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Dakelh Resource Management Teacher Info Sheet 1

Dakelh Resource Management

Class Activity Teacher Information Sheet

The local Carrier people have long established means of governing themselves and managing the resources of their territory. Although different than modern Canadian models these methods served the local people well and allowed them to survive in very difficult geography and climate. To begin to understand their social order and governance models we can briefly look at three areas. Each of these will be further explored in the following pages.

Keyohs: The Keyoh system was the primary means that the local people organized access to, control of, and management over the diverse terrains and ecologies within their traditional territories. The Keyoh system was organized around clan membership and each Keyoh was overseen by a Duneza’ or nobleman who had the ultimate responsibility of maintaining the productivity and harvesting of the territory included in the Keyoh.

Duneza’: The Carrier people were matrilineal, meaning they identified their lineage through their mother. Thus a child automatically belonged to their mother’s clan. Clans were composed of multiple family and extended family lines. Each of these families were headed by a Duneza’ or Keyoh Holder, some of whom were in possession of “Big Names” that had been handed down over generations.

Oral Tradition: Like many other First Nations, for the Dakelh the Oral Tradition was a strong component of social and political life. The absence of a formal writing system meant that cultural and political information was transferred through the spoken word with important messages being given at public events like the Bahlats. The Oral Tradition includes storytelling, speeches, and the naming of people and things. Of course without witnesses to what was said the Oral Tradition is only half complete, thus the Oral Tradition is composed of both speaker and witness creating a community of consensus.


(Image used with permission, http://keyoh.net/)The Keyoh System

Keyohs represent one element of traditional Dakelh governance that was in existence before contact with Europeans. Keyohs were at the center of a system that provided for all community members, regardless of clan. While each Keyoh did belong to a specific family and nobleman, or Duneza’ we see that the resources gathered from the land could also be shared across the community depending on needs and the natural cycles of the local environment.

“The Keyoh provided the clans with a wealth of food, clothing, medicine and spiritual sustenance.However, in times of scarcity and because of general uneven distribution of resources throughoutthe landscape, social and economic cooperation was an essential component of the Bahlatssystem. Moreover, extensive trade networks were established through trails and waterways toexchange surplus goods between neighbouring First Nations. For example, the relatively largeand stable salmon runs of the Northern and Central Carrier provided ample surplus forpreservation and trade.” 1

The Keyoh system was both personal and political. The Duneza’ was accorded prestige and influence for proper maintenance of their respective Keyoh. The Keyoh holder could be either man or woman and the possession of the family Keyoh was a matter of inheritance.

“The head of each family is known as a Keyoh Holder, and sometimes receives a name that is passed on from generation to generation. The name, and the property, rights and responsibilities that go with this title were usually passed from one family head to his or her successor at an

1 Carrier Sekani Tribal Council, Carrier Sekani Tribal Council Aboriginal Interests & Use Study on the Enbridge Gateway Pipeline: An Assessment of the Impacts of the Proposed Enbridge Gateway Pipeline on the Carrier Sekani First Nations, May 2006, 14.


ilhunahodulh (gathering), a feast to which the people of neighbouring keyohs were invited as witnesses.”2

The Keyoh system was built upon and also reinforces the clan system of social organization. We see from the Keyoh system that the Carrier were not simply hunter-gatherers or that they had no conceptions of ownership. They recognized that the well-being of their people required direct resource management and survival was dependent on the ability to respect the laws that governed the Keyoh system.

“The Keyoh is the system of land ownership and management which delineates use and access by clan membership. The clans of the Carrier Sekani are matrilineal entities that are maintained through exogamy (i.e. marriages allowed only with members of other clans). Each clan has a distinct Keyoh or traditional territory that it owns and controls. The boundaries of the Keyoh are often mountains, rivers, creeks, lakes and other natural landmarks.”3

The system was deeply impacted by contact. Language loss, the death of knowledgeable Elders, and various impositions enforced by the settler government models all factored into the loss of the Keyoh system. Within a short amount of time the Keyohs were essentially disassembled. Some would argue today however, that this method of societal organization is still in effect in some areas:

“This law, and this title, predates the creation of the Indian Bands and Indian Reserves by the governments of British Columbia and Canada about 100 years ago. The Bands and their Reserves are situated on just a small part of a few keyohs, but the governments assigned the members of dozens of keyohs to membership in these newly invented Bands. The Bands were not given title to, or authority over, the keyohs when the Bands were created, and they have not somehow obtained this title or authority in the intervening 100 years.”4

Keyohs were not simply a means of resource management and organization but also connected the Dakelh to the land and each other. Keyohs helped the Dakelh establish themselves in relation to others in the community and also connected them to the land that sustained them. This connection also radiated out to future generations. Ensuring the territory was well managed meant the people would always have a place to call home and their culture would have a place to be practiced in safety.

2 “Introduction,” Keyoh Huwunline, accessed Aug. 23, 2017, http://keyoh.net/introduction/3 CSTC, Aboriginal Interests & Use Study, 13.4 keyoh.net/introduction/


“On a social level, keyohs symbolize family and personal autonomy in the sense that they are places of belonging within the greater Dakelh social structure. In short, keyohs are places where it becomes possible for individuals to attach in a personal way to the land. It is in this sense as a place for self-restoration, that the word “survival”, used to describe keyohs, is fully realized.”5

The Dakelh recognize that respecting the Keyoh system is key to ensuring the maintenance of their lands and obtaining self-government. The legitimacy of the Keyoh system is strengthened when all Keyoh holders work together to uphold the structure. This not only ensures enough resources for all but also maintains communal solidarity and respect for the traditions of Dakelh ancestors. We see through the Keyoh system that Dakelh life was deeply interpersonal and land based.

“Keyoh Holders and their families respect the authorities and titles to each others’ territories. The practice of recognizing and respecting each others’ Keyoh is vital to maintain relationships between neighbouring families for many reasons and fosters good social relations including trade relations between families and in turn neighbours develop as strong allies. Allied Keyohs are preferred in times of war.

Respect and recognition of one Keyoh to another enhances the ability of each others management and control. Internal control is vital to the long term sustainability and relationship between the family the plants, and animals, in their Keyoh.”6

Duneza’

Dakelh society was stratified and somewhat sedentary. This allowed for differing levels of prestige to be achieved and diverse roles to be played

5 ibid6 “Respect & Responsibility,” Keyoh Huwunline, accessed Aug. 23, 2017, http://keyoh.net/respect-responsiblity/


within a community. The resource rich environment of the central interior plateau allowed for this lifestyle.

“…the richness of the salmon harvest, notwithstanding cyclical variations and environmental disruptions, led to social complexity within the interior areas before similar complexity was achieved on the coast. The presence of cultural complexity amid cyclical variation and regional disparity suggest that trade provided stable food resources. With trade offsetting scarcity, culture could develop and social and economic stability prevail.”7

With complexity came a stratified socio-cultural milieu organized around clan membership and familial ties. Despite varying levels of authority in Dakelh culture, consultation and compromise were integral to governance. Group cohesion was the preferred method of ascribing territory and settling disputes.

“The Upper Carrier Society was very complex.... In consequence every district and every fishing place was claimed by some clan and considered property of its chief, who supervised itsuse for the benefit of his fellow clansmen and retainers. Yet the final ownership rested with the entire phatry… Even a chief rarely dared to act without consulting the clan chiefs in his phatry and generally also the chiefs of other phatries.”8

In addition to management of the Keyoh, Duneza’ also had other responsibilities. In particular their role at the Bahlats was integral and required a high level of organization and preparedness. These responsibilities began even before the new Duneza’ was officiated. As Lizette Hall, the great, great, granddaughter of Chief Kwah tells us…

“This was one of the most important of all the feasts, and was equal to the successor’s elevation to the rank of duneza’… Before this big banquet, and distribution of goods, enough members of other clans were hired to build according to the nobleman’s directions, a rectangular fencing around the spot where the late nobleman’s remains were cremated.

The evening before the potlatch, the future nobleman, and his fellow-clansmen counted everything to be given away. They agreed among themselves as to who would be the recipients of these gifts.”9

The Duneza’ did also enjoy some measure of additional privilege. For example,

7 CSTC, Aboriginal Interests & Use Study, 18.8 Ibid, 19.9 Lizette Hall, The Carrier My People (Prince George: Papyrus Printing, 1992), 19.


“It was customary for a man to have one wife. But if he were a Duneza’ he might acquire more wives, later. To do that he had to have a big trapline, and be an excellent hunter. Any of his wives could adopt as many orphans as she could look after.”10

Oral Tradition

The Oral Tradition has always and continues to be deeply embedded in Dakelh culture. The Oral Tradition encapsulates all the traditional knowledge of the people and maintains the high value placed on Elders who often are the only community members with remembrance of how things were done before contact. For the Dakelh, like many other First Nations, the Oral Tradition assisted with the upbringing of the young and taught essential values and skills.

“Many of the traditional stories, used to educate children as they grew up, stressed kinship with, and respect for, other living creatures as well as ethical social conduct based on mutual respect, good humour, generosity, and patience.”11

Not just behaviour was taught through the Oral Tradition but governance and societal organization were also established through public dialogue and witnessing. By attending a Bahlats and bearing witness to the business being addressed, decisions and outcomes were made real and news passed among the communities. Thus what was spoken became official and could be verified by many community members.

“All formal business in the bah’lats is conducted in an open and transparent environment where clan members (whether hereditary chiefs or not) are witnesses to transactions that may occur. As witnesses individuals are expected to commit to memory the details of transactions, and in the case of hereditary chiefs to recount in oral histories the transactions at future feasts when those transactions are relevant.” 12

The Oral Tradition, consisting in this way of both speaker and witness, allowed for social cohesion among the Dakelh when considering territory, resources, and political action. Although lacking hard documentation the system was also resilient, remaining operational across generations of time, disrupted only by contact with outside models.10 Ibid, 26.11 Doug Brown, “Carrier Sekani Self Government in Context: Land and Resources,” Western Geography, no. 12 (2002): 24.12 Travis Holyk, Perry Shawana, Warner Adam, Whu’Neeh’Nee (Guiders of our People): Strengthening Carrier First Nations Law Through Research and Training,” (Research and Development Paper, CSFS, 2016) 1-2.


“Territorial boundaries were marked with reference to natural landmarks (e.g., mountains, rivers, creeks, lakes, rocks, etc.) and the knowledge of these boundaries was reinforced through oral histories passed down by Elders and Chiefs to the younger generations. Although the institutions of traditional Carrier Sekani governments were unlike those of Europeans, these governments were real, their jurisdictions were recognized, and their territorial boundaries were enforced through alliances, diplomacy and war.”13

The Oral Tradition was a vital component of Dakelh identity, laying out markers for what could be considered intellectual property. These cultural group identifiers upheld and fed into the keyoh system . The Oral Tradition was augmented by ceremonial gift giving which reinforced the authenticity of the clan and keyoh systems and maintained the authority of the keyoh holders.

“Oral histories, genealogy, regalia, crests, unique songs and dances were essentially property markersthat defined and upheld the clan’s jurisdiction over its keyoh. When the host clan distributed gifts to members of other clans at a Bahlats feast, their acceptance of these gifts indicated their recognitionof the legitimate authority of the host clan within its keyoh. Collective decisions, negotiations, or acts of recognition done before witnesses at a Bahlats strengthened the legitimacy of the participating clans and bound them to respect each other’s jurisdiction.”14

The interlocking components of the Keyoh System, Duneza’, and the Oral Tradition form a strong basis for understanding Dakelh culture and governance. Each of these is tied to the others and together they create a framework for resolving disputes, managing land and resources, and passing cultural knowledge on to the next generations. When looked at in this way we can see the Dakelh had a complex and sophisticated political model that served the needs of their people.

13 Brown, “Carrier Sekani Self Government in Context,” 25-26.14 Brown, “Carrier Sekani Self Government in Context,” 31-32.


How can we use this information to further understanding of Dakelh culture in our students and get them thinking about resource management? The

following activity should assist us.

Dakelh Resource Management Class Activity

Resource management, consensus, and public speaking are all strong components of the Keyoh system. In this activity students are encouraged

to engage with all three by imagining and taking on the public speaking role of a Duneza’.

As Duneza’ are responsible to their communities’ needs they must be able to justify their decisions about resources and any social impacts they might

have. Students are to consider their school as their Keyoh and make balanced decisions about how to manage the various resources within it.

educator should gain familiarity with Dakelh resource management by using the Dakelh Resource Management System Teacher Information Sheet

educator leads a class discussion on Dakelh resource management and connects the concepts to:


o the student’s territory or Keyoh is their school (a place of belonging and survival)

o what resources are contained within their Keyoh/ school? eg. computer lab, playground, art supplies, gym, learning

commons, assemblies, after school clubs (other areas or activities may also be suitable)

o if they were the Duneza’, how would they manage those resources? What would they change? How? Why?

students can work as individuals or in groups depending on classroom management and student needs

if working solo students can pick one resource area to think on and then speak to the class about, as a Duneza’ would

if activity is completed in groups then several resource areas should be considered and idea sharing and consensus building should be emphasized

o one student per group is assigned the role of Duneza’ and presents the group ideas to the class

whether solo or in groups, students should establish how they would “manage” the resources in question by considering…

o Why are these resources valuable? o Who are they most valuable to or who needs them the most?o What rules would they make?o How would they make sure everyone has enough access to the

resource?o How would they improve the resource?o How would they make changes (vote, survey, decree)?

Students should be able to answer questions as to how their or their groups culture, identity, or worldview shaped their decisions

Students should be asked to consider how others in the school might feel about the changes they would make

Class discussion follows to assess and make value judgments about plans and ideas, modeling group consensus

Curriculum Areas Addressed

This activity was designed with grade 3 students and curriculum in mind. As detailed below, this exercise should have the most relevance to gr. 3

Social Studies. Educators are encouraged to find other areas of the curriculum that the activity may have relevance to. For example elements

of Career Education may also be addressed as well as components of English Language Arts. Educators should feel free to modify the language

or complexity of the activity to suit other grade levels if applicable.


Social Studies gr. 3o Big Ideas:

Learning about indigenous peoples nurtures multicultural awareness and respect for diversity.

People from diverse cultures and societies share some common experiences and aspects of life.

Indigenous Knowledge is passed down through oral history, traditions, and collective memory.

Indigenous societies throughout the world value the well-being of the self, the land, spirits, and ancestors

o Curricular Competencies: Use Social Studies inquiry processes and skills to: ask

questions; gather, interpret, and analyze ideas; and communicate findings and decisions

Explain why people, events, and places are significant to various individuals and groups (significance)

Recognize the causes and consequences of event, decisions, and developments (cause and consequence)

Explain why people’s beliefs, values, worldviews, experiences, and roles give them different perspectives on people, places, issues, and events

Make value judgements about events, decisions, and actions, and suggest lessons that can be learned (ethical judgement)

o Content: cultural characteristics and ways of life of local first

Peoples and global indigenous peoples aspects of life shared by and common to peoples and

cultures governance and social organization in local and global

indigenous societies oral history, traditional stories, and artefacts as evidence

about past First Peoples cultures Relationships between humans and their environment

Any questions or requests for additional information can be directed to [email protected]

Efforts were made to ensure the authenticity of this information and exercise. This document has been compiled by Michael Gomes who is

responsible for any inaccuracies.

References

mailto:[email protected]


Brown, Doug. “Carrier Sekani Self Government in Context: Land and Resources,” Western Geography, no. 12 (2002): 21-67.

Carrier Sekani Tribal Council. Carrier Sekani Tribal Council Aboriginal Interests & Use Study on the Enbridge Gateway Pipeline: An Assessment of the Impacts of the Proposed Enbridge Gateway Pipeline on the Carrier Sekani First Nations, May 2006.

Hall, Lizette. The Carrier My People. Prince George: Papyrus Printing, 1992.

Holyk, Travis and Shawana, Perry and Adam, Warner. “ Whu’Neeh’Nee (Guiders of our People): Strengthening Carrier First Nations Law Through Research and Training.” Research and Development Paper, CSFS, 2016.

Keyoh Huwunliné. Accessed Sep. 23, 2017. http://keyoh.net.

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