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Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education What Educators Have Learned JANUARY 2004

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Page 1: Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education · 25–44 for registered Aboriginal Peoples has improved by 14 per cent over the decade, compared to non-registered Aboriginal Peoples

Aboriginal Peoples and

Post-Secondary EducationWhat Educators Have Learned

JANUARY 2004

Page 2: Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education · 25–44 for registered Aboriginal Peoples has improved by 14 per cent over the decade, compared to non-registered Aboriginal Peoples
Page 3: Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education · 25–44 for registered Aboriginal Peoples has improved by 14 per cent over the decade, compared to non-registered Aboriginal Peoples

Aboriginal Peoples and

Post-Secondary EducationWhat Educators Have Learned

JANUARY 2004

Prepared by:

R.A. Malatest & Associates Ltd.

Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation

1000 Sherbrooke West

Suite 800

Montreal, QC

H3A 3R2

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Published in 2004 byThe Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation1000 Sherbrooke Street West, Suite 800, Montreal, QC, Canada H3A 3R2Toll Free: 1-877-786-3999Fax: (514) 985-5987Web: www.millenniumscholarships.caEmail: [email protected]

Does Money Matter: Millennium Research SeriesNumber 8

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication

R.A. Malatest & Associates Ltd.Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education: What Educators Have Learned

Includes bibliographical references.ISSN 1704-8435 Millennium Research Series (Online)

Cover Design: InterpôlesLayout Design: Charlton + Company Design Group

The opinions expressed in this research document are those of the authors and do not representofficial policies of the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation, and other agencies ororganizations that may have provided support, financial or otherwise, for this project.

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Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

The Aboriginal Population of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8Methodological Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Lack of Reliable Quantitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Methodological Limitations of the Current Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Barriers to Aboriginal Post-Secondary Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Historical Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Social Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Geographic and Demographic Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14Cultural Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Individual/Personal Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Financing Post-Secondary Education for Aboriginal Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Government Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Private Sources of Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Strategies for Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23Government Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23Access Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Community Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26Aboriginal Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28Partnerships Between Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32Aboriginal-Geared Programs at Mainstream Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33Aboriginal Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34Initiatives in the Science and Health Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34Support for Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37Alternative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Table of Contents

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This paper examines Aboriginal post-secondary education through the eyes of stakeholdersworking in the field, describing practices and initiatives believed to help increase enrolment andcompletion rates. This qualitative approach—which has evident methodological shortcomings—was used because there is virtually no worthwhile empirical or quantitative evidence on the subject.

Although post-secondary enrolment and completion rates for Aboriginal people have beensteadily increasing over the past two decades, they remain significantly lower than those of non-Aboriginal Canadians. In order to contextualize the issues, a first section explains the barriers toAboriginal participation in post-secondary education. While socio-economic factors such aspoverty and unemployment put them at an obvious disadvantage, Aboriginal students also facemore subtle barriers such as discrimination, low self-concept and institutional insensitivity toAboriginal cultures. Many Aboriginal students arrive in post-secondary institutions withoutadequate high school preparation, others struggle to balance education with family responsibilities.Combined with a history of forced assimilation through educational institutions, the barriers toAboriginal participation in post-secondary education are formidable.

The next section outlines various initiatives put in place to make post-secondary educationmore affordable to Aboriginal Peoples—most notably, the federal government’s Post-SecondaryStudent Support Program administered through Band Councils. While the student supportprogram has made post-secondary education possible for many Aboriginal students, it has short-comings in terms of the quantity of funding, who is funded and the process used to awardgrants.

The final section looks at various strategies and initiatives that have been used to make post-secondary education more accessible, relevant and responsive to Aboriginal peoples. Themain strategies described are:• Access programs:The access programs, which guide and support Aboriginal people and other

under-represented groups, offer transition, support and guidance that has helped to improveAboriginal success rates in Manitoba.

• Community Delivery: Community delivery bridges the gap caused by relocation to urban ordistant schools, and promotes Aboriginal awareness in faculty and staff. It was also shown topromote recruitment of often under-represented groups such as Aboriginal people in Northernand remote communities.

• Aboriginal Control of Education: Allowing Aboriginal control of education is intended to over-come the marginalization Aboriginal people feel in the mainstream post-secondary educationsystem, as well as increasing Aboriginal self-determination at the post-secondary level. Itincludes creation and delivery of curriculum by and for Aboriginal people.

• Partnerships between Aboriginal Communities and Mainstream Educational Institutions: Byworking with Aboriginal communities as partners, educational institutions have developedrelevant and accessible curricula and programs, and instated a degree of Aboriginal trust and

1

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confidence in mainstream post-secondary institutions.

• Student Support that Addresses Aboriginal Needs: Aboriginal students benefit from personaland academic support such as that that offered through the First Nations House of Learningat the University of British Columbia, which offers students a “home away from home” to helpalleviate the feelings of isolation and loneliness that many Aboriginal people feel, especiallyat large urban universities and colleges.

For the most part, stakeholders had positive things to say about all of these initiatives; theygenerally recommended that such programs be enhanced and expanded. Many gave thesestrategies some of the credit for increasing Aboriginal enrolment and completion in recent years.

Throughout the paper, comparative examples drawn from Australia, New Zealand and theUnited States are used to show that the issues surrounding Aboriginal post-secondary educationare not unique to Canada, and that educators have learned similar lessons in all four countries.

A B O R I G I N A L P E O P L E S A N D P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N : W H AT E D U C AT O R S H AV E L E A R N E D2

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Acknowledgments

This report was prepared by R.A. Malatest & Associates Ltd. for the Canada MillenniumScholarship Foundation, in partnership with the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada(CMEC).

As is apparent by the significant participation of educators, Aboriginal education coordina-tors and others in this project, it’s clear many people attach considerable importance toAboriginal post-secondary education issues. Without their participation and co-operation, thisresearch could not have been successfully completed.

3

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In Canada more and more Aboriginal students are enrolling in post-secondary programs andcompleting them. In fact, Aboriginal student enrolment rates are growing substantially faster thanthose of other demographic groups, albeit from a very low base. Institutions are increasinglycommitted to helping Aboriginal students. Nevertheless, retention and success rates forAboriginal students remain much lower than those of their non-Aboriginal counterparts.

At the same time, Canada’s economy demands ever-higher levels of formal education foremployment; the correlation between educational attainment and employment, economic wellbeing and health has been well established. The low rate of formal education in the Aboriginalpopulation will likely determine the overall state of Aboriginal society’s health, wealth andpotential for the future.

This paper examines various strategies, initiatives and practices for increasing the number ofAboriginal people in post-secondary education. It provides an overview of the current situationin Canada, with comparative examples drawn from the United States, New Zealand andAustralia.

Tracking enrolment and retention is, admittedly, a limited means of gauging the progress of Aboriginal education. Critics point out that many Aboriginal people avoid post-secondaryeducation because of its perceived irrelevance and assimilationist bias. If post-secondary educa-tion does not address the social, cultural or economic needs of Aboriginal peoples, then lowenrolment may not be a bad thing.

A related argument, raised by Colin Bourke et al in a study of Indigenous Australian studentperformances, is that the idea of educational success is subject to culture.1 Some students meettheir educational objectives by completing part of a course or a program, without completingthe entire program. Dropout rates do not take into account that many students return to theirstudies. Many dropouts actually leave temporarily due to other responsibilities.

These may be valid arguments, but it is important to remember that Aboriginal post-secondaryeducation is not what it used to be. Over the course of the last generation, it has been trans-forming to meet the needs of Aboriginal communities. Stakeholders interviewed say that thesechanges have altered what Aboriginal students study and how they relate to their education; theyhave also boosted the number of Aboriginal students enrolled.

This paper supports the goal of increasing Aboriginal enrolment and completion. Its main concern is to show what strategies help to achieve this goal. It begins by examining the barriers to Aboriginal participation in post-secondary education, then examines fundingstrategies to overcome Aboriginal student poverty. Finally it scrutinizes various strategies andinitiatives to make post-secondary education more relevant, manageable and empowering forAboriginal peoples.

Introduction

1. Bourke, Colin J., Jennifer K. Burden and Samantha Moore, 1996. Factors Affecting Performance of Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander Students at Australian Universities: A Case Study. Department of Employment,Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Higher Education Division.

5

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ABORIGINAL POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION DATA

A B O R I G I N A L P E O P L E S A N D P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N : W H AT E D U C AT O R S H AV E L E A R N E D6

The overall state of Aboriginal education inCanada, especially at the post-secondarylevel, is poor. Although there have been moreAboriginal individuals in post-secondaryprograms in the past two decades than in allearlier generations, and many moreAboriginal youth go on to college and univer-sity programs after high school or return asadults, Aboriginal people are still significantlyunder-represented in enrolment at Canadiancolleges, universities and other post-second-ary institutions. The increasing number ofAboriginal graduates gives the impression thateducation outcomes are fast improving butthere are severe limitations on this growth.

The Aboriginal Population of CanadaIn the 1996 census 799,010 people in Canadareported they were North American Indian,Métis or Inuit, amounting to about 3 per centof Canada’s total population.2 About two-thirds of this population was North AmericanIndian, one-quarter were Métis and five percent were Inuit. The Aboriginal populationwas, on average, 10 years younger than thegeneral population. That will mean largeincreases within the Aboriginal working-agepopulation over the next decade comparedwith the non-Aboriginal population. TheAboriginal population is the fastest growingpopulation group in Canada, with a birthrateabout 70 per cent higher than for non-Aboriginal Canadians.3

The 1996 census also reported that ofrespondents 15 years of age or older notattending school, three per cent of registeredIndians and four per cent of other Aboriginalidentity groups had obtained universitydegrees, compared with 14 per cent of allother Canadians.4 The percentage of regis-tered Indians with some post-secondaryeducation was 37 per cent—for all otherAboriginal identity groups it was 47 per cent,significantly lower than the rate for all otherCanadians at 51 per cent.

Education data reflect a wide gap betweenAboriginal and non-Aboriginal educationlevels. Table 1 compares education data fromthe censuses of 1986, 1991 and 1996.

Rates of enrolment and completion haveimproved for registered and other Aboriginalpeople, part of an overall trend of improve-ment for all populations. The rate of educationfor the major working age category of ages25–44 for registered Aboriginal Peoples hasimproved by 14 per cent over the decade,compared to non-registered AboriginalPeoples at 10 per cent, but the rate for non-Aboriginal Canadians has also increased, byeight per cent. The gap has closed, but onlyslightly.

2. Statistics Canada, Total Population by Aboriginal group, 1996 Census.

3. Statistics Canada, The DAILY, 1996 Census: Aboriginal data.

4. Research and Analysis Directorate, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1996. Aboriginal Post-SecondaryEducation and Labour Market Outcomes Canada 1996, i.

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CENSUS YEAR1986

1991

1996

Source: Research and Analysis Directorate, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1996. Aboriginal Post-Secondary Educationand Labour Market Outcomes Canada 1996.

AGE15-2425-4445-64

65+Total15-2425-4445-64

65+Total15-2425-4445-64

65+Total

REGISTEREDINDIAN

15%35%15%4%

23%19%44%26%8%

31%20%49%37%10%37%

OTHER ABORIGINAL PEOPLE

24%48%28%14%36%28%55%40%18%43%29%58%47%20%47%

OTHERCANADIANS

38%56%37%23%43%40%60%43%26%48%41%64%50%20%51%

TABLE 1: PROPORTION OF CANADIANS WHO WERE TAKING OR HAD COMPLETEDPOST-SECONDARY EDUCATION

I N T R O D U C T I O N 7

5. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999.

6. Bourke, Colin J. & Jennifer K. Burden, December, 1996. Factors Affecting Performance of Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Students at Australian Universities: A Case Study, DETYA document.

7. Bourke, Colin J. & Jennifer K. Burden, December, 1996. Factors Affecting Performance of Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Students at Australian Universities: A Case Study, DETYA document.

8. Walker, Roz, August 2000. Indigenous Performance in Western Australia Universities: Reframing Retention andSuccess, DETYA document.

ABOR IG INAL EDUCAT ION RATES IN AUSTRAL IA

Approximately 2.1 per cent of Australians are Indigenous and Torres Strait Islanders.5 According tostatistics from the Department of Education, Training and Youth Higher Education in Australia thenumber of university students from those groups has doubled in recent years and Indigenous studentaccess to higher education is growing at a faster rate than for other Australian students. StillIndigenous and Torres Strait Islander students comprise only one per cent of post-secondary enrolment.6

Further Australian statistics show:…Aboriginal students are retained within institutions at 78 per cent of the rate for non-Indigenous students.7

Other recent reports have noted lower outcomes in terms of success, and provide even more dismal findings.8

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METHODOLOGY

A B O R I G I N A L P E O P L E S A N D P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N : W H AT E D U C AT O R S H AV E L E A R N E D8

While by no means an exhaustive study ofissues surrounding Aboriginal post-secondaryeducation, this report has employed severalresearch methods.

An extensive literature search and reviewwas conducted to gather information on post-secondary Aboriginal education in Canada,the United States, Australia and New Zealand.Stakeholder suggestions and research docu-ments assisted this review. Members of bothgovernment and academic institutionsprovided less readily available research infor-mation. Documents were supplemented withrelevant statistical data.

Interviews were conducted with 59 stake-holders, including people at all levels of post-secondary education, from assistant deputyministers to Aboriginal student support advi-

sors. Stakeholders from the United States,Australia and New Zealand were also inter-viewed. Most stakeholders were interviewedby telephone or visits. Printed copies of theinterview questionnaire were sent to peopleunable to do telephone interviews. We visitededucational institutions across WesternCanada chosen for the following reasons:• they had pioneered unique strategies or

initiatives to retain and attract Aboriginalstudents

• the institutions had delivered specificprogramming for Aboriginal students forextensive periods of time

• the institutions were Aboriginal-controlledand were among the first that were, or

• individuals at the institutions had extensiveexperience working in programs and insti-tutions designed to serve Aboriginal post-

ABOR IG INAL EDUCAT ION RATES IN NEW ZEALAND

In 2000, New Zealand Mäori comprised approximately 15 per cent of the total population and 20 per cent of the total education population, including elementary, secondary and post-secondary. The number of Mäori students who enrol in post-secondary institutions is comparatively low,although it is increasing. In 1990, Mäori made up six per cent of all students attending NewZealand universities, in 1997 they made up nine per cent. As is the case in Canada, mature studentsand women made up disproportionately high numbers of those at the post-secondary level. MostAboriginal post-secondary students were over 25, and just over 55 per cent of them were women.Statistics show that the educational gap between Mäori and the rest of the students is getting wider.9

ABOR IG INAL EDUCAT ION RATES IN THE UN I T ED S TATES

The Native American population is underrepresented in post-secondary education. AmericanIndians make up approximately 1.5 per cent of the total American population of the population of two-year institutions, but only 0.5 per cent of four-year institutions.10 In a recent survey ofAmerican Indians at 32 American colleges and universities, it was found that there was only a 25 per cent graduation rate for the American Indians studied and a very low 45 per cent first-yearretention rate.11

9. Smith, Graham Hingangaroa, 2000. Maori Education: Revolution and Transformative Action CJNE Vol. 24, No. 1, 2000

10. U.S. Dept. of Ed, Digest of Education Statistics 1999, Table 209.

11. Wells, Robert N. Jr., 1997. The Native American Experience in Higher Education: Turning Around the Cycle of Failure II.

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secondary students.

In addition, several of the professionalsinterviewed were graduates of programsdesigned specifically to retain post-secondarystudents and most were of Aboriginal ancestry.

The following organizations and institu-tions were visited:• First Nations University of Canada

• Federation of Saskatchewan Indians

• Indian Teacher Education Program, Univer-sity of Saskatchewan

• Saskatchewan Indian Institute of Technologies

• Saskatchewan Urban Native Teacher Edu-cation Program, Dumont Technical Institute

• Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies

• Teaching Development Centre, Universityof Regina

• University of Regina

• University of Alberta

• University of British Columbia.

This report attempts to cover the majorthemes and points raised in the literaturereview, interviews and site visits. Program- orinstitution-specific statistics in literature orinterviews were incorporated into the generalunderstanding of issues related to the topic,not as a means to conduct a quantitativeanalysis of programs of practices, which isoutside the scope of this report.

Throughout this report the termAboriginal has been used to describe, ingeneral, First Nations, Métis and Inuit peopleof Canada. The term Aboriginal was also usedwhen referring to the original native peopleof all countries studied in this report. Whenparticular reference is made to particularAboriginal people, such as Alaska Natives or the Mäori, those terms have been used.Quotations from stakeholders have beeninterspersed throughout but the speakers arenot cited to protect their anonymity.

I N T R O D U C T I O N 9

METHODOLOGICALCHALLENGES

Lack of Reliable Quantitative DataWhile this project’s main objective was toidentify practices and issues surroundingincreasing retention and, especially, enrolmentrates for Aboriginal people at the post-secondary level, existing data do not allowthese issues to be quantified. When statisticalinformation is included in the report, it shouldbe seen as indicators of general observations.Statistical comparisons between programenrolment and completion rates were outsideof the scope of this work.

While many of the programs and initia-tives that were identified as having had positive impacts on improving Aboriginaleducation rates at the post-secondary levelhad quantitative data of their success rates,this data was collected either internally or from varying sources with differentassumptions and methodologies.

One methodological shortcoming is thelack of statistical data on Aboriginal ancestryby program. Many institutions have a limitedability to track Aboriginal enrolment or reten-tion rates. What data there were oftendepended on student self-identification,which could be based on varying definitionsof what it means to be Aboriginal. As a result,numbers for enrolment or completion areoften estimates. One stakeholder at collegehad to go through application forms manuallyto track Aboriginal status, and still had incom-plete findings.

They keep trying to get me to do different meas-urements [on enrolment and retention rates] but I don’t have the resources to do them.

–An Aboriginal advisor

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The overall statistical picture of the stateof Aboriginal education in Canada has beenderived from the census, because there is noother coordinated effort to track Aboriginaleducation levels over time. But census datashould be seen as general indicators ratherthan precise facts. Aboriginal stakeholders saymany Aboriginal people distrust the census.Those without an appropriate level of literacyin French or English do not complete censusrequests; others deliberately avoid givinginformation to the government. The resultsmay be biased toward those Aboriginal peoplewho have been formally educated and whoare less marginalized from the mainstream ofCanadian society. A further limitation oncensus data for the Aboriginal population isthat some large reserves were not enumeratedfor the census.

A B O R I G I N A L P E O P L E S A N D P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N : W H AT E D U C AT O R S H AV E L E A R N E D10

Methodological Limitations of the Current ReportThis study has an over-arching methodologi-cal limitation. Much of its information onstrategies to increase Aboriginal enrolmentand completion rates was collected fromstakeholders involved, who are obviously auseful source of information but could bebiased. They are often unable or reluctant to criticize existing initiatives and detailingshortcomings or failures of strategies in anarea many stakeholders feel is under-nourished may be seen as counter-productive.Also, the professional community of thoseinvolved in Aboriginal post-secondary educa-tion in Canada is small, which may discouragecriticism.

Throughout the site visits and interviews,stakeholders frequently noted the limitationsof government funding and educational infra-structure, but they rarely singled out existingpractices or initiatives as unsuccessfulattempts to improve Aboriginal participation.While it is possible that all existing practicesand initiatives have been successful, themethodological limitations of this reportsuggest the need for more comprehensivestudies that would include a larger statisticaltracking element.

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HISTORICAL BARRIERS

Before the late 1960s, the barriers toAboriginal participation in post-secondaryeducation were largely insurmountable.Government policies used schooling to assi-milate Aboriginal Peoples into mainstreamEuropean-Canadian society. Many Aboriginalstudents still see assimilation as a prominentfeature of post-secondary education, whichhas led to an over-arching distrust and hostility to education in many parts of theAboriginal community.

Historically Aboriginal people attainedhigher education at a price: an 1876 amendmentto the Indian Act forced them to relinquishtheir Indian status, a process called enfran-chisement. Even when the law changed afterWorld War II, education was powerfullyassimilative, and tended to alienate educatedAboriginal Peoples from their families andcommunities.

Shortly after 1911, the federal governmentamended the Indian Act to make schoolattendance mandatory for every childbetween the ages of seven and fifteen.Residential schools were set up in all areas ofCanada. The number of residential schoolsreached its peak in 1931 at 80. The last closedin 1986 and by the late 1990s, the majority ofStatus Indians attended band-operatedprimary and secondary schools or mainstream

11

provincial schools.The residential school system was the

most prominent example of assimilationistgovernment education policies. From the reli-gious and vocational training, to the rulesforbidding use of their language and culturalpractices, residential schools uprootedAboriginal culture and history and mademany Aboriginal communities distrust educa-tional institutions in general.

The most significant recent report onAboriginal issues was the federal RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoples of 1996which found that many of the problemsencountered in Aboriginal communitiestoday—violence, alcoholism, and loss ofpride and spirituality—can be traced back tothe sense of disconnect that Aboriginal chil-dren experienced as a result of being sent toa residential school. The legacy of residentialschools remains a major barrier to Aboriginalparticipation in post-secondary education.

SOCIAL BARRIERS

Lack of academic preparation is a significantbarrier to post-secondary education for manyAboriginal people. Canadian census data for1996 shows that in 1996, 53.6 per cent ofAboriginal populations aged 15+ had lessthan high school graduation; 8.6 per cent hadhigh school graduation only. There were

Barriers to Aboriginal Post-Secondary Success The challenges Aboriginal peoples face in post-secondary education are not unique; many barriersto access and success in the post-secondary system stem from the Aboriginal community’s troubledposition in Canadian society. One of the main themes of stakeholders and the literature reviewis that no program or initiative will be effective unless it factors in the entire scope of barriers.

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110,000 Status Indian students in all levels ofpublic education in 1997–1998, an increase of10,000 since 1991–92, but the total number ofhigh school graduates actually marginallydeclined during the same period.12

Aboriginal Peoples who do completehigh school often have weak skills, butreserve and remote schools typically do notoffer the academic preparation required tosucceed in post-secondary studies. Hull,Phillips & Polyzoi found in the 1980s thatmost reserve students were at least one yearbehind their expected grade level by the ageof 13. Reserve school evaluations and studiesin northern Ontario and the prairies haveconsistently confirmed poor academic levels.13

Poor academic preparation is a significantbarrier for Aboriginal post-secondary studentsand contributes to high Aboriginal drop-outrates at universities and colleges.

In interviews done with Aboriginaluniversity graduates for a 1992 report on a transition program at the University ofManitoba, respondents felt that among the key factors that dissuaded AboriginalPeoples from entering university were thelack of role models who had undertakenuniversity programs and inadequate school-ing before university. Respondents felt thatthe lack of role models meant university wasgenerally not seen as a viable option forAboriginal people.

A recent report commissioned by Indianand Northern Affairs Canada also concludedthat the relatively weak standing of Aboriginalgroups at the post-secondary level reflected apoor foundation at the early and secondarylevels of education.14 Stakeholders interviewedfor this research agreed. Said one stakeholder:

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The quality of education on the reservation forsecondary school does not prepare them for post-secondary life. They have to take make-upcourses when they get here, some get frustratedand drop out.

Many Aboriginal students do notcomplete high school (in British Columbia,only 38 per cent graduate from high school,compared to 77 per cent of non-AboriginalCanadians) If they attend post-secondaryeducation it is as mature students. Othersgraduate from high school but without necessary courses such as mathematics andscience, or lacking study skills, time manage-ment abilities and computer literacy. Oneperson we interviewed said their institutionhad raised its entrance requirements andexpected Aboriginal enrolment to decrease asa result.

Often Aboriginal students are aware ofthe limitations of their secondary education.One interviewee said:

In many cases native students come fromareas of the city where the educational systemis not as effective as other places and manynative students are non-confident learners.They have not had the system of support thatindicates they can do it. When you’re notsure university is going to be successful andyou are faced with a significant loan, the twoin combination are significant disincentives.Why would you incur that kind of debt if youdon’t know you will succeed?

One stakeholder in an interview said thatthere should be a financial incentive or awardfor graduating from high school.

12. Overview of DIAND Program DATA IMB/CIMD June, 2000.

13. J. Hull, R. Phillips, and E. Polyzoi, 1995. “Indian Control and Delivery of Special Education Services to Studentsin Band-operated Schools in Manitoba,” Alberta Journal of Educational Research, XLI: 1 (March, 1995).

14. Hull, J., 2000. Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Labour Market Outcomes Canada, 1996. PrologicaResearch Inc.

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Researchers Verna Kirkness and RayBarnhardt argue that the biggest problemAboriginal university students face is discrim-ination, which is a significant disincentive tohigher learning. To Aboriginal people, theuniversity often represents an impersonal andhostile environment in which their culture,traditions and values are not recognized.Kirkness and Barnhardt write that Aboriginalpeople are expected to leave their culturebehind and assume the trappings of a newform of reality.

Students who come to the university areexpected to adapt to its modus operandi ifthey wish to obtain the benefits (usually trans-lated to mean better, higher paying jobs) ofthe knowledge and skills it has to offer, thedesirability and value of which are presumedto be self-evident. From this point of view,when particular clusters of students, such asthose from First Nations backgrounds, do notreadily adapt to conventional institutionalnorms and expectations and do not achievelevels of “success” comparable to other

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students, the typical response is to focus onthe aberrant students and to intensify effortsat socializing them into the institutionalmilieu.15

The 1996 census shows high unemploy-ment among Aboriginal Peoples. Over all agegroups, the registered Indian unemploymentrate in 1996 was 26 per cent, compared to 19per cent among others with Aboriginal identity and nine per cent among otherCanadians. The unemployment rate amongregistered Indians in the 15 to 24 age groupwas esp-ecially high at 41 per cent.17 In manyAboriginal communities the unemploymentrate exceeds 50 per cent and in some itexceeds 75 per cent. Social assistance benefitsand seasonal jobs are often the main sourcesof income on some reserves and the majorityof Aboriginal families do not have adequateemployment income to pay for post-second-ary education. The majority of Aboriginalstudents must rely on assistance from othersources to attend college or university.

15. Verna J. Kirkness and Ray Barnhardt, 1991. “First Nations and Higher Education: The Four R’s- Respect,Relevance, Reciprocity, Responsibility.” Journal of American Indian Education. Vol.30, No.3, May 1991

16. Roz Walker, August 2000. Indigenous Performance in Western Australia Universities: Reframing Retention andSuccess, DETYA document

17. Hull, Jeremy, October 2000 Aboriginal Post Secondary Education and Labour Market Outcomes, Canada, 1966,DIAND Document.

CULTURAL INSENS I T IV I TY IN AUSTRAL IA

In research done in Australia, 43 per cent of Indigenous Australian and Torres Strait Islanderstudents said some staff were insensitive to cultural issues. Student comments, which highlighted thelack of cultural awareness and sensitivity among staff members, particularly in mainstream courses,included the following:16

The majority of mainstream staff are ignorant of Indigenous culture and history

Some staff have veiled prejudices—comments made in my presence, unaware of myAboriginal descent

In the same study approximately 43 per cent of students identified feelings of isolation or culturalmarginalization as important factors influencing them to consider withdrawing from studies.

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GEOGRAPHIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC BARRIERS

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Many of our students are single parents and donot have the financial resources to attend schooland look after their families.

Many Aboriginal students have family responsibili-ties and need additional financial support to carrythem through the time it takes to attend college.

—Quotes from stakeholder interviews

Our statistical evidence and interviewsindicate that family responsibilities often keepAboriginal students from staying in school. In 1997–98, 66 per cent of Status Aboriginalpost-secondary students were women.18

Internationally, Aboriginal women make upthe majority of Aboriginal students—in someprograms, stakeholders reported that as manyas 80 per cent of Aboriginal students werefemale and are more likely to have depen-dants than their non-Aboriginal counterparts.A 1999 British Columbia study of formerstudents of colleges and institutes showedAboriginal students were more likely to havea spouse or partner, to be older than thegeneral population, and to have children.19

Aboriginal communities also tend to sharefamily responsibilities communally, which caninterrupt post-secondary programs.

Aboriginal students are, on average, olderthan their non-Aboriginal counterparts. Thishas an effect on the resources they need andhow they study. Mature students normallyhave better life skills than recent high schoolgraduates but may lack basic academic skills.The Brandon University Northern TeacherEducation Program (BUNTEP), which has ahigh mature-student population, has a twelve-week basic skills component.

Tuition and books are often not the barrier. Thebarrier is expenses for daycare, transportation,housing, food and family expenses.

Pay for simple bus passes, top-up for day-carebeyond provincial subsidies. The cost of textbookshas gone through the roof and students tend tobeg, borrow and photocopy texts.

The Aboriginal student is still in the world ofsurvival and not able to give full energy to learning.

—from stakeholder interviews

Research literature emphasizes povertyand lack of financial support as barriers toAboriginal post-secondary education, butthere is little on the specific financial prob-lems of day-care, housing and relocationcosts. While financial assistance such as loans,grants and bursaries are calculated to takeinto account the costs of housing and depen-dants, they are often underestimates that don’tallow for the specific expenses of AboriginalPeoples.

Aboriginal students often leave financialand care networks to attend universities andcolleges. Most of the programs offered thatare specific to Aboriginal learners at the post-secondary level, other than those offeredthrough community delivery, are in urbancentres where the cost of living is higher, sostrategies to improve the enrolment andretention rates of Aboriginal people at the post-secondary level must factor in theadditional expenses and burdens that areimposed on Aboriginal people when theymove to expensive, urban communities awayfrom the support of family and friends.

18. Overview of DIAND Program DATA IMB/CIMD June 2000

19. B.C. Ministry of Advanced Education, Training and Technology, 1999. 1999 B.C. College and Institute AboriginalFormer Student Outcomes.

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CULTURAL BARRIERS

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Too often, little of what Aboriginal studentsbring in the way of cultural knowledge, tradi-tion and values is recognized or respected inthe post-secondary system. The universityworld is substantially different fromAboriginal reality. As stated by Barnhardt:

Students must acquire and accept a new formof consciousness, an orientation which notonly displaces, but often devalues the world-views they bring with them. For many, this isa greater sacrifice than they are willing tomake, so they withdraw and go home,branded a failure. Those who do survive inthe academic environment for four or moreyears often find themselves caught betweentwo worlds, neither of which can fully satisfytheir acquired tastes and aspirations, andtherefore they enter into a struggle to recon-cile their conflicting forms of consciousness.20

Universities typically have long-estab-lished practices seen as serving the values andcultural norms of the dominant, non-Aboriginal society. The Royal Commission onAboriginal Peoples reported:

There is the question of the training andeducation programs themselves. Manyignore Aboriginal perspectives, values andissues and give scant attention to the workenvironment in which students will use theirprofessional knowledge and skills. In theinformal culture of the institution, there may

20. Barnhardt, Ray, 2001. Domestication of the Ivory Tower: Institutional Adaptation to Cultural Distance.Unpublished paper.

21. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Vol.3 chapter 5.

AUSTRAL IA : THE AGE OF ABOR IG INAL S TUDENTS

A review of the Indigenous student population in Western Australia found that 75 per cent of thestudents were twenty-five or older, compared with mainstream students who were mostly undertwenty-five. Many of the mature students there, as in Canada, had not completed secondary school.

be little or no affirmation of Aboriginal iden-tity, and the environment may replicate thenegative features that led students to drop outof school in the first place. Aboriginal supportsystems — peer networks, family activities,financial, personal and academic coun-selling, or daycare services — may not be inplace. The lack of institutional readiness todevelop these supports is a significant deter-rent to the completion of programs forstudents who do enrol. Lack of Aboriginalcontrol, strongly evidenced in the educationof children and youth, is also encountered inthe education of adults.21

The culture of the post-secondary systemwas a prevalent theme in the literaturereviewed and in the interviews undertakenfor this project; universities and colleges arenot consistently concerned with the effects ofculture on students. Almost all faculty arefrom different cultural and socio-economicgroups than Aboriginal students. Most do not have any depth of understanding ofAboriginal culture, traditions and core values,neither do they recognize the diversity ofAboriginal communities or understand thatnot all Aboriginal student needs are the same.There is little recognition and understandingof the different cognition and learning styles.Often for the Aboriginal student, as EberHampton points out, “western education is

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hostile in its structure, its curriculum, itscontext, and its personnel.”22 As one inter-viewee said:

[Non-Aboriginal people] are allowed to be ignorant of Aboriginal people. Thus weexercise racism unconsciously.

The percentage of Aboriginal staff at thepost-secondary level does not reflect thegeneral population. In order to foster a moreparticipatory and welcoming environment,post-secondary institutions must have moreAboriginal staff and faculty.

Aboriginal representation in faculty andsupport staff is important for a number ofreasons:• to provide Aboriginal expertise in aca-

demic areas

• to serve as role models and mentors

• to act as advisors to students

• for general equity.

Aboriginal teachers at all levels demon-strate teaching and support strategies thathave proven effective in attracting andkeeping Aboriginal students. They are able toinitiate more participation and interactionthrough the kinship of common experienceand background. They also teach in waysconsistent with Aboriginal experience.

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INDIVIDUAL/PERSONAL BARRIERS

Poor self-concept and motivation were centralthemes of the literature review and stake-holder interviews. They were manifested in asense of powerlessness, apathy, poor mentaland physical health, anger and frustration.These can in turn lead to alcohol andsubstance abuse, petty thievery, physical andsexual abuse, even incarceration and a furthercycle of despair. These manifestations impacton many Aboriginal students. Their homecommunities may also have insufficient familyor institutional support to assist them in thedevelopment of a healthy mind and body.

Donald Unruh, speaking of Aboriginalprograms at the University of Manitoba notes:

By far the most difficult area, and the area inwhich, despite our best efforts, we continue toface the greatest problems, is the area ofpersonal and family supports. More studentsdrop out of the programs for “personalreasons” than all other reasons combined. (Infact, academic failure comes last as a reasonfor leaving.) … Family stress, discrimination,loneliness and an alien environment combineto overwhelm students.23

22. Eber Hampton, 1993. “Toward a Redefinition of American Indian/Alaskan Native Education.” Canadian Journalof Native Education. 20 (2) 1993.

23. Unruh, Donald, 1989. Equality of Access and Equality of Condition Programming for Success, unpublished paper.

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Stakeholders interviewed also echoedsimilar concerns:

Dislocation for rural students—the furtheraway or more remote, the harder time they have.

Loneliness, as they are away from their homecommunity. No family or community support.

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PERSONAL AND FAMI LY I SSUES IN AUSTRAL IA

In a study done in Western Australia, key factors impeding Aboriginal success at the post-secondarylevel were similar to those in Canada: the two major factors identified by over three-quarters ofrespondents were family and personal issues (82 per cent) and students worrying about failing their courses (75 per cent).25 At three of the institutions studied, 80 per cent of all withdrawals andreferrals were due to “personal or family issues.”

24. Wiebe, Joann, Judy Sinclair, Sheila Nychuk and M.C.C. Stephens, 1994. “Assessing Aboriginal GraduatesPerceptions for Academic Success in Health Faculties,” Arctic Medical Research Volume 53: Suppl. 2, pp. 152–156.

25. Walker, Roz, 2000. Indigenous Performance in Western Australia Universities: Reframing Retention and Success.Curtin University of Technology.

Many of these concerns are morepronounced in the competitive environmentof the university or college. Aboriginal gradu-ates of health programs at the University ofManitoba said they felt significant levels ofpersonal stress while there, and reportednegative feelings about school, largely due to feelings of isolation, inadequacy anddiscrimination. Most respondents said theysuffered from stress, panic attacks, headachesand anxiety.24

PERSONAL AND FAMI LY

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Do all Aboriginal students get a free university education? That myth is rampant, but simply not true. For every 100 that want to go, only 50 get funding.

Also, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada provides funding only for eligible Status Indians and Inuitstudents, to cover tuition, books, travel expenses and a living stipend. In most universities the stipend isbarely enough to live on.

—Randy Herrmann, director of Access Programs, University of Manitoba26

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

19

Limited support for Aboriginal post-secondaryeducation in Canada is available to StatusIndians through Indian and Northern AffairsCanada’s Post-Secondary Education Program,which includes the Post-Secondary StudentSupport Program, the University CollegeEntrance Preparation Program and the IndianStudies Support Program. These programscover all levels of post-secondary education,including community college diploma andcertification programs, undergraduate pro-grams and professional degree programs

The Student Support and EntrancePreparation programs help eligible Indianand Inuit students with tuition, books, traveland living expenses. The Indian StudiesSupport Program offers financial aid throughpost-secondary institutions for delivery ofspecial programs for Aboriginal students.Almost 100 per cent of the programs’combined funding is delivered directly byFirst Nations Bands or their administeringorganizations.27 Band Councils define theirown selection criteria and policies.

Financing Post-SecondaryEducation for AboriginalStudents

Student Support Program guidelinesintroduced in 1988 capped funding byplacing restrictions on eligibility and remov-ing daycare and rent subsidies.

Not all Status Aboriginal Peoples and nonon-Status Aboriginal Peoples are eligible forthe Student Support Program, so manyAboriginal Peoples turn to Canada StudentLoans and associated provincial loan andgrant programs. Under these programsunmarried students without dependents aretypically eligible for a maximum of $275 ofassistance per week of studies; most of thisfunding is through loans. Students withdependants (and in Ontario, married studentsas well) are eligible for more money, rangingfrom $315 to $500 per week, with the incre-mental funding available to them largelyprovided in the form of a grant or a remis-sion-eligible loan. Aboriginal students withtribal grants from Student Support Programfunds are usually not eligible for student loans.

26. Herrmann, Randy, 2001. “The Funding Myth,” University Affairs November, 2001. Ottawa: Association ofUniversities and Colleges of Canada, 11.

27. Department of Indian Affairs Web site, March 2002. www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ps/edu/ense_e.html

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Student loans are often inadequate forAboriginal student retention and success.Aboriginal students have higher travel andliving expenses. Some stakeholders thinkstudent debt is therefore higher for Aboriginalstudents.

For white families, student loans are a supple-ment; for natives they are the entire income.Loans are designed for white 18-year-oldswho don’t have to travel or support families.

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More First Nations students are applying forstudent loans and then getting into trouble. Theyare not able to pay them back and not able to getback into training.

—Quotes from stakeholder interviews

The Government of Canada providesCanada Study Grants to students who havepermanent disabilities, high-need part-timestudents, women in certain doctoral studiesand student-loan recipients with dependants.Human Resources Development Canada hasalso provided funding for Aboriginal studentsthrough training allowances.

FUND ING FOR ABOR IG INAL POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT ION IN THE UN I T ED S TATES

American Indian and Alaska Natives are eligible for special funding through the Bureau of IndianAffairs, which offered over $30 million dollars in 1994 to 15,000 Native American Studentsthrough grants averaging $2,412. Money is also available for American Indian and Native Alaskastudents through the Special Higher Education Grant Programs, with priority given to those studentsin business, education, engineering, law, natural resources or health fields. Financial aid forAmerican Indian students is also available through state programs, institutions, private foundationsand tribal organizations. Native Americans are also eligible for Pell Grants and the NativeAmerican Vocational Technical Education Program. In addition, some American states have separate initiatives, such as the Michigan Indian Tuition Waiver, under which Michigan waivedtuition Indians resident in the state. While the program ran between 1976 and 1996 it enrolled15,000 Native Americans, 70% of who completed a certificate, diploma or degree.

AUSTRAL IA : ABSTUDY

The Australian Aboriginal Student Allowance was established in 1968 to improve Aboriginalstudents’ employment prospects. ABSTUDY grants were available to full- or part-time IndigenousAustralian students at universities, colleges and other approved institutions. Full-time students gotallowances for fees, textbooks and equipment, travel, living expenses, and dependants’ expenses.Part-time students got smaller allowances. In December, 1998, government cutbacks limitedABSTUDY benefits to students most in need of assistance.

Since 1968 ABSTUDY has led to significant gains in participation in higher education for IndigenousAustralians. Numerous special programs have been established, mainly in the fields of education,law and health, and other programs have been modified to reflect the needs of IndigenousAustralians. Government and independent reviewers have regarded ABSTUDY as successful inencouraging Indigenous Australians to participate in post-secondary education.

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Status Indians are theoretically eligible forband funding of their post-secondary educa-tion, but many do not receive it. The limitedresources of the Student Support Programmean not all interested Aboriginal people canaccess band funds. The Assembly of FirstNations estimates that approximately 8,475Aboriginal applicants didn’t get funding forpost secondary education in 2000–2001.28

The number of students supported by thepost-secondary program has increased fromabout 3,600 in 1977–1978 to approximately27,500 in 1999–2000. Funding has notincreased since 1994, when $20 million wasadded. As of 2000–2001, the program’sregional core budgets totaled $293 million. Acomparison by the Assembly of First Nationsfound that First Nations students receive onlyenough funding to cover 48% of the estimatedaverage provincial cost per student peracademic year.

The Student Support Program has otherlimitations: it does not fund one-year pro-grams, trades training, computer studies orupgrading, and there are restrictions onchoice of institution and age of student.

The Student Support Program does notinclude non-Status Indians or Métis, except inthe Northwest Territories and, to a limitedextent, the Yukon. The Northwest Territoriesfunds university education for all residents,including Aboriginal, Métis and Inuit, whilethe Yukon Territory provides lower subsidies.

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Throughout our research, lack of fundingfor Métis was constantly raised. The ManitobaMétis Federation has the Louis RielScholarship for Métis students, but manypeople believe Métis have fallen through thecracks of the federal system, because they arenot eligible for band funding. In 1997, theRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoplesrecommended that

a scholarship fund be established for Métisand other Aboriginal students who do nothave access to financial support for post-secondary education under present policies,with lead financial support provided byfederal and provincial governments andadditional contributions from corporate andindividual donors.29

“Bill C-31 Indians”—the name often givento people who achieved Indian Statusthrough changes to the Indian Act in 1985—also have problems obtaining StudentSupport Program funding. Few of them havestrong ties to bands, so while theoreticallyentitled to band funding, they are seldomselected. Those who are selected often havean uneasy relationship with their benefactors.Some bands require students to take a certainnumber of courses per term or hours perweek; others bands don’t guarantee fundingfor the entire length of a program, adding tostudents’ uncertainty. Students who fail ortake a leave of absence can have theirfunding cut off. Some students who had beenpromised band funding have later had theirfunding denied.

28. Assembly of First Nations Web site, March 2002 www.afn.ca.

29. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 3.5.22.

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Band funding can also be delayed;students frequently get into trouble becausetheir band funding is submitted late, causingstress at the beginning of a program, whenstudents are often already dealing with thestress of being new to the institution. Said onestakeholder in an interview:

For native people who do not have muchcontact with their bands, there needs to bean alternative to going to the band to ask for funding. This is a big one because mostof the native people going to university areurban. Band funding is extremely vague and discretionary.

Stakeholders interviewed said nepotism,favouritism and unfairness affect the distribu-tion of band funding. Students often are allo-cated funds based on their relationship withthe band members, and some students feelthey must compete for funding. Indian andNorthern Affairs believes these issues can bestbe resolved at the local level, and that guide-lines can be developed based on localcircumstances. The Assembly of First Nationshas recommended that First Nations developlocal performance criteria for students apply-ing for band funding, and that national tracking should take place.

Aboriginal students would benefit fromfunding that would allow them to finishprograms of study even after their bandfunding has been discontinued. One stake-holder interview suggested the federal govern-ment reinstate graduation bonuses, whichwere as high as $3,500 per graduating student.

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PRIVATE SOURCES OF FUNDING

While the government has traditionallyoffered the majority of support for Aboriginaleducation outside of the Aboriginal community,there is an increased push to develop linksand partnerships with the private sector. Thiswould include promoting private donations toAboriginal institutions, establishing morescholarships and bursaries, and developinglinks with industry and employers to streng-then training and graduate employment.

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada’s2001 Scholarships, Bursaries and Awards forAboriginal Students listed over 400 prizes andawards, totalling over $2 million, which areavailable annually to Aboriginal students.Scholarships and bursaries are also availablefrom a variety of groups, including Aboriginalorganizations, universities, colleges, corpora-tions and foundations. Information on them is available in books, on the Internet andthrough educational institutions. Many Abori-ginal student scholarships come from theAboriginal Youth Foundation Awards.

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The relatively poor enrolment and comple-tion rates of Aboriginal students have led to anumber of government strategies to improvepost-secondary participation and retention, aswell as provincial and federal strategies toguide the development of efforts to improveAboriginal education levels.

One is the Post-Secondary Sector AboriginalEducation and Training Action Plan beingdeveloped by Saskatchewan’s Department ofPost-Secondary Education and Skill Training.

23

This plan gives short-range (5-year) and long-range (20-year) goals for Aboriginal educationin the province and various means to meetthem. Specific targets are outlined for literacy,academic skills, life skills, and enrolment/completion rates.31 Alberta has also tackledthe problem with Strengthening Relationships—The Government of Alberta’s AboriginalPolicy Framework, which has resulted inseveral initiatives aimed at Aboriginal post-secondary students.

Strategies for AboriginalPost-Secondary Education

From an institutional perspective, the problem has been typically defined in terms of low achievement,high attrition, poor retention, weak persistence, etc., thus placing the onus for adjustment on the student.From the perspective of the Indian student, however, the problem is often cast in more human terms, withan emphasis on the need for a higher educational system that respects them for who they are, that is rele-vant to their view of the world, that offers reciprocity in their relationships with others, and that helps themexercise responsibility over their own lives.30

—Verna Kirkness and Ray Barnhardt

In the last 40 years, Aboriginal post-secondary education has been revolutionized by the recog-nition of students’ different needs. Programs have emerged to empower the students and seethem in context of their culture. These programs have also tried to take into account funda-mental economic disadvantage, and to work in consultation and partnership with Aboriginalpeople. No single strategy has surmounted all barriers for all students, but part of the gradualincrease in Aboriginal enrolment and completion rates must be attributed to these initiatives.

GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES

30. Kirkness, Verna K. and Ray Barnhardt, 1991. “First Nations and Higher Education: The Four R’s—Respect,Relevance, Reciprocity, Responsibility.” Journal of American Indian Education. Vol.30, No.3, May 1991.

31. Department of Post-Secondary Education and Skills Training, 2002. Draft: The Post-Secondary Sector AboriginalEducation and Training Action Plan.

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ACCESS PROGRAMS

Quite frankly, in my estimation, I don’t think there’s anything that comes close to the Access programsacross Canada. There’s nobody else who coordinates funding and supports to respond to the needs ofthe students as well as them.

—Aboriginal stakeholder

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Many post-secondary institutions have formalaccess programs to prepare students for thetransition to the life of a post-secondarystudent. Access programs sponsor universityeducation for people who have traditionallynot had the opportunity for university educa-tion for either social, economic or culturalreasons, or because they lack basic education.Many access programs actively recruitstudents and help them get the qualificationsand financing they need to get into a post-secondary institution. Once there, thestudents are supported by including servicesranging from a special orientation to theuniversity, dedicated counselling services (foracademic, personal and career advice), andassistance with everything from findinghousing and daycare to adjusting to urbanlife. The shift to university life can be difficultfor all students, but it presents particularproblems for Aboriginal students. As a resultmany Western universities have dedicatedaccess programs.

Manitoban post-secondary institutionshave had access programs since the 1970s.Access staff recruit by going to Aboriginalcommunities throughout the province ofManitoba to present information about theprogram. Packages are sent to schools andservice agencies; there are newspaper andradio ads and a video that has circulatedwidely. There are a total of 20 accessprograms in the province which have servedas models for access programs elsewhere in

Canada. While their focus is residents ofManitoba, some exceptions have beenallowed. Preference is given to Aboriginalapplicants, whether Status, Non-Status, Métisor Inuit. Students can apply to the ManitobaStudent Financial Assistance Program toreceive bursaries.

The access program offers:• an extensive pre-university orientation held

for students prior to fall classes

• individual academic advising

• introduction to university courses fordegree credit

• tutorials

• regular consultation with academic advisors

• personal support/counselling

• housing assistance

• childcare assistance

• university/urban adjustment assistance

• communication and personal developmentworkshops, and

• career counselling.

Consultants KPMG found Manitoba’saccess programs have been very successful inimproving Aboriginal participation in post-secondary education, and a 1987 federalgovernment report gave resounding affirma-tion for the continuation of the programs.With only 10 per cent of Canada’s Aboriginalpopulation, Manitoba has the second highestnumber of Aboriginal people completinguniversity after Ontario.32

32. Alcorn, William J. and J. Michael Campbell, 1997. Access Programs: An Integrated Support System for Non-Traditional Students at the University of Manitoba. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.

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Before the Special Premedical StudiesProgram was introduced at the University ofManitoba, only one physician of Aboriginalancestry was known to have graduated fromthe school. In 1987, the first three Aboriginalstudents to have gone through the accessprogram graduated in medicine. The successrate for the program was 43% in 1992.33

Graduates of the program said it helped themby funding courses, books and livingexpenses and by allowing an extra year tofinish courses. They also said that thesupportive environment and the introductionto medicine before medical school contributedto success.

Another study on the premedical studiesprogram gave questionnaires to Aboriginalgraduates who reported they felt they wereoverall less prepared than their non-Aboriginal counterparts and only 12–20 percent (depending on the course) felt that theywere academically strong upon entrance tothe university, but the support they receivedin the access program diminished theiranxiety through the course of their studies.34

Most of the students felt that the tutors and counsellors have had a positive effect ontheir program.

The original funding formula for accessprograms, as laid out in the 1974 GeneralDevelopment Agreement, the 1976Northlands Agreement and the 1982 NorthernDevelopment Agreement, specified a 60/40federal-provincial split of costs, but when the

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development agreement expired in 1990, thefederal government off-loaded the funding toManitoba, which has since had to carry its fullweight.35 Provincial funding has fluctuated.

Loss of federal funding means differentstudents are now accepted into the program.Single parents cannot survive on the currentfunding, so their numbers have decreasedover time. Similarly, as the federal funding forthe access program decreased in the 1990s,the number of students with band fundinghas increased, while the number of Métisstudents has decreased. The program has alsohad progressively more qualified entrants,who require less academic and personalsupport, which has weakened the primarygoal of helping to serve the disadvantaged.36

The Hikel Report (1994) on Manitoba’saccess program found that between 1985 and1994 it had admitted 2,400 students, with anoverall graduation rate of 41.8%.37 Otherprovinces have therefore tried similarprograms, such as the Engineering, Nursingand Education Programs at LakeheadUniversity in Ontario, which has graduatedabout 35 Aboriginal engineers, and ConcordiaUniversity’s Native Access to EngineeringProgram. Concordia used science camps,conferences, outreach and a newsletter toreach Aboriginal students in the elementaryand secondary levels. All of the strategies inuse by the program are founded on combin-ing Aboriginal traditions and technology withWestern scientific principles, such as thestructural engineering of an igloo.

33. Krause, R.G. and M.C.C. Stephens. “Preparing Aboriginal Students for Medical School: Manitoba ProgramIncreases Equality of Opportunity,” Canadian Family Physician Volume 38, May 1992.

34. Wiebe, Joann, Judy Sinclair, Sheila Nychuk and M.C.C. Stephens. “Assessing Aboriginal Graduates’ Perceptionsfor Academic Success in Health Faculties,” Arctic Medical Research Volume 53: Suppl. 2 pp. 152–156.

35. Alcorn, Willima J and J. Michael Campbell, 1997. Access Programs: An Integrated Support System for Non-Traditional Students at the University of Manitoba. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.

36. Hikel, R.S, 1994. A Review of the Access program: Policy Directions for the Future. The Department of Educationand Training, Manitoba.

37. Alcorn, William. And Benjamin Levin, 1998. Post-Secondary Education for Indigenous Populations. SocialSciences and Humanities Research Council.

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The University of Alberta offers the Transition Year Program to increase Aboriginal partici-pation. Offered in conjunction with nine faculties, the program is for Aboriginal students whomay not qualify for direct entry into a specific faculty. Students who complete the program witha required grade point average may qualify for admission into one of the nine faculties with acomplete transfer of all credits earned.

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COMMUNITY DELIVERY

AUSTRAL IA : THE CAD IGAL PROGRAM AT THE UN IVERS I TY OF SYDNEY

The Cadigal Program is an access and support program for Australian Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslanders at the University of Sydney. It allows a differentially lower university admission index scorefor students and considers other attributes like motivation, capacity to succeed and life experiencefor mature applicants.

Features of the program include: • a two-week pre-semester Orientation program • the option of a reduced workload in the first two years of enrolment• the provision of the support programs• peer tutoring• study rooms and computer facilities, and• provision of other resources such as textbooks and anatomical models.

A recent article pointed to the program’s use of a reduced course load for the first few years andthe existence of support and other Aboriginal students as factors in its success.38

Community delivery is a crucial part ofAboriginal education. Most post-secondaryinstitutions are in urban centres, so mostAboriginal students from reserves have toleave home to attend. Community-basedprograms allow Aboriginal students tocomplete some or all of their post-secondaryeducation programs in their home commu-nity. The goal is to eliminate much of thefinancial and social hardship brought aboutby long-term resettlement to a universitycampus. These programs have been espe-cially important in allowing access for those

who live in remote areas. Community-deliv-ered teacher education programs have led tomore significant gains in teacher educationthan in all other post-secondary subjects.

One example of community-basededucation is Brandon University’s NorthernTeacher Education Program, which operatesin Aboriginal or remote communities. Theprogram seeks to involve communities in theplanning and delivery of its services and totrain participants to satisfy community needssuch as education, municipal government,health and recreation.

38. Farrington, Sally, Kristie Daniel DiGregorio and Susan Page, 1999. “The Things That Matter: Understanding theFactors that Affect the Participation and Retention of Indigenous Students in the Cadigal Program at the Facultyof Health Sciences, University of Sydney,” Paper for 1999 Annual Conference of the Australian Association forResearch in Education.

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Brandon University also offers theProgram for the Education of Native Teachers(PENT). This community-based teachereducation program combines work incommunity schools with courses fromBrandon University. Students are allowed tocomplete distance education through thewinter while the 50 months of internshiprequired are interspersed throughout theprogram.

The Native Indian Teacher EducationProgram was formed with a small group ofBritish Columbia Aboriginal teachers in 1969and has been offered through the Universityof British Columbia since 1974. Studentsbegin their studies in a field centre setting inKamloops, Chilliwack, Duncan or Vancouverand first- and second-year students makeorientation visits to the University of BritishColumbia. Coordinators are available in eachcentre to counsel the students in professionaland academic development, to facilitateschool experiences, to teach, and to arrangefor local resource people and activities.Students also participate in seminars toprepare for school experiences in public andband schools. Included are Aboriginal studiescourses, which explore political, social, andeconomic issues from historical and contem-porary perspectives. Courses allow studentsto adapt, develop, and evaluate Aboriginalstudies curricula.

In Saskatchewan the Northern TeacherEducation Program (NORTEP) and theNorthern Professional Access College(NORPAC) are teacher-education programsprimarily intended for people of Indian andMétis ancestry, both Status and non-Status.

NORTEP is an off-campus Bachelor ofEducation program alternating two-weekperiods of university classes with one week ofclassroom experience. Students have accessto the faculty at all times for counselling andsupport, and the program uses the services of

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other local support agencies. Students receivea NORTEP/NORPAC allowance during thenorthern-based phase of their program, andtextbooks, tuition fees and transportation areprovided. During the northern-based phase of their program, student accommodation isprovided in La Ronge, Saskatchewan.

Since NORTEP began, the program hasoffered over 571 university credit classes withon-site instructors in La Ronge to studentsdrawn from 35 communities across the North.The program has graduated 192 northerners asteachers, most of them of Aboriginal ancestry.Over 80 per cent of them are employed asteachers or other educational professionals,nearly all of them in the north. The percentageof Indian and Métis teachers in the NorthernLights School Division has increased fromthree per cent to 25 per cent. Teacher turnoverin Northern Lights School Division hasdeclined from 75 per cent to 20 per cent.Northern Band schools, which had no teachersof Aboriginal ancestry on staff in the mid-seventies, now employ over 70 NORTEP grad-uates, and the Ile-a-la-Crosse and Creightonschool divisions employ another nine.

The Saskatchewan Urban Native TeacherEducation Program offers teacher trainingthrough the University of Saskatchewan. Forthe first two years students attend classeseither in Prince Albert, Regina or Saskatoon.The final two years include a four-monthinternship and may include class work at oneof the university campuses. There is also atwo-year Métis Teacher Associate Program,designed to be delivered on-site in Métiscommunities.

The teaching program has had over 500 graduates since 1980; some staff areformer graduates of the program.39 In stake-holder interviews, this program was widelyheld up as a model. The program, unlikemost others, offers direct financial support forparticipants by paying tuition costs.

39. www.gdins.org/, Gabriel Dumont Web site, March 2002.

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One strategy to increase the number ofAboriginal Peoples attending and completingpost-secondary education has been to createnew institutions, designed and controlled byAboriginal Peoples themselves. Historically,Aboriginal Peoples have had less control overpost-secondary education than other levels.This keeps Aboriginal education dollars frombeing spent only on universities andprograms that are not under Aboriginalcontrol and which may be felt to be assimila-tionist.41 In a 1972 paper, “Indian Control ofIndian Education,” the National IndianBrotherhood emphasized local control as oneof the starting points for future reform ofAboriginal education.

Interviews conducted and literaturereviewed for this study demonstrated thatwhenever Aboriginal students are givencontrol of their own programs or institutions,there have been higher rates of success inAboriginal enrolment and graduation. As anexample, the University of Regina has an

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Aboriginal enrolment rate of 15% in aprovince where overall Aboriginal peoplemake up 14% of the population. This equalenrolment is due to the University of Regina’sassociation with the First Nations University ofCanada, an Aboriginal-controlled universitycollege.42

Ray Barnhardt has identified majorthemes in all of the Aboriginal educationalinstitutional goals or practices around theworld.43 He views these broad themes asencompassing the following:• commitment to community

• integration of functions

• sustained local leadership

• participation of Elders

• spiritual harmony

• use of local languages

• traditional ways of knowing

• traditional teaching practices

• congenial environment

• participatory research.

UNITED S TATES : THE UN IVERS I TY OFALASKA FA IRBANKS X -CED PROGRAM

The University of Alaska Fairbanks offers community education to reach traditionally excluded ruralAboriginal populations. Its five rural campuses serve predominantly Native student bodies in theirhome areas. The X-CED program is designed to train Native people to become teachers in their owncommunities. Since its beginning in 1970, the program has graduated about 300 students and usessome of the Canadian teacher education programs as models. The program’s success has beenattributed to its use of community-based Aboriginal faculty and Aboriginal input into the program’sdesign and maintenance. According to reports, using community-based delivery and remote learn-ing has solved many of the problems that plagued Aboriginal education in Alaska.40

ABORIGINAL INSTITUTIONS

40. Barnhardt, Ray, 2001. “Domestication of the Ivory Tower: Institutional Adaption to Cultural Distance,”Anthropology and Education Quarterly, December 2001.

41. Hampton, Eber, 2000. “First Nations Controlled University Education in Canada,” Aboriginal Education: Fulfillingthe Promise, p208–221. UBC Press, Vancouver.

42. Hampton, Eber, 2000. “First Nations Controlled University Education in Canada,” Aboriginal Education: Fulfillingthe Promise, p208–221. UBC Press, Vancouver.

43. Barnhardt, Ray, 1991. “Higher Education in the Fourth World: Indigenous People Take Control,” CanadianJournal of Native Education Volume 18, No 2.

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The literature and interviews gave strongsupport for existing Aboriginal institutions.Factors said to have contributed to these insti-tutions’ success at attracting and retainingAboriginal students include the high level ofAboriginal staff and the support of otherAboriginal students.

Many stakeholders complained thatAboriginal institutions are under-funded. Onestakeholder said that funding at his institutionhad been flat for a decade. Another said thatAboriginal institutions must often seek addi-tional funding from bands. Stakeholders atsmaller Aboriginal institutions said they havewaiting lists and turn people away. ManyAboriginal institutions receive no directprovincial funding but would like to createfunding links with provincial governments,while other stakeholders said they would liketo see direct funding from the federal govern-ment. Said one:

The federal government has to recognize that it has a real role to play in Aboriginalpost-secondary education. The federalgovernment says it does not want to encroachon provincial turf. This is a serious problem.

The largest and best-known of Aboriginalsemi-independent post-secondary institutionsis the First Nations University of Canada(FNUC—formerly the Saskatchewan IndianFederated College), controlled by theFederation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations. Ithas more than 1,500 students from FirstNations across Canada. Its faculty is approxi-mately 50 per cent Aboriginal.

First Nations University offers bachelorprograms in language studies, education,communication, fine arts, Aboriginal studiesand business. All courses are provinciallyaccredited through a federation agreementwith the University of Regina. In 1995, FNUC,in partnership with the University ofSaskatchewan, launched the first AboriginalMBA program in Canada. It also offersspecial-case Master of Arts programs in

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English, Indian languages, Literature andLinguistics, and Indian Studies through theFaculty of Graduate Studies and Research,University of Regina.

FNUC’s mission is to enhance the qualityof life, and to preserve, protect and interpretthe history, language, culture and artisticheritage of First Nations. It aims to acquireand expand its base of knowledge and understanding by providing opportunities forbilingual and bi-cultural education. Servicesoffered include academic counseling, Elderservices, scholarships, bursaries, awards andtutoring services. The university is the onlyAboriginal institution recognized by theAssociation of Universities and Colleges ofCanada as offering university-level education.

The Gabriel Dumont Institute of MétisStudies and Applied Research is the educationalarm of the Métis Nation–Saskatchewan, andthe only Métis owned and operated educa-tional institution of its kind in Canada.

The institutes mandate is to promote,renew and develop Métis culture with a viewto making Métis self-government a reality. Itresearches Aboriginal culture and history in itsresearch institute to develop teaching andtraining models and curricula, and to dissem-inate its information through modern commu-nication methods. The institute was praised ininterviews for instilling a sense of Métisnationhood in its students. Funded by grantsfrom the Saskatchewan and federal govern-ments, the institute serves nearly 1,000students every year and also oversees the Dumont Technical Institute, which isassociated with the Saskatchewan Institute ofApplied Science and Technology.

Many smaller Aboriginal institutionsoperate in Canada, often through partnershipswith larger colleges or universities. Somecross the conventional boundaries of univer-sities, colleges and technical institutes byoffering a wide range of courses. The WilpWilxo’oskwhl Nisga’a (the Nisga'a House of

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Wisdom) in British Columbia has, forexample, developed partnerships with theUniversity of Northern British Columbia,Northwest Community College and OpenLearning Agency. Its bilingual, biculturalstudies include training for forest rangers/technicians, fishery technicians, biologists andscientists and training in hospitality andtourism, social services, trades and financialplanning. Cultural services include Nisga’alanguage, contemporary Nisga’a arts and religious studies.

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One example of a smaller and morelocally focused Aboriginal education institu-tional serving primarily the members of atribal council or a regional area is theYellowhead Tribal Council in Alberta, whichoffers preparatory and university programs toits local community.

Many of these smaller schools rely onsmall program grants that are short-term,project-specific and may be subject to change.The provincial governments generally do notsupport smaller institutions, although theymay provide financial assistance for studentsin departmentally approved training programs.

THE UN I T ED S TATES : TR IBAL COLLEGES

The American tribal college movement began in the late 1960s with the establishment of commu-nity colleges on reservations. The colleges now have a national advocacy organization and aprofessional journal. The colleges are given government funding per student under the Tribal CollegeAct, as well as funding from corporations and philanthropic organizations. The Tribal College Fundtargets specific tasks outlined by individual colleges. As in Canada, funding has been a constantissue for the colleges.44 It means faculty salaries are low, making it hard to retain faculty, most ofwhom are non-Aboriginal. Non-Aboriginal teaching staff also find it hard to adjust to life and workon reservations, and this may be another reason for high faculty turnover.45

All tribal colleges are controlled by boards of trustees who are nearly all local American Indiancommunity members as are most administrators. The colleges offer associate degrees in arts,science, applied science and one-year certificates. Research suggests the colleges are working onways to promote closer ties between American Indian communities, institutions and the privatesector46 and that the impact of the colleges can be seen in students’ successes at other schools,admission to the workforce, and in the pride and hope these colleges have generated in AmericanNative people. Stakeholders commented on the success of tribal colleges in strengthening their localcommunities, cultures and languages.

44. Stein, Wayne J., 1999. “Chapter 11: Tribal Colleges: 1968–1998,” Next Steps: Research and Practice to AdvanceIndian Education. Eric Clearing House.

45. Krumm, Bernita L., 1995. Tribal Colleges: A Study of Development, Mission and Leadership. Information Analyses.

46. See for example Pavel, Michael, 1999. “American Indians and Alaska Natives in Higher Education,” Next Steps:Research and Practice to Advance Indian Education. Karen Gayton Swisher and John Tippeconnie III, editors.Eric Clearing House.

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THE UN I T ED S TATES : HER I TAGE COLLEGE

Heritage College in Spokane, Washington was created in 1981 after persistent requests for four-year Bachelor’s and Master’s programs within commuting distance of large agricultural populationsin north and south central Washington. This growing population included significant numbers ofAmerican Indians. The Yakima Tribe was especially vocal and the main campus is on the YakimaReservation. Heritage College’s master in education and master in teaching programs are deliveredat school district sites throughout the United States, approved and monitored by the NorthwestAssociation of Schools and Colleges.

47. Smith, Graham Hingangaroa, 2000. “Maori Education: Revolution and Transformative Action,” Canadian Journalof Native Education Volume 24, No. 1.

NEW ZEALAND: T E WÄNANGA-O-RAUKAWA

Mäori parents, seeking to offer their children alternative education, have helped develop WhareWaananga, post-secondary sites focused on unlearning the colonial culture and imparting ideas ofresistance and cultural pride.47 Te Wänanga-o-Raukawa, or University of Raukawa, the country’sfirst private university-level institution, is devoted to Mäori knowledge. Teaching there takes a holis-tic approach, based on knowledge and wisdom passed on by Mäori ancestors. Courses are basedon group learning, or “hui,” rather than individual learning. The three core subjects are Mäorilanguage; Iwi and Hapü studies, and information technology and telecommunications.

AUSTRAL IA : BATCHELOR COLLEGE

Batchelor College provides accredited vocational training and higher education programs. Most ofits students come from remote communities in Australia’s Northern Territory. A council of predomi-nantly Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander people governs the college, which offers “mixed-modedelivery” to allow mature students to balance school with their family and ceremonial obligations.Its “both ways” philosophy seeks to reconcile mainstream and indigenous Australian cultures in itsteaching methods and course materials and the curriculum was developed in consultation withstudents. There is a network of community study centres in over thirty-five remote communities.Batchelor College also has a number of community agreements with councils, schools and clinics for both course delivery and student support. However, a shortage of Indigenous staff has led toincomplete or inconsistent application of some the college’s pedagogy.

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PARTNERSHIPS BETWEENABORIGINAL AND NON-ABORIGINAL INSTITUTIONS

Some Aboriginal groups have sought to getspecialized post-secondary education for theirown people be developing joint programswith existing institutions. This allowsAboriginal communities to draw on theexpertise of existing institutions while ensur-ing culturally-relevant study opportunities fortheir people.

The First Nations Partnership Program,coordinated through the University ofVictoria, was developed after a request from agroup of First Nations communities in centralCanada represented by the Meadow LakeTribal Council, which sought child-care train-ing that would be delivered in its communityand incorporate its cultural practices, values,language and spirituality. An innovativemodel for ensuring the cultural representationof communities was developed.

In the seven partnership programs,student retention and program completion istwice the national average for Aboriginalpost-secondary training. More important, over95 per cent of graduates remain in their owncommunities. To date, 65 per cent of programgraduates have created new programs forchildren and youth, 13 per cent have assumedstaff positions in existing programs in theircommunities, and 11 per cent are continuingwith their studies.

The Squamish Nation of British Columbiaand Capilano College of North Vancouvercreated a successful transition program forAboriginal students. Both the SquamishNation and the college were actively involvedin developing the structure and content of thetransition program.

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The success of the program has beenattributed to the following factors, amongothers:48

• Aboriginal control of the education

• basing the program in the Aboriginalcommunity

• student achievement levels determinedprogram placement

• careful monitoring of student progress

• using student performance to determinefunding

• Aboriginal Peoples participated in curricu-lum design, and

• Support services were proactive.

ABORIGINAL-GEAREDPROGRAMS ATMAINSTREAM INSTITUTIONS

Many of the larger post-secondary institutionsin Canada have been able to offer specificprograms at the undergraduate or graduatelevels that are designed to meet the specificneeds and interests of Aboriginal students.

Both the University of British Columbiaand the University of Alberta offer programsthat are designed to increase Aboriginalinvolvement and knowledge in legal studies.In both programs, Aboriginal students takethe same required courses and are evaluatedand graduate on the same basis as the non-Aboriginal students in the school. Butboth programs permit the law schools to consider factors other than LSAT anduniversity marks in making decisions aboutadmitting Aboriginal Peoples. UBC’s programhas graduated almost as many Aboriginal lawgraduates as all other Canadian programscombined.

48. Wright, Dennis A. “Preparing First Nations Students for College: The Experience of the Squamish Nation ofBritish Columbia,” Canadian Journal of Native Education Volume 22, 1998, No 1.

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The University of Alberta’s program isfunded by the Alberta Law Foundation. Itadvises prospective students on admissionprocedures and criteria, and it offers personal,academic and career counselling for studentsenrolled in the Bachelor of Law program.

The Ts`´kel Graduate Studies Program atthe University of British Columbia wasdesigned to prepare Aboriginal people towork in educational administration but hasbeen expanded to include educationalstudies, curriculum and instruction, andeducational psychology and special educa-tion. Regular UBC graduate admissionrequirements apply. Students in the programtake part in a seminar on research related toAboriginal education as well as a course thatsimulates administering a First Nations bandschool. Students have an opportunity for fieldexperience in Aboriginal or Non-Aboriginalpublic schools.

In 2001, the Faculty of Forestry of theUniversity of British Columbia developed theFirst Nations Forestry Initiative, focusing onunderstanding Aboriginal rights as theypertain to forest resource management. Thefaculty also introduced course content dealingspecifically with Aboriginal forestry issues. Itsgoals include more study of Aboriginalforestry issues, creating strategic links withAboriginal communities and recruiting fromAboriginal communities.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Eurocentric traditions, as well as pressure tomeet set guidelines, have meant that thecurriculum for Aboriginal learning has largelybeen set by non-Aboriginal Canadians.

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Aboriginal educators, however, want controlof curri-culum development. The NationalIndian Brother-hood made curriculum devel-opment one of its objectives in its 1972 paper,“Indian Control of Indian Education.” TheRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoplesfound that where Aboriginal Peoples haveexercised control of education, there havebeen higher success rates. The vast majority ofthe literature reviewed and interviewsconducted linked Aboriginal control ofcurriculum development to improved enrolment and retention. Aboriginal curricu-lum development is also thought to increasesupport from Aboriginal communities.

The University of Northern BritishColumbia’s Office of First NationsProgramming has developed curricula througha collaborative partnership with Aboriginalcommunities. UNBC requires all of itscommunity-developed curricula to be trans-ferable to other universities, and therefore thecourses must meet the academic standards ofits mainstream curriculum. One example ofthis is the Métis Studies program. A commit-tee was formed with Elders, universitypersonnel and leaders and experts in theMétis community. The collaboration hasencouraged enrolment from the community.49

Aboriginal curriculum development atUNBC has been aided by the strong presenceof the Nisga’a, a First Nation with an excep-tionally developed infrastructure of self-defini-tion and initiative for self-government. UNBC’sNisga’a Protocol Agreement gives the Nisga’acontrol over hiring related to Aboriginalprograms, and over standards in conjunctionwith the university. Each staff member musthave a Bachelor or Master’s degree and be a“current practitioner of the culture.”50

49. Ewans, Mike, James McDonald and Deanna Nyce, 1999. “Acting Across Boundaries in Aboriginal CurriculumDevelopment: Examples from Northern British Columbia,” Canadian Journal of Native Education, Volume 23Number 2, 1999.

50. ibid.

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Other curriculum development initiativesare supported through institutions such asThe First Nations University of Canada andthe Gabriel Dumont Institute. The success ofUBC’s Native Indian Teacher EducationProgram, First Nations Legal Studies programand Ts`´kel Graduate program have all beenattributed to the direct involvement ofAboriginal Peoples in the design, developmentand ongoing assessment of the programs.UBC’s First Nations House of Learning hasidentified the creation of Aboriginal curricu-lum and research as its next goal.51

ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES

In the 1996 census, one-quarter of Canada’sAboriginal population reported having anAboriginal language as their mother tongue.As Yvonne Hébert has argued, a key tostrengthening Aboriginal education is thedevelopment of strong language and literacyskills.52 While educational institutions werepreviously associated with assimilativelanguage policies, post-secondary institutionsare now embracing the teaching ofAboriginal languages as a way to increaseAboriginal enrolment. More formal support isneeded, however, as very little of the organi-zational and curricular infrastructure requiredto do so exists at any level of the Canadianeducational system.

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Stakeholders have argued that the instruc-tion of Aboriginal languages requires tradi-tional teaching that reflects the assumptionsinherent in Aboriginal languages. Currently,the instruction and furthering of Aboriginallanguage and literacy instruction, valuable for the preservation of traditions and thebuilding of Aboriginal pride, is hampered bythe isolation and the minimal support offeredto teachers and instructors in the area.

INITIATIVES IN THE SCIENCEAND HEALTH FIELDS

In general, Aboriginal participation in educa-tion has focused on the immediate needs ofthe Aboriginal community. Enrolment ineducation programs has increased, as Table 2 shows, but enrolment in science and healthprograms remains disproportionately low.This is believed to be caused by poor prepa-ration at the secondary level and youngAboriginal Peoples’ minimal exposure to thecareers and skills of people who take mathand the physical sciences.

It’s believed that Aboriginal students inscience-based professions, especially healthand natural resources, will increase as self-government increases. Anne Mullens wrote inUniversity Affairs of a critical shortage ofAboriginal Peoples in scientific fields53 andHerman Michell of the First Nations Universityof Canada states that meaningful self-govern-ment can only be exercised by a balanced

51. Gardner, Ethel, 2000. “First Nations House of Learning: A Continuity of Transformation,” Aboriginal Education:Fulfilling the Promise, p190–207. UBC Press, Vancouver.

52. Hébert, Yvonne, 2000. “The State of Aboriginal Literacy and Language,” Aboriginal Education: Fulfilling thePromise. UBC Press, Vancouver.

53. Mullens, Anne, 2001. “Why Aboriginals Aren’t Taking Science,” University Affairs, November 2001.

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pool of educated Aboriginal resource people.Mullens estimated that of the 45,000 studentsenrolled in the 34 engineering programs inCanada, only 140 are Aboriginal Peoples andreported the Canadian Medical Associationfinding that only 100 of Canada’s 58,000doctors have Native ancestry.

There are also problems of literacy andunderfunding at Aboriginal secondaryschools. However, funding does exist to helpin the diversification of Aboriginal subjectareas. The government of Alberta, forexample, offers the Aboriginal Health CareersBursary, with a budget of up to $200,000worth of awards allocated to AlbertaAboriginal Peoples enrolling in health courses.

The Institute of Indigenous Governmenthas recently developed an Associative Scienceprogram, in partnership with Kwantlen College,to train students for health and science careers.The University of Saskatchewan has theCameco Access Program in Engineering andScience. For the first time, in the 2002–2003academic year, the University of BritishColumbia’s Faculty of Medicine is giving fiveper cent of its places to Aboriginal students.

Alberta Learning also provides support tothe Alberta Aboriginal Apprenticeship Project,a joint industry-Aboriginal initiative toincrease Aboriginal participation in Albertaapprenticeship programs. Launched in June2001 in Edmonton, it could be expanded ifthe pilot is successful.

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TABLE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF CANADIANS WITH POST-SECONDARY CERTIFICATES, DIPLOMAS OR DEGREES BY PROGRAM OR MAJOR FIELD OF STUDY

BY PROGRAM ORMAJOR FIELD OF STUDY REGISTERED INDIAN

OTHER ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OTHER CANADIANS

MALE

5.3

2.8

1.9

10.5

8.9

5.6

1.0

58.6

4.4

0.4

0.4

100

28,250

25.1

1.9

10.2

30.3

16.2

2.7

6.4

0.3

3.1

4.0

0.3

100

4,425

FEMALE

12.9

7.7

2.6

11.7

32.3

5.2

0.3

8.9

17.6

0.3

0.6

100

33,175

36.6

2.1

6.8

33.3

9.4

2.0

0.7

0.2

6.5

1.8

0.5

100

8,655

TOTAL

9.4

5.5

2.3

11.1

21.5

5.4

0.6

31.7

11.5

0.4

0.5

100

61,420

32.6

2.1

8.0

32.3

11.7

2.2

2.6

0.2

5.4

2.5

0.4

100

13,080

MALE

2.8

3.8

2.0

6.1

8.5

5.2

0.8

66.7

3.4

0.4

0.2

100

23,245

18.8

3.5

11.4

28.3

14.4

2.6

8.7

0.7

3.6

7.0

0.0

100

4,405

FEMALE

8.7

10.1

2.2

8.5

36.1

5.4

0.3

10.3

17.6

0.6

0.2

100

22,825

30.6

4.0

10.3

29.6

9.7

2.9

1.5

0.0

8.6

1.8

0.4

100

5,850

TOTAL

5.7

6.9

2.1

7.3

22.2

5.3

0.6

38.8

10.5

0.5

0.2

100

46,075

25.6

3.9

10.9

29

11.8

2.8

4.7

0.3

6.7

4.0

0.2

100

10,255

MALE

1.6

4.5

2.5

4.0

13.1

5.0

0.6

64.6

2.8

1.1

0.2

100

2,753,585

11.9

1.9

9.9

16.8

20.2

4.8

17.4

0.3

6.8

9.9

0.1

100

1,781,555

FEMALE

8.8

10.6

3.4

4.9

38.3

4.2

0.1

6.6

22.0

0.9

0.2

100

2,692,765

26.4

3.5

13.3

18.2

13.8

4.8

2.4

0.1

13.0

4.3

0.1

100

1,721,355

TOTAL

5.1

3.7

3.0

4.4

25.6

4.6

0.4

35.9

12.3

1.0

0.2

100

5,446,355

19.0

2.7

11.6

17.5

17.0

4.8

10.1

0.2

9.8

7.2

0.1

100

3,502,910

Trades and other non-university certificates

Education, recreation & counselling services

Fine & applied arts

Humanities & related fields

Social sciences and related fields

Commerce, management & administration

Agricultural & biologicalsciences/technologies

Engineering & applied sciences

Engineering technologies & trades

Health professions, sciences &technologies

Mathematics and physical sciences

Other or no specialization

Total (per cent)

Total (number)

University certificates and degrees

Education, recreation & counselling services

Fine & applied arts

Humanities & related fields

Social sciences and related fields

Commerce, management & administration

Agricultural & biologicalsciences/technologies

Engineering & applied sciences

Engineering technologies & trades

Health professions, sciences &technologies

Mathematics and physical sciences

Other or no specialization

Total (per cent)

Total (number)

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SUPPORTS FOR STUDENTS

S T R AT E G I E S F O R A B O R I G I N A L P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N 37

Aboriginal students, accustomed to close-knitcommunities with more one-on-one time withteachers, can find the formal and impersonalatmosphere of large universities intimidating.Support services can help counter this andmany post-secondary institutions offerAboriginal students academic support,personal support, the support of Elders andAboriginal gathering places on campus.Support can be something as seemingly smallas having a staff member speak individually to new students, so they have access to afamiliar person if they have questions orconcerns, or as major as a daycare centre. Thedifference that student support makes in termsof retention is not quantifiable, however, andreceives little of the analysis or acclaimgarnered by specific programs or initiatives.

Support programs include the Institute ofIndigenous Government offering smallerclasses, so instructors spend more time witheach student. The Saskatchewan IndianInstitute of Technologies has run addictionworkshops during lunch hours and tries toinclude spouses in student support activities.The Institute of Indigenous Government hiresstudents as mentors and tutors. One stake-holder told of an urban university that hadinstalled a free phone for long-distance callsafter Aboriginal students from remote

Northern communities had accrued massivebills calling family and friends. Another toldof alumni at a reunion creating an emergencybursary for Aboriginal students having problems with their finances.

Institutions also work to educate staff andfaculty about Aboriginal culture. TheUniversity of Regina, the First NationsUniversity of Canada and the Gabriel DumontInstitute created First Nations and MétisStudents: a Faculty Guide to foster culturalsensitivity in the classroom. This guidesuggests that “teachers should adopt humilityas a teaching style,” become more open-minded and more accepting of First Nationsand Métis diversity.54

Many stakeholders discussed the avail-ability of Elders as a support mechanism. Theparticipation of elders has been seen as a wayto foster Aboriginal ways of knowing andprovide support for Aboriginal students.55

Elders also close the generation gap createdby the legacy of residential schools andstrengthen the pride and kinship felt byAboriginal students. Elders are usually notpaid for their contributions, which has beencontroversial. It is argued that elders are avaluable asset to the educational process, andas such should be paid like teachers.

THE UN I T ED S TATES : E LDERS AT THE UN IVERS I TY OF ALASKA FA IRBANKS

The Alaska Native Studies Program at the University of Alaska Fairbanks has an Elder-in-Residenceprogram, where prominent tradition bearers from the Aboriginal community reside on the campusfor extended periods each semester. Students enrolled in a particular Native Studies class receivedirect instruction from the elders. The course is designed to maximize student-elder contact insideand outside the classroom, and to facilitate student learning about Aboriginal life.

54. Anaquod, Gaylene, et.al. First Nations and Metis Students: a Faculty Guide. University of Regina, First NationsUniversity of Canada, Teaching Development Centre, Gabriel Dumont Institute.

55. Medecine, Beatrice, 1986. “My Elders Tell Me,” Indian Education in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press.

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Despite these apparent breakthroughs,the literature reviewed and stakeholders inter-viewed argue that student support is under-funded. Studies have shown that Aboriginalstudents often feel alone and socially isolated,and that the lack of personal and academicsupport networks are a main reason forAboriginal students’ lack of success.56 Supportservices are especially necessary whenstudents do not have the basic literacy ornumeracy skills required for their courses.The dean of an Aboriginal institutioncomplained that under-funding allowed onlytwo counsellors for 450 Aboriginal students.

There is also a lack of support forAboriginal women, especially single mothers.Often there is no daycare. Stakeholders alsosaid that the special health needs ofAboriginal people, including problems ofFetal Alcohol Syndrome, need to beaddressed.

Support programs are in place at larger ormore innovative institutions, but need to beextended and promoted. Aboriginal studentsmay not seek support unless it is made visibleand accessible. The Assembly of First Nationsand others have called for more visiblesupport systems at all levels. One stakeholdersaid that the Aboriginal students who withdrawfrom studies are those who never soughtsupport services at all.

UBC’s Longhouse is a good model for anAboriginal centre. It is a place to simply be whoyou are on campus.

—Stakeholder from New Zealand

The University of British Columbia’s FirstNations House of Learning was established in 1987 to draw together and give greater visibility to Aboriginal programs on campus

A B O R I G I N A L P E O P L E S A N D P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N : W H AT E D U C AT O R S H AV E L E A R N E D38

and coordinate all aspects of Aboriginalsupport at UBC. Not home to a specificacademic program, it provides support servicesfor students and serves as a liaison betweenthe university and Aboriginal communities.

An impressive Aboriginal Longhouse,opened in 1993, is the hub of Aboriginalactivities on campus. The Longhouse alsohelps Aboriginal Peoples to share theircultures with each other, the universitycommunity and society in general. The Salish-style Longhouse structure includes Sty-WetTan Great Hall, an elders’ lounge, S-TakyaChildcare, a Sacred Circle, a student and stafflounge, a computer lab, a kitchen, theXwi7xwa Library and administrative offices.The house of learning was often cited as amodel of Aboriginal student support. TheLonghouse and the dedicated staff meanstudents have access to a range of support notfound at many other universities. All of theinitiatives are run by the four Rs: Respect,Relevance, Reciprocity and Responsibility.

The Office of Native Student Serviceshelps the University of Alberta provide anenvironment that encourages full access,participation and success for Aboriginalstudents. The Retention Strategies andServices at the university provide a range ofprograms: • the Aboriginal Student Housing Program

• peer support and personal and academiccounselling

• a Scholarships and Bursaries Programwhich distributes a directory of scholar-ships and bursary information

• providing advocacy for Aboriginal studentconcerns

• the Wahpahtihew Aboriginal tutor and rolemodel program

• a day-long Aboriginal Student Orientation

56. See for example Krumm, Bernita L., 1995. Tribal Colleges: A Study of Development, Mission and Leadership.Information Analyses.

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• coordinating study skills, one-on-one tuto-rials, study seminars, and workshops

• distribution of “Moose Call,” an electronicnewsletter and Buffalo Yell News whichfocus on Aboriginal education news andinsights

• the Aboriginal Student Handbook, and

• the Community Relations Program whichrecruits and helps secure employment services.

McGill University has First People’sHouse to support Aboriginal students andthere is a Native Centre at ConcordiaUniversity, which has the highest populationof Aboriginal students in Quebec. The NativeCentre was praised by one stakeholder as along-overdue support that has assisted inenrolment and retention. Stakeholders inter-viewed lauded the support offered at theUniversity of Toronto.

S T R AT E G I E S F O R A B O R I G I N A L P O S T - S E C O N D A R Y E D U C AT I O N 39

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT

Alternative assessment programs set differentstandards for Aboriginal students, in an effortto counter cultural differences which mightkeep them from a post-secondary education.However, such programs are often regardedwith hostility, especially transition programsand alternative entry criteria. In a report onAboriginal Peoples in health faculties,Aboriginal graduates raised concerns thatAccess programs were not seen as legitimatecourses with the same standards as otheruniversity courses. Nor did all stakeholdersinterviewed agree alternative entry criteria aresuccessful. One said they lead to students(especially mature students) feeling ill-prepared and overwhelmed. However, manyother stakeholders felt that Aboriginal Peoplesshould have lower academic admission crite-ria because of the challenges they face ineven graduating high school.

57. Walker, Roz, 2000. Indigenous Performance in Western Australia Universities: Reframing Retention and Success.Curtin University of Technology.

58. Farrington, Sally, Kristie Daniel DiGregorio and Susan Page, 1999. “The Things That Matter: Understanding theFactors that Affect the Participation and Retention of Indigenous Students in the Cadigal Program at the Facultyof Health Sciences, University of Sydney”, Paper for 1999 Annual Conference of the Australian Association forResearch in Education.

59. Christiansen, Peter and Ian Lilley, 1997. The Road Forward? Alternative Assessment for Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Students at the Tertiary Level. Australian Government Publishing Service.

ALTERNAT IVE ASSESSMENT IN AUSTRAL IA

Alternative assessment sets different admission criteria for Aboriginal Australians. Alternativeassessment also, more controversially, includes measuring students in different ways, recognizingdiversity, shifting to more oral means of assessment and accommodating Aboriginal learning styles.Initially alternative assessment focused on program acceptance and grading, but it has extended todeadline and attendance requirements. In a study of indigenous performance in Western Australia,it was found that 78 per cent of the 268 Aboriginal students analyzed were accepted to universitythrough alternative entry criteria; 48 per cent had year 10 education or less.57

However, assessment and learning strategies that focus on participants’ strengths have led to adecreased effort to overcome or evaluate weaknesses, leading to some negative attitudes aboutalternative assessment. Many non-Indigenous students at the University of Sydney felt Cadigalstudents succeed is because of their race.58 Some Australians see alternative assessment asfavouritism, or as a watering down of standards.59

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Aboriginal Peoples face a variety of barriersthat limit their participation in post-secondaryeducation. While financial hardship wasmentioned throughout the research, morethan increased funding is required to promoteAboriginal involvement. People we spoke tobelieve that notwithstanding the wide rangeof strategies and initiatives which promote theplace of Native Canadians in post-secondaryeducation, more must be done. Institutionsmust develop a greater understanding ofAboriginal people, and the historic and socialbarriers they face, before a real difference willbe seen in the number of Aboriginal peoplewho succeed in pursuing higher education.Demographics show that we are at a crucialtime for improving practices aimed atAboriginal participation, because of the highnumbers of Aboriginal children who will beready for higher education in a few years.

Stakeholder interviews and research liter-ature suggest that there are exemplary prac-tices for promoting and supporting Aboriginalpost-secondary education. Programs or initia-tives that were singled out for praise by stake-holders had certain common characteristics:• community delivery, such as offered

through the teacher education programs

• alternative admissions criteria and transi-tional support

• academic and personal support, such asthat offered UBC’s First Nations House ofLearning, and

• support for Aboriginal control of education,either at the program, curricular or institu-tional level.

All of these must be considered as newinitiatives are developed to address long-standing problems of lack of preparation,alienation and isolation.

41

Other challenges include:

• limited federal and band funding

• limited support for specific Aboriginalgroups, such as Métis, mature students andwomen with children

• the under-representation of AboriginalPeoples in some subjects such as sciencesand the health professions, and

• limited support for Aboriginal control ofpost-secondary education, includingcurriculum development and Aboriginalinstitutions.

There has not been a consistent enougheffort to overcome barriers to participation inAboriginal post-secondary education throughspecial strategies and initiatives and someproblems get more attention than others.There are strategies to overcome poverty, forexample, but comparatively few attempts to address family responsibilities, abuse oralcoholism.

Finally, it should be said that programs tobreak down barriers must be based on betterdata than we have now, which is woefullyinadequate for policy-making. Furtherresearch to track the success of initiatives ona wide scale is needed, such as statisticalevidence on enrolment and completion of specific post-secondary programs. Somelimitations of the data could be overcome atthe institutional or program level, and moreinformation could be collected on less easilyquantified strategies, such as student supportservices or the use of Aboriginal-developedcurricula.

Strategies are in place to address barriersthat arise for Aboriginal students in the post-secondary system. The challenge remains toimprove on these initiatives, to test andstrengthen their effectiveness, while alsoseeking ways to further address the endemicsocial and personal barriers that often stopAboriginal Peoples from even reaching thepoint where these initiatives can assist them.

Conclusion

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Alcorn, William J. and J. Michael Campbell, 1997. Access Programs: An Integrated Support Systemfor Non-Traditional Students at the University of Manitoba. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.

Alcorn, William and Benjamin Levin, 1998. Post-Secondary Education for IndigenousPopulations. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.

Anaquod, Gaylene, et.al. First Nations and Metis Students: A Faculty Guide. University of Regina,First Nations University of Canada, Teaching Development Centre, Gabriel Dumont Institute.

Assembly of First Nations Web site, March 2002. www.afn.ca.

Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999.

Barnhardt, Ray, 2001. “Domestication of the Ivory Tower: Institutional Adaption to CulturalDistance,” Anthropology and Education Quarterly, December 2001.

Barnhardt, Ray, 1991. “Higher Education in the Fourth World: Indigenous People Take Control,”Canadian Journal of Native Education, Volume 18, No. 2.

B.C. Ministry of Advanced Education, Training and Technology, 1999. 1999 B.C. College andInstitute Aboriginal Former Student Outcomes.

Bourke, Colin J., Jennifer K. Burden and Samantha Moore, 1996. Factors Affecting Performanceof Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Students at Australian Universities: A Case Study.Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Higher Education Division.

Christiansen, Peter and Ian Lilley, 1997. The Road Forward? Alternative Assessment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Students at the Tertiary Level. Australian GovernmentPublishing Service.

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Ewans, Mike, James McDonald and Deanna Nyce, 1999. “Acting Across Boundaries in AboriginalCurriculum Development: Examples from Northern British Columbia,” Canadian Journal ofNative Education, Volume 23, No. 2, 1999.

Farrington, Sally, Kristie Daniel DiGregorio and Susan Page, 1999. “The Things That Matter:Understanding the Factors That Affect the Participation and Retention of Indigenous Students in the Cadigal Program at the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney,” Paper for 1999 Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education.

Gabriel Dumont Web site, March 2002. www.gdins.org.

Gardner, Ethel, 2000. “First Nations House of Learning: A Continuity of Transformation,”Aboriginal Education: Fulfilling the Promise, p190–207. UBC Press, Vancouver.

Hampton, Eber, 2000. “First Nations Controlled University Education in Canada,” AboriginalEducation: Fulfilling the Promise, p208–221. UBC Press, Vancouver.

42

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