Package Names and Directories 324 PITFALL: Subdirectories Are Not Automatically Imported 327 The Default Package 327 PITFALL: Not Including the Current Directory in Your Class Path Specifying a Class Path When You Compile 328 Name Clashes 329 Introduction to javadoc 330 Commenting Classes for javadoc 330 Running javadoc 332328283xix 21. xxContents Chapter Summary 334 Answers to Self-Test Exercises Programming Projects 339Chapter 6 6.1335Arrays 345 INTRODUCTION TO ARRAYS 346 Creating and Accessing Arrays 347 The length Instance Variable 350 TIP: Use for Loops with Arrays 352 PITFALL: Array Indices Always Start with Zero 352 PITFALL: Array Index Out of Bounds 352 Initializing Arrays 353 PITFALL: An Array of Characters Is Not a String 3556.2ARRAYS AND REFERENCES 356 Arrays Are Objects 356 PITFALL: Arrays with a Class Base Type 358 Array Parameters 358 PITFALL: Use of = and == with Arrays 360 Arguments for the Method main 365 Methods that Return an Array 3676.3PROGRAMMING WITH ARRAYS 368 Partially Filled Arrays 369 EXAMPLE: A Class for Partially Filled Arrays 372 TIP: Accessor Methods Need Not Simply Return Instance Variables 376 The for-each Loop 376 Methods with a Variable Number of Parameters 380 EXAMPLE: A String Processing Example 383 Privacy Leaks with Array Instance Variables 384 Enumerated Types 386 EXAMPLE: Sorting an Array 388 TIP: Enumerated Types in switch Statements 3976.4MULTIDIMENSIONAL ARRAYS 399 Multidimensional Array Basics 399 Using the length Instance Variable 402 Ragged Arrays 403 Multidimensional Array Parameters and Returned Values EXAMPLE: A Grade Book Class 404 Chapter Summary 410 Answers to Self-Test Exercises Programming Projects 418411403 22. ContentsChapter 7 7.1Inheritance 427 INHERITANCE BASICS 428 Derived Classes 429 Overriding a Method Definition 439 Changing the Return Type of an Overridden Method 439 Changing the Access Permission of an Overridden Method 440 PITFALL: Overriding versus Overloading 441 The super Constructor 442 The this Constructor 444 TIP: An Object of a Derived Class Has More than One Type 445 PITFALL: The Terms Subclass and Superclass 448 EXAMPLE: An Enhanced StringTokenizer Class 4497.2ENCAPSULATION AND INHERITANCE 452 PITFALL: Use of Private Instance Variables from the Base Class 453 PITFALL: Private Methods Are Effectively Not Inherited 454 Protected and Package Access 455 PITFALL: Forgetting about the Default Package 458 PITFALL: A Restriction on Protected Access 4587.3PROGRAMMING WITH INHERITANCE 461 TIP: Static Variables Are Inherited 461 TIP: is a versus has a 461 Access to a Redefined Base Method 461 PITFALL: You Cannot Use Multiple supers 463 The Class Object 464 The Right Way to Define equals 465 TIP: getClass versus instanceof 467 Chapter Summary 472 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 473 Programming Projects 476Chapter 8 8.1Polymorphism and Abstract Classes 483 POLYMORPHISM484Late Binding 485 The final Modifier 487 EXAMPLE: Sales Records 488 Late Binding with toString 495 PITFALL: No Late Binding for Static Methods Downcasting and Upcasting 497 PITFALL: Downcasting 501496xxi 23. xxiiContents TIP: Checking to See Whether Downcasting Is Legitimate 501 A First Look at the clone Method 504 PITFALL: Sometimes the clone Method Return Type Is Object 505 PITFALL: Limitations of Copy Constructors 5068.2ABSTRACT CLASSES509Abstract Classes 510 PITFALL: You Cannot Create Instances of an Abstract Class TIP: An Abstract Class Is a Type 515514Chapter Summary 516 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 516 Programming Projects 518Chapter 9 9.1Exception Handling 523 EXCEPTION HANDLING BASICS 525 try-catch Mechanism525 Exception Handling with the Scanner Class 527 TIP: Exception Controlled Loops 528 Throwing Exceptions 530 EXAMPLE: A Toy Example of Exception Handling 532 Exception Classes 537 Exception Classes from Standard Packages 538 Defining Exception Classes 540 TIP: Preserve getMessage 544 TIP: An Exception Class Can Carry a Message of Any Type Multiple catch Blocks 551 PITFALL: Catch the More Specific Exception First 5539.2546THROWING EXCEPTIONS IN METHODS 556 Throwing an Exception in a Method 556 Declaring Exceptions in a throws Clause 558 Exceptions to the Catch or Declare Rule 561 throws Clause in Derived Classes 562 When to Use Exceptions 563 Event-Driven Programming 5649.3MORE PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES FOR EXCEPTION HANDLING 566 PITFALL: Nested try-catch Blocks 566 The finally Block 566 Rethrowing an Exception 568 The AssertionError Class 568 ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException 569 24. Contents Chapter Summary 569 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 570 Programming Projects 574Chapter 10 10.1File I/O577INTRODUCTION TO FILE I/O 578 Streams 578 Text Files and Binary Files10.2TEXT FILES579580Writing to a Text File 580 PITFALL: A try Block Is a Block 586 PITFALL: Overwriting an Output File 586 Appending to a Text File 587 TIP: toString Helps with Text File Output 588 Reading from a Text File 589 Reading a Text File Using Scanner 589 Testing for the End of a Text File with Scanner 592 Reading a Text File Using BufferedReader 599 TIP: Reading Numbers with BufferedReader 603 Testing for the End of a Text File with BufferedReader 603 Path Names 605 Nested Constructor Invocations 606 System.in, System.out, and System.err 60710.3THE File CLASS 609 Programming with the File Class10.4BINARY FILES 609613Writing Simple Data to a Binary File 614 UTF and writeUTF 618 Reading Simple Data from a Binary File 619 Checking for the End of a Binary File 624 PITFALL: Checking for the End of a File in the Wrong Way Binary I/O of Objects 626 The Serializable Interface 627 PITFALL: Mixing Class Types in the Same File 630 Array Objects in Binary Files 63010.5RANDOM ACCESS TO BINARY FILES 632Reading and Writing to the Same File 632 PITFALL: RandomAccessFile Need Not Start Empty638625xxiii 25. xxivContents Chapter Summary 638 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 639 Programming Projects 643Chapter 11 11.1Recursion 647 RECURSIVE Void METHODS649EXAMPLE: Vertical Numbers 649 Tracing a Recursive Call 652 A Closer Look at Recursion 655 PITFALL: Infinite Recursion 657 Stacks for Recursion 658 PITFALL: Stack Overflow 660 Recursion versus Iteration 66011.2RECURSIVE METHODS THAT RETURN A VALUE 661 General Form for a Recursive Method That Returns a Value EXAMPLE: Another Powers Method 66211.3THINKING RECURSIVELY 667 Recursive Design Techniques 667 Binary Search 668 Efficiency of Binary Search 674 EXAMPLE: Finding a File 676 Chapter Summary 679 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 679 Programming Projects 684Chapter 12 12.1UML and Patterns UML689690History of UML 691 UML Class Diagrams 691 Class Interactions 692 Inheritance Diagrams 692 More UML 69412.2PATTERNS 695Adaptor Pattern 695 The Model-View-Controller Pattern 696 EXAMPLE: A Sorting Pattern 697 Restrictions on the Sorting Pattern 703 Efficiency of the Sorting Pattern 703662 26. Contents TIP: Pragmatics and Patterns 704 Pattern Formalism 704 Chapter Summary 705 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 705 Programming Projects 707Chapter 13 13.1Interfaces and Inner Classes 711 INTERFACES 713 Interfaces 713 Abstract Classes Implementing Interfaces 715 Derived Interfaces 715 PITFALL: Interface Semantics Are Not Enforced 717 The Comparable Interface 719 EXAMPLE: Using the Comparable Interface 720 Defined Constants in Interfaces 725 PITFALL: Inconsistent Interfaces 726 The Serializable Interface 729 The Cloneable Interface 72913.2SIMPLE USES OF INNER CLASSES734Helping Classes 734 TIP: Inner and Outer Classes Have Access to Each Others Private Members 735 EXAMPLE: A Bank Account Class 735 The .class File for an Inner Class 739 PITFALL: Other Uses of Inner Classes 74013.3MORE ABOUT INNER CLASSES740Static Inner Classes 740 Public Inner Classes 741 TIP: Referring to a Method of the Outer Class Nesting Inner Classes 745 Inner Classes and Inheritance 745 Anonymous Classes 746 TIP: Why Use Inner Classes? 748743Chapter Summary 749 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 749 Programming Projects 754Chapter 14 14.1Generics and the ArrayList Class 759 THE ArrayList CLASS 761 Using the ArrayList Class 762 TIP: Summary of Adding to an ArrayList 766xxv 27. xxviContents Methods in the Class ArrayList 767 The for-each Loop 770 EXAMPLE: Golf Scores 773 TIP: Use trimToSize to Save Memory 776 PITFALL: The clone Method Makes a Shallow Copy 776 The Vector Class 777 Parameterized Classes and Generics 778 PITFALL: Nonparameterized ArrayList and Vector Classes 77814.2GENERICS778Generic Basics 779 TIP: Compile with the -Xlint Option 781 EXAMPLE: A Generic Class for Ordered Pairs 781 PITFALL: A Generic Constructor Name Has No Type Parameter 784 PITFALL: You Cannot Plug in a Primitive Type for a Type Parameter 785 PITFALL: A Type Parameter Cannot Be Used Everywhere a Type Name Can Be Used 785 PITFALL: An Instantiation of a Generic Class Cannot be an Array Base Type 786 TIP: A Class Definition Can Have More Than One Type Parameter 787 PITFALL: A Generic Class Cannot Be an Exception Class 788 Bounds for Type Parameters 789 TIP: Generic Interfaces 792 Generic Methods 792 Inheritance with Generic Classes 794 Chapter Summary 796 Answers to Self-Test Exercises Programming Projects 799Chapter 15 15.1796Linked Data Structures 801 JAVA LINKED LISTS804EXAMPLE: A Simple Linked List Class 804 Working with Linked Lists 808 PITFALL: Privacy Leaks 813 Node Inner Classes 814 EXAMPLE: A Generic Linked List 817 PITFALL: Using Node Instead of Node 822 The equals Method for Linked Lists 82215.2COPY CONSTRUCTORS AND THE clone METHOD Simple Copy Constructors and clone Methods 824 Exceptions 825824 28. Contents PITFALL: The clone Method Is Protected in object 827 TIP: Use a Type Parameter Bound for a Better clone 828 EXAMPLE: A Linked List with a Deep Copy clone Method 832 TIP: Cloning Is an All or Nothing Affair 83515.3ITERATORS835Defining an Iterator Class 836 Adding and Deleting Nodes 84115.4VARIATIONS ON A LINKED LIST 846 Doubly Linked List 846 The Stack Data Structure 855 The Queue Data Structure 857 Running Times and Big-O Notation Efficiency of Linked Lists 86515.5HASH TABLES WITH CHAINING860866A Hash Function for Strings 867 Efficiency of Hash Tables 87015.6SETS871Fundamental Set Operations 872 Efficiency of Sets Using Linked Lists15.7TREES877878Tree Properties 878 EXAMPLE: A Binary Search Tree Class 881 Efficiency of Binary Search Trees 886 Chapter Summary 887 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 888 Programming Projects 893Chapter 16 16.1Collections, Maps and Iterators 897 COLLECTIONS 898 Wildcards 900 The Collection Framework 900 PITFALL: Optional Operations 906 TIP: Dealing with All Those Exceptions 907 Concrete Collection Classes 908 Differences between ArrayList and Vector 918 Nonparameterized Version of the Collection Framework PITFALL: Omitting the 919918xxvii 29. xxviiiContents16.2MAPS919Concrete Map Classes16.3ITERATORS922926The Iterator Concept 926 The Iterator Interface 926 TIP: For-Each Loops as Iterators 929 List Iterators 930 PITFALL: next Can Return a Reference 932 TIP: Defining Your Own Iterator Classes 934 Chapter Summary 935 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 935 Programming Projects 936Chapter 17 17.1Swing I941EVENT-DRIVEN PROGRAMMING 943 Events and Listeners17.2943BUTTONS, EVENTS, AND OTHER SWING BASICS 944 EXAMPLE: A Simple Window 945 PITFALL: Forgetting to Program the Close-Window Button 950 Buttons 951 Action Listeners and Action Events 952 PITFALL: Changing the Heading for actionPerformed 954 TIP: Ending a Swing Program 954 EXAMPLE: A Better Version of Our First Swing GUI 955 Labels 958 Color 959 EXAMPLE: A GUI with a Label and Color 96017.3CONTAINERS AND LAYOUT MANAGERS962Border Layout Managers 963 Flow Layout Managers 966 Grid Layout Managers 967 Panels 971 EXAMPLE: A Tricolor Built with Panels 972 The Container Class 976 TIP: Code a GUIs Look and Actions Separately 979 The Model-View-Controller Pattern 980 30. Contents17.4MENUS AND BUTTONS 981 EXAMPLE: A GUI with a Menu 981 Menu Bars, Menus, and Menu Items 981 Nested Menus 986 The AbstractButton Class 986 The setActionCommand Method 989 Listeners as Inner Classes 99017.5TEXT FIELDS AND TEXT AREAS 993 Text Areas and Text Fields 994 TIP: Labeling a Text Field 1000 TIP: Inputting and Outputting Numbers A Swing Calculator 10011000Chapter Summary 1006 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 1007 Programming Projects 1013Chapter 18 18.1Swing II1017WINDOW LISTENERS 1018 EXAMPLE: A Window Listener Inner Class 1020 The dispose Method 1023 PITFALL: Forgetting to Invoke setDefaultCloseOperation 1024 The WindowAdapter Class 102418.2ICONS AND SCROLL BARS1026Icons 1026 Scroll Bars 1032 EXAMPLE: Components with Changing Visibility18.3THE Graphics CLASS1041Coordinate System for Graphics Objects 1041 The Method paint and the Class Graphics 1042 Drawing Ovals 1047 Drawing Arcs 1047 Rounded Rectangles 1051 paintComponent for Panels 1052 Action Drawings and repaint 1052 Some More Details on Updating a GUI 10581037xxix 31. xxxContents18.4COLORS 1058 Specifying a Drawing Color 1059 Defining Colors 1060 PITFALL: Using doubles to Define a Color 1061 The JColorChooser Dialog Window 106218.5FONTS AND THE drawString METHOD The drawString Method Fonts 1068Chapter Summary 1071 Answers to Self-Test Exercises Programming Projects 1075Chapter 19 19.1106510651071Java Never Ends 1079 MULTITHREADING 1080 EXAMPLE: A Nonresponsive GUI 1081 Thread.sleep 1081 The getGraphics Method 1085 Fixing a Nonresponsive Program Using Threads 1086 EXAMPLE: A Multithreaded Program 1086 The Class Thread 1087 The Runnable Interface 1090 Race Conditions and Thread Synchronization 109319.2NETWORKING WITH STREAM SOCKETS 1098 Sockets 1098 Sockets and Threading19.3JAVABEANS11021103The Component Model 1103 The JavaBeans Model 110419.4JAVA AND DATABASE CONNECTIONS1105Relational Databases 1105 Java DB and JDBC 1105 SQL 110719.5WEB PROGRAMMING WITH JAVA SERVER PAGES1118Applets, Servlets, and Java Server Pages 1118 Oracle GlassFish Enterprise Server 1120 HTML Formsthe Common Gateway Interface 1121 JSP Declarations, Expressions, Scriptlets, and Directives1123 32. Contents Chapter Summary 1132 Answers to Self-Test Exercises 1133 Programming Projects 1134Chapter 20Applets and HTML(online at www.aw.com/savitch)Appendix 1 Keywords 1139 Appendix 2 Precedence and Associativity Rules Appendix 3 ASCII Character Set11411143Appendix 4 Format Specifications for printf1145Appendix 5 Summary of Classes and Interfaces1147Index1215xxxi 33. This page intentionally left blank 34. Getting Started1.1 INTRODUCTION TO JAVA 2 Origins of the Java Language 2 Objects and Methods 3 Applets 4 A Sample Java Application Program 5 Byte-Code and the Java Virtual Machine 8 Class Loader 10 Compiling a Java Program or Class 10 Running a Java Program 11 1.2 EXPRESSIONS AND ASSIGNMENT STATEMENTS 13 Identifiers 13 Variables 15 Assignment Statements 16 More Assignment Statements 19 Assignment Compatibility 20 Constants 21 Arithmetic Operators and Expressions 23 Parentheses and Precedence Rules 24 Integer and Floating-Point Division 26 Type Casting 29 Increment and Decrement Operators 30Chapter Summary5111.3 THE CLASS String 33 String Constants and Variables 33 Concatenation of Strings 34 Classes 35 String Methods 37 Escape Sequences 42 String Processing 43 The Unicode Character Set 43 1.4 PROGRAM STYLE 46 Naming Constants 46 Java Spelling Conventions 48 Comments 49 Indenting 50Answers to Self-Test Exercises52Programming Projects54 35. 1Getting StartedShe startsshe movesshe seems to feel The thrill of life along her keel. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW, The Building of the ShipIntroduction This chapter introduces you to the Java language and gives you enough details to allow you to write simple programs involving expressions, assignments, and console output. The details about assignments and expressions are similar to that of most other highlevel languages. Every language has its own way of handling strings and console output, so even the experienced programmer should look at that material. Even if you are already an experienced programmer in some language other than Java, you should read at least the subsection entitled A Sample Java Application Program in Section 1.1 and preferably all of Section 1.2. You should also read all of Section 1.3 (on strings) and at least skim Section 1.4 to find out about Java defined constants and comments.Prerequisites This book is self-contained and requires no preparation other than some simple high school algebra.1.1Introduction to Java Eliminating the middle man is not necessarily a good idea. Found in my old economics class notes.In this section, we give you an overview of the Java programming language.Origins of the Java Language Java is well-known as a programming language for Internet applications. However, this book, and many other books and programmers, consider Java a general-purpose programming language that is suitable for most any application, whether it involves the Internet or not. The first version of Java was neither of these things, but it evolved into both. In 1991, James Gosling led a team at Sun Microsystems that developed the first version of Java (which was not yet called Java). This first version of the language was 36. Introduction to Javaintermediate languagebyte-codecodedesigned for programming home appliances, such as washing machines and television sets. Although that may not be a very glamorous application area, it is no easy task to design such a language. Home appliances are controlled by a wide variety of computer processors (chips). The language that Gosling was designing needed to work on all these different processors. Moreover, a home appliance is typically an inexpensive item, so the manufacturer would be unwilling to invest large amounts of money into developing complicated compilers. (A compiler translates a program into a language the processor can understand.) To simplify the tasks of writing compilers (translation programs) for each class of appliances, the team used a two-step translation process. The programs are first translated into an intermediate language that is the same for all appliances (or all computers), and then a small, easy-to-writeand hence, inexpensiveprogram translates this intermediate language into the machine language for a particular appliance or computer. This intermediate language is called Java bytecode, or simply, byte-code. Since there is only one intermediate language, the hardest step of the two-step translation from program to intermediate language to machine language is the same for all appliances (or all computers); hence, most of the cost of translating to multiple machine languages was saved. The language for programming appliances never caught on with appliance manufacturers, but the Java language into which it evolved has become a widely used programming language. Today, Java is owned by Oracle Corporation, which purchased Sun Microsystems in 2010. Why call it byte-code? The word code is commonly used to mean a program or part of a program. A byte is a small unit of storage (eight bits to be precise). Computerreadable information is typically organized into bytes. So the term byte-code suggests a program that is readable by a computer as opposed to a person. In 1994, Patrick Naughton and Jonathan Payne at Sun Microsystems developed a Web browser that could run (Java) programs over the Internet, which has evolved into the browser known as HotJava. This was the start of Javas connection to the Internet. In the fall of 1995, Netscape Incorporated made its Web browser capable of running Java programs. Other companies followed suit and have developed software that accommodates Java programs.Objects and Methods OOPobject method classJava is an object-oriented programming (OOP) language. What is OOP? The world around us is made up of objects, such as people, automobiles, buildings, streets, adding machines, papers, and so forth. Each of these objects has the ability to perform certain actions, and each of these actions has some effect on some of the other objects in the world. OOP is a programming methodology that views a program as similarly consisting of objects that interact with each other by means of actions. Object-oriented programming has its own specialized terminology. The objects are called, appropriately enough, objects. The actions that an object can take are called methods. Objects of the same kind are said to have the same type or, more often, are said to be in the same class. For example, in an airport simulation program, all the3 37. 4CHAPTER 1Getting StartedWhy Is the Language Named Java? The current custom is to name programming languages according to the whims of their designers. Java is no exception. There are conflicting explanations of the origin of the name Java. Despite these differing stories, one thing is clear: The word Java does not refer to any property or serious history of the Java language. One believable story about where the name came from is that it was thought of when, after a fruitless meeting trying to come up with a new name for the language, the development team went out for coffee. Hence, the inspiration for the name Java.application programsimulated airplanes might belong to the same class, probably called the Airplane class. All objects within a class have the same methods. Thus, in a simulation program, all airplanes have the same methods (or possible actions), such as taking off, flying to a specific location, landing, and so forth. However, all simulated airplanes are not identical. They can have different characteristics, which are indicated in the program by associating different data (that is, some different information) with each particular airplane object. For example, the data associated with an airplane object might be two numbers for its speed and altitude. If you have used some other programming language, it might help to explain Java terminology in terms of the vocabulary used in other languages. Things that are called procedures, methods, functions, or subprograms in other languages are all called methods in Java. In Java, all methods (and for that matter, any programming constructs whatsoever) are part of a class. As we will see, a Java application program is a class with a method named main; when you run the Java program, the run-time system automatically invokes the method named main (that is, it automatically initiates the main action). An application program is a regular Java program, and, as we are about to see, there is another kind of Java program known as an applet. Other Java terminology is pretty much the same as the terminology in most other programming languages and, in any case, will be explained when each concept is introduced.Applets applet applicationapplet viewerThere are two kinds of Java programs, applets and applications. An application, or application program, is just a regular program. Although the name applet may sound like it has something to do with apples, it really means a little Java application, not a little apple. Applets and applications are almost identical. The difference is that applications are meant to be run on your computer like any other program, whereas an applet is meant to be run from a Web browser, and so can be sent to another location on the Internet and run there. Applets always use a windowing interface, but not all programs with a windowing interface are applets, as you will see in Chapters 1618. Although applets were designed to be run from a Web browser, they can also be run with a program known as an applet viewer. The applet viewer is really meant 38. Introduction to Javaas a debugging aid and not as the final environment to allow users to run applets. Nonetheless, applets are now often run as stand-alone programs using an applet viewer.1 We find this to be a somewhat unfortunate accident of history. Java has multiple libraries of software for designing windowing interfaces that run without a connection to a browser. We prefer to use these libraries, rather than applets, to write windowing programs that will not be run from a Web browser. In this book, we show you how to do windowing interfaces as applets and as programs with no connection to a Web browser. In fact, the two approaches have a large overlap of both techniques and the Java libraries that they use. Once you know how to design and write either applets or applications, it is easy to learn to write the other of these two kinds of programs. An applet always has a windowing interface. An application program may have a windowing interface or use simple console I/O. So as not to detract from the code being studied, most of our example programs, particularly early in this book, use simple console I/O (that is, simple text I/O).A Sample Java Application Program Display 1.1 contains a simple Java program and the screen displays produced when it is run. A Java program is really a class definition (whatever that is) with a method named main. When the program is run, the method named main is invoked; that is, the action specified by main is carried out. The body of the method main is enclosed in braces, {}, so that when the program is run, the statements in the braces are executed. (If you are not even vaguely familiar with the words class and method, they will be explained. Read on.) The following line says that this program is a class called FirstProgram: public class FirstProgram {The next two lines, shown below, begin the definition of the main method: public static void main(String[] args) {The details of exactly what a Java class is and what words such as public, static, and so forth mean will be explained in the next few chapters. Until then, think of these opening lines, repeated below, as being a rather wordy way of saying Begin the program named FirstProgram. void,public class FirstProgram { public static void main(String[] args) { 1Anapplet viewer does indeed use a browser to run an applet, but the look and feel is that of a standalone program with no interaction with a browser.5 39. 6CHAPTER 1 Display 1.1Getting Started A Sample Java ProgramName of class 1 public class FirstProgram (program) 2 { 3 public static void main(String[] args) 4 { 5 System.out.println("Hello reader."); 6 System.out.println("Welcome to Java."); 7 8 9 10 11 12 }The main methodSystem.out.println("Let's demonstrate a simple calculation."); int answer; answer = 2 + 2; System.out.println("2 plus 2 is " + answer); }Sample Dialogue Hello reader. Welcome to Java. Let's demonstrate a simple calculation. 2 plus 2 is 4The next two lines, shown in what follows, are the first actions the program performs: printlnSystem.out.println("Hello reader."); System.out.println("Welcome to Java.");Each of these lines begins with System.out.println. Each one causes the quoted string given within the parentheses to be output to the screen. For example, consider System.out.println("Hello reader.");This causes the line Hello reader.to be written to the screen. The output produced by the next line that begins with System.out.println will go on the following line. Thus, these two lines cause the following output: Hello reader. Welcome to Java. System.out. printlnThese lines that begin with System.out.println are a way of saying output what is shown in parentheses, and the details of why the instruction is written this way need not concern us yet. However, we can tell you a little about what is going on here. 40. Introduction to Javainvoking dot argumentsending a messagevariable intAs stated earlier, Java programs work by having things called objects perform actions. The actions performed by an object are called methods. System.out is an object used for sending output to the screen; println is the method (that is, the action) that this object performs. The action is to send what is in parentheses to the screen. When an object performs an action using a method, it is called invoking (or calling) the method. In a Java program, you write such a method invocation by writing the object followed by a dot (period), followed by the method name, and some parentheses that may or may not have something inside them. The thing (or things) inside the parentheses is called an argument(s), which provides information needed by the method to carry out its action. In each of these two lines and the similar line that follows them, the method is println. The method println writes something to the screen, and the argument (a string in quotes) tells it what it should write. Invoking a method is also sometimes called sending a message to the object. With this view, a message is sent to the object (by invoking a method) and in response, the object performs some action (namely the action taken by the method invoked). We seldom use the terminology sending a message, but it is standard terminology used by some programmers and authors. Variable declarations in Java are similar to what they are in other programming languages. The following line from Display 1.1 declares the variable answer: int answer;The type int is one of the Java types for integers (whole numbers). So, this line says that answer is a variable that can hold a single integer (whole number). The following line is the only real computing done by this first program: equal sign assignment operatoranswer = 2 + 2;In Java, the equal sign is used as the assignment operator, which is an instruction to set the value of the variable on the left-hand side of the equal sign. In the preceding program line, the equal sign does not mean that answer is equal to 2 + 2. Instead, the equal sign is an instruction to the computer to make answer equal to 2 + 2. The last program action is System.out.println("2 plus 2 is " + answer);This is an output statement of the same kind as we discussed earlier, but there is something new in it. Note that the string "2 plus 2 is " is followed by a plus sign and the variable answer. In this case, the plus sign is an operator to concatenate (connect) two strings. However, the variable answer is not a string. If one of the two operands to + is a string, Java will convert the other operand, such as the value of answer, to a string. In this program, answer has the value 4, so answer is converted to the string "4" and then concatenated to the string "2 plus 2 is ", so the output statement under discussion is equivalent to System.out.println("2 plus 2 is 4");7 41. 8CHAPTER 1Getting StartedThe remainder of this first program consists of two closing braces. The first closing brace ends the definition of the method main. The last closing brace ends the definition of the class named FirstProgram.Self-Test Exercises 1. If the following statement were used in a Java program, it would cause something to be written to the screen. What would it cause to be written to the screen? System.out.println("Java is not a drink.");2. Give a statement or statements that can be used in a Java program to write the following to the screen: I like Java. You like tea.3. Write a complete Java program that uses System.out.println to output the following to the screen when run: Hello World!Note that you do not need to fully understand all the details of the program in order to write the program. You can simply follow the model of the program in Display 1.1.Byte-Code and the Java Virtual Machine high-level, low-level, and machine languagescompilerMost modern programming languages are designed to be (relatively) easy for people to write and to understand. These languages are called high-level languages. The language that the computer can directly understand is called machine language. Machine language or any language similar to machine language is called a low-level language. A program written in a high-level language, such as Java, must be translated into a program in machine language before the program can be run. The program that does the translating (or at least most of the translating) is called a compiler and the translation process is called compiling.Compiler A compiler is a program that translates a high-level-language program, such as a Java program, into an equivalent low-level-language program.One disadvantage of most programming languages is that the compiler translates the high-level-language program directly into the machine language for your computer. Since different computers have different machine languages, this means you need a different compiler for each type of computer. Java, however, uses a slightly different and much more versatile approach to compiling. 42. Introduction to Javabyte-code Java Virtual Machine (JVM) Interpreter Just-In-Time (JIT)While some versions of Java do translate your program into machine language for your particular computer, the original Java compiler and most compilers today do not. Instead, the Java compiler translates your Java program into a language called byte-code. Byte-code is not the machine language for any particular computer; it is the machine language for a fictitious computer called the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The Java Virtual Machine is very similar to all typical computers. Thus, it is easy to translate a program written in byte-code into a program in the machine language for any particular computer. The term JVM is also used to refer to the software that implements the fictitious computer. There are two ways the JVM can do this translation: through an interpreter and through a Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler. An interpreter combines the translation of the byte-code and the execution of the corresponding machine language instructions. The interpreter works by translating an instruction of byte-code into instructions expressed in your computers machine language and then executing those instructions on your computer. It does this one byte-code instruction at a time. Thus, an interpreter translates and executes the instructions in the byte-code one after the other, rather than translating the entire byte-code program at once. Modern implementations of the JVM use a JIT compiler, which uses a combination of interpretation and compilation. The JIT compiler reads the byte-code in chunks and compiles entire chunks to native machine language instructions as needed. The compiled machine language instructions are rememberedi.e., cachedfor future use, so the chunk needs to be compiled only once. This model generally runs programs faster than the interpreted model, which always has to translate the next byte-code instruction to machine code instructions. To run a Java program, first use the compiler to translate the Java program into byte-code. Then, use the JVM for your computer to translate byte-code instructions to machine language and to run the machine language instructions. It sounds as though Java byte-code just adds an extra step in the process. Why not write compilers that translate directly from Java to the machine language for your particular computer? This is what is done for most other programming languages. However, Java byte-code makes your Java program very portable. After you compile your Java program into byte-code, you can use that byte-code on any computer. When you run your program on another type of computer, you do not need to recompile it. This means that you can send your byte-code over the Internet to another computer and have it easily run on that computer. This is one of the reasons Java is good for Internet applications. This model is also more secure. If a Java program behaves badly, it only does so within the context of the JVM instead of behaving badly directly on your native machine. Of course, every kind of computer must have its own program to implement the Java Virtual Machine.Byte-Code The Java compiler translates your Java program into a language called byte-code, which is the machine language for a fictitious computer. It is easy to translate this byte-code into the machine language of any particular computer. Each type of computer will have its own software to implement the Java Virtual Machine that translates and executes byte-code instructions.9 43. 10CHAPTER 1run commandsource code object codeGetting StartedWhen compiling and running a Java program, you are usually not even aware of the fact that your program is translated into byte-code and not directly translated into machine language code. You normally give two commands: one to compile your program (into byte-code) and one to run your program. The run command executes the Java Virtual Machine on the byte-code. When you use a compiler, the terminology can get a bit confusing, because both the input to the compiler program and the output from the compiler program are also programs. Everything in sight is some kind of program. To make sure it is clear which program we mean, we call the input program (which in our case will be a Java program) the source program, or source code, and call the translated low-levellanguage program that the compiler produces the object program, or object code. The word code just means a program or a part of a program.codeClass Loader A Java program is divided into smaller parts called classes, and normally each class definition is in a separate file and is compiled separately. In order to run your program, the byte-code for these various classes needs to be connected together. The connecting is done by a program known as the class loader. It is typically done automatically, so you normally need not be concerned with it. (In other programming languages, the program corresponding to the Java class loader is called a linker.)Compiling a Java Program or Class VideoNoteCompiling a Java Program.java filesjavacAs we noted in the previous subsection, a Java program is divided into classes. Before you can run a Java program, you must compile these classes. Before you can compile a Java program, each class definition used in the program (and written by you, the programmer) should be in a separate file. Moreover, the name of the file should be the same as the name of the class, except that the file name has .java added to the end. The program in Display 1.1 is a class called FirstProgram, so it should be in a file named FirstProgram.java. This program has only one class, but a more typical Java program would consist of several classes. If you are using an IDE (Integrated Development Environment), there will be a simple command to compile your Java program from the editor. You will have to check your local documentation to see exactly what this command is, but it is bound to be very simple. (In the TextPad environment, the command is Compile Java on the Tools menu.) If you want or need to compile your Java program or class with a one-line command given to the operating system, it is easy to do. We will describe the commands for the Java system distributed by Oracle (usually called the SDK or the JDK) in the following paragraphs. Suppose you want to compile a class named FirstProgram. It will be in a file named FirstProgram.java. To compile it, simply give the following command: javac FirstProgram.java 44. Introduction to Java.classfilesYou should be in the same directory (folder) as the file FirstProgram.java when you give this javac command. To compile any Java class, whether it is a full program or not, the command is javac followed by the name of the file containing the class. When you compile a Java class, the resulting byte-code for that class is placed in a file of the same name, except that the ending is changed from .java to .class. So, when you compile a class named FirstProgram in the file FirstProgram.java, the resulting byte-code is stored in a file named FirstProgram.class.Running a Java Program A Java program can consist of a number of different classes, each in a different file. When you run a Java application program, only run the class that you think of as the program; that is, the class that contains a main method. Look for the following line, which starts the main method: public static void main(String[] args)The critical words to look for are public static void main. The remaining portion of the line might be spelled slightly different in some cases. If you are using an IDE, you will have a menu command that can be used to run a Java program. You will have to check your local documentation to see exactly what this command is. (In the TextPad environment, the command is Run Java Application on the Tools menu.) If you want or need to run your Java program with a one-line command given to the operating system, then (in most cases) you can run a Java program by giving the command java followed by the name of the class containing the main method. For example, for the program in Display 1.1, you would give the following one-line command: java FirstProgramNote that when you run a program, you use the class name, such as FirstProgram, without any .java or .class ending. When you run a Java program, you are actually running the Java byte-code interpreter on the compiled version of your program. When you run your program, the system will automatically load in any classes you need and run the byte-code interpreter on those classes as well. We have been assuming that the Java compiler and related software are already set up for you. We are also assuming that all the files are in one directory. (Directories are also called folders.) If you need to set up the Java compiler and system software, consult the manuals that came with the software. If you wish to spread your class definitions across multiple directories, that is not difficult, but we will not concern ourselves with that detail until later.11 45. 12CHAPTER 1Getting StartedSyntax and Semantics The description of a programming language, or any other kind of language, can be thought of as having two parts, called the syntax and semantics of the language. The syntax tells what arrangement of words and punctuation is legal in the language. The syntax is often called the languages grammar rules. For Java, the syntax describes what arrangements of words and punctuation are allowed in a class or program definition. The semantics of a language describes the meaning of things written while following the syntax rules of the language. For a Java program, the syntax describes how you write a program and the semantics describes what happens when you run the program. When writing a program in Java, you are always using both the syntax and the semantics of the Java language.TIP: Error Messages bug debugging syntax errorrun-time errorlogic errorA mistake in a program is called a bug. For this reason, the process of eliminating mistakes in your program is called debugging. There are three commonly recognized types of bugs or errors, which are known as syntax errors, run-time errors, and logic errors. Lets consider them in order. A syntax error is a grammatical mistake in your program; that is, a mistake in the allowed arrangement of words and punctuations. If you violate one of these rulesfor example, by omitting a required punctuationit is a syntax error. The compiler will catch syntax errors and output an error message telling you that it has found the error, where it thinks the error is, and what it thinks the error is. If the compiler says you have a syntax error, you undoubtedly do. However, the compiler could be incorrect about where and what the error is. An error that is not detected until your program is run is called a run-time error. If the computer detects a run-time error when your program is run, then it will output an error message. The error message may not be easy to understand, but at least it lets you know that something is wrong. A mistake in the underlying algorithm for your program is called a logic error. If your program has only logic errors, it will compile and run without any error message. You have written a valid Java program, but you have not written a program that does what you want. The program runs and gives output, but the output is incorrect. For example, if you were to mistakenly use the multiplication sign in place of the addition sign, it would be a logic error. Logic errors are the hardest kind of error to locate, because the computer does not give you any error messages. 46. Expressions and Assignment StatementsSelf-Test Exercises 4. What is a compiler? 5. What is a source program? 6. What is an object program? 7. What do you call a program that runs Java byte-code instructions? 8. Suppose you dene a class named NiceClass in a le. What name should the le have? 9. Suppose you compile the class NiceClass. What will be the name of the le with the resulting byte-code?1.2Expressions and Assignment Statements Once a person has understood the way variables are used in programming, he has understood the quintessence of programming. E. W. DIJKSTRA, Notes on Structured ProgrammingVariables, expressions, and assignments in Java are similar to their counterparts in most other general purpose languages. In this section, we describe the details.Identifiers identifierThe name of a variable (or other item you might define in a program) is called an identifier. A Java identifier must not start with a digit and all the characters must be letters, digits, or the underscore (_) symbol. (The symbol $ is also allowed, but it is reserved for special purposes only, so you should not typically use $ in your Java identifiers.) For example, the following are all valid identifiers: x x1 x_1 _abc ABC123z7 sum RATE count data2 bigBonusAll of the preceding names are legal and would be accepted by the compiler, but the first five are poor choices for identifiers, since they are not descriptive of the identifiers use. None of the following are legal identifiers and all would be rejected by the compiler: 123X%changedata-1myfirst.javaPROG.CLASSThe first two are not allowed because they start with a digit. The remaining four are not identifiers because they contain symbols other than letters, digits, and the underscore symbol.13 47. 14CHAPTER 1case-sensitiveGetting StartedJava is a case-sensitive language; that is, it distinguishes between upper- and lowercase letters in the spelling of identifiers. Hence, the following are three distinct identifiers and could be used to name three distinct variables: rateRATERateHowever, it is usually not a good idea to use two such variants in the same program, because that might be confusing. Although it is not required by Java, variables are usually spelled with their first letter in lowercase. The convention that has become universal in Java programming is to spell variable names with a mix of upper- and lowercase letters (and digits), to always start a variable name with a lowercase letter, and to indicate word boundaries with an uppercase letter, as illustrated by the following variable names: topSpeedbankRate1bankRate2timeOfArrivalA Java identifier can theoretically be of any length, and the compiler will accept even unreasonably long identifiers.Names (Identifiers) The name of something in a Java program, such as a variable, class, method, or object name, must not start with a digit and may only contain letters, digits (0 through 9), and the underscore character (_). Upper- and lowercase letters are considered to be different characters. (The symbol $ is also allowed, but it is reserved for special purposes only, so you should not typically use $ in a Java name.) Names in a program are called identifiers. Although it is not required by the Java language, the common practice, and the one followed in this book, is to start the names of classes with uppercase letters and to start the names of variables, objects, and methods with lowercase letters. These names are usually spelled using only letters and digits.keywordThere is a special class of identifiers, called keywords or reserved words, that have a predefined meaning in Java and that you cannot use as names for variables or anything else. In the code displays of this book, keywords are shown in a different color, as illustrated by the keyword public. A complete list of keywords is given in Appendix 1. Some predefined words, such as System and println, are not keywords. These predefined words are not part of the core Java language and you are allowed to redefine them. Although these words are not keywords, they are defined in libraries required by the Java language standard. Needless to say, using a predefined identifier for anything other than its standard meaning can be confusing and dangerous, and thus should be avoided. The safest and easiest practice is to treat all predefined identifiers as if they are keywords. 48. Expressions and Assignment StatementsVariables declareEvery variable in a Java program must be declared before it is used. When you declare a variable, you are telling the compilerand, ultimately, the computerwhat kind of data you will be storing in the variable. For example, the following are two declarations that might occur in a Java program: int numberOfBeans; double oneWeight, totalWeight;floating-point numberThe first declares the variable numberOfBeans so that it can hold a value of type int; that is, a whole number. The name int is an abbreviation for integer. The type int is the default type for whole numbers. The second definition declares oneWeight and totalWeight to be variables of type double, which is the default type for numbers with a decimal point (known as floating-point numbers). As illustrated here, when there is more than one variable in a declaration, the variables are separated by commas. Also, note that each declaration ends with a semicolon. Every variable must be declared before it is used. A variable may be declared anyplace, so long as it is declared before it is used. Of course, variables should always be declared in a location that makes the program easier to read. Typically, variables are declared either just before they are used or at the start of a block (indicated by an opening brace { ). Any legal identifier, other than a keyword, may be used for a variable name.Variable Declarations In Java, a variable must be declared before it is used. Variables are declared as described here.SYNTAX Type Variable_1, Variable_2,. . .;EXAMPLES int count, numberOfDragons, numberOfTrolls; char answer; double speed, distance;Syntactic Variables Remember that when you see something such as Type, Variable_1, or Variable_2, these words do not literally appear in your Java code. They are syntactic variables, which means they are replaced by something of the category that they describe. For example, Type can be replaced by int, double, char, or any other type name. Variable_1 and Variable_2 can each be replaced by any variable name.15 49. 16CHAPTER 1primitive typesGetting StartedJava has basic types for characters, different kinds of integers, and different kinds of floating-point numbers (numbers with a decimal point), as well as a type for the values true and false. These basic types are known as primitive types. Display 1.2 shows all of Javas primitive types. The preferred type for integers is int. The type char is the type for single characters and can store common Unicode characters. The preferred type for floating-point numbers is double. The type boolean has the two values true and false. (Unlike some other programming languages, the Java values true and false are not integers and will not be automatically converted to integers.) Objects of the predefined class String represent strings of characters. String is not a primitive type, but is often considered a basic type along with the primitive types. The class String is discussed later in this chapter.Assignment Statements assignment statement assignment operatorThe most direct way to change the value of a variable is to use an assignment statement. In Java, the equal sign is used as the assignment operator. An assignment statement always consists of a variable on the left-hand side of the assignment operator (the equal sign) and an expression on the right-hand side. An assignment statement ends with a semicolon. The expression on the right-hand side of the equal sign may be a variable, a number, or a more complicated expression made up of variables, numbers,Display 1.2Primitive TypesTYPE NAMEKIND OF VALUEMEMORY USEDSIZE RANGEbooleantrue or false1 byteNot applicablecharSingle character (Unicode)2 bytesCommon Unicode charactersbyteInteger1 byte-128 to 127shortInteger2 bytes-32768 to 32767intInteger4 bytes-2147483648 to 2147483647longInteger8 bytes-9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807floatFloating-point number4 bytes;3.40282347 * 10+38 to ;1.40239846 * 10-45doubleFloating-point number8 bytes;1.76769313486231570 * 10+308 to ;4.94065645841246544 * 10-324 50. Expressions and Assignment Statementsoperators, and method invocations. An assignment statement instructs the computer to evaluate (that is, to compute the value of) the expression on the right-hand side of the equal sign and to set the value of the variable on the left-hand side equal to the value of that expression. The following are examples of Java assignment statements: totalWeight = oneWeight * numberOfBeans; temperature = 98.6; count = count + 2;The first assignment statement sets the value of totalWeight equal to the number in the variable oneWeight multiplied by the number in numberOfBeans. (Multiplication is expressed using the asterisk * in Java.) The second assignment statement sets the value of temperature to 98.6. The third assignment statement increases the value of the variable count by 2. Note that a variable may occur on both sides of the assignment operator (both sides of the equal sign). The assigned statement count = count + 2;sets the new value of count equal to the old value of count plus 2. When used with variables of a class type, the assignment operator requires a bit more explanation, which we will give in Chapter 4.Assignment Statements with Primitive Types An assignment statement with a variable of a primitive type on the left-hand side of the equal sign causes the following actions: First, the expression on the right-hand side of the equal sign is evaluated, and then the variable on the left-hand side of the equal sign is set equal to this value.SYNTAX Variable = Expression;EXAMPLE distance = rate * time; count = count + 2;An assigned statement may be used as an expression that evaluates to a value. When used this way, the variable on the left-hand side of the equal sign is changed as we have described, and the new value of the variable is also the value of the assignment expression. For example, number = 3;17 51. 18CHAPTER 1Getting Startedboth changes the value of number to 3 and evaluates to the value 3. This allows you to chain assignment statements. The following changes the values of both the variables, number1 and number2, to 3: number2 = (number1 = 3);The assignment operator automatically is executed right to left if there are no parentheses, so this is normally written in the following equivalent way: number2 = number1 = 3;TIP: Initialize Variables uninitialized variableA variable that has been declared but that has not yet been given a value by some means, such as an assignment statement, is said to be uninitialized. In some instances, an uninitialized variable may be given some default value, but this is not true in all cases. Moreover, it makes your program clearer to explicitly give the variable a value, even if you are simply reassigning it the default value. (The exact details on default values have been known to change and should not be counted on.)2 One easy way to ensure that you do not have an uninitialized variable is to initialize it within the declaration. Simply combine the declaration and an assignment statement, as in the following examples: int count = 0; double speed = 65.5; char grade = 'A'; int initialCount = 50, finalCount;Note that you can initialize some variables and not initialize others in a declaration. Sometimes the compiler may say that you have failed to initialize a variable. In most cases, this will indeed have occurred. Occasionally, the compiler is mistaken. However, the compiler will not compile your program until you convince it that the variable in question is initialized. To make the compiler happy, initialize the variable when it is declared, even if the variable will be given a different value before the variable is used for anything. In such cases, you cannot argue with the compiler. 2Theofficial rules are that the variables we are now using, which we will later call local variables, are not automatically initialized. Later in this book, we will introduce variables called static variables and instance variables, which are automatically initialized. However, we urge you to never rely on automatic initialization. 52. Expressions and Assignment StatementsInitializing a Variable in a Declaration You can combine the declaration of a variable with an assignment statement that gives the variable a value.SYNTAX Type Variable_1 =, Variable_2 = Expression__2,...;Some of the variables may have no equal sign and no expression, as in the first example.EXAMPLE int numberReceived = 0, lastNumber, numberOfStations = 5; double speed = 98.9, distance = speed * 10; char initial = 'J';More Assignment Statements There is a shorthand notation that combines the assignment operator (=) and an arithmetic operator so that a given variable can have its value changed by adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing by a specified value. The general form is Variable Op = Expressionwhich is equivalent to Variable = Variable Op (Expression)The Expression can be another variable, a constant, or a more complicated arithmetic expression. The Op can be any of +, , *, /, or %, as well as some operators we have not yet discussedthe operator % has also not yet been discussed but is explained later in this chapter. (A full list of values for Op can be seen at the bottom of the precedence table in Appendix 2.) Below are examples: EXAMPLE:EQUIVALENT TO:count += 2;count = count + 2;total -= discount;total = total - discount;bonus *= 2;bonus = bonus * 2;time /= rushFactor;time = time / rushFactor;change %= 100;change = change % 100;amount *= count1 + count2;amount = amount * (count1 + count2);19 53. 20CHAPTER 1Getting StartedSelf-Test Exercises 10. Which of the following may be used as variable names in Java? rate1, 1stPlayer, myprogram.java, long, TimeLimit, numberOfWindows11. Can a Java program have two different variables named number and Number? 12. Give the declaration for two variables called feet and inches. Both variables are of type int and both are to be initialized to zero in the declaration. 13. Give the declaration for two variables called count and distance. count is of type int and is initialized to zero. distance is of type double and is initialized to 1.5. 14. Write a Java assignment statement that will set the value of the variable distance to the value of the variable time multiplied by 80. All variables are of type int. 15. Write a Java assignment statement that will set the value of the variable interest to the value of the variable balance multiplied by the value of the variable rate. The variables are of type double. 16. What is the output produced by the following lines of program code? char a, b; a = 'b'; System.out.println(a); b = 'c'; System.out.println(b); a = b; System.out.println(a);Assignment Compatibility As a general rule, you cannot store a value of one type in a variable of another type. For example, the compiler will object to the following: int intVariable; intVariable = 2.99;assigning int values to doublevariablesThe problem is a type mismatch. The constant 2.99 is of type double and the variable intVariable is of type int. There are some special cases where it is permitted to assign a value of one type to a variable of another type. It is acceptable to assign a value of an integer type, such as int, to a variable of a floating-point type, such as the type double. For example, the following is both legal and acceptable style: double doubleVariable; doubleVariable = 2;The preceding will set the value of the variable named doubleVariable equal to 2.0. 54. Expressions and Assignment StatementsSimilarly, assignments of integer type variables to floating-point type variables are also allowed. For example, the following is permitted: int intVariable; intVariable = 42; double doubleVariable; doubleVariable = intVariable;More generally, you can assign a value of any type in the following list to a variable of any type that appears further down in the list: byte > short > int > long > float > doubleintegers and booleansFor example, you can assign a value of type int to a variable of type long, float, or double (or of course to a variable of type int), but you cannot assign a value of type int to a variable of type byte or short. Note that this is not an arbitrary ordering of the types. As you move down the list from left to right, the range of allowed values for the types becomes larger. You can assign a value of type char to a variable of type int or to any of the numeric types that follow int in our list of types (but not to those that precede int). However, in most cases it is not wise to assign a character to an int variable, because the result could be confusing.3 If you want to assign a value of type double to a variable of type int, then you must change the type of the value by using a type cast, as explained in the subsection later in this chapter entitled Type Casting. In many languages other than Java, you can assign integers to variables of type boolean and assign boolean values to integer variables. You cannot do that in Java. In Java, the boolean values true and false are not integers nor will they be automatically converted to integers. (In fact, it is not even legal to do an explicit type cast from the type boolean to the type int or vice versa. Explicit type casts are discussed later in this chapter in the subsection Type Casting.)Constants constants literalsConstants or literals are names for one specific value. For example, 2 and 3.1459 are two constants. We prefer the name constants because it contrasts nicely with the word variables. Constants do not change value; variables can change their values.3Readerswho have used certain other languages, such as C or C++, may be surprised to learn that you cannot assign a value of type char to a variable of type byte. This is because Java uses the Unicode character set rather than the ASCII character set, and so Java reserves two bytes of memory for each value of type char, but naturally only reserves one byte of memory for values of type byte. This is one of the few cases where you might notice that Java uses the Unicode character set. Indeed, if you convert from an int to a char or vice versa, you can expect to get the usual correspondence of ASCII numbers and characters. It is also true that you cannot assign a value of type char to a variable of type short, even though they both use two bytes of memory.21 55. 22CHAPTER 1Getting StartedAssignment Compatibilities You can assign a value of any type on the following list to a variable of any type that appears further down on the list: byte > short > int > long > float > double In particular, note that you can assign a value of any integer type to a variable of any floatingpoint type. You can also assign a value of type char to a variable of type int or of any type that followers int in the above list.e notationInteger constants are written in the way you are used to writing numbers. Constants of type int (or any other integer type) must not contain a decimal point. Constants of floatingpoint types (float and double) may be written in either of two forms. The simple form for floating-point constants is like the everyday way of writing decimal fractions. When written in this form, a floating-point constant must contain a decimal point. No number constant (neither integer nor floating point) in Java may contain a comma. A more complicated notation for floating-point constants, such as constants of type double, is called scientific notation or floating-point notation and is particularly handy for writing very large numbers and very small fractions. For instance, 3.67 * 105, which is the same as 367000.0, is best expressed in Java by the constant 3.67e5. The number 5.89 * 10-4, which is the same as 0.000589, is best expressed in Java by the constant 5.89e4. The e stands for exponent and means multiply by 10 to the power that follows. The e may be either upper- or lowercase. Think of the number after the e as telling you the direction and number of digits to move the decimal point. For example, to change 3.49e4 to a numeral without an e, move the decimal point 4 places to the right to obtain 34900.0, which is another way of writing the same number. If the number after the e is negative, move the decimal point the indicated number of spaces to the left, inserting extra zeros if need be. So, 3.49e2 is the same as 0.0349. The number before the e may contain a decimal point, although that is not required. However, the exponent after the e definitely must not contain a decimal point. Constants of type char are expressed by placing the character in single quotes, as illustrated in what follows: char symbol = 'Z';Note that the left and right single quote symbols are the same symbol. 56. Expressions and Assignment StatementsWhat Is Doubled? How did the floating-point type double get its name? Is there another type for floatingpoint numbers called single that is half as big? Something like that is true. There is a type that uses half as much storage, namely the type float. Many programming languages traditionally used two types for floating-point numbers. One type used less storage and was very imprecise (that is, it did not allow very many significant digits). The second type used double the amount of storage and so could be much more precise; it also allowed numbers that were larger (although programmers tend to care more about precision than about size). The kind of numbers that used twice as much storage were called double precision numbers; those that used less storage were called single precision. Following this tradition, the type that (more or less) corresponds to this double precision type in Java was named double in Java. The type that corresponds to single precision in Java was called float. (Actually, the type name double was inherited from C++, but this explanation applies to why the type was named double in C++, and so ultimately it is the explanation of why the type is called double in Java.)Constants for strings of characters are given in double quotes, as illustrated by the following line taken from Display 1.1: System.out.println("Welcome to Java.");quotesBe sure to notice that string constants are placed inside of double quotes, while constants of type char are placed inside of single quotes. The two kinds of quotes mean different things. In particular, 'A' and "A" mean different things. 'A' is a value of type char and can be sto