1

Ecosystem observations

• Living and non-livingcomponents?

• Similarities anddifferences?

Communities

Populations

Organismsspecies

Ecology

Ecosystems

Biosphere

Geosphere

Components?• Millions of microorganisms• Minerals/Nutrients

– O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg• Decaying organic matter (humus)• Void space – water• Void space – air

Geosphere: soil

Properties?• Porosity• Permeability• Color• Grain size• Soil Texture• pH - Acid, < 7.0 - Alkaline, > 7.0

Geosphere: soil

O - surface litter layer• Humus provides N, K, binds particles,enhances soil moisture retention

A - topsoil layer• Most productive layer• Mixture of organic / inorganic products

B & C – Subsoil to substratum• Dense• Lower in organic matter

Geosphere: soil horizons

2

Atmosphere

PrecipitationPrecipitation

Transpiration

Condensation

Evaporation

Ocean storage

Transpirationfrom plants

Precipitationto land

Groundwater movement (slow)

Evaporationfrom land Evaporation

from ocean Precipitationto ocean

Infiltration andPercolation

Rain clouds

RunoffSurface runoff

(rapid)

Surfacerunoff(rapid)

Hydrosphere

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat Heat Heat

Detritivores(decomposers and detritus feeders)

First Trophic Level

Second TrophicLevel

Third Trophic Level

Fourth Trophic Level

Solarenergy

Producers(plants)

Primaryconsumers(herbivores)

Secondaryconsumers(carnivores)

Tertiaryconsumers

(top carnivores)

BiosphereFood chain and trophic levels

Primary ConsumersHerbivores

Plant parasites

Secondary ConsumersOmnivoresCarnivores

Animal parasitesScavengers

ProducersGreen plantsSome bacteriaSolar Energy

Plant nutrientsFrom atmosphere, soil and water

DecomposersBacteriaFungi: Bracket, cup, Pore fungi, Chanterelles, Gilled mushrooms, etc.Slime molds Water molds

• Vertebrate Grazers and Seed-eaters: Deer, elk; mice, rabbits,squirrels; Seed- and fruit-eatingbirds• Invertebrate Grazers and Seed-eaters: Herbivorous insects• Parasites on Plants: Fungi,bacteria, parasitic floweringplants; insect galls, nematodeworms, some protozoa

•Vertebrate Omnivores: Blackbear, raccoon, opossum, crow•Vertebrate Carnivores:Coyotes, bats, bobcats,weasels, mole shrews; manybirds: owls, flickers, warblers,etc.•Invertebrate Carnivores: Manyinsects like beetles, wasps•Animal Parasites: Worms,protozoa, bacteria, fungi•Scavengers: Crows, manyinvertebrates

Autotrophs (producers)Net primary productivity: rate at which producers turnsolar energy to biomass minus respiration, or the

energy available to consumers (chlorophyll mg/m3)

http://www.wetlabs.com/images/doe/chlscanl.gif

Willapa Bay, WA

3

Source: NASA

Washington Native Plant SocietyAutotrophs (producers)

Red Cedar Western hemlockDouglas fir

Washington Native Plant SocietyAutotrophs (producers)

http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/temprain.htm

Bigleaf Maple

Red alderMadrone

Washington Native Plant Society

Cascade Oregon grape

Autotrophs (producers)

http://www.sfu.ca/halk-ethnobiology/html/plants/redhuckleberry.htm

http://denisewymore.wordpress.com/2010/04/

Devil’s Club

Red Huckleberry

Salal

• Nonnative, invasive

Autotrophs (producers)

http

://w

ww

.wog

amea

ndfis

h.co

m/h

untin

g/el

k-hu

ntin

g/w

o_aa

0955

03a/

http://en.wikipedia.org/w

iki/File:OregonB

lacktail.jpghttp://en.w

ikipedia.org/wiki/File:A

mericanR

edSquirrel.jpg

http://dnrc.mt.gov/forestry/Assistance/Pests/tussockmoth.asp

http

://w

ww

.gat

orfa

rm.c

om/b

irds.

htm

l

Elk

Black capped chickadeeBanana slugDouglas squirrel

Black tailed deer

Douglass Fir tussock Moth

4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OregonBlacktail.jpg

http://oalginsbachr.wordpress.com/fauna/http://stockpix.com/stock/animals/birds/raptorialbirds/owls/4992.htm

http://maddogenglishw

oman.w

ordpress.com/category/w

ildlife/

http

://w

ww

.bat

snor

thw

est.o

rg/m

yev_

galle

ry.h

tml

http

://sh

are3

.esd

105.

wed

net.e

du/rs

ande

lin/F

ield

guid

e/A

nim

alpa

ges/

Inse

cts/

Bee

s-w

asps

.htm

#Spi

der_

Was

p

Raccoon Cougar, or Mountain lion

Spider wasp

Western long ear bat Spotted OwlBlack bear

http://comm

ons.wikim

edia.org/wiki/File:S

lime_M

old_Olym

pic_National_P

ark_North_Fork_S

ol_Duc.jpg

Turkey tail mushroom

http

://w

ww

.bob

kelle

rpho

to.c

om/

http

://w

ww

.mar

ietta

.edu

/~bi

ol/b

iom

es/te

mpr

ain.

htm

Slime mold

Cup fungusChanterelle

Nutrient Cycles: Sulfur

(H2S)

(H2SO43-)(SO3)

(SO2)

(CH3)2Sphytoplankton

(SO42-)

(NH4)2SO4

(H2S)(xS2-)

(H2S)

(H2SO43-)(SO3)

(SO2)

(CH3)2Sphytoplankton

(SO42-)

(NH4)2SO4

(H2S)(S2-)

Humans release sulfur dioxide by:• Burning coal and oil• Refining petroleum• Converting metallic ores into free metals (copper, lead, and zinc)

PrecipitationPrecipitation

Transpiration

Condensation

Evaporation

Ocean storage

Transpirationfrom plants

Precipitationto land

Groundwater movement (slow)

Evaporationfrom land Evaporation

from ocean Precipitationto ocean

Infiltration andPercolation

Rain clouds

RunoffSurface runoff

(rapid)

Surfacerunoff(rapid)

Nutrient Cycles: Water Nutrient Cycles: Carbon

5

Nutrient Cycles: Nitrogen Nutrient Cycles: Phosphorus

• Indicator• Keystone• Foundation

Species• serve as early warnings of ecosystem damage• Puget Sound indicator species of toxic contam.

– Chinook/coho salmon– Mussels– Harbor seals– English sole

• Puget Sound indicatorspecies of human waste

– Shellfish “Canary in the coal mine”

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v404/n6779/abs/404752a0.html

Species: Indicator

Nearly 1 in 3 of 5,743described amphibianspecies are in decline

• determine types and numbers of other species ina community

Species: Keystone

StarfishSea otter

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/pugetsound/species/salmon.html

• determine types and numbers of other species ina community

Species: Keystone

Chinook salmon

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/pugetsound/species/salmon.html

“salmon runs in SE Alaska add up to 170 tons ofphosphorous per year to Lake Illiamna3, and the numberof salmon carcasses carried by brown bears … addsphosphorous to terrestrial systems at a rate of 6.77 kg/ha-- the equivalent application rate of commercial fertilizersfor evergreen trees4.”

http://www.wildsalmoncenter.org/about/whySalmon.php

6

• create and enhance habitatsthat can benefit other species

Species: Foundation

Coral

Western hemlock

DNR/Helen Berry

http

://w

ashi

ngto

ndnr

.wor

dpre

ss.c

om

http://ww

w.statesym

bolsusa.org/Washington/treeW

esternHem

lock.html

Eelgrass

Species Interactions• Competition• Predation• Parasitism• Mutualism• Commensalism

Species Interactions• Competition, specialization, resource partitioning

Species Interactions• Predation

– Predators may havecamouflage, speed,patience, injectparalyzing chemicals

Species Interactions• Predation

– Prey evolve defenses

Species Interactions• Parasitism

– Parasite benefits, host is harmed

http://share3.esd105.wednet.edu/rsandelin/Fieldguide/A

nimalpages/Insects/B

ees-wasps.htm

#Braconid_W

asp

7

Species Interactions

Parasitism• live in host

– microorganisms,tapeworms

• live outside host– fleas, ticks, mistletoe

plants, sea lampreys• little contact with host

– dump-nesting birds

http://ww

w.allaboutbirds.org/guide/B

rown-headed_C

owbird/id

http://chickadeee.wordpress.com

/2008/09/17/seriously/

Species Interactions• Parasitism: myco-heterotrophs

Indian Pipe Candystick

Species Interactions• Mutualism

– species interact in a way that benefits both

Lichen: algae + fungusCleaner fish

Species Interactions• Mutualism

mycorrhizal association on pine roots

• Commensalism– benefits one species but has

little/no effect on the other

Species Interactions

Epiphytes

Population growth

Stable growth

8

Population growth

Stable growth

Irruptive orMathusian growth

r-selected species• Many small offspring (400/yr)• Little - no parental care of offspring• Early reproductive age (3-4 mo.)• Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age• Pioneer species

k-selected species• Fewer, larger offspring (2-3 every 2 years)• High parental care of offspring (born blind)• Later reproductive age (4-7 yrs old)• Most offspring survive to reproductive age• Late successional species

Reproductive patterns

Biomes

• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans• Small organic molecules form in the sea• Large organic molecule form in the sea• First protocells form in the sea

• Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea• Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas• Multicellular organisms form in the seas, later on land

Evolution 4.5 0

today

1234

Billions of years ago

Red algae Credit: Berkeley, Palomar CollegeHumans

Evolution:Homonids

4.5 01234

Billions of years ago today

Source: Reed et al., PLOS Biology

• genetic variability• traits must be heritable• trait must lead to differential reproduction• leads to adaptations: heritable traits that enable

survival and reproduction- Structural, behavioral/sexual, physiological

Evolution: Natural selection how?

9

Maui Parrotbill

Kuai AkialaoaAmakihi

Crested Honeycreeper

Apapane

Akiapolaau

Unknown finch ancestor

Greater Koa-finch

Kona Grosbeak

Structuraladaptations

• mutations: random changes in the structure or # ofDNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited byoffspring

Evolution: Genetic variation how?

• random selection• allows maladaptive traits in small populations

- probability

- chance

Evolution: Genetic drift how?

Worms of different colorover 4 generations:

• Large gene pool- Increases biological fitness of the species

• Small gene pool- Fewer traits for natural selection- Genetic drift has significant affects- Increased potential of extinction

Evolution

Hunted to near extinction,30,000 to 1,000 in 1900

Behavioral, orPhysiological, orStructural

Genetic drift

Coevolution

Convergent evolution

EvolutionSpeciation through

adaptations

Speciation through chance/probability/human selectionInteracting species engage in aback and forth genetic contest

Organisms not closely related,independently evolve similar traits

due to similar ecological niches