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TRANSCRIPT
# 2008 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by theUniversity of South AfricaMuckleneuk, Pretoria
FOO1501/1/2011±2013
98627066
3B2
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(iii) FOO1501/1/2011±2013
Contents
Unit Page
INTRODUCTION (vii)
1 HEATING AND EQUIPMENT 1
Unit outcomes 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Heating foods 1
1.2 Measuring heat 2
1.3 Types of heat transfer 3
1.4 Food preparation equipment 4
1.5 Utensils 4
2 FOOD PREPARATION BASICS 7
Unit outcomes 7
Introduction 7
2.1 Methods of heating foods 7
2.2 Cutlery techniques 9
2.3 Handling knives 9
2.4 Measuring the ingredients 10
2.5 Mixing techniques 10
2.6 Seasoning and flavouring 11
2.7 Food presentation 13
3 MILK & CHEESE 15
3.1 Milk 15
Outcomes 15
Introduction 15
3.1.1 Composition of milk 16
3.1.2 Purchasing milk 17
3.1.3 Types of milk 18
3.2 Cheese 21
Outcomes 21
Introduction 21
3.2.1 Classification of cheeses 22
3.2.2 Cheese production 22
3.2.3 Purchasing cheese 24
3.2.4 Food preparation with cheese 25
3.2.5 Storage of cheese 26
Unit Page
4 EGGS 27
Unit outcomes 27
Introduction 27
4.1 Composition of eggs 27
4.2 Purchasing of eggs 29
4.3 Function of eggs in food 30
4.4 Preparation of eggs 32
4.5 Storage of eggs 38
5 STARCHES AND SAUCES 40
Unit outcomes 40
Introduction 40
5.1 Starches as thickeners 40
5.2 Starch characteristics 41
5.3 Sauces 45
5.4 Storage of starches and sauces 50
6 CEREAL GRAINS AND PASTAS 51
Unit outcomes 51
Introduction 51
6.1 Composition of cereal grains 52
6.2 Uses of cereal grains 52
6.3 Types of cereal grains 54
6.4 Preparation of cereal grains 59
6.5 Storage of cereal grains 62
6.6 Pastas 62
6.7 Preparation of pasta 63
6.8 Storage of pasta 64
7 FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURES 65
Unit outcomes 65
Introduction 65
7.1 Flours 66
7.2 Flour mixture ingredients 72
7.3 Preparation of baked goods 76
7.4 Storage of flour and flour mixtures 78
8 QUICK BREADS 79
Unit outcomes 79
Introduction 79
8.1 Preparation of quick breads 80
8.2 Varieties of quick breads 81
9 YEAST BREADS 85
Unit outcomes 85
Introduction 85
9.1 Preparation of yeast breads 85
9.2 Varieties of yeast breads 91
9.3 Storage of yeast breads 93
(iv)
Unit Page
10 CAKES AND COOKIES 95
Unit outcomes 95
Introduction 95
10.1 Types of cakes 95
10.2 Preparation of cakes 96
10.3 Storage of cakes 104
10.4 Types of cookies 104
10.5 Preparation of cookies 105
10.6 Storage of cookies 107
11 PIES AND PASTRIES 108
Unit outcomes 108
Introduction 108
11.1 Types of pastry 108
11.2 Preparation of pastry 109
11.3 Storage of pastry 118
12 SWEETENERS 119
Unit outcomes 119
Introduction 119
12.1 Natural sweeteners 119
12.2 Alternative sweeteners 125
12.3 Functions of sugar in food 127
13 CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS 130
Unit outcomes 130
Introduction 130
13.1 Classification of confectionery products 130
13.2 Preparation of sweets 131
13.3 Storage of sweets 140
14 FROZEN DESSERTS 141
Unit outcomes 141
Introduction 141
14.1 Types of frozen desserts 141
14.2 Preparation of frozen desserts 144
14.3 Storage of frozen desserts 147
(v) FOO1501/1
Introduction
1 WELCOME
It is a privilege to welcome you to the first module of the food preparation
course. We hope you will benefit from the knowledge you gain through
your studies.
Studying food preparation is intended to aid you in understanding the
science of food.
2 COURSE PURPOSE
After completion of this module you should have developed the ability to
understand and apply food preparation principles and skills in a food
service operation.
3 RESOURCES
On registering for this module, you should have received the following
from Unisa:
. Study guide 1
. Tutorial letter 101 (which inter alia contains your assignments)
4 PRESCRIBED BOOK
Brown, A. Understanding food principles and preparation. Thomson
Wadworth. ISBN 0-534-50609-7.
This is a very good book on food science and is used widely by other
institutions. You should find this book in any of the official bookshops of
Unisa. This textbook can also be ordered by Protea Bookstore in Hatfield,
Pretoria.
Tel: (012) 362±5683/362±5663
You may also order the book on the Internet at http://www.kalahari.net
or http://www.exclusivebooks.com or http://www.amazon.com.
You will frequently be asked to read or study sections in this prescribed
book. Each unit will introduce you to specific subject content which you
need to study. Remember that the purpose of the study guide is to guide
you through the book. Buy your prescribed book as soon as possible.
(vii) FOO101U/1
5 PORTFOLIO
The study guide contains activities based on each unit in the study guide.
Please complete every activity as well as you possibly can! The activities
for each study unit should be inserted into its own section of a portfolio
file. You will frequently be instructed to place an activity into your
portfolio file.
The best way to organise this portfolio is to use a small to medium-sized
lever-arch file. Divide the portfolio into sections with coloured pages. The
work for every study unit must be inserted into its own section. Start
each activity on a new page. As the year progresses, you can make
additions or corrections before you submit the portfolio. Please check the
due dates for submission.
6 TO-DO ISSUES AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT
Study the entire HOW & WHY? section in your prescribed book.
The nutrient content sections offer in-depth information on the nutrients
in the foods that are discussed.
The Chemist's Corner boxes provide a deeper understanding of the
science involved in food chemistry.
The End-of-chapter pictorial summaries will help you to review the
principles and topics quickly and visually.
(viii)
UNIT 1
Heating and equipment
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. explain and apply the heat that is transferred in heating and
preparing food
. recognise the different kinds of thermometers and know how to
read them
. identify primary kitchen equipment
. identify auxiliary kitchen equipment
. list various pots and pans and their uses
. list various knives and their uses
. identify different preparation equipment
. discuss different measuring utensils
. explain the difference between mass and volume
. explain the difference between metric and nonmetric measurement
INTRODUCTION
Nobody really knows how cooking was discovered. However, it is
important to know how to heat food properly and what the correct
equipment is to use in food preparation.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 4 and Appendix C in your prescribed book on the context of
heating and catering equipment. You will begin to understand the nature
of food and food science issues.
1.1 HEATING FOODS
Heat is energy that is produced by the rapid movement of molecules. Heat
speeds up the movement or motion of molecules whereas cold
temperatures slow down the movement of molecules.
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Define ``kinetic energy'':
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1.2 MEASURING HEAT
1.2.1 Temperature scales
The three main scales used to measure heat intensity are:
Celsius or Centigrade (8C) Fahrenheit (8F) Kelvin (8K)
Metric Nonmetric Used in scientific research
A Study pp 83±85, figures 4-5 and 4-6 in your prescribed book.
Bloemfontein is 1 920 feet above sea level. What will the boiling point of
water be in Bloemfontein on the Celsius scale?
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1.2.2 Thermometers
. Thermometers are available in both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
. Bulb thermometers work on the expansion and contraction of mercury
in the bulb at the bottom of an extended glass tube marked with the
specific graduated scale.
. Small thermometers hang or stand in ovens and refrigerators to check
the accuracy of the equipment's thermostat.
. Pocketsize, instant-read thermometers are used to check foods being
held on steam or fridge tables in food service establishments.
A See pp 83±84 in your prescribed book. Then answer the following
question:
Why must instant-read thermometers be sanitised between uses?
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A See pp 83±84 in your prescribed book. Then answer the following
question:
Why is it better to use a digital thermometer instead of an analog
thermometer?
A few degrees' difference on a thermometer can result in the success or
failure of a dish, so thermometers need to be tested for accuracy.
1.3 TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Basic heat sources for preparing foods are electricity, gas, wood and coal.
Heat is transferred in the following ways:
1.3.1 Conduction
Conduction is the direct transfer of heat from one substance to another by
direct contact (eg heat from a gas flame warms the pot on the stove and
then its contents).
1.3.2 Convection
Air or liquid expands and rises as it heats up, thus creating a circular
current. Oven baking, simmering, steaming and deep-fat frying are all
examples of convection cooking.
1.3.3 Induction
Induction is the transfer of heat energy to an adjacent material without
direct contact.
1.3.4 Radiation
Radiation (eg broiling, grilling and microwaves) generates radiant heat in
the form of particle waves moving outward.
A Study pp 82±83 in your prescribed book.
4ACTIVITY 1.1ACTIVITY 1.1
Define these terms: conduction, convection, induction and radiation.
Provide an example of a dish you will heat up by each method.
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Make a drawing of each method and provide captions.
Add the definitions and drawings to your portfolio file.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
1.4 FOOD PREPARATION EQUIPMENT
The primary equipment in a well-equipped kitchen is a stove, an oven and
a refrigerator. Many kitchens also have a dishwasher.
1.4.1 Stoves
A stove has open or flat surfaces with electrical or gas burners.
(Study p 80, figure 4-1 in your prescribed book.)
1.4.2 Ovens
The conventional oven is usually in the bottom part of the stove, but it
can be a separate unit. (Study p 82, figure 4-4 in your prescribed book.)
1.5 UTENSILS
Utensils are needed for cutting, stirring, turning, measuring and serving
food.
1.5.1 Knives
Study pp 606±607 in your prescribed book. In the preparation of food it
is very important to know the different kinds of knives, their particular
tasks and how to care for them.
The food to be cut determines what type of knife should be used.
Ask somebody to show you how to sharpen a knife, practise it and always
keep your knives in a good condition.
4ACTIVITY 1.3ACTIVITY 1.3
Refer to the section on knives in your prescribed book. Then list the
various types of knives commonly used in kitchens, and describe how
each may be used.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
4
For hygienic reasons, wooden cutting boards are no longer allowed in
food service establishments. Use colour coded cutting boards to separate
the cutting boards for poultry, meat and vegetables.
1.5.2 Preparation utensils
Study pp 607±611 in your prescribed book to familiarise yourself with
the different utensils used for preparing food.
1.5.3 Measuring utensils
Consistency in measuring and mixing techniques can make all the
difference to a recipe's success or failure. You should understand the
difference between:
(1) Mass and volume
Weighing, commonly used to mean determining the mass, is a much
more accurate measurement than volume. Consequently it is used by
many food service operations. Weight can be measured by a number
of different scales (see p 611, figure c-20 in your prescribed book).
(2) Metric and nonmetric
Metric measurements of volume are expressed in millilitres. Compare
a 250 ml metric cup with a nonmetric cup, which holds 236,59 ml.
Five different types of measuring utensils are used in food
preparation.
AStudy p 610 in your prescribed book and then name the uses of the
following measuring equipment:
Measuring equipment Uses
1 Liquid measuring cup
2 Dry measuring cup
3 Measuring spoons
4 Ladles
5 Scoops or dippers
Why do you think it is important to use the correct size ladle or scoop
when dishing up in a food service establishment?
Define ``meniscus'':
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1.5.4 Serving utensils
Appendix C, p 611 in your prescribed text book describes the uses of
serving utensils in detail. Also learn from your prescribed book how to set
a table properly, and learn the uses of the different serving utensils and
tableware. Remember, serving and eating utensils should for sanitary
reasons always be touched on the handles.
UNIT 2
Food preparation basics
UNIT OUTCOMES
After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. classify the methods of heating foods
. handle knives
. identify and cut food into a specific style
. measure ingredients correctly
. distinguish between different mixing techniques
. distinguish between different seasonings and flavourings
. present food on a plate
. list some garnishes
INTRODUCTION
It is essential to understand the basics of food preparation. No matter
how knowledgeable and careful the chef is, results will vary from meal to
meal. Factors that contribute to differences in prepared food include the
type of heat used, the cooking utensils, the quantity of food prepared, the
freshness of the ingredients, unique tastes and the preferences of
individuals. Learn the basic techniques, practise as often as you can,
love what you do, and you will become a master at your work.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 4 in your prescribed book for a better understanding of
food preparation.
2.1 METHODS OF HEATING FOODS
(1) Moist-heat preparation
Heat is transferred by water, a water-based liquid or steam.
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(2) Dry-heat preparation
Heat is transferred by air, radiation, fat or metal.
(3) Microwaving
Usually listed as a moist heat, microwaving actually incorporates both
dry (radiation) and moist-heat methods.
Heating changes the molecular structure of food, destroys harmful
microorganisms and alter the texture, taste, odour and appearance of
food.
4ACTIVITY 2.1ACTIVITY 2.1
Study p 79±80 in your prescribed book. Then complete the table for each
preparation technique, including parboiling and blanching.
Example:
Method Temperature Method description Suitable food or
dish
Simmer 82 8C Gently rising bubbles Rice, soups, stews
that barely break the
surface
Scald
Poach
Stew
Braise
Boil
Parboil
Blanch
Steam
Microwave
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
Familiarise yourself with oven-rack positions and pan colour (figure 6-2).
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2.2 CUTLERY TECHNIQUES
Knowing knives and how to use them is essential to basic food
preparation. The technique varies according to the type of knife that is
chosen for a particular task.
2.3 HANDLING KNIVES
The most frequently used knife is the chef's or French knife. This knife
should be firmly held with the base of the blade between the thumb and
forefinger and the other fingers wrapped around the handle. The other
hand must hold the food and guide it towards the blade. Curl the fingers,
keep them away from the cutting edge, and allow at least a 1,25 cm
barrier of food between the blade and the fingers holding the food.
Different sections of the blade are used for different tasks. (See p 86,
figure 4-9 in your prescribed book.)
Practise the handling of knives as well as the cutting styles (see below) at
home.
2.3.1 Cutting styles
The goal in cutting food is uniformity. Why? Because it allows even
heating and gives food an appetizing appearance. The size of your food
service establishment will determine whether you can do everything by
hand or have to rely on equipment to do the job. Time, money and labour
also play a role in your decision.
(1) Slice
To move the food under the blade while keeping the point of the blade
firmly on the cutting board the base of the knife is lifted up and pushed
down with a forward and backward motion. (Refer to figure 4-10 in your
prescribed book.)
(2) Julienne
To cut food length-wise into very thin, stick-like shapes
(3) Shred
To cut leaf vegetables into thin strips
(4) Dice
To cut food into even-sized cubes
(5) Mince
To chop food into very fine pieces
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(6) Peel
To remove the skin (Some foods can be peeled with a paring knife.)
2.4 MEASURING THE INGREDIENTS
Correct measuring is essential in basic food preparation. The three basic
steps in measuring are:
(i) acquiring the amount for a specific measurement
(ii) selecting the right measuring utensil
. Wet ingredients: transparent, graduated cup with pour spout
. Dry ingredients: flat-topped measuring cups for levelling
(iii) using an accurate measuring technique
Knowing the general units used in measuring is important. Use the largest
measuring device possible (eg 6 teaspoons of sugar should be measured
by using 2 tablespoons). For greater accuracy, scales may be used to
measure ingredients.
Specific volume-measuring techniques for liquids, eggs, fat, sugar and
flour are discussed on pp 87±90 in your prescribed book.
Explain how you will measure the following ingredients:
Ingredient Method of measuring
Liquid: 250 ml milk
Eggs: 5 ml
Fat: 100 g margarine
Sugar: 250 ml confectioner's sugar
Flour: 350 g white flour
Know your substitutions! Knowing which item can replace a missing
ingredient can sometimes save the day.
2.5 MIXING TECHNIQUES
A Study pp 90±91 in your prescribed book.
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Mixing is a general term to describe beating, blending, binding, whipping
and folding. Two or more ingredients are mixed together to become one
product.
The following are the most common methods for mixing the ingredients
for baked goods:
1 Conventional (creaming) method Creaming. Adding eggs. Alterna-
tive addition of dry and moist
ingredients.
2 Conventional sponge method The same as the creaming meth-
od. Egg foam is folded into the
batter at the end.
3 Single-stage method All the ingredients are beaten
together at the same time.
4 Pastry-blend method (also known Rub or cut shortening into flour
as the rubbing-in method) until the mixture looks like
breadcrumbs. Add the rest of
the ingredients to form a stiff
dough. Do not overmix.
5 Biscuit method Mix the dry ingredients. Rub or
cut in the shortening. Add the
liquid. Mix just until moistened
and not more or the biscuits will
be tough.
6 Muffin method Mix the dry and moist ingredi-
ents separately. Combine and
blend until the dry ingredients
become moist.
2.6 SEASONING AND FLAVOURING
A Study pp 91±95 in your prescribed book.
The most nutritious and beautifully presented meal cannot be enjoyed
unless it tastes good. The most common reason why consumers reject
food is because it has an unacceptable flavour. The flavour of the food can
determine the success of an establishment. That is why it is very
important to sensitise your taste buds and get to know the seasonings and
flavours.
Define ``seasoning'':
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Define ``flavouring'':
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We will focus on the basic seasonings and flavourings:
(1) Salt
Salt was originally used as a preservative for meat and fish. Salt in its
most common form is a crystalline seasoning that may or may not be
iodised and combined with an anticaking material. Salt should be added
in small quantities because of its potential to overwhelm the taste buds.
Removing excess salt is almost impossible.
Why must a sauce or soup that will be reduced be only slightly salted?
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4ACTIVITY 2.2ACTIVITY 2.2
What steps can you take to decrease your sodium (ie salt) intake?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(2) Pepper
Pepper is also a common seasoning. The colour of pepper depends on the
berry's ripeness (eg white pepper).
(3) Herbs
These are plant leaves valued for their flavour or scent. Fresh herbs are
generally preferred for the best flavour and texture.
(4) Spices
Spices derive from the fruit, flowers, bark, seeds or roots of plants and
are added to season or flavour food.
Store herbs and spices in a cool, dark place for no more than a year.
12
(5) Flavour enhancers
Mono-sodium ghufomate (MSG)
(6) Oil extracts
List the sources of oil extracts.
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To retain maximum flavour, store oil extracts in a cool, dark place for no
more than a year.
(7) Marinades
These are seasoned liquids that flavour and tenderise foods such as meat,
poultry and fish.
(8) Vinaigrette
Vinaigrette is a marinade for vegetables that are served cold.
(9) Breading and batters
Study p 95, figure 4-17, in your prescribed book.
List the different steps for the following two procedures:
Breading:
Batter:
(10) Condiments
These are seasonings or prepared relishes used in cooking or on the table.
Experience of how much and when to add these seasonings and
flavourings may well be the best teacher.
2.7 FOOD PRESENTATION
A Study pp 95±96 in your prescribed book.
2.7.1 Plate presentation
The highest quality, best-prepared food is short-changed if the plate
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presentation is not at the same level of quality. The customer's first
impression is largely based on sight. Colours, shapes, sizes, textures and
flavours must be coordinated on the plate.
4ACTIVITY 2.3ACTIVITY 2.3
1 Give 5 directives of plate presentation.
2 Name 5 possible garnishes.
Only fresh garnishes must be used, if needed.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
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UNIT 3
Milk and cheese
3.1 MILK
OUTCOMES
After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. briefly discuss the nutritional value of milk
. make the right choice when you purchase milk
. explain the effect of heat on the quality of milk
. list and recognise types of milk
. discuss the physical properties of milk
. discuss the stability factors of milk foam
. handle and store milk correctly
INTRODUCTION
Milk is a unique beverage that provides complete protein, many of the B
vitamins, vitamins A and D and calcium. Milk is not an absolutely perfect
food, but it is the most complete single food known.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 9 in your prescribed book for a discussion on milk and milk
products.
Study p 188 in your prescribed book. Then answer the following
question:
Why is milk a vital source of nutrition, especially of calcium, for millions
of people?
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We focus on cow's milk, its composition and variations.
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3.1.1 Composition of milk
A Study pp 188±190 in your prescribed book.
Milk is a complex food in which more than a hundred components have
been identified. The exact composition of milk varies, depending on the
breed of cattle, the feed used and the period of lactation. The milk
available on the market, however, has a uniform composition that may
vary slightly according to governmental regulations in terms of butterfat
and solids content.
(1) The nutrients in milk
We now look at the general categories of nutrients in milk and the forms
in which they occur:
. Water. Almost 90% of milk is water.
. Proteins. The predominant types of protein found in milk are casein
and whey.
Study p 188, Chemist's Corner 9-1, in your prescribed book.
. Whey. Putting milk through an ultrafiltration process isolates whey.
This liquid fraction is used by the food industry as emulsifiers and as
foaming and gelling agents. Adding milk proteins to other foods
improves their texture, mouth-feel, moisture retention and flavour.
. Carbohydrates. Lactose or milk sugar is the primary carbohydrate
found in milk. When the bacteria in milk metabolise lactose, lactic acid
is produced. Lactic acid is responsible for the flavour in cheese, yogurt
and sour cream. Lactose is broken down by lactase into glucose and
galactose that are easily absorbed.
. Fats. The fat in milk, called milk fat or butterfat, plays a role in the
flavour, mouth-feel and stability of milk products. Milk contains
cholesterol. The fat that is present in the cream is finely emulsified.
. Minerals. The major mineral in milk and milk products is calcium.
Phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sodium, chloride and sulphur are
found in smaller quantities in milk and milk products. Milk is low in
iron.
. Vitamins. Milk contains vitamins A, D, B (riboflavin) and traces of
niacin.
Explain why reduced-fat and fat-free milk products are to be fortified
with vitamin A and vitamin D.
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(2) Colour compounds
Study p 190 in your prescribed book.
Factors that contribute to the colour of milk: Fat, casein, calcium, riboflavin
3.1.2 Purchasing milk
A Study pp 91±92 in your prescribed book.
About a hundred years ago, a French scientist called Louis Pasteur
discovered that milk contained harmful bacteria. He also found that these
bacteria could be killed by heating the milk to a certain temperature. This
process is still known as pasteurisation.
How is milk treated presently?
Unless it is treated, milk contains living microorganisms. It is therefore
difficult to market raw milk safely, because it may be a carrier of bacteria
that cause diseases like gastroenteritis, tuberculosis, diphtheria and
typhoid. Before milk is made available to the public, it is treated or
processed to retain and to enhance its drinking and storage qualities.
Milk may be treated according the following processes:
(1) Pasteurisation
Temperatures and times vary, but the processes most commonly used by
milk processors are the LTLT and HTST types. (See p 192, table 9-4, in
your prescribed book.)
Define ``ultrapasteurisation'':
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Define ``ultrahigh temperature'' (UHT):
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What are the benefits of sterile packaging of UHT milk?
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How should UHT milk be treated, once opened?
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(2) Homogenisation
To ``homogenise'' means to make uniform or the same. Because the fat is
lighter than the liquid part of the milk, it rises to the surface and forms a
layer of cream. When milk is homogenised, it is forced through a tiny
valve under high pressure. The process breaks up the fat into very small
globules, now evenly dispersed throughout the milk. A film of proteins
immediately surrounds the small fat globules, so that the globules no
longer adhere to one another. However, because larger areas of the fat
globules are now exposed to the air, the fat in the milk may become
rancid more easily. But, as all homogenised milk is also pasteurised, the
fat in the milk does not become rancid. This process has no effect on
nutrient content, but sensory changes do occur.
Study p 192 in your prescribed book. Then name the sensory changes
that occur when milk is homogenised.
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3.1.3 Types of milk
A Study pp 192±198 in your prescribed book.
Why do you think there is a standard on the milk solid non-fat (MSNF) in
milk products?
There are a number of reasons for manufacturing milk products:
(i) Milk used in manufactured products reaches a wider general public
and its value to the consumer is therefore enhanced.
(ii) When milk is used in manufactured products, its quality Ð and to a
great extent its nutritional value as well Ð is maintained.
(iii) Using milk in manufactured products is a good means of distributing
these products.
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4ACTIVITY 3.1ACTIVITY 3.1
Briefly describe the major characteristics of the following milk products:
Milk products Major characteristics
1 Fluid milk
2 Canned milk
3 Dried milk
4 Cultured milk
5 Creams
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
3.1.3.1 Different milk products
Milk products Examples
1 Fluid milk Whole milk, reduced-fat, low-fat, fat-free, UHT,
chocolate, carbonated, imitation, filled, reduced-
lactose, low-sodium, soy milk, goat's milk, rice milk
2 Canned milk Evaporated, sweetened condensed
3 Dried milk Nonfat dried milk
4 Cultured milk Buttermilk, yogurt, sour cream, acidophilous milk
5 Creams Cream, cream substitutes
Visit your nearest supermarket to find out which milk products are
available. Familiarise yourself with the available products as well as
their nutrient content.
3.1.3.2 Milk products in food preparation
A Study pp 200±203 in your prescribed book.
. Heat, the animal feed, oxidation, the use of copper equipment or
utensils and exposure to sunlight can all influence milk flavour.
. The percentage of fat determines the mouth-feel and body of milk.
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. Milk proteins coagulate to form a solid clot when exposed to heat, acid,
enzymes, polyphenolic compounds and salt. Rennin, an enzyme that is
sold commercially as rennet and obtained from the inner lining of a
calf's stomach, is commonly used in the production of cheese and ice
cream.
. Scorching of milk can be prevented by constant stirring, slow increases
in temperature and the use of a double boiler.
. Liquid milk products such as cream, evaporated milk and reconstituted
nonfat dried milk can be whipped into foam.
4ACTIVITY 3.2ACTIVITY 3.2
Discuss the effects of fat content, temperature, cream, age, sugar and
whipping time on the stability of milk foam in whipped cream.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
3.1.3.3 Storage of milk products
A Study p 203 in your prescribed book.
Because its composition provides an ideal medium for the growth of
bacteria, milk is a highly perishable foodstuff. Cold storage and the
prevention of contamination are therefore essential in the handling and
storage of milk and milk products.
. All milk products except certain canned, dried and UHT milk must be
stored in the coldest part of your refrigerator.
. Never mix old and fresh milk.
. Keep the containers closed to prevent contamination and the absorp-
tion of odours from other foods.
. Keep the milk in opaque containers to prevent oxidation that cause off-
flavours and the loss of riboflavin (B2).
Complete the table below.
Food item Recommended refrigerator storage times
1 Fluid milk
2 Yoghurt
3 Buttermilk
4 Sour cream
20
Nonfat dried milk, UHT milk (long-life), sweetened condensed milk and
evaporated milk must be stored at 228C in a cool, dry, dark place.
The ``sell by'' date should always be checked before these food items are
purchased.
3.2 CHEESE
OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. classify cheese according to its moisture content
. discuss the basic processes of cheese manufacturing
. list whey products
. describe various kinds of processed cheeses
. make the right choices when purchasing cheese
. discuss food preparation with cheese
. determine the most effective ways of storing cheese
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 10 in your prescribed book.
INTRODUCTION
Cheese is a preserved food made from the curd, or solid portion, of milk.
One of the most nutrient-dense foods, cheese is used daily all over the
world as an ingredient to add flavour, colour and texture to prepared food
or to enjoy on its own. Adding certain enzymes and/or acid to any type of
milk causes the casein proteins and fat to coagulate and separate from the
liquid portion or whey to form the curd. Moisture is removed from the
curd to varying degrees. The curd is then treated in a variety of ways to
produce several types of cheese (see p 221, see pp 212±213, figure 10-5).
Study p 208 in your prescribed book. Then define ``coagulate'':
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
21 FOO1501/1
3.2.1 Classification of cheeses
Under this heading we discuss the moisture content classification of
cheese.
Moisture Characteristics Moisture Examples
classification content
1 Fresh Soft, whitish in colour, 80% + Cottage, Cream,
mild-tasting Ricotta, Feta
2 Soft Aged for a short time 50% 7 75% Brie, Camembert
3 Semihard 40% 7 50% Gouda, Edam,
Roquefort, Blue,
Stilton
4 Hard 30% 7 40% Cheddar, Swiss
5 Very hard Aged the longest 30% Parmesan, Romano
Study p 208±209 in your prescribed book and then name some of the
other ways in which cheese can be classified.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
3.2.2 Cheese production
A Study pp 209±216 in your prescribed book.
Five basic steps are common to the production of all varieties of cheese.
No two cheese varieties are produced by exactly the same method.
(1) Milk selection. Choose the appropriate milk. Pasteurized cow's milk
is the most common choice. The type of milk from which the cheese is
made determines the amount of fat in the cheese.
(2) Coagulation. Cheese making starts with the coagulation of the casein
protein in milk. Adding enzymes or acid represents the two main
methods of aiding coagulation.
4ACTIVITY 3.3ACTIVITY 3.3
Describe two methods to aid the coagulation of milk protein.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
22
(3) Curd treatment. The curd may be treated in five ways to remove
more whey:
. cutting
. heating
. salting
. knitting
. pressing
Chemical tests can measure the progress of the curd, but the
judgment of an experienced cheese maker determines when it is time
for the next step.
(4) Curing. Define ``curing'' (see p 212 in your prescribed book):
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
(5) Ripening. Define ``ripening'' (see p 212 in your prescribed book):
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
Cheese becomes stronger in flavour as it ages. The flavour originates
from a combination of compounds that develop during curing and
ripening (see p 214, figure 10-7 in your prescribed book). Fresh curd is
converted into a unique cheese with its own mature flavour, aroma and
texture through skilful adjustment of curing and ripening techniques.
Ripening times range from 4 weeks to 2 years.
A number of elements may be manipulated to process the final product:
(a) Processed cheese is for example:
. exposed to controlled temperatures (28C to 248C)
. exposed to controlled humidity (Higher humidity is suitable for a
mould-ripened cheeses such as Roquefort.)
(b) Some cheeses are treated to develop a rind.
(c) Swiss cheese develops holes because gas-forming micro-organisms
are produced and are active during the early stages of ripening when
the curd is still pliable (see p 213, figure 10-5 in your prescribed
book).
(d) The ropy texture of mozzarella is the result of kneading (ie pulling
and stretching the curd after knitting).
(e) The blue veins in Roquefort are due to inoculating the cheese with
mould spores that grow in the cheese.
3.2.2.1 Whey and whey products
Lactalbumin and lactglobulin are the two major proteins in whey. Whey
23 FOO1501/1
also contains most of the lactose, water-soluble vitamins and minerals in
milk. Whey is low in fat. Fresh whey is highly perishable, so it is most
often quickly processed into:
(1) Whey cheeses (Ricotta and Scandinavian cheeses)
(2) Dry whey which is fed to livestock and is an ingredient in processed
foods.
(3) Modified whey products used as an ingredient in processed cheese or
in confectionary products.
Pasteurised whey is used in a variety of products. Study pp 213±214 in
your prescribed book.
Whey incorporated into foods is available in two types:
Sweet whey Acidic whey
Rennin-coagulated milk Acid-coagulated milk
Mineral concentrations are higher because
acid releases the calcium from the casein
molecule, causing its dispersion in the whey
3.2.2.2 Processed cheeses
Processed cheeses are made from blended cheeses, but they differ in
terms of ingredients and manufacturing methods.
Processed cheeses appeal to many customers because of their uniform
taste and creamy, melted texture, longer shelf life, convenient packaging
and lower cost.
4ACTIVITY 3.4ACTIVITY 3.4
Define ``processed cheese'':
Then briefly describe each of the following:
1 Cold-pack cheese 3 Processed-cheese food
2 Processed-cheese spread 4 Imitation cheese
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
Tofu is a cheese made from soymilk.
Study pp 210±211 in your prescribed book for more information on the
nutrient content of cheese.
3.2.3 Purchasing cheese
According to the grading system in the United States, cheese is evaluated
24
in terms of its variety, flavour, texture, finish, colour and appearance
(see p 217, figure 10-9, in your prescribed book). The moisture
percentage and minimum milk fat must be taken into consideration when
purchasing cheese (see p 218, table 10-2, in your prescribed book).
The following factors play a role when cheese is purchased:
. own taste
. the dish in which it is to be used
. is the cheese to be used in a dish
. is the cheese to be eaten on its own (eg a cheese platter)
Whatever the reason for purchasing cheese, always select the best cheese
you can afford.
3.2.4 Food preparation with cheese
A Study pp 216±218 in your prescribed book.
Cheese adds flavour, colour and texture to a variety of dishes. Imagine a
pizza without cheese.
The most important principles in preparing foods with cheese are to
select the best cheese and to keep temperatures low and heating times
short.
(1) Selecting cheese
The chemical composition of a cheese determines its functional proper-
ties and dictates how it is to be used in food preparation.
4ACTIVITY 3.5ACTIVITY 3.5
Cheeses differ in how they shred, melt, oil off, blister, brown and stretch.
Explain how each of the following functional characteristics affects the
selection of cheese to be used in food preparation: shredability,
meltability, oiling off, blistering, browning and stretching.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(2) Temperatures
1 Cooking Low heat, short heating times, add cheese
during the last stages
2 Microwave cooking Settings between 30% and 70%
3 Semihard, hard Serve at room temperature
4 Fresh, unripened Serve chilled
25 FOO1501/1
What is the effect of high heat and prolonged cooking on cheese?
3.2.5 Storage of cheese
A Study pp 218±220 in your prescribed book.
Why must cheese be stored properly? Answer: to prevent deterioration.
Most cheeses should be refrigerated. Some can be frozen and some can be
stored dry. You should be familiar with the maximum storage times of
cheese. Always check the ``sell by'' date.
(1) Dry storage
Processed cheese in jars can be stored for 4 months and dry, grated
Parmesan cheese for 1 year. Once opened, it must be stored in the
refrigerator.
(2) Refrigeration
Most cheeses are stored in their original wrappers. Once opened,
tightly rewrap in foil or plastic to prevent drying and absorption of
odours from other foods. Properly wrapped cheeses are also
protected from the development of moulds and their possible
mycotoxins.
List commercial efforts to reduce moulds:
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
(3) Frozen
Most hard cheeses with a low water content can be frozen for up to 2
months. Freezing is not recommended for soft cheeses.
Cheese should be frozen quickly, in 250 g pieces of not more than
2,5 cm thick. Large pieces freeze more slowly and the result will be a
crumbly cheese. Keep the cheese in its original wrapper or tightly
rewrap in foil or plastic wrap. Get rid of excess air to prevent the
cheese from drying out.
Thaw the cheese gradually, in the refrigerator, over a period of a
few days. Use the cheese as soon as possible. Dry, crumbly cheese is
not suitable for sandwiches, but can be used in preparing dishes that
require shredded cheese.
26
UNIT 4
Eggs
UNIT OUTCOMES
After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. analyse the structure and the composition of an egg
. determine the quality of eggs
. evaluate the nutritional value of eggs
. discuss the effect of heat on eggs
. explain the formation of egg foam
. discuss the different uses of eggs in food preparation
. determine the most effective ways of storing eggs
INTRODUCTION
The quality of protein in eggs is so high that it has become the protein
standard by which researchers rate all other foods. It is a life-sustaining
protein. The versatility of eggs, whether prepared alone or in combina-
tion with other foods, makes them nearly indispensable in cooking.
A sound understanding of the various roles eggs play in food preparation
requires a general knowledge of eggs. We shall discuss chicken eggs. A
laying hen produces one egg about every 25 hours.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 11 in your prescribed book.
4.1 COMPOSITION OF EGGS
4.1.1 Structure
A Study pp 224±225 in your prescribed book.
The egg has five major components. Each of them plays an important role
in food preparation.
27 FOO1501/1
(1) Yolk
The yolk (30% of the egg) is located near the centre of the egg and is
surrounded by the thin vitellin membrane. This membrane separates the
white from the yolk. The germinal disc is visible as a very small spot on
the surface of the yolk from which the chick develops in a fertilised egg.
At each end of the yolk is an opaque, twisted strand called the chalaza
that anchors the yolk to the membranes surrounding the albumen to hold
the yolk in the centre of the egg.
(2) Albumen
The albumen or egg white is a viscous, opalescent substance forming 58%
of the mass of the egg. The albumen is composed of four layers of
alternating viscosity:
. the inner thick albumen around the yolk
. the inner thin albumen
. the outer thick or firm albumen
. the outer thin albumen
(3) Shell membranes
Inside the shell there are two membranes. One of these adheres closely to
the shell. The membranes press up against the shell and protect the egg
against bacterial invasion.
(4) Air cell
Soon after an egg is laid, the contents shrink and the two membranes
become separated by a small air space that usually appears at the larger
end of the egg. The air space is used in grading to judge the approximate
age of the egg.
(5) Shell
A hard calcium-carbonate shell surrounds the delicate internal contents
of an egg. Eggshells are not solid but porous. Carbon dioxide and
moisture escape and air enters through this porous shell. A transparent
substance known as cuticle covers the shell. This protective coating
blocks the pores and prevents excessive moisture loss and bacterial
contamination. The cuticle is removed when the eggs are washed.
Washed eggs may be coated with a thin film of edible oil to protect them.
Define ``chalaza'':
.........................................................................................................
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.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
28
Define ``vitellin membrane'':
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Define ``cuticle'':
4ACTIVITY 4.1ACTIVITY 4.1
Describe the protein, fat, cholesterol, vitamin and mineral content of
eggs.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
4.2 PURCHASING EGGS
4.2.1 Inspection
Egg quality is determined by characteristics that affect its acceptability
to the consumer. The quality of an egg is most of all determined by its
freshness. The fresher the egg, the better the quality.
4.2.2 Grading
The following methods may be used to determine egg quality:
(1) Candling
Before eggs are packed, they are checked for defects by means of
candling. This method is used to assess the quality of an egg without
removing it from the shell. The egg is slowly rotated and simultaneously
viewed under a strong, bright light. The following aspects are checked:
. the size and the position of the air space
. the clearness of the egg white
. the position and the mobility of the yolk and the shadow it casts
. the condition of the shell
(2) The size of the air space
The freshness of an egg is judged by the size of the air space. The older
the egg, the bigger becomes the air space. When eggs are placed in a
container of cold water, a new-laid egg will sink to the bottom. It will lie
there in a horizontal position because the air space is only beginning to
form and is therefore small. When an egg is no longer fresh, the air space
29 FOO1501/1
has become bigger. As a result of the larger air space, the egg stands
upright in cold water with the large end uppermost. When the egg has
become stale, the air space has increased so much that the egg will float
when placed in cold water.
(3) Appearance when broken onto a plate
When broken onto a plate, a fresh egg will have a domed yolk set in two
distinct layers of egg white that appear to be a thick and a thin layer. In a
less than fresh egg, the egg white becomes watery and thin, the yolk
membrane weakens and the yolk tends to spread over the plate. The
result is that the whole egg will appear flat. Study p 228, figure 11-4, in
your prescribed book.
4.2.3 Sizing
The different grades of eggs are classified in terms of mass categories
that represent minimum masses of 61 g, 51 g, 43 g and 35 g respectively
as indicated in the table below.
Grading of eggs Mass categories
Extra large More than 61 g; not more than 71 g
Large More than 51 g; not more than 61 g
Medium More than 43 g; not more than 51 g
Small More than 35 g; not more than 43 g
4.2.4 Egg substitutes
Consumer demand for low-cholesterol products has created a market for
liquid egg substitutes, made either by omitting egg yolks, replacing egg
yolks with vegetable oils, or removing some of the cholesterol in egg
yolks. Study p 229, table 11±4, in your prescribed book.
4.2.5 Value-added eggs
This new type of egg takes the health of the consumer as well as of the
laying hen into consideration. These are for example eggs with lower
cholesterol, higher omega-3 fatty acids, 300% more vitamin E Ð organic
eggs, barn eggs and free-range eggs.
4.3 FUNCTION OF EGGS IN FOOD
A Study pp 230±233 in your prescribed book.
An egg may be enjoyed on its own or combined with other ingredients.
30
4.3.1 Emulsifying
Egg is the most widely used emulsifying agent in food preparation. It is
not only a natural emulsion, but also a very efficient emulsifying agent for
water and oil mixtures because it contains a high proportion of lecithin.
The lecithin acts as the emulsifying component of egg yolk. It forms a
permanent and stable emulsion that will not separate on standing.
Examples of these permanent emulsions are mayonnaise, choux pastry,
batter, dough and ice cream.
4.3.2 Binding
Egg mixed with other ingredients acts as a binding agent in many dishes.
When such dishes are heated, the protein in the egg coagulates and binds
the separate ingredients together. In this way the egg in dishes such as
croquettes, meat fillings and stuffing holds together ingredients that
would otherwise fall apart.
4.3.3 Foaming
The best eggs to use for egg-white foam are fresh eggs because they have
thick egg whites which contribute to stable foam. Egg foam forms when
raw eggs are beaten or whisked. Air is incorporated in the form of small
bubbles surrounded by a film of protein. These air bubbles are dispersed
through the water in the egg.
The three most common stages in whisking egg-white foams are foamy,
soft peak, and stiff peak. Egg white whisked to the dry-foam stage is not
suitable for use because such foams collapse readily and are lumpy when
added to other mixtures.
Study pp 231±232, figure 11-8, in your prescribed book.
4ACTIVITY 4.2ACTIVITY 4.2
Explain how the following factors affect the quality of whipped egg white:
beating technique, temperature, bowl, separation of eggs, sugar, fluid,
salt, acid
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
4.3.4 Interfering
Egg is often used in the preparation of ice cream and confectionery
products. Eggs interfere with the formation of ice or sugar crystals to
create a smoother, more velvety texture.
31 FOO1501/1
4.3.5 Clarifying
Raw egg white may be added to hot stock and jellies. The proteins in the
egg will coagulate and trap the impurities suspended in the liquid. These
particles can then be removed by means of filtration, thus clarifying the
liquid.
4.4 PREPARATION OF EGGS
Eggs are extremely versatile and can be prepared alone or in combination
with other foods (see p 233, figure 11-10, in your prescribed book). Eggs
can be prepared in a great variety of ways, using either dry-heat or moist-
heat methods. Eggs are fairly easy to prepare. Adherence to the basic
principles of protein cookery will enhance the appearance and palat-
ability of egg dishes.
4.4.1 Changes in prepared eggs
(1) Effects of temperature and time
To preserve the egg's texture, flavour and colour, it is best to keep the
cooking temperature low and the heating time short. High cooking
temperatures without exception result in unevenly cooked, tough,
rubbery eggs and egg dishes. Dehydration causes the dishes to be dry.
(2) Coagulation temperatures
Start to coagulate Completely coagulated
Egg whites 608C 658C±708C
Egg yolks 628C±708C
Beaten eggs 698C
(3) Effects of added ingredients
How do added ingredients affect coagulation temperatures?
Increases the coagulating Decreases the coagulating
temperature temperature
Milk, sugar Salt, acid
Acid ingredients can cause eggs to curdle.
(4) Colour changes
A Study p 233 in your prescribed book.
32
4ACTIVITY 4.3ACTIVITY 4.3
Discuss how undesirable colour changes may occur during egg prepara-
tion. Also indicate what can be done to prevent these changes.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
4.4.2 Dry-heat preparation
A Study pp 233±236 in your prescribed book.
(1) Frying
Egg dishes that are commonly prepared as fried eggs, scrambled eggs and
omelettes.
Explain how you will prime a cast-iron pan for frying egg dishes.
(a) Fried egg variations
When frying eggs, one should use about 5 m: of butter, oil or
margarine per egg to prevent sticking. Vegetable spray may also be
used. The fat should be hot enough to prevent the eggs from running,
but not so hot that it toughens the egg proteins. The eggs should be
broken, one at a time, into a small dish and slipped gently into the
pan. Care should be taken not to break the yolk. The heat should be
lowered immediately to medium-high. Fried egg may also be turned
over carefully during the frying process.
. Cook-to-order stages of fried eggs.
1 Sunny-side-up White is set, yolk is soft; may not be
sufficiently cooked.
2 Over easy White is 75% set, egg is flipped, cooked
until whites are completely cooked but
yolk still soft.
3 Over medium Same as over easy, the yolk is partially set.
4 Over hard Same as over easy, the yolk is completely
set.
(2) Scrambled eggs
To prepare scrambled eggs, the yolks and whites are blended with or
without the addition of a small amount of milk, cream or water until the
mixture is uniform. A maximum of 5 m: of milk, cream or water is
allowed per egg. If more liquid is used, the cooked egg mixture may
become watery. The liquid creates steam during cooking which lifts the
eggs and makes them lighter and fluffier.
33 FOO1501/1
The mixture is then poured onto a heated surface and the heat is reduced.
As the egg mixture coagulates, it is scraped or lifted from the edges and
the bottom of the pan. This prevents the cooked part from being
overcoagulated and allows the uncoagulated part to make contact with
the hot pan. When the coagulation of the whole mixture has been
completed and it is still soft and moist, the eggs should be served
immediately.
If the scrambled eggs are overheated, excessive shrinkage will take place
and the liquid will be squeezed out. Prolonged exposure to heat will cause
the liquid to evaporate, leaving the scrambled eggs shrunken, tough and
dry instead of light and fluffy.
(3) Omelettes
Study p 235, figure 11-11 in your prescribed book.
Explain how you will prepare a French omelette:
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Basic differences between a French omelette and an American omelette:
French omelette American omelette
1 Never allowed to brown 1 May have some colour
2 Never has texture lines 2 May have texture lines
3 Folding is left over centre, right over 3 Folded in half
centre.
4 Centre is soft 4 Centre is fully cooked
The fluffiness of puffy omelettes is achieved by separating the yolks from
the whites and whipping each portion separately. When the omelette is
browned on the bottom, it is placed in a 177 8C oven for 5±10 minutes to
allow additional raising and further coagulation of the surface proteins.
(4) Baking
Baked egg dishes include shirred eggs, meringues and souffle s.
. Shirred eggs are whole eggs baked at 177 8C in individual containers.
. A meringue is egg-white foam used in dessert dishes.
34
Soft meringue Hard meringue
1 One egg white + 30 m: superfine 1 One egg white + 60 m:
sugar for a topping superfine sugar, baked as
cookies, decorations, dessert
2 Baked at 1638C±1778C for 15 minutes 2 It is baked at 1078C for 1 hour
or longer
3 Leave in switched-off oven for
at least 15 minutes
Study p 235 in your prescribed book. Then describe the causes of
weeping and beading when meringues are prepared.
Weeping Beading
(5) SouffleÂs
A souffle is actually a modified omelette.
How to prepare a souffleÂ
1 White sauce or pastry cream.
2 Combine with egg yolks.
3 Add flavouring ingredients
(eg cheese for savoury, chocolate for sweet)
4 Fold stiffly beaten egg whites in.
5 Pour into a lightly greased souffle dish.
6 Put into a bain-marie.
7 Bake at 1778C for 50±60 minutes.
8 Check whether done by gently shaking the oven rack. If the centre
jiggles, more baking time is required.
9 The oven door should not be opened during baking as it creates a draft
and may cause the souffle to fall.
4.4.3 Moist-heat preparation
A Study pp 236±238 in your prescribed book.
In all the moist-heat preparation methods, eggs are cooked at simmering
temperatures.
35 FOO1501/1
(1) Hard or soft ``boiled''
The term ``boiled'' is commonly used, but eggs should actually be
simmered and never boiled because it makes them tough and rubbery.
Two methods are used to prepare hard eggs:
Hot-start method Cold-start method
. Method Eggs are immersed in boiling Eggs are covered with cold
water. Heat is reduced to water. Water is brought to a
simmer temperature. boil. Heat is reduced to
simmer temperature.
. Cooking 1 Soft 3±4 minutes 1 Soft 1 minute
times 2 Medium 5±7 minutes 2 Medium 3±5 minutes
3 Hard 12±15 minutes 3 Hard 10 minutes
Cooked eggs are drained and
then rinsed under cold running
water to stop further cooking.
. Benefits Greater temperature control, Less likely to crack. Less
eggs are easier to peel, total attention to the process is
cooking time is shorter. required. Eggs are easier to
add to the water.
. Drawbacks Boiling water may cause the May cause the egg white
eggs to crack. next to the shell surface to
be more rubbery. Greater
chance of a greenish tint.
(2) Coddling
The eggs are broken into a small buttered or greased cup, called a
coddler. A coddler is made of porcelain or heatproof glass with a screw-
on top. The whole coddler is submerged into simmering water until the
egg is cooked. The egg is eaten from the coddler.
(3) Poaching
Eggs are cracked and poached in just enough simmering water to cover
the egg. Salt and/or vinegar may be added to the water to speed up
coagulation and help to maintain a compact, oval-shaped egg. The
disadvantages of adding salt and vinegar are a tougher egg with a more
shrivelled surface. It takes 3±5 minutes to poach an egg. A well-poached
egg should have a firm yolk and a compact egg white.
(4) Custard
There are two basic types of egg custard, namely soft or stirred-egg
custard and baked-egg custard.
Soft or stirred-egg custard is cooked either by stirring it over a low heat
36
or by stirring it in a double boiler over hot water. Baked custard is placed
in a water bath (bain-marie) and baked in a moderate oven without
stirring. The ingredients and proportions for both soft and baked
custards are the same. The liquid ingredient in custard is usually milk.
The yolk, the white or the whole egg may be used to thicken the mixture.
Sugar, salt and flavouring are other necessary additions. Custards are
distinguished by whether they are sweet or savoury and by their
preparation method (ie stirred or baked).
Study p 237 in your prescribed book. Why should all custard dishes be
covered and refrigerated as soon as possible after preparation?
(a) Stirred custard
The ingredients are stirred while being heated. The mixture retains a
smooth, creamy, fluid consistency. The repeated stirring prevents the
formation of a gel, so that the custard mixture thickens instead of gels.
(b) Baked custard
Baked and stirred custard begin with the same ingredients, but are heated
differently. Baked custard mixes are poured into ungreased custard cups,
and placed in the oven in a bain-marie. The bain-marie is used to
equalise the temperature of the custard, thus preventing its outer edges
from becoming overcooked. The custard is undisturbed and gels during
baking.
Baked custard is baked in the oven at a moderate temperature (177 8C) for
35±40 minutes for a larger dish and 23±25 minutes for cups. Baked
custard is cooked when a knife inserted near the centre of the mixture
comes out clean.
(5) Microwaving
Eggs cook extremely rapidly in a microwave oven. Special caution should
be taken to avoid overcooking. Whole eggs with intact shells should never
be microwaved, because steam expanding within the shell can cause the
eggs to burst. The same principle applies to whole eggs out of the shell.
The vitellin membrane around the egg yolk traps steam and the yolk will
burst if not punctured with the tip of a knife prior to going into the
microwave.
Eggs may be fried, shirred, scrambled, poached and used in an omelette
or a quiche. Only small quantities at a time can be prepared in a
microwave.
Study p 238 in your prescribed book.
37 FOO1501/1
4.5 STORAGE OF EGGS
Eggs begin to deteriorate as soon as they are laid, and they lose quality
very rapidly at room temperature. To ensure the freshness of eggs, they
may be refrigerated, frozen or dried.
4.5.1 Refrigerator
(1) Whole eggs
Many home refrigerators have built-in egg containers, but eggs retain
their moisture better and keep longer if they are stored in the carton. The
carton also prevents flavours and odours from being absorbed through
the eggs' porous shells.
(a) Signs of aging in eggs
1 Causes egg white to thin
2 Chalazae are not so prominent and viscous
3 Vitellin membrane weakens and yolk migrates or breaks
4 Air cell increases in size
Study p 239 in your prescribed book. Why is washing eggs not
recommended?
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
(b) Shelf life of refrigerated eggs
. Whole About a month
. Yolk stored under water 2 days
. Whites kept tightly covered in a glass
container 4 days
(c) Storage period
Eggs may be stored for up to 6 months. However, they are not
available at retailers and are used by commercial food service
establishments.
38
(2) Pasteurised eggs
Liquid, frozen or dried eggs are pasteurised to protect them against
Salmonella. Liquid egg whites are frequently incorporated into commer-
cially prepared baked goods, confectionery products and chilled or frozen
desserts.
Advantages of liquid eggs: convenience, consistent quality, microbial
safety, cost savings in terms of space, labour and freezing.
4.5.2 Frozen
The contents of whole or separated eggs are pasteurised (52 8C to 55 8C
for three and a half minutes) and then frozen.
Disadvantages of frozen eggs: costly to freeze and keep frozen, they must
be thawed, and a lower functional quality.
4.5.3 Dried
Whole eggs or yolks are spray-dried to create a fine powder. Anticaking
substances are added to prevent clumping. Egg whites are dried in a
different way to form granulised, flaked or milled textures. Dried eggs
may be stored in a refrigerator for up to a year.
Study p 240 in your prescribed book.
What is the major disadvantage of using dried eggs?
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
The end product (dried egg) must be heated thoroughly.
Study p 240, table 11-5, in your prescribed book.
The chances of an egg being internally contaminated are relatively low,
but external bacterial contamination is possible (during handling and
preparation). Precautions can be taken to reduce this risk.
Study pp 240±241 in your prescribed book. Then list at least six
precautions that may be taken to prevent becoming ill from consuming
eggs.
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39 FOO1501/1
UNIT 5
Starches and sauces
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. discuss various ways in which starch is used in the food industry
. describe the basic structure of starch
. discuss the different characteristics of starch and how these are
utilised in food preparation
. list and discuss the factors that influence gelatinisation
. define a mother sauce and a small sauce and list examples of both
. discuss the difference between a thickened and an unthickened
sauce
. explain how to prepare a thickened sauce by different methods
. explain how to store starches and sauces
INTRODUCTION
A complex carbohydrate, starch is a staple food in diets throughout the
world. Starch is enjoyed in the form of potatoes, rice, pasta, sorghum,
etc. Starch provides energy. Carbohydrates provides as much as 65% of
the calories in one's diet. Starch contributes to the texture, taste and
appearance of many foods, for example sauces, gravies, cream soups,
salad dressings and desserts.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 17 in your prescribed book for a discussion of starches and
sauces.
5.1 STARCHES AS THICKENERS
5.1.1 Sources of starch
Starch acts as a thickening or gelling agent in food preparation. Common
sources of starch are wheat, rice, potatoes, arrowroot, dried beans, peas,
sago palm and corn.
(1) Cornstarch
Soak and soften dried maize kernels in warm water that contains sulphur
40
dioxide. The soft kernels are cracked, extraneous material is removed,
ground and screened, or sifted to yield starch and protein. The starch is
filtered, washed, dried and packaged as cornstarch.
5.1.2 Starch in food products
In the food industry, starch is used as a thickening agent, an edible film
and a sweetener. Study p 361, figure 17-2, in your prescribed book.
. Thickening agent: in some foods that are frequently thickened with
starch (eg soups, sauces, pie fillings)
. Edible film: as a protective coating on chewing gum, binding foods such
as meat products and pet foods, as a base to hold substances such as
flavour oils in chocolates
. Dextrose: used as a sweetener in confections, wine and some canned
foods
Study p 361 in your prescribed book. Then define ``dextrose equivalent'':
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
. Starch syrups: adding corn syrup to a large assortment of foods (eg soft
drinks, frozen desserts)
5.1.3 Starch structure
Study p 362 in your prescribed book. Then briefly describe the basic
structure of starch. Also explain what is unique about the structure of
``waxy'' starches.
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.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
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5.2 STARCH CHARACTERISTICS
Study p 363, figure 17-4, in your prescribed book.
41 FOO1501/1
Starches consist of glucose molecules synthesised by plants in photo-
synthesis. Starches are obtained from the seeds and roots of various
plants (eg potatoes and maize). The size and shape of starch granules
differ according to the source of the starch.
Starches provide 4 calories (kcal) per gram.
Starches have the capacity to go through the processes of gelatinisation,
gel formation, retrogradation and dextrinisation. The concentration of
amylopectin and amylose in starch determines the degree to which these
processes have taken place. Starches can be modified chemically or
physically to better serve specific purposes.
5.2.1 Gelatinisation
When starch granules are heated in a liquid, they absorb the liquid, swell,
and increase in viscosity and translucency. This process is called
gelatinisation.
The following factors affect gelatinisation:
(a) Water
Sufficient water must be available for absorption by the starch. The
concentrations of amylose and amylopectin determine how much water is
required. When preparing foods such as rice and pasta, enough water
must be available to cover the starch, to allow for evaporation, and to
allow for expansion of the starch.
(b) Temperature
The type of starch determines the gelatinisation temperature. Gelatinisa-
tion occurs over a range of temperatures. Study p 363, table 17-2, in your
prescribed book.
(c) Timing
Continued heating will cause the starch granules to break apart because
of the stressed bonds which hold the granules together. Study p 363,
figure 17±4, in your prescribed book.
(d) Stirring
Stirring is required at the beginning of the gelatinisation process to
assure uniform consistency and to prevent lumps from forming.
Continued and vigorous stirring causes the starch granules to break,
resulting in a slippery starch paste with less viscosity.
42
(e) Acidity
A pH below 4 decreases the viscosity of a starch gel.
. When should acidic ingredients be added?
. What do commercial food processors use?
(f) Sugar
Sugar decreases the thickness as well as the firmness of the cooked starch
product because the sugar in the mixture limits the swelling of the starch
granules by competing with the granules for water. Put another way: the
sugar absorbs some of the water in the mixture to enable it to dissolve,
leaving less water available for the granules to absorb and swell to their
full capacity.
(g) Fat/protein
The fat or protein coats the starch and prevents it from absorbing water.
This delays gelatinisation.
All these factors need to work in synchrony in order for maximum
gelatinisation to occur.
5.2.2 Gel formation (gelation)
. Gelation occurs when a hot, gelatinised paste is cooked and cooled.
Gelatinisation will therefore always precede gelation.
. Hydrogen bonding occurs during cooling (below 38 8C), when water is
retained in the network of starch molecules.
. The gelatinised sol [suspension in a liquid] forms a gel when cooled.
. Only those starch grains that contain amylose are effective agents for
gelling a liquid. Although amylopectin starches do not form firm gels,
they are able to give thickness to a starch mixture.
5.2.3 Retrogradation
The swollen amylose molecules are attracted to each other during the
cooling process. When this happens, they rebond and draw closer to each
other to form a swollen starch network.
4ACTIVITY 5.1ACTIVITY 5.1
Study pp 364±365 in your prescribed book. State the difference between
a ``gel'' and a ``sol''. Define ``retrogradation''. What is the best way to
prevent retrogradation from occurring?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
43 FOO1501/1
4ACTIVITY 5.2ACTIVITY 5.2
Study p 364 in your prescribed book. Describe how the following
starches differ in gelling ability: high amylose (regular cornstarch),
low-amylose (potato and tapioca) and waxy hybrids.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
5.2.4 Dextrinisation
Study p 365, figure 17-6, in your prescribed book. Then define
``dextrinisation'':
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5.2.5 Modified starches
Define ``modified starch'':
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.........................................................................................................
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.........................................................................................................
These are three types of modified starches:
(i) cross-linked starch
(ii) oxidised starch
(iii) instant or pregelatinised starch
Study pp 365±366 in your prescribed book. Explain how each of these
modified starches is used in the preparation of various foods.
44
Starch Uses
1 Cross-linked starch
2 Oxidised starch
3 Instant or pregelatinised starch
5.3 SAUCES
What is the purpose of a sauce? A sauce enhances a food's flavour,
texture, moisture content and appearance. Great care should be taken to
prepare a perfect sauce.
Study p 366 in your prescribed book. Then name a few characteristics of
a perfect sauce.
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.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
We classify types of sauces into thickened and unthickened sauces and in
terms of their unique ingredients.
5.3.1 Functions of sauces in foods
Starches are used to thicken sauces and gravies. The basic ingredients of
most sauces are a liquid, an optional thickening agent and seasonings
and/or flavourings. A basic understanding of sauces, some practice and
time and patience will enable you to prepare fine sauces. Many dishes
look more appetising when they are accompanied by the correct sauce.
(1) Types of sauces
Study p 367, table 17-3, in your prescribed book to become familiar with
the preparation of these sauces:
(i) Thickened sauces include cheese sauce, a white sauce and some
gravies.
(ii) Unthickened sauces are gravies, hollandaise sauce, butter, fruit and
barbecue sauces, tartar and tomato sauces. Condiments serve the
same purpose, although they are not generally preferred to sauces.
45 FOO1501/1
Sauces may be grouped into mother sauces and small sauces:
(2) Mother sauces
There are five groups of mother sauces, also known as grand, leading or
major sauces:
. be chamel or white sauce
. espagnole or brown sauce
. hollandaise sauce
. tomato sauce
. veloute sauce
(3) Small sauces
The mother sauce serves as the base for small sauces. Examples of small
sauces are cheese, mushroom and pepper sauce. Tomato and hollandaise
sauce may be use without added ingredients. Study p 368, table 17±4, in
your prescribed book.
5.3.2 Thickened sauces
Thickened sauces rely on the gelatinisation of starches for their smooth
texture.
The three main ingredients of a thickened sauce are:
(i) liquid
(ii) thickening agent
(iii) seasoning/flavour
(1) Liquid
Any liquid can be used, but the following are the most common liquids:
. white stock from chicken, veal or fish (veloute )
. brown stock from beef or veal (espagnole)
. milk (be chamel)
. clarified butter (hollandaise)
. tomato juice or pure e (tomato sauce)
(2) Thickening agent
A starch is usually added to make the liquid more viscous. Wheat or
cornstarch is frequently used.
Study pp 366±367 in your prescribed book. List the advantages and
disadvantages of using cornstarch, wheat, arrowroot and instant
starches as a thickener.
46
Starch Advantage Disadvantage
1 Cornstarch
2 Wheat
3 Arrowroot
4 Instant starch
(3) Seasoning/flavour
The basic seasonings are salt, pepper, spices, herbs, wine or lemon juice.
Any acid product is added after gelatinisation, because acid breaks down
the starch. Glaze, a highly flavoured concentrate, is added for flavour.
Study pp 366±368 in your prescribed book.
Define ``mother sauce'':
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Define ``glaze'':
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5.3.2.1 Thickeners
The first step in making a thickened sauce is to add a starch thickener in
the form of either a roux, beurre manie or a slurry to the liquid.
(1) Roux
This is a thickener made by cooking equal parts of wheat flour and fat.
There are three types of roux:
(i) white or less cooked
(ii) blond
(iii) brown or mostly cooked, with a less starchy taste and a reduced
ability to thicken (The starch molecules are broken down by heat.)
47 FOO1501/1
Variations in the heating times of the fat/flour combination cause
differences in the colours and flavours. Hot liquid is gradually added to
the roux.
(2) Beurre manieÂ
This is a thickener that is a soft paste made from equal parts of soft butter
and flour, blended together and not cooked.
A beurre manie is whisked bit by bit into a simmering liquid/sauce until
it reaches the desired thickness. A beurre manie is not cooked, so it
should only be used in small quantities to prevent the sauce from
becoming starchy and unpleasant. Extended simmering also brings out a
floury taste.
(3) Slurry
This is a thickener made by combining starch and a cool liquid.
The slurry is gradually mixed into a simmering liquid/sauce. The starch
granules expand and the sauce thickens. Slurry sometimes leaves behind
a starchy taste and is less stable than other sauces.
5.3.2.2 Preparing a sauce from a roux
Study p 369, table 17-5, in your prescribed book.
. Melt the fat in a saucepan. Remove from the stove.
. Add the flour. Use a wooden spoon to mix the fat and flour. The mixture
is called a ``roux''.
. Return to the stove and cook the roux gently for one minute.
. Remove the saucepan from the stove. Add the warm milk gradually,
stirring or whisking constantly.
. Return to the stove, bring just to boiling point, reduce the heat to a
simmer until the mixture thickens, stirring constantly. Boil for about
three minutes. Add the seasonings and other ingredients (eg cheese and
egg yolks).
Study p 370, table 17-6, in your prescribed book.
5.3.2.3 Properties of a good white sauce
. A good white sauce should be smooth and free of lumps.
. It should have a good flavour.
. It should have a glossy appearance.
. The consistency should be correct for its purpose.
. A white sauce should have a distinctive white colour.
Read p 369 in your prescribed book on how to prevent lumps in a white
sauce.
48
4ACTIVITY 5.3ACTIVITY 5.3
Study pp 366±368 in your prescribed book. List the three ingredients that
serve as the foundation of thickened sauces. Provide examples of each
sauce.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
5.3.3 Unthickened sauces
Sauces prepared without a starch or a thickening agent is considered
unthickened. Some salad dressings fall into this category.
4ACTIVITY 5.4ACTIVITY 5.4
Study pp 369±371 and figure 17-10 in your prescribed book. Briefly list
the ingredients and explain how to prepare the following unthickened
sauces.
Sauce Ingredients Method
Gravy
Hollandaise sauce
Barbecue sauce
Butter sauce
Fruit sauce
Tartar sauce
Tomato sauce
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
49 FOO1501/1
Define ``deglaze'':
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Define ``reduction'':
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5.4 STORAGE OF STARCHES AND SAUCES
As with all other grains, starches should be kept in airtight containers
and stored in a cool, dry place away from light, moisture, oxygen and
pests. The ingredients added to prepared starches make them prone to
bacterial contamination and thus to food-borne diseases. Store prepared
sauces in the refrigerator. Never leave them at room temperature for too
long.
50
UNIT 6
Cereal grains and pastas
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. describe the structure of cereal grains and list the grains
. discuss the uses of cereal grains
. classify and define cereal products
. explain how to prepare some grain products and pastas
. discuss the storage of cereals and pastas
. describe the different types of pastas
INTRODUCTION
Cereals are produced in every part of the world. Cereal grains are seeds
from the grass family Gramineae. These seeds and their products may be
regarded as ``the staff of life''. Each area grows its own preferred cereal,
which is usually the grain best suited to the soil and climatic conditions in
the particular area.
In many countries 80% to 90% of the food energy consumed is supplied by
one kind of cereal. Grains are the world's major food crops.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 15 in your prescribed book on cereal grains and pastas.
Study p 317, figure 15-2, in your prescribed book. Then complete the
table below.
Cereal crop Contribution to world grain production
Maize (corn)
Rice
Wheat
``Cereal'' refers to grains in general.
51 FOO1501/1
Study p 316 in your prescribed book. Then list a few forms in which
grains are consumed.
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6.1 COMPOSITION OF CEREAL GRAINS
6.1.1 Structure
A Study p 316, figure 15-3, in your prescribed book.
All cereal grains consist of four main parts: the husk or chaff, the bran
covering, the starchy endosperm, and the germ.
Study pp 317±318 in your prescribed book. Then complete the table
below.
Structure of grains Define the part Describe the Uses
nutritive value
1 Husk
2 Bran (14,5%) and
aleuron layer
3 Endosperm (83%)
4 Germ (2,5%)
6.2 USES OF CEREAL GRAINS
Cereal grains are mostly used for flour, pasta, breakfast cereals, the
production of alcoholic beverages and animal feeds.
52
6.2.1 Flour
Flour is the fine powder obtained from crushing the endosperm of the
grain. The bran and germ are also milled into the flour to make whole-
grain flours.
Why is wheat the predominant choice of grain for flour? It provides a
protein structure that facilitates the rising of baked goods. Flour is used
to make breads and an assortment of other baked products and it also
plays an important role as a thickener.
6.2.2 Pasta
Pasta comes in a variety of shapes and is sold both dried and fresh.
6.2.3 Breakfast cereal
Breakfast cereal was introduced to the general public in the 1800s as a
vegetarian substitute for the traditional bacon and eggs. Over 75% of
breakfast cereals nowadays are the ready-to-eat types made from wheat,
maize or oats. Varying shapes of breakfast cereals are available to
consumers. Grains are processed as follows:
Study p 318, figure 15-4, in your prescribed book. Add a brand name to
each process (eg Kellogg's All Bran or Bokomo Maximize).
Extruded: Rolled:
Puffed: Granulated:
Flaked: Shredded:
Some cereals are enriched or fortified and provide a substantial
percentage of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of vitamins and
minerals.
6.2.4 Alcoholic beverages
Grains are used to make alcoholic beverages. Rice is for example used to
make sake, a Japanese rice wine, and barley, maize and rye are used for
brewing beer and distilling liquor.
6.2.5 Animal feeds
Grains are used in the manufacturing of livestock and pet feed.
53 FOO1501/1
6.3 TYPES OF CEREAL GRAINS
The grains of primary importance in the world today are, in descending
order:
wheat, rice, maize, barley, millet, sorghum, oats and rye.
6.3.1 Wheat
(1) Classification of wheat
Wheat is classified according to:
. species
. growing season
. texture
. colour
Harvested wheat:
75% used for: 25% used for:
Flour Cereals, pasta products, animal feed, wheat germ
and wheat germ oil
There are 14 different species of wheat and each of them has a number of
different varieties. Only 3 species account for almost 90% of all the wheat
grown in the world:
. common (soft)
. club
. durum (hard)
Study p 321, figure 15-5 in your prescribed book.
Two major types of wheat are classified according to their growing
season:
(i) winter wheat (hard): with a high protein content for the production
of leavened bread (Durum is the hardest and highest in protein and is
suitable for making pasta and certain breads.)
(ii) spring wheat (soft): with a lower protein content than winter wheat
for making baked products such as cakes, pastries and biscuits
The protein content of wheat makes this cereal grain the most suitable for
a variety of different baking purposes.
Wheat may also be classified by colour, for example red and white, with
various shades of yellow and amber in between. However, all milled
flours appear white.
54
(2) Forms of wheat
Flour is just one of many possible forms of wheat. Other forms of wheat
are:
Form Definition/description Cooking time/uses
1 Wheat berries Whole, not processed or Takes the longest time to
milled cook
2 Cracked wheat Berries that are ground Takes about 15 minutes
until they crack to cook
(coarse, medium, fine)
3 Rolled wheat Berries, flattened be- Similar to rolled oats
tween rollers
4 Bulgur wheat Partially steamed, Ingredient in tabbouleh
dried and cracked,
with a more pronoun-
ced flavour
5 Farina Granulating the endo- ``Cream of wheat''
sperm into a fine con-
sistency
6 Wheat germ Germ of kernel Source of Vitamin E,
some Vitamin Bs and fi-
bre
7 Wheat bran Bran of kernel Source of insoluble fibre
(eg indigestible cellulose)
6.3.2 Rice
Rice is the staple food for half the world's population, and 94% of the
world's rice is produced in Asia.
(1) Classification of rice
Rice is classified according to the following criteria:
(a) Mode of cultivation
. lowland, wet or irrigated rice (Ð 90% of all rice is grown with its
roots submerged in water
. highland, hills or dry rice, grown in areas with plentiful rain (Hilly
terrain prevents flooding.)
(b) Grain length
The length in relationship to the width of the grain determines
whether rice is considered long-grain, medium-grain or short-grain
rice. Which varieties of rice are used to make sushi and risotto?
55 FOO1501/1
Study p 321, figure 15-6, in your prescribed book.
Long-grain rice contains more amylose, whereas short-grain rice
is higher in amylopectin (see p 362, Chemist's Corner). This is the
reason why short-grain rice appears sticky.
Study pp 321±322 in your prescribed book. Then answer the
following question: How does the starch content and the sizes of
short, medium and long-grain rice affect the consistency of prepared
rice?
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(c) Texture
(2) Forms of rice
Worldwide, white rice is most commonly consumed.
Study p 322 in your prescribed book. Add a brand name to each type of
rice to complete the table below.
Form/brand Definition/description Cooking time/uses
1 White rice
2 Converted rice
3 Instant rice
4 Brown rice
5 Glutinous rice
6 Specialty rice
7 Rice bran
8 Wild rice
6.3.3 Maize
More than 50% of the world's maize is grown in the United States. Maize
(or ``corn'' in the US) takes an important place in the daily diet of most
South Africans. Maize provides about 35% of the population's per capita
carbohydrate requirements, 31% of its protein requirements, and about
15% of its fat requirements. Maize as a food has been the most economical
and versatile source of energy in South Africa for many years.
(1) Classification of maize
Maize is classified according to the following criteria:
56
(a) Colour
Maize is predominantly yellow or white, but can also be red, pink,
blue or black and with bands or stripes.
(b) Kernel type (see p 322, figure 15-8, in your prescribed book)
(c) Dent corn accounts for 95% of all maize grown in the United States.
Half is sold as livestock feed and the rest is stored as a buffer against
the next year's crop, exported or used in the production of corn
syrup, alcohol, starch, canned and other processed corn.
(d) Sweet corn tastes best before the milky fluid in fresh corn kernels has
had a chance to harden.
(e) Flint corn produces extremely hard corn kernels and makes a good
quality cornmeal.
(f) Popcorn comprises thick-walled kernels.
(g) Flour corn is white or blue and used to make flour and chips.
(h) Pod corn is non-commercial.
(2) Types of maize
Maize is used for livestock feed, human food, to make alcohol, and for its
seed.
Form/brand Definition/description Cooking time/uses
1 Corn on the cob Yellow, white or hybrid Eaten directly off the
and kernel corn cob, or kernels are re-
moved from the cob. Used
as a vegetable in a variety
of dishes.
2 Hominy The endosperm is soaked Canned or frozen
in lye and dried Ð en-
larged kernels of hulled
(ie with the bran and
germ removed) corn
3 Hominy grits Ground, dried hominy in Boiled as a breakfast
small, uniform particles dish
4 Cornmeal Coarsely ground corn Whole or degerminated,
used in cornbread, with
high fat content and short
shelf life
5 Cornstarch Finely ground endo- Thickener
sperm
6 Corn syrup Cornstarch treated with Dark or light (the darker,
certain enzymes pro- the stronger the flavour)
duces a viscous liquid
consisting of fructose,
glucose and other sugars
7 Corn oil Extracted from the germ
57 FOO1501/1
6.3.4 Barley
Barley is primarily used as malt in cereals and soups, for livestock feed,
in the manufacture of beer and whiskey, and in salads and stews.
(1) Types of barley
Type Definition/description Cooking time/uses
1 Hulled barley Enclosed by a tough hull
2 Pot barley The hull and some of the
bran have been removed
(``pearling'')
3 Pearled barley More bran, germ and part Barley flour, grits,
of the endosperm are re- flakes, added to break-
moved, producing tiny fast cereals, breads,
grains with a ``polished'', soups, cookies and
pearl-like colour crackers. Cook as is, or
add to soups, salads
and stews.
4 Flaked barley Rolled/pressed. Hot cereal
5 Barley grits Grains that have been
toasted and cracked into
particles
6 Malt Dry or liquid Flavouring, colour ad-
(Study p 390, Chemist's ditive, used in baked
Corner, in your pre- products
scribed book.)
6.3.5 Millet
Millet is used to make unleavened bread as well as beer and is used for
birdseed.
6.3.6 Sorghum
Sorghum is a major cereal grain in Africa and parts of Asia. It is
consumed in the form of food (porridge), alcoholic beverages, or livestock
feed.
6.3.7 Oats
Oats are enjoyed hot or cold as a cereal, or in breads, muffins and
cookies.
58
(2) Types of oats
Form/brand Definition/description Cooking time/uses
1 Oat groats Whole without the husk Prepared like rice or as an
ingredient in other foods
2 Steel-cut oats Groats cut lengthwise and Chewy texture
packed
3 Rolled oats Heated and pressed flat Old-fashioned, quick-
with steel rollers cooking, instant, or incor-
porated into muesli
4 Oat bran Grain part Lowering effect on high
blood cholesterol
6.3.8 Rye
Rye is second only to wheat for bread making. Rye is also used to make
rye crackers and whiskey.
Advantages compared to wheat Disadvantages compared to wheat
Contains gluten Contains less protein and starch
than wheat
Contains more free sugars and Loaf volume is half of that obtained
dietary fibres with wheat products
Richer in flavour and aroma,
with a longer shelf life
6.3.9 Other grains
A Study p 326 in your prescribed book.
4ACTIVITY 6.1ACTIVITY 6.1
Study pp 320±326 in your prescribed book. Briefly define the following:
cracked wheat, converted rice, popcorn, corn syrup, malt, pearled
barley, amaranth
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
6.4 PREPARATION OF CEREAL GRAINS
Cereals are cooked to increase their digestibility and palatability. These
objectives are achieved in the following processes:
59 FOO1501/1
(1) Softening the cellulose. The grain is heated in water, and this softens
the outer covering and makes the starchy endosperm digestible.
(2) Cooking the starch. Cooking gelatinises the starch. Gelatinisation
occurs when the heated starch molecules absorb water and expand.
(3) Improving the taste. The flavour and texture improve as the grains
soften and expand.
6.4.1 Moist-heat preparation
The desired results in prepared grains are most commonly achieved by
moist-heat methods:
(1) Boiling/simmering
The type of grain dictates the amount of water to be added as well as the
intensity or duration of heating.
The two most important factors in grain preparation are:
1 the amount of water used
2 exposure to heat
Study p 326±328 in your prescribed book. Always keep table 15-1 nearby
in your kitchen.
Step Method
. Cooking the grain Heat water to boiling point, add salt for flavour, and
add grain. Stir as little as possible. Cover the pan.
Bring to a boil again. Reduce the heat. Simmer until
done.
Why must cereals be added to hot water instead
of cold water?
Why must grains be stirred as little as possible?
. Determining The minimum amount of covered cooking time has
doneness passed. How are the grains tested for doneness?
Taste them
Ð undercooked: difficult to chew, starchy, raw
flavour
Ð overcooked: mushy, formless mash
Ð too much water: stickiness, sogginess and loss of
nutrients
Ð insufficient water: dry, toughened texture and can
burn
. Standing time Once cooked, the grain should be left to stand for 10±
15 minutes. This allows steam to further separate the
granules, creating a light, airy texture.
. Saute ing and First saute grains such as rice in fat. Add stock and
baking simmer until done. Grains such as rice are added to a
casserole dish. Sufficient liquid must be provided.
60
Step Method
. Adding seasoning Add at the beginning of the cooking process. Stock
instead of water may be used to add flavour.
. Factors that in- Form, presence of the bran or hull, the pH of the wa-
fluence grain ter and the desired tenderness influence the quanti-
cooking ty of water to be used, the heat intensity and the
cooking time (eg brown rice takes about twice as long
to cook as white rice).
. Hot breakfast They are available in three forms: regular, quick-
cereals cooking and instant.
Study p 328 in your prescribed book. Discuss two methods of preparing
breakfast cereal without lumps.
6.4.2 Factors that affect the cooking time of cereals
Several factors affect the time required to cook cereals:
. the size of the cereal particles
. the quantity of water used in the cooking process
. the nature of previous treatment of the cereal
. the amount of cellulose in a particular cereal
. the temperature for the cooking process will influence the thickening
and softening of the starch
. the method of cooking (eg whether moist or dry heat is used)
6.4.3 Microwaving
Study p 328 in your prescribed book. Briefly describe the basic steps for
preparing a grain in the microwave oven.
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4ACTIVITY 6.2ACTIVITY 6.2
Study pp 326±327 in your prescribed book. Briefly describe the basic
steps for preparing grains by boiling/simmering.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
61 FOO1501/1
6.5 STORAGE OF CEREAL GRAINS
6.5.1 Dry
Dry grains are best kept in airtight wrappings or containers in a cool, dry
place, free from rodents, insects and other pests. Moisture is the biggest
contributor to the deterioration of grains. Most grains will keep for 6 to
12 months.
6.5.2 Refrigerated
Whole grains should be refrigerated in airtight containers to retard
rancidity and to prevent mold caused by moisture. Cooked grains will
keep up to a week if they are tightly covered and refrigerated. The best
way to reheat the grains is to use the microwave oven.
6.5.3 Frozen
Cooked whole grains can be frozen in airtight containers.
Why should uncooked grains not be frozen? Freezing alters the protein
structure in such a way that baked products made with such grains will
not rise as high.
6.6 PASTAS
The high protein content of durum wheat flour, also called semolina,
makes it best suited for pasta production. Durum wheat can withstand
the pressures of mechanical kneading and manipulation during commer-
cial pasta production as well as the heating during preparation.
Pasta is an excellent source of complex carbohydrates. Pasta is
predominantly made of starch flour and water. Flavourings and colour-
ings can be added. The carotenoid pigments in durum wheat contribute to
pasta's rich, golden colour. Added egg yolks also enhance the colour.
Most pastas are enriched. The highest-quality pastas are made from the
higher-protein wheats. Although pasta is naturally low in fat, the fat and
calorie (kcal) count goes up when it is served with sauces made from
butter, oil, cream and meat.
6.6.1 Types of pasta
The various types of pasta are extruded at 46 8C and dried in their own
characteristic shapes. The moisture level drops from 31% to 10±12%.
62
Consumption percentage of pastas:
``Long goods'' ``Short goods'' Specialty items
(eg spaghetti, (eg macaroni) (eg lasagna)
linguini) 41% 31% 13%
noodles
15%
Study p 330, figure 15-12, in your prescribed book.
6.6.2 Pasta nomenclature
Different types of pasta vary in shape as well as ingredients:
Noodles 5,5% egg is added
Asian noodles Often made from flours other than standard
semolina, rarely containing egg
Whole-wheat Higher in nutrients and fibre, with tougher texture,
stronger taste. Tends to disintegrate if cooked too
long.
Flavoured Vegetable pure es, herbs and spices are added to
change the colour and flavour
Fanciful Unusual shapes to appeal to youthful consumers
High-protein 20±100% more protein than standard pasta. Soy
flour, wheat germ or dairy products are added.
Fresh Found in the refrigerated section of the super-
market, with higher moisture content, softer con-
sistency, needing shorter cooking time
Couscous ``Moroccan pasta'', semolina that is cooked, dried
or pulverised
6.7 PREPARATION OF PASTA
6.7.1 Moist-heat preparation
Pasta products should be added to plenty of rapidly boiling water. To
ensure enough swelling and to prevent pieces from sticking together, the
pasta should boil rapidly with the lid off throughout the cooking process.
Avoid both over and undercooking. The pasta should then be drained and
used or served immediately.
Define ``al dente'':
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4ACTIVITY 6.3ACTIVITY 6.3
Study pp 330±331 in your prescribed book. Briefly describe the moist-
heat preparation of pasta. Which precautions must be taken to prevent
stickiness in cooked pasta?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
The cooking times of commercial pasta appear on the packaging.
6.7.2 Microwaving
Study p 331 in your prescribed book. Then briefly describe the basic
steps for preparing pasta in the microwave oven.
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6.8 STORAGE OF PASTA
Form Method
Dried Wrap tightly, store in a cool, dry place
Fresh Keep in the refrigerator until the ``use by'' date
(about a week in the refrigerator and a month in the
freezer). Fresh pasta in modified-atmosphere
packages may last up to 120 days. The risk of
microbial contamination exists because of the long
storage time.
Cooked Two to three days in the refrigerator (study p 332 in
your prescribed book). Explain how to reheat cooked
pasta.
Fresh Asian Additional ingredients in these noodles reduce their
noodles keeping time to two days in the refrigerator.
64
UNIT 7
Flours and flour mixtures
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. categorise a basic flour mixture's ingredients into dry or liquid
ingredients
. describe the five steps of the milling process
. list the different types of wheat flours
. discuss the uses of the different types of wheat flours
. list the different types of nonwheat flours
. discuss the uses of the different types of non-wheat flours
. list the different types of treated flours
. discuss the uses of the different types of treated flours
. list the various ingredients used in flour mixtures and discuss the
functions they fulfil
. explain the differences between doughs and batters in terms of
their ingredients and preparation processes
. explain how to store flour and flour mixtures
INTRODUCTION
Since humans first discovered how to bake bread, there has been a huge
increase in the variety of baked goods Ð from basic breads (eg yeast and
quick breads) to specialty breads, cakes and desserts.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 16 in your prescribed book for detailed information on
flour and flour mixtures.
No matter what their outward appearance and taste, the foundation of all
these baked products is a flour mixture. The simplest flour mixture is
made of flour and water (see p 337 Ð on unleavened breads Ð in your
prescribed book).
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Categories of a flour mixture Ingredients
Dry Flour, leavening agents, sugar and
salt/flavourings
Liquid Water, milk, fat and eggs
The types and proportions of these ingredients determine the
. structure
. volume
. taste
. texture
. appearance
. nutrient value
of the finished product.
Measuring and mixing methods were discussed in unit 2.
7.1 FLOURS
Flours provide:
. structure (The starch in flour strengthens the baked product through
gelatinisation.)
. crumb texture
. flavour to baked products
7.1.1 Gluten
Define ``gluten'':
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(1) Gluten is a protein formed in the dough. Gluten provides the
structural framework for baked products.
(2) The proteins in flour that form gluten are gliadin and glutenin (see
p 338, figure 16-2, in your prescribed book).
(3) Kneading allows gluten to develop. During kneading, the starch
molecules absorb water. The gluten becomes elastic and plastic and
has the ability to retain water in its foam-like network.
(See figure 16-3 in your textbook.)
(4) When the dough is baked, the gas trapped within expands and this
causes the dough to rise. Gluten (the protein) coagulates and the
dough sets in its risen form.
66
Study p 338 in your prescribed book. Name two reasons why
baked products sometimes partially collapse?
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(5) Harder wheat flours are higher in protein content and are therefore
used to make bread. Soft wheat flours are used for cakes, pastries and
scones where the development of gluten (that produces volume) is not
of the same importance as in baking bread.
What effects do sugar and fat have on the formation of gluten? Sugar and
fat interfere with the absorption of water in the starch granules of the
flour and therefore limit the formation of gluten. The sugar has a greater
affinity with water than does gluten. Fat covers the starch granules,
making it difficult for the proteins to come into contact with water in
order to swell.
4ACTIVITY 7.1ACTIVITY 7.1
Study pp 338±339 in your prescribed book.
Which two wheat flour proteins form gluten?
Describe two major steps involved in gluten formation.
How does gluten contribute to the formation of certain baked products?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
7.1.2 Milling
Study p 341±342, figure 16-10, in your prescribed book.
The whole grain kernel is freed from its bran and germ, the endosperm is
ground into a fine powder, and this is known as flour.
Any grain can be milled, but wheat dominates the market.
Study p 342 in your prescribed book. Then list four more flours.
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Study p 341, figures 16-9 and 16-10, in your prescribed book.
67 FOO1501/1
Milling comprises five steps:
Step Process
Step 1: Breaking Break rollers remove the bran and germ layers
from the endosperm. The result is called break
flour. (See figure 16-10 in your prescribed
book.)
Step 2: Purifying Flour is moved through containers where air
currents remove any remaining bran. The
purified endosperm is known as middlings
(ie the courser part of ground wheat).
Step 3: Reducing Rollers grind the middlings into flour.
Step 4: Sifting The flour is then sifted in streams and these
determine how the flour is classified.
Step 5: Classifying Flours are classified from patent flour (fine) to
straight flour (containing all the different
types of streams). (See p 342 in your pre-
scribed book.)
Define ``streams of flour'':
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7.1.3 Types of wheat flour
Wheat is used to make bread because of the gluten-forming properties of
wheat. Rye flour is second to wheat for bread making, but has to be
mixed with about 25% wheat flour.
The different types of wheat differ in their protein content.
(1) Soft wheat has the least protein and the highest starch content, and is
ideal for the tender, fine crumb of cakes and pastries.
(2) Hard wheat has a higher protein content and is ideal for making yeast
breads.
(Study p 342, table 16-1, in your prescribed book.)
(3) Durum wheat is milled into semolina flour which is ideal for making
pasta.
Different types of flours can be obtained from different types of wheat,
blending them in different combinations and using selected streams. The
specific type of wheat is chosen for its particular quality.
68
4ACTIVITY 7.2ACTIVITY 7.2
Study pp 342±343 in your prescribed book. Complete the table below and
briefly describe how each of the following flours differs:
Name and Uses and Drawbacks Solving the
structure characteristics problem
For example:
Whole-wheat flour Contains fat from Bran's coarse Flour is finely
(endosperm, bran, wheat germ and has granules cut ground and com-
germ) to be refrigerated to gluten strands bined half-and-
prevent rancidity and reduce the half with white
final baked flour
volume. Baked
products can
be dense and
heavy
Bread flour
Durum flour
All-purpose flour
Pastry flour
Cake flour
Gluten flour
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
69 FOO1501/1
7.1.4 Types of nonwheat flour
Non-wheat flours Description
Rice flour Gluten-free, used to make a variety of food
products in Asian cultures.
Rye flour Lower gluten, compact bread (eg pumpernickel).
Used in a 1:4 ratio with wheat flour to create
porous, lighter bread.
Cornmeal flour Must be combined with wheat flour to make
cornbread and muffins. Masa farina is used to
make tortillas and tamales.
Soy flour Higher in protein. Source is the legume, soybean.
Protein additive to wheat flour. Low gluten. Must
be combined with wheat flour when used for
baking.
Buckwheat flour Contains more starch and less protein than
wheat flour. Used in pancakes, waffles, creà pes
and blinis.
Triticale flour Triticale is a cross between wheat and rye. Used
in a 1:3 ratio with white flour to make bread.
Potato flour Cooked potatoes are dried and ground. Liquid of
cooked potatoes can be used in homemade bread.
The starch increases the loaf volume.
Study p 343 in your prescribed book. Explain the disadvantages of the
carbohydrate, pentosans, in rye flour. Explain how a more porous, lighter
bread can be obtained.
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Why are rye flour, cornmeal flour and soy flour not used as extensively as
wheat flour for the production of baked goods?
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70
7.1.5 Treated flours
Wheat flours can be treated to improve their functional properties. Many
of these treated flours are used to produce baked products.
Type Description
Aged flour Freshly milled flour is not white. The flour is stored for
several months to age and becomes naturally bleached
by the oxygen in the air.
Expensive method: storage, labour, risk of pest
infestation
Bleached flour Chlorine gas or benzoyl peroxide bleaches flour.
Advantages:
(i) Improves the volume, texture and crumb structure
of baked products.
(ii) Cake flour is always bleached with chlorine gas
and creates a very tender, fluffy, baked product.
(Semolina flour is not bleached, which contributes
to the colour of pasta.)
Phosphate flour Flour is leavened with baking soda (acid), specifically
monocalcium phosphate (no more than 0,75%).
Advantage:
(i) Increased calcium content Ð 18 mg per sifted cup
of unphosphated flour increased to 68±165 mg of
calcium
Self-rising flour An all-purpose flour, which may or may not be
bleached, used with leavening agent (baking powder)
and salt is added.
Advantage:
(i) Increased calcium content
Question: Explain how to make your own self-raising
flour from an all-purpose flour (see p 407 in
your prescribed book).
Instant or Flour is passed through jets of steam, it becomes wet
agglomerated flour which allows sticking together or agglomerating in
very small particles. The uniformly sized particles are
dried in heated chambers.
Instant flour is not recommended for use in baked
products as it may create a coarse texture. However, it
is ideal for soups, sauces and gravies. It mixes easily
with water readily and gelatinises without lumps.
Enriched flour Vitamins B1, B2, niacin, folate and iron are added.
Adding calcium is optional. The vitamin E is not
replaced.
71 FOO1501/1
7.2 FLOUR MIXTURE INGREDIENTS
A Study pp 344±348 in your prescribed book.
7.2.1 Leavening agents
Leaveners help the dough to rise. Leavening agents are classified into
three categories:
(1) Physical leaveners (2) Biological leaveners (3) Chemical leaveners
Air and steam Yeast and bacteria Baking powder and baking
soda
. Air is incorporated
into almost all flour
mixtures. How? By
mixing, creaming,
sifting, using whipped
egg whites.
. Steam is formed when
the liquid in the mix-
ture turns to steam
during heating.
. Primary leavening
agent for pie crusts,
pastry, cream puffs
and popovers.
. Yeast feeds off the
available sugar, pro-
ducing carbon dioxide
and water through a
process of fermenta-
tion.
. In the absence of oxy-
gen, the yeast pro-
duces ethyl alcohol or
ethanol (see p 345, fig-
ure 16±13, in your
prescribed book).
. Primary leavening
agent for breads.
. Carbon dioxide (ie the lea-
vener) is formed when an
alkali (eg sodium bicarbo-
nate) reacts with an acid
(eg lactic acid) in the pre-
sence of a liquid.
. Baking soda requires an
acid ingredient added to
the flour mixture, whereas
the acid is already incor-
porated into baking pow-
der.
. Primary leavening agent
for quick breads and
cakes.
The type of food determines the type of leavening agent to be used. These
leavening agents:
. increase volume
. contribute to crumb, texture, flavour
Study pp 344±345, figure 16-11, in your prescribed book.
If too much leavening agent is used: baked product has low volume,
coarse texture, bitter taste, soapy flavour, discoloured brown or yellow
spots.
If too little leavening agent is used: baked product is compact, heavy
4ACTIVITY 7.3ACTIVITY 7.3
Study pp 344±348 in your prescribed book.
Describe the purpose of a leavener.
Explain the difference between baking soda and baking powder. How do
they behave differently as leaveners?
72
What are the basic steps for incorporating yeast into a flour mixture?
Discuss optimum temperatures for yeast to ferment.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
7.2.2 Sugar
. sweetens
. increases volume (During creaming, air is incorporated into the fat Ð
which is ``food'' for yeast. It raises the gelatinisation and coagulation
temperatures and gives the gluten more time to stretch.)
. adds moistness, tenderness (The water-retaining nature of sugar
increases moistness, which improves the shelf life. Sugar attracts
moisture from the air or crumb.)
. improves colour, appearance (It helps to brown the outer crust through
caramelisation and the Maillard reaction.)
. Too much: less volume, coarse grain, gummy texture, excessively
browned crust.
. Too little: dryness, reduced browning, lower volume, less tender.
Study p 348, figure 16-19, in your prescribed book.
7.2.3 Flavouring
All baked products would taste very similar without variations in added
flavourings. Name a few such flavourings.
7.2.4 Salt
. adds flavour
. firms dough by adjusting the solubility and swelling capacity of the
gluten
See pp 349±350, figures 16-21 and 16-22 in your prescribed book.
Why is it recommended that the salt be added to the flour and not to the
liquid? (See p 349 in your prescribed book.)
. improves volume, texture of crumb
. prolongs shelf life
. Too much: inhibits yeast activity (reducing the amount of carbon
dioxide gas produced), firm dough, low volume, dense cells, salty taste.
. Too little: flowing and sticky dough, low volume, uneven cell structure,
lack of colour, bland taste.
7.2.5 Liquid
. hydrates flour
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. gelatinises starch
. allows gluten to be formed
. serves as a solvent for dry ingredients
. activates the yeast
. provides steam for leavening
. allows baking powder or baking soda to react and produce carbon
dioxide gas
Milk is usually recommended instead of water, because it improves the
overall quality of the baked product:
. improves crumb texture and flavour (Dough becomes easier to shape,
less sticky and heavy, retains its shape better, retains gas better,
producing a higher volume.)
. browns crust (The lactose in milk plays a part in the Maillard reaction.)
. adds nutrients (including protein, vitamin B, calcium)
. Too much: very moist item, low volume
. Too little: dry baked product, low volume, stales quickly
7.2.6 Fat
Tenderises (Fat interferes with the development of gluten. Higher fat
content: shorter gluten strands; dough is softer, more pliable and easier
to handle.)
Why is fat sometimes called shortening? (See p 350 in your prescribed
book.)
. Increases volume (Fat makes the dough softer and able to rise higher. It
sticks to the air bubble surfaces and allows the bubbles to expand
during baking without breaking. Creaming fats and sugars traps some
air which acts as a leavening agent during heating.)
. Contributes structure, flakiness and a greater resistance to shocks.
. Adds flavour, colour. (The moister crumb and the smooth mouthfeel of
many fillings very much depend on the presence of fats.)
. Increases resistance to staling (see figure 16±24 in your prescribed
book.)
. Plays a role in heat transfer.
Too much fat: too fluid a batter weakens its structure, producing less
volume.
Too little fat: Ð resistance to expansion during leavening, producing a
tougher crumb.
7.2.6.1 Types of fat used in baked goods
Shortening, unsalted butter, margarine, oil and lard
Study p 351 in your prescribed book. Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of the types of fat used in baked goods.
74
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7.2.6.2 Temperature of fat
Use at room temperature for baking.
. Use at colder temperature for piecrusts and pastries.
. If the fat is melted, it does not incorporate air well.
. If the fat is cold, it does not disperse evenly among the other
ingredients.
It is important to distribute the fat throughout the batter for it to make its
contribution to tenderness and volume.
7.2.6.3 Lower-fat alternatives
Fat-free doughs perform poorly and the fat reduction technology to
achieve such a dough has not yet evolved to replace the functional
properties of fat.
7.2.7 Eggs
A Study p 352, figure 16±26, in your prescribed book.
. add structure (A delicate structure and a fine crumb are strengthened
by the coagulation of egg protein.)
. help leavening (Beaten eggs or whipped egg whites are added to
incorporate air into the mixture. The liquid in the eggs turns to steam
during heating.)
. improve colour/flavour, appearance, producing a yellowed crumb and
a browned crust (Emulsifiers improve the shelf life and the shiny egg
glaze on baked products.)
. add nutrients (eg protein, vitamins A, D, E, K, B, cholesterol and fat)
. Too much: Ð tough, rubbery texture
. Too little: Ð insufficient volume, lower structural strength, less
colour, flavour and nutrient content
7.2.8 Commercial additives
A Study pages pp 352±353 in your prescribed book.
Commercial additives are often added to a flour mixture to improve
commercial production and the quality of the final baked product. The
shelf life is also extended. These additives include malt, antioxidants and
75 FOO1501/1
mould inhibitors. Dough conditioners are added to improve the
effectiveness of flour mixtures. These conditioners include maturing
agents, reducing agents, oxidising agents, emulsifiers and enzymes.
4ACTIVITY 7.4ACTIVITY 7.4
Study pp 344±352 in your prescribed book. Discuss the problems that
occur when too much or too little of the following ingredients are added
to a flour mixture: flour, leavening, sugar, salt, liquid, fat and eggs.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
4ACTIVITY 7.5ACTIVITY 7.5
Study pp 344±352 in your prescribed book. List three functions for each
of the following ingredients of flour mixtures: flour, leavening, sugar,
salt, liquid, milk, fat and eggs.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
7.3 PREPARATION OF BAKED GOODS
7.3.1 Dough and batter
Define ``dough'':
Define ``batter'':
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A Study p 354, figure 16±27, in your prescribed book.
How do the ingredients and the preparation processes of dough and
batters differ?
76
They are different, depending on their flour-to-liquid ratio and their
general use:
Flour Liquid Uses
Dough Stiff/firm 1 cup 1¤8 cup Cookie dough can Pasta, pies, pastry,
be shaped, rolled cookies
or dropped
Soft 1 cup 1¤2 cup Cookie dough can Breads, biscuits,
be shaped, rolled cookies
or dropped
Batter Pour 1 cup 2¤3 ±1 cup Poured, piped, Pancakes, waffles,
spread popovers, cookies,
cakes
Drop 1 cup 1¤2 to3¤4 Dropped, pushed Muffins, quick tea
cup breads, cream puffs, some coffee
cakes
Some doughs and batters can be refrigerated or frozen, whereas others
cannot. Some are best used immediately.
7.3.2 Changes during heating
The ingredients have been mixed, perhaps kneaded to develop gluten, and
then the mixture is ready for baking.
When a flour mixture bakes, (i) the gases (steam, carbon dioxide, air)
expand, (ii) stretching the gluten network and causing the baked product
to rise. While (iii) the fat melts, (iv) the starches gelatinise, (v) the
protein from the flour, eggs and/or milk coagulates, and (vi) the outer
surfaces brown due to the caramelisation of the sugars, the dextrinisation
of starch and/or the Maillard reaction (see p 42 in your prescribed book).
The heat (vii) ultimately sets the structure of the baked product.
7.3.2.1 High-altitude adjustments
See pp 353±354 in your prescribed book. Explain which adjustments are
necessary when preparing baked goods at high altitudes.
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77 FOO1501/1
7.4 STORAGE OF FLOUR AND FLOUR MIXTURES
Flour should be kept in airtight, pest-proof containers and stored in a
cool, dry, dark place.
Storage time for white flour: 1 year
Storage time for whole-grain flour: 3 months in the refrigerator (Whole-
grain flours still contain the fat-rich germ and can therefore turn rancid.)
7.4.1 Dry storage
Moisture attracts insects, so the flour must be kept dry. Only metal, glass
or hard plastic airtight containers keep pests out. Flour should also be
kept cool to prevent the activation of its natural enzymes which cause it
to deteriorate if it is stored too long.
Storing flour beyond the recommended storage period results in a higher
sugar content which excessively browns the crust of white bread. The
enzyme, lipase, breaks down small fat components, resulting in off-
odours, less volume and large pores in the finished product.
7.4.2 Frozen
Kneaded flour mixtures can be frozen. To use: defrost, knead about ten
times to improve the quality of the mixture, shape and bake.
Frozen dough loses some of its originally retained gases while it is stored
in the freezer. Why is extended frozen storage not recommended? It can
lead to a gradual loss of the dough's ability to rise.
78
UNIT 8
Quick breads
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. describe making quick breads by using the muffin method
. explain the differences between drop batters, pour batters and
doughs and give examples for each
. describe briefly how the different varieties of quick breads are
prepared
. discuss briefly why problems occur when quick breads are
prepared
. explain the difference between leavened and unleavened quick
breads
INTRODUCTION
Why are quick breads called ``quick''? Because they are baked
immediately after the ingredients have been mixed. There is no waiting,
as in the case of yeast breads, for leavening to take place through the slow
fermentation of yeast. Quick breads are leavened during baking by air,
steam, and/or carbon dioxide produced through the action of baking soda
or baking powder.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 18 in your prescribed book for more information on quick
breads.
See p 375 in your prescribed book. Name the ingredients used in quick
breads and explain why they are used.
1 Basic ingredients
2 The most commonly used flour
3 Purpose of other grain flours
4 Why cake flour is occasionally used
5 Most frequently added liquid
6 Purpose of fat, eggs and sugar
79 FOO1501/1
See p 375, table 18-1, in your prescribed book. List some general
guidelines on the proportions of various ingredients for specific quick
breads.
8.1 PREPARATION OF QUICK BREADS
The two most important factors when preparing quick breads are:
. the consistency of the batter
. the cooking temperature
Why are batters only mixed until the dry ingredients have been
moistened? To avoid undesirable gluten development
Give several examples of quick breads made with the following (p 376±
380 in your prescribed book):
1 Pour batters
2 Drop batters
3 Doughs
8.1.1 The muffin method
The muffin method is used to prepare many quick breads. This method
comprises three steps:
. Sift the dry ingredients together.
. Combine the moist ingredients in a separate bowl.
. Stir the dry and moist ingredients together with only a few strokes,
until the dry ingredients are just moistened but still lumpy.
Approximately ten strokes are sufficient if kneading is called for.
Overkneading creates too much gluten, which causes the finished bread
to be dense and heavy.
The pans are normally greased, filled and baked between 177 8C and
232 8C, depending on the type of bread. Test the bread for doneness.
Study p 376 in your prescribed book. Then explain the toothpick test.
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A cake tester is available in the shops.
80
8.2 VARIETIES OF QUICK BREADS
The ratio of flour to liquid determines whether the mixture is a pour
batter or a drop batter or a dough.
8.2.1 Pour batters
Pour batters are quite thin and are used for:
. pancakes
. creà pes
. waffles
. popovers
According to your prescribed book, flapjacks or crumpets are called
``pancakes'' in the United States. In South Africa we also use the word
pancakes instead of creà pes and Yorkshire puddings instead of popovers.
4ACTIVITY 8.1ACTIVITY 8.1
Study pp 376±377 in your prescribed book. Briefly describe how
pancakes, creà pes, waffles and popovers are prepared. Provide each with
two servings suggestions.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
8.2.2 Drop batters
Drop batters are thicker because they contain more flour. They are used
for:
. muffins
. quick tea breads
. coffee cakes
. dumplings
(1) Muffins
. Ingredients Flour, liquid, fat, egg, sugar, salt, leavening agent
and a flavouring ingredient for extra flavour and
texture (eg nuts and blueberries)
Flour-to-liquid ratio = 2:1. Muffins can be high
in fat and sugar. Honey, brown sugar and syrup can
replace white sugar.
Oatmeal, whole-wheat flour or cornmeal can
replace white flour.
. Avoid overmixing The ingredients must be mixed just until the dry
ingredients are moist. Some small lumps in the
batter are desirable. A smooth batter means over-
mixing, which causes too much gluten to develop.
81 FOO1501/1
This mixture creates a muffin with a smooth peaked
top and a tough interior riddled with tunnels.
(Read p 378 and see figure 18-4 in your
prescribed book on how these tunnels are formed
and how they can be avoided.)
. Avoid undermixing Undermixing leaves lumps that are too large,
indicating insufficient gluten development so that
the result is a crumbly muffin that falls apart. The
baking powder is incompletely moistened and this
produces a low-volume muffin. The eggs must be
beaten separately before they are added to the
liquid. Why? Read p 378 in your prescribed book.
. Added ingredients Ingredients such as fruit and nuts are added for
extra flavour and texture. To prevent these ingre-
dients from sinking to the bottom of the muffin,
lightly toss them in some flour before they are
added.
. Baking Only the bottoms of the individual muffin cups
should be greased. Why? Because the ungreased
sides provide traction for the batter as it rises and
allow it to rise higher. Fill the cup. Bake at about
204 8C for 20±25 minutes.
(2) Muffin breads
Changes in the basic ingredients of a muffin recipe produce a variety of
other quick breads.
Name Ingredients and characteristics
. Boston bread Made with rye flour and graham flour [similar to
whole-wheat flour]. Steamed in simmering water
for 2±3 hours and baked for 15 minutes to dry out
the top.
. Corn bread Combination of cornmeal, all-purpose flour and
other ingredients. Baked.
. Hushpuppies Variation of corn bread. Shaped into balls and
deep-fried.
. Tea breads Similar to muffins but baked (176 8C) for 1 hour in
a loaf pan. The sweetest of all quick breads (eg
banana, carrot and blueberry). Tightly wrapped,
they keep well in the refrigerator.
(3) Coffee cakes
Study p 379 in your prescribed book. Why are coffee cakes not
considered a quick bread?
82
(4) Dumplings
. A dumpling is a small ball of flour and other ingredients.
. Dumplings are normally added to soups and stews.
. They are simmered for 5±20 minutes in water, stock or gravy.
. Use plenty of liquid to prevent overcrowding because they will stick
together and cook unevenly.
. Overcooking should be avoided as egg protein is a common ingredient
which toughens when exposed to heat for too long.
8.2.3 Dough
Dough contains still more flour. It is usually lightly kneaded and used for:
. biscuits: leavened
. scones: leavened
. unleavened breads (eg tortillas, chapatis, crisp flat breads and matzo)
Unleavened breads or ``flat'' breads are the world's oldest breads and the
easiest to prepare. Unleavened breads can be steamed, oven- or skillet-
baked, fried, grilled or baked in the hot desert sand.
Pizzas and pita breads are flat, but leavened with yeast.
Study p 380 in your prescribed book. How are ``unleavened'' breads
different from other quick breads?
Examples of unleavened breads:
Unleavened bread Ingredients, characteristics and uses
. Tortilla with flour Wheat flour, fat, water, salt. Heated on a hot
(Mexico) griddle for 30±60 seconds on each side. More
pliable, softer than corn tortillas.
. Tortilla with corn- Treated with lime. Tougher texture than flour
meal tortilla.
. Tortillas are used nachos, tacos, enchiladas, burritos, tostados
as: and a thickener in soups.
. Chapatis (India, Whole-wheat flour, water, clarified butter and
Pakistan, Iran) salt. Baked on a hot griddle until the crust
browns and starts to blister.
. Crisp flat breads The degree of flatness varies from paper-thin
(Scandinavia) to thicker crisp breads. Rye and wheat are the
two most commonly used flours. The colour
varies from very light to brown.
. Matzo (Israel) Matzo meal is made from the crumbs. Used
for breading and stuffing, dumplings in soup,
in cakes and as a binding agent.
83 FOO1501/1
4ACTIVITY 8.2ACTIVITY 8.2
Study pp 380±381 in your prescribed book.
Briefly list the ingredients and describe the preparation process for
biscuits.
Briefly list the ingredients and describe the preparation process for
scones.
How does the method for preparing scones differ from the method for
preparing biscuits?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
See p 379, table 18-3, in your prescribed book.
84
UNIT 9
Yeast breads
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. list the different ingredients for yeast bread and discuss the
functions they fulfil
. describe how yeast breads are prepared Ð mixing methods,
kneading, fermentation and baking
. discuss the different ingredients for the different varieties of yeast
breads and describe how these breads are prepared
. identify the factors that affect the quality of the final baked product
. explain how yeast breads should be stored
INTRODUCTION
Yeast breads are leavened with carbon dioxide that is produced by
baker's yeast, a one-celled fungus that multiplies rapidly at the right
temperature and in the presence of a small amount of sugar and
moisture.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 19 in your prescribed book for more information on yeast
breads.
9.1 PREPARATION OF YEAST BREADS
Mix the ingredients into a dense, pliable dough. Knead the dough to allow
for rising. Bake, steam or fry. Why do many people buy their bread
instead of preparing it from scratch? Because the preparation of bread is
time-consuming. All breads are prepared with the same basic ingredients.
9.1.1 Ingredients
Study p 387 in your prescribed book. List the fundamental ingredients of
yeast breads.
85 FOO1501/1
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Why is it necessary to add a certain amount of wheat flour to other types
of flour when baking bread?
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9.1.2 Mixing methods
. The four best-known mixing methods for yeast breads: straight dough
method, sponge method, batter method and rapid-mix method.
. Temperature of ingredients. All the ingredients should be at room
temperature. Why? To obtain the desired dough consistency.
. What determines the dough consistency (whether it is too soft, too firm
or just right)? The ingredients, the quantities of each, the types, and
how much the dough is mixed.
. The dough must reach the desired degree of cohesion. Cohesion
influences the dough's handling characteristics and the final quality of
the baked item (see table 19-1 in your prescribed book).
4ACTIVITY 9.1ACTIVITY 9.1
Study p 387, figure 19-1, in your prescribed book. Briefly describe the
four best-known methods for mixing yeast bread.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
9.1.3 Kneading
Gluten develops to its maximum potential when dough is kneaded. Dough
must be physically handled until it is smooth, soft, non-stick, and springs
back when pressed gently. When the batter method is followed, the dough
is not kneaded. A thin layer of flour prevents the dough from sticking.
Some flour may be kneaded into the dough, but if too much flour is added,
fermentation will take longer. The final product will then be dry and
streaked or heavy. Hands should also be lightly floured.
86
Study the kneading process on pp 389±390 as well as figures 19-2 and 19-
3 in your prescribed book. Practise this technique in your kitchen.
Study pp 389±390 in your prescribed book. What are the ways to
determine when kneading is complete?
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9.1.4 Fermentation Ð first rising
After the dough has been kneaded, the surface is greased by gently rolling
the sides of the dough in a lightly greased bowl. This prevents the dough
from drying out as it rises. To maintain humidity and prevent drying, the
dough is placed in a bowl and covered with a clean, moist dish towel or
paper towel or plastic wrap.
(1) Changes during fermentation
. The yeast ferments and the dough doubles in size as carbon dioxide is
produced by the yeast. Enzyme and pH changes are responsible for
changes in the dough.
. The dough becomes more acidic because carbonic acid (ie carbon
dioxide + water) is formed and because of the lactic and acetic acids
produced by the yeast.
. The increased acidity improves the gluten's ability to combine with
water.
. Acid improves the flavour, extends the shelf life by inhibiting staling
and mold growth and reduces the stickiness of the dough.
. The time it takes for the dough to rise (approximately three quarters of
an hour to two hours) depends on the type and concentration of the
yeast, its sugar content, the ambient temperature, the salt concentra-
tion and the mixing method.
(2) Optimal fermentation temperatures
Yeast becomes activated Yeast action slows down Yeast dies
At 20 8C±38 8C Below 10 8C At 60 8C or above
Place the dough in a corner free of drafts or in a closed oven with a bowl
of hot water on the shelf below or in an oven that was heated for a few
minutes and then turned off.
87 FOO1501/1
(3) Avoid overfermentation
The first rise is completed when the dough has approximately doubled in
size and two fingers pushed into the dough near the edge leave an
indentation. As the dough rises, the gluten stretches and becomes
weaker.
Why must overfermentation be avoided? Because the expanding dough
will collapse or cause a coarse grain and a sour odour from the excess
acid that is produced.
Overfermentation can affect the colour because no sugar will be left to
interact with the flour proteins that create a brown crust (ie the Maillard
reaction). The Maillard reaction also contributes to the sweet, aromatic
and roasted flavours of baked products. Overfermentation therefore also
affects flavour.
4ACTIVITY 9.2ACTIVITY 9.2
Study pp 390±391 in your prescribed book.
What are the recommended conditions for the first rising of the dough?
Approximately how much time should be allowed for the process?
Define ``proof boxes''.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
9.1.5 Punching down Ð second rising
. The first rising of the dough doubles the original size. The dough is
punched down for a second rising that again doubles the original size
(see figure 19-5 in your prescribed book).
. Gently push the centre of the dough down with a clinched fist, followed
by about four kneading motions.
. The second rising takes about half the time of the first rising.
4ACTIVITY 9.3ACTIVITY 9.3
Study pp 391±392 in your prescribed book. What is the purpose of
punching down the dough and sometimes allowing it to rise a second
time?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
9.1.6 Shaping
. Bread dough can be formed into innumerable shapes (see p 392, figure
19-6, in your prescribed book).
88
. Usually the pan is at least half but no more than two thirds full of
dough. See pp 392±393 in your prescribed book on how to shape the
dough when placing it in the pan.
. The bottom and sometimes the sides of the pan are greased, so that the
loaf can be easily removed. Sometimes the sides are left ungreased so
that the dough will have more traction during rising.
9.1.7 Proofing
Proofing means to increase the volume of shaped dough through
continued fermentation.
. Proofing is the final rising of a yeast product and it takes place in the
pan or on a baking sheet. This process plays an important role in the
quality of the final product. Place the shaped dough in a warm, humid
and undisturbed environment. Cover the pan with a cloth. The dough
should not be allowed to rise more than double its original volume.
. The purpose of proofing is to create a dough that is adequately aerated.
. Overproofing causes an overextension of the gluten, which causes the
cell walls to break and collapse, the fermentation gas to escape and a
low-volume finished product. See p 393, figure 19-7, in your
prescribed book.
. Temperature:
Ð Too cool: fermentation is too slow
Ð Too hot: bread with low volume, large cells, a pale crust and a
reduced shelf life
. Timing and humidity are also important factors (see p 393, figure 19-8,
in your prescribed book).
9.1.8 Decorating
Brush the top
with egg white
and sprinkle
sesame, car-
away or poppy
seeds over
. Score the bread
(Take a sharp knife
a n d c r e a t e 6 ±
12 mm deep slashes
on the top surface)
. Pour a little butter
into the slashes to
add flavour
. Brush milk on
the surface
for a golden
brown crust
due to cara-
melisation of
the milk
. Brush water
on the surface
f o r l o a v e s
with a cris-
pier crust
9.1.9 Baking
4ACTIVITY 9.4ACTIVITY 9.4
Study p 394 in your prescribed book.
89 FOO1501/1
Describe the general baking conditions for a standard loaf of bread,
including proper temperature and time.
Describe the changes that occur while the yeast bread is baking. Define
``oven spring''.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(1) Crumb development
A Study p 394 in your prescribed book.
Define ``crumb'':
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(2) Problems with texture
A Study p 394, figure 19-10, in your prescribed book.
1 Overfermented dough Large cells, moth-eaten appearance and a
produces an irregular coarse texture;
crumb (large cells) Shorter shelf life
2 Underfermented dough Carbon dioxide was not properly distrib-
produces a dense uted throughout the dough: dense loaf,
crumb (small cells) thick cells, low volume and a tough crust;
Shorter shelf life
3 Optimal crumb Even distribution of carbon dioxide
(fine cells) throughout the dough, accomplished
through mixing, punching, kneading and
shaping
(3) Testing for doneness
The characteristics of a well-prepared bread:
Optimum volume Optimum colour Optimum flavour
Symmetrical shape A porous, pliable, firm Golden brown, crispy crust
with closed seams and even crumb
90
(4) Problems with yeast breads and their causes
A Study p 396, table 19-5, in your prescribed book.
(5) Microwave preparation
Study p 395 in your prescribed book. Why is the use of a microwave oven
not recommended for baking bread? List the reasons.
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(6) High-altitude adjustments
. a slightly higher temperature (6 8C±8 8C)
. less leavening agent
. more liquid
Yeast breads rise faster at higher altitudes. The dough should not be
allowed to rise more than double the original volume.
9.2 VARIETIES OF YEAST BREADS
The basic ingredients of yeast breads are flour, water and yeast. This
basic formula was developed into more varieties:
Variety Ingredients Preparation
. Loaf breads
Wheat flour
All-purpose flour, milk, water
and small amounts of sugar,
salt and yeast. Fat is an
optional ingredient.
Standard procedure
. Whole-wheat
breads
Whole-wheat and white
flour, milk, water and small
amounts of sugar, salt and
yeast. Fat is an optional
ingredient.
Sharp edges of the bran
cut the gluten strands in
the dough Ð shorter
kneading time and lower-
volume loaf. A combina-
tion of whole-wheat and
white flour produces a
higher-volume loaf.
. Sourdough
breads
Made with a starter, which
consists of both yeast and
lactic acid bacteria, Lacto-
bacillus plantarum. The
lower pH of sourdough bread
compared to other breads
provides its characteristic
texture and taste.
Standard procedure
91 FOO1501/1
. Malt breads Malt is added, which makes
the bread sweeter, stickier
and heavier.
Standard procedure
. Rolls The same as for loaf bread,
additional fat, sugar and eggs
Standard procedure
See p 397, figure 19-11,
in your prescribed book.
. Pita breads A circular, Middle-Eastern
bread with a large, hollow
centre pocket
Thin circle of dough (less
then 6 mm thick), baked
in the oven at 260 8C for
less then one minute. A
hot griddle may also be
used.
. Bagels Standard white bread formu-
la and egg whites
The dough is cut with a
bagel cutter (see figure 19-
12 in your prescribed
book). Allowed to rise,
boiled in water, cooled,
baked.
. English
muffins
Water or milk, sugar, salt,
flour, yeast, a little butter
Allowed to rise twice and
baked on a greased griddle
or in a greased pan.
. Pizza crust Yeast, hard-wheat flour Allowed to rise once for
two hours and baked at
205 8C for 25 minutes.
. Raised
doughnuts
Yeast, bread flour Deep-fried in fat or baked
in the oven.
. Cake
doughnuts
Baking powder, cake flour Deep-fried in fat or baked
in the oven.
. Specialty
breads
Different variety of ingredi-
ents (eg oat, corn, rice, yo-
ghurt, buttermilk, sesame,
spices)
Different preparation
methods
4ACTIVITY 9.5ACTIVITY 9.5
Study pp 395±399 in your prescribed book.
Briefly describe how the following yeast breads differ in terms of
ingredients and/or preparation from a standard, white loaf: sourdough
bread, malt bread and pumpernickel bread.
Name a few specialty breads that are available in our supermarkets.
List the altered nutrient values (if available).
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
92
9.3 STORAGE OF YEAST BREADS
9.3.1 Fresh
Bread and baked products start to stale as soon as they come out of the
oven. Freshly baked bread is best consumed within a day or two in the
case of wheat bread and rye bread within seven days. Completely cooled
bread must be wrapped and stored in a cool, dry place.
``Staling'' refers to deleterious changes in the crust and crumb during
storage, causing firmness, crumbliness and decreased bread quality.
The moisture level and retrogradation of the starch molecules play an
important role in the staling of bread.
(1) Preventing staling
Steps to take to prevent or delay staling:
Keep the bread away from air. Wrap the bread in plastic or paper.
Add moisture retainers such as
fat or sugar.
Freeze the bread.
``Stop'' retrogradation. Warm the bread to reverse staling.
Problem: staling returns upon cool-
ing.
Reheat the bread at 52 8C to
63 8C for a few minutes, with a damp
cloth or paper towel placed over the
bread, to recreate the fresh-bread
characteristics.
Using a microwave oven is not The bread will become tougher,
recommended for this process. rubbery and difficult to chew.
Why?
(2) Antistaling additives
Commercial bakers add mono- and diglycerides or fat to bread doughs to
prevent staling, and sodium or calcium propionate to retard the growth of
mold and the bacteria that cause rope.
Define ``rope'':
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93 FOO1501/1
Study p 399 in your prescribed book. Then complete the table below on
the characteristics of rope-contaminated bread:
1 Smell 1
2 Inner texture 2
3 Harm to human body when 3
consumed
9.3.2 Refrigerated
Refrigerating bread is not recommended because it accelerates staling.
However, in warm temperatures and the high humidity of tropical
regions, bread must be refrigerated immediately.
9.3.3 Frozen
. If bread is not going to be used within two to seven days, depending on
the type of bread, it should be frozen to prevent contamination and
spoilage. This is the best way to maintain some of the texture and
flavour of freshly baked bread.
. Defrost frozen bread at room temperature. To refresh defrosted bread,
the top portion of the foil covering is opened. Place the bread in a
preheated oven (121 8C to 149 8C) for about 10 minutes.
. Unbaked dough can be frozen for up to two weeks. First shape the
dough and then wrap it. Allow the dough to thaw and then to rise to
double its volume before baking. Dough can also be thawed in the
refrigerator for 12 hours and then allowed to rise for two hours.
94
UNIT 10
Cakes and cookies
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. classify types of cakes and cookies and briefly explain the
differences
. list the different ingredients used in cake and cookie preparation
and discuss the functions they fulfil
. describe how different cakes and cookies are prepared
. identify factors that affect the quality of the final baked product
. explain how cakes and cookies should be stored
INTRODUCTION
The basic ingredients for cakes and cookies Ð as for quick and yeast
breads Ð are combined in a flour mixture. Cakes and cookies, however,
require a higher proportion of sugar, fluid and fat. The different ways and
styles in which these ingredients are combined produce from the simplest
cookies to the most elaborate wedding cakes.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 22 in your prescribed book for more information on cakes
and cookies.
10.1 TYPES OF CAKES
Cakes are classified into three categories:
Shortened cake Unshortened cake Chiffon cake
A cake made with A cake made without A cake made by combining
fat added fat the characteristics of both
shortened and unshor-
tened cakes
95 FOO1501/1
10.1.1 Shortened cakes
The cakes are also known as butter or conventional cakes.
Examples of shortened cakes include white, chocolate and fruit cakes.
Shortened cakes are normally leavened with baking powder or baking
soda. Two other factors also contribute to leavening:
. steam generated by the liquid ingredients
. air incorporated into the mixture during the mixing process
10.1.2 Unshortened cakes
Unshortened cakes are also known as sponge or foam cakes.
Examples of unshortened cakes include angel food or sponge cakes.
The term ``sponge'' is used to describe cakes made with beaten egg
whites.
Unshortened cakes are normally leavened with:
. steam generated by the liquid ingredients
. air from foamed or beaten eggs
Angel food cakes are made with beaten egg whites.
Sponge cakes are made with beaten whole eggs (giving the cake a rich,
yellow colour).
10.1.3 Chiffon cakes
Fat, usually vegetable oil and egg yolks, is combined with cake flour,
leavening agents and foamed egg whites.
Examples of chiffon cakes include lemon or chocolate chiffon cakes.
10.2 PREPARATION OF CAKES
The ingredients as well as the mixing of the batters for shortened and
unshortened cakes are different. Different ingredients and different
mixing methods produce different cakes.
Flour mixtures that produce cakes and cookies are very similar to those
used to make breads. However, cakes and cookies require more sugar,
fluid and fat. These mixtures are sweeter, with added flavourings not
normally used in breads.
10.2.1 Ingredients
The primary goal is to bake a cake that holds together, but is still tender
and moist.
96
The main ingredients in cakes are:
. flour
. sugar
. fat
. eggs
. milk
. leavening agents
. additional ingredients
(1) Flour
Cake flour provides structure because the starch gelatinises and its
protein forms gluten.
The structural strengthening effect is balanced by the tenderising effect
of added sugar and fat.
(2) Sugar
For many years the weight of the sugar in cake mixtures was not allowed
to exceed the weight of the flour because a higher proportion of sugar
would interfere with the gelatinisation of starch and the hydration of
proteins. Due to improvements in cake flour and shortenings, however, a
high sugar to flour ratio in cakes is common nowadays.
Sugar adds tenderness, volume, moisture as well as sweetness and a
brown crust to cakes.
Study p 447 in your prescribed book. List the three basic formulas for
preparing a sweeter ``high-ratio cake'' that is not too dry or too moist.
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(3) Fat
A Study p 447 in your prescribed book.
Fats and shortenings add tenderness, volume, moisture and flavour to
cakes.
Why is fat recommended instead of oil? Because oil does not entrap air
during creaming and produces a low-volume cake with a harsh crumb.
97 FOO1501/1
(4) Eggs
Eggs are added to strengthen the structure, to increase the leavening
effect, to act as an emulsifier and to add colour and flavour to cakes.
(5) Milk
. Milk is usually the main liquid ingredient in cakes.
. Milk hydrates the dry ingredients, dissolves the sugar and salt,
provides steam for leavening, and allows baking soda or baking powder
to react and produce carbon dioxide gas.
(6) Leavening agents
Baking soda, baking powder, air and/or steam are the leavening agents in
cakes and cookies. The flour to chemical leavening ratio is:
. 1 cup of flour: 1 teaspoon of baking powder
. 1 cup of flour: 1/2 teaspoon of baking soda
(7) Additional ingredients
A Study p 448, Chemist's Corner 22-2, in your prescribed book.
Salt enhances flavour.
List three examples of flavours incorporated into cake and cookie
mixtures.
Chocolate
(8) Other factors
When baking cakes, the following should be taken into consideration (the
four T's in baking):
. Type of pans and their treatment
. Timing
. Temperature
. Testing for doneness
4ACTIVITY 10.1ACTIVITY 10.1
Study pp 447±448 in your prescribed book.
Which ingredients are used to prepare cakes?
98
Which characteristics do each of these ingredients, including the cake
flour, contribute to the prepared cake product?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
10.2.2 Preparing shortened cakes
Shortened cakes are the most commonly prepared cakes and can be
covered with a limitless number of icing decorations or messages for
birthday and wedding celebrations.
(1) Type and treatment of the pans
4ACTIVITY 10.2ACTIVITY 10.2
Study p 448 in your prescribed book. Which pans (ie dull or shiny) are
best for cake preparation?
How should the pans be prepared prior to pouring in the batter?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(2) Temperature
A Study p 450 in your prescribed book.
After pouring the cake batter into the pans, the pans should immediately
be placed in a preheated oven (163 8C to 177 8C) to ensure proper
leavening.
. The pans should not touch each other or the sides of the oven.
. Do not place them directly above or below each other.
Discuss why cake batters should be put in a preheated oven immediately
after mixing.
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Discuss the importance of correct pan placement in the oven.
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(3) Timing
Cakes are baked for 30 to 45 to 60 minutes, depending on the size of the
pan and the thickness of the cake. Cupcakes normally take 20 minutes to
bake.
(4) Changes during baking
(a) The role of heat during baking:
1 Heat increases the volume by expanding air, steam and carbon
dioxide.
2 Heat sets the structure by coagulating the protein and gelatinising
the starch.
3 The heat flows from the edges towards the centre of the pan, and
the interior continues to rise after the outsides have started to set.
This produces rounded tops.
4 Heat browns the crust via the Maillard reaction and the
caramelisation of sugars.
(b) Too low temperatures:
Leavening gas is lost from the batter before the proteins can coagulate
or the starch gelatinise. The product is a low-volume cake with
thickened cells and an indentation in the centre.
(c) Too high temperatures:
A crust is created before the cake can rise. A hump is consequently
formed as the interior of the cake continues to rise.
(5) Testing for doneness
A Study pp 450±451, figure 22-4, in your prescribed book.
This should be done close to the end of heating time.
Why?
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100
How?
(a) Use a toothpick or cake tester. Insert it in the cake. If it comes out
clean, the cake is done.
(b) Touch the top of the cake lightly with a finger. If it springs back, the
cake is done.
(6) Cooling
A Study p 451, figure 22-5, in your prescribed book.
Remove the cake from the oven and place the pan on a rack for 5±10
minutes. This gives the cake time to set. The warmer inside of the cake
needs to become firm. The rack allows even air circulation under the
cake. This prevents condensation and sogginess.
Characteristics of a shortened cake: fine crumb, tender texture, optimum
volume, lightly browned, delicate crust.
4ACTIVITY 10.3ACTIVITY 10.3
Study pp 448±451 and table 22-3 in your prescribed book. List the
possible causes of the following problems associated with cake prepara-
tion: low volume, soggy crumb, dry/crumbly cake, too pale, collapses in
centre and tunnel formation.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(7) High-altitude adjustments
. a slightly higher (6 8C±8 8C) temperature
. decrease the quantity of baking powder
. decrease the quantity of sugar
. increase the quantity of flour
. increase the quantity of water
(8) Microwave preparation
Cakes can be prepared in a microwave oven, but the process has not yet
been perfected. It is recommended that cakes be baked in conventional
ovens.
Microwave cakes are done in about 10 minutes. They lack the
characteristic browning and crust formation. Special microwave recipes
are available and so are packaged cake mixes. Use round-tube,
microwave-safe baking pans.
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10.2.3 Preparing unshortened cakes
The preparation of unshortened cakes is slightly more involved than for
shortened cakes, because unshortened cakes rely on foam formation for
structure.
(1) Angel food cake
(a) Mixing technique
See p 452, figure 22-6, in your prescribed book.
1 Beat egg whites to a foam.
2 Add sugar gradually or it will extract water from the egg whites and
produce a syrupy foam and a low-volume cake.
3 Add salt and flavouring.
4 Sift cake flour gradually over the mixture and gently fold in.
5 Blend thoroughly, but avoid overmanipulation because it reduces
tenderness and produces a low-volume cake.
6 Pour batter into an ungreased angel-food cake pan (see p 453,
figure 22-7, in your prescribed book).
(b) Temperature
Place the pan in the lower third of a preheated (177 8C) oven.
Too cool: low-volume cake
Too hot: a low-volume, dense cake
(c) Timing
Approximately 45 minutes
Turn upside down on a cooling rack for at least 90 minutes.
(2) Sponge cake
Egg-white foam and egg-yolk foam are prepared for sponge cakes. Lemon
juice often replaces the cream of tartar as acid ingredient.
There are three methods for preparing sponge cakes:
Method 1 Method 2
Syrup or meringue
method
Method 3
1 Separate the eggs
2 Beat separately
3 Add sugar and va-
nilla to yolks
4 Fold the cake flour
in
5 Gently fold the
egg-white foam in
For a finer texture
end-product
1 Cook syrup from 2
parts sugar and 1
part water until the
softball stage (109±
116 8C) is reached
2 Beat egg whites
with cream of tar-
tar until stiff
1 Beat whole eggs un-
til foamy and pale
yellow
2 Add a small amount
of lemon juice or
cream of tartar.
3 Beat until stiff
4 Add sugar, 2 table-
spoons at a time
5 Sift cake flour and
102
3 While the foam is
beaten constantly,
the hot syrup is
poured into it in a
fine stream
4 Add beaten egg
yolks combined
with lemon juice
and fold into the
mixture
5 Sift cake flour over
the mixture and
gently fold in
5 salt over the mix-
ture and gently fold
in
(3) Chiffon cake
This is a hybrid of shortened and unshortened cakes.
Method:
1 Mixture of cake flour, sugar, beaten egg yolks and oil. Adding the
vegetable oil makes the cake more tender.
2 Fold whipped egg whites into the mixture.
3 Pour the batter into an ungreased tube pan.
4 Bake at 163 8C.
5 Turn upside down on a cooling rack for at least 20 minutes.
6 Turn the cake out on a cake plate.
(4) Type and treatment of pans
For optimum volume, the pans are left ungreased in order to provide
traction for the batter.
Study pp 453±454 in your prescribed book. Why are tube pans used?
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(5) Temperature
Bake at 191 8C.
Too high temperatures toughen the structure, allow the top to coagulate
before the air and steam have had sufficient time to complete the
leavening, and the crust may burn.
(6) Timing
45±60 minutes
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(7) Testing for doneness
The toothpick test does not work for unshortened cakes.
The cake is cooked when the surface is light brown and springs back
when touched.
4ACTIVITY 10.4ACTIVITY 10.4
Study pp 448±454 in your prescribed book. Describe the baking process
for shortened and unshortened cakes, including the filling of the pan, the
proper baking temperature and time and how to test for doneness.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
10.3 STORAGE OF CAKES
Cakes become stale fairly quickly and should be protected from exposure
to air as soon as they have cooled. Cakes should be stored in an airtight
container or wrapped in foil or cling wrap. Frosting slows down moisture
loss. Frosted cakes can be frozen for up to three months, and unfrosted
cakes can be kept frozen for up to six months. Cakes with a fruit filling
should not be frozen. Frostings should be suitable for freezing.
10.4 TYPES OF COOKIES
Cookies contain many of the same ingredients as cakes, except that less
water and more sugar and fat are added to the mixture.
Study p 455 in your prescribed book. Why are cookies crispier than
cakes?
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There are hundreds of cookie recipes. Why? Hundreds of cookie recipes
are available because a wide range of flavouring agents may be added (see
pp 455±457.
It is difficult to categorise cookies. The fluidity of the batter or dough
determines in which of the following six categories cookies fall:
104
Category Description
. Bar cookies Most fluid. Baked in a pan and not on a baking sheet.
Cut into individual bars or pieces (eg brownies).
. Dropped cookies Batter is dropped from a spoon. Batter contains just
enough flour not to spread when dropped. Baked on
a baking sheet (eg chocolate chip, oatmeal raisin (see
p 456, figure 22-10).
. Pressed cookies The flour mixture is viscous enough to stuff into a
pastry bag or cookie press and forced out through
cookie dies. Baked on a baking sheet (eg custard).
. Moulded cookies The dough is heavy enough to be formed or moulded
into balls, bars or other shapes. Baked on a baking
sheet (ginger, peanut butter).
. Rolled cookies Heavier dough than for moulded cookies. Rolled out
on a lightly floured board and cut into shapes. Too
much flour produces hard-textured cookies. Baked
on a baking sheet (eg sugar and shortbread).
Leftover dough from the initial cuttings can be
reformed and re-rolled and used to make more
cookies.
. Icebox/refrigerator Rolled cookie dough can be formed into a cylinder,
cookies wrapped and placed in the refrigerator to harden.
The chilled dough is then sliced into thin cookies for
baking.
Baked on a baking sheet.
10.5 PREPARATION OF COOKIES
10.5.1 Mixing methods
The type of cookie determines the mixing method. The conventional cake
method is used for most cookies. All-purpose flour is commonly used
because the degree of gluten development is not as important for cookies
as it is for cakes. If a puffy, soft cookie is wanted, cake flour is used. (See
p 452 in your prescribed book for the advantages and disadvantages of
using cake flour in the preparation of cookies.)
. First choose the ingredients based on whether you want a flat or a
puffy cookie (see p 458, table 22-5, in your prescribed book).
. Mix the ingredients together until just moistened. Avoid overmixing.
. The development of gluten is not necessary.
. The cookies are formed as mentioned above in the categories.
. The cookies are ready for baking.
What are the disadvantages of overmixing when cookies are prepared?
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10.5.2 Baking cookies
(1) Type and treatment of pans
. Bar cookies are baked in a pan and not on a baking sheet.
. All other cookies are baked on a baking sheet.
. Baking sheets either have low sides or none.
. The baking sheet allows hot air to circulate and bakes the cookies
evenly.
. Pans with a shiny top and a dull bottom allow even browning.
. Greased pans/baking sheets Dropped, bar and rolled cookies
. Ungreased pans/baking sheets Pressed, moulded and refrigera-
tor cookies
. Place/drop the cookies on a cold baking sheet, far enough apart to
prevent spreading or flowing together.
. Place the sheet on the middle or top rack in the oven, with at least 5 cm
between the sheet and the oven wall.
(2) Temperature
. Cookies are baked at hotter temperatures of up to 191 8C.
. Meringues and sponge cakes are baked at about 107 8C.
. Higher temperatures help prevent the dough from spreading and
facilitate browning.
. Too high temperatures cause excessive drying and browning.
(3) Timing
Depending on the type of cookie, the average baking time for cookies is
between 10 and 30 minutes.
(4) Testing for doneness
. Cookies are done when the browning is complete and the centres are
cooked.
. To determine doneness: split a cookie open and do a taste test.
. Remove the cookies from the pan immediately and place on a cooling
rack.
. Good characteristics: crisp or chewy texture, uniform shape, even
browning, good flavours
. Poor characteristics: see p 459, table 22-7, in your prescribed book.
106
Study p 458 in your prescribed book. Explain the term ``double-
panning'':
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(5) High-altitude adjustments
. a slightly higher temperature
. less baking powder
. less sugar
. more flour
(6) Microwave preparation
Baking cookies in a microwave oven is seldom practical because the
heating time for cookies in a conventional oven is so short. Microwaving
can also reduce the quality of cookies.
10.6 STORAGE OF COOKIES
Like cakes, cookies become stale fairly quickly and should be protected
from exposure to air as soon as they have cooled. Cookies should be
stored in an airtight container or wrapped in foil or cling wrap to
maintain their freshness. Most cookies (except those with fresh-fruit
fillings) freeze well due to their low moisture content.
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UNIT 11
Pies and pastries
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. classify types of pastries and briefly explain the differences
. list the different ingredients used in pastry preparation and
discuss the functions they fulfil
. describe how the different pastries are prepared
. identify factors that affect the quality of the final baked product
. explain how pastry should be stored
INTRODUCTION
Good-quality pastry is flaky, tender and crisp and lightly browned.
Making pastry is labour-intensive. Pastries are made with precisely
measured ingredients, in a time/temperature sensitive manner, and with
a artistic touch Ð ``a true test of a food chef's skill''.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 23 in your prescribed book for information on pies and
pastries.
11.1 TYPES OF PASTRY
A Study p 463±465 in your prescribed book.
There are two basic types of pastry:
Plain (or pie) pastry Puff pastry
Used for pie crusts Primarily used in desserts
Examples: Chicken Examples: (see figure 23-1 in your prescribed
and mushroom pie book)
Used for pie crusts, A delicate pastry that puffs up (can increase up
quiches, tarts and to 8 times its original size) during baking due
main-dish pies to numerous alternating layers of fat and flour
108
11.1.1 Types of puff pastry
Different folding techniques provide a wide assortment of puff pastry
variations:
(1) Blitz or quick puff pastry: quicker and easier to prepare than
ordinary puff pastry; does not rise as high. Examples: cream-filled
pastries like napoleons and tart shells
(2) Strudel: the Hungarian version of puff pastry
(3) French pastries: cream-filled pastries
(4) Phyllo: Greek or Near-Eastern version of puff pastry made of very
thin sheets of dough. Example: baklava
(5) Danish pastries: Ð sweet rolls made with yeast (often filled with
custard, apples and other sweet fillings and toppings)
(6) PaÃte aÁ choux: made with choux paste. Examples: e clairs and cream
puffs
11.2 PREPARATION OF PASTRY
Pastries are the most delicate of all baked products and their preparation
requires considerable skill.
The following aspects have to be considered when pastries are prepared:
. correct proportions of ingredients
. correct preparation technique
. correct distribution of the fat and development of the gluten to create a
crust that is flaky, tender and crisp
11.2.1 Ingredients of pastry
A Study p 466, table 23-2, in your prescribed book.
Four basic Optional ingred± Leavening Quality Fat: Flour ratio
ingredients ients
Flour, fat, Eggs and sugar, Croissant, The type By mass, pastry
liquid, salt flavour and Danish, and quantity dough can con-
browning brioche: of the tain as much
properties yeast ingredients as 50±100%
Other: determine fat to flour
steam and the final
air quality
Although the basic ingredients of various pastries are almost the same, a
wide variety of pastries are available. How is this possible?
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109 FOO1501/1
(1) Flour
Important factors:
. type of flour (Pastry flour and unbleached all-purpose flour are popular
varieties. Cake flour is also used.)
. quantity of flour (Too much flour produces tough pastry.)
. handling the flour
Study p 467 in your prescribed book. Discuss the importance of time,
temperature and ingredients in producing flaky and tender pastries.
.........................................................................................................
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(2) Fat
A Study pp 467±468, figures 23-2 and 23-3, in your prescribed book.
Fat is the primary contributor to flakiness. The size of its particles,
firmness and even distribution contribute to the flakiness of pastry.
Explain how the characteristic flakiness of pastry is ``formed'' during
baking.
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The process of maximising flakiness:
1 Cold fat is cut into chilled flour to form a fat/flour mixture.
Cold fat increases the flakiness in two ways:
Ð The flour absorbs less fat.
Ð More pea-sized balls of fat are dispersed and surrounded by flour
to become pockets of air during baking.
See p 467, figure 23-4, in your prescribed book.
Study pp 467±468 in your prescribed book. The type of fat used in
making pastry also affects the flakiness of the pastry. Complete the table
below:
110
Fat Advantage Disadvantage
Hydrogenated
shortening
Lard
Butter
Margarine
Butter-flavoured
shortening
Oil
Tenderness is ``the ease with which pastry gives way to the tooth''.
The concentration and distribution of gluten are primary factors in
tenderness.
Gluten development is inhibited by the fat coating the flour during
baking.
This factor contributes to tenderness in pastry.
Study p 459 in your prescribed book. Discuss the characteristics of a
pastry with excess gluten development and one with too little gluten
development. How and why do these characteristics develop?
Excess gluten development Too little gluten development
(3) Liquid
Liquid is important for:
. leavening Ð (Pastry is leavened by steam.)
. hydration Ð (Liquid hydrates the proteins so that gluten can develop
and to dissolve salt.)
. crispness of the crust
The structure of the pastry is set mainly through the coagulation of the
flour proteins.
111 FOO1501/1
. Too much liquid: Ð shrinkage and a tougher crust due to excess gluten
development
. Too little liquid: Ð a crumbly crust
Why is an acid sometimes added to the cold liquid? Because it inhibits
gluten formation.
(4) Eggs
Eggs add colour, flavour and richness to pastry dough. The water and the
protein in the egg white can contribute to toughness. This is the reason
why only the egg yolk is used in some recipes.
(5) Salt
Salt adds flavour to pastry.
(6) Sugar
Sugar adds flavour to pastry. Sugar also helps to brown the crust.
A Study p 469, table 23-3, in your prescribed book
11.2.2 Mixing
(1) Mixing plain (pie) pastry
Classic pastry method:
. Sift flour and salt together. Chill.
. Cut cold fat into the chilled flour/salt mixture until the particles are
reduced to the size of peas.
Study pp 470±471 in your prescribed book. Then name the
utensils/equipment that is used for mixing plain pastry.
.....................................................................................................
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. Sprinkle cold or ice water evenly (1 tablespoon at a time) over the flour.
. Toss the mixture lightly after each addition with a fork or pastry
blender until the flour is just moistened (see figure 23-5 in your
prescribed book).
. Overmixing and too much water will produce a tough pastry.
. Press the dough lightly into a flat disc when it no longer clings to the
112
side of the bowl. Wrap the dough in plastic wrap and refrigerate for
approximately 15 minutes to chill the fat.
. The dough is now ready for rolling.
(2) Mixing puff pastry
Method: Two separate mixings
Fat component or butter block Dough
1 Fat, flour, salt, acid
2 Mix the ingredients by hand and
shape into a 6 mm thick by 31 cm
square block
3 Refrigerate for 30 minutes
4 The block is ready to be folded
and rolled
1 Flour, salt, water, a little fat
2 Cut fat into flour until coarse
crumb size
3 Make a hole in the middle; add
the salt and water.
4 Mix the dough by hand until it
is sticky but manageable
5 Refrigerate for 30 minutes
6 The block is ready to be folded
and rolled
4ACTIVITY 11.1ACTIVITY 11.1
Study pp 471±472, figure 23-6 and table 23-7 in your prescribed book.
Describe the basic steps for preparing cream puffs and e clairs.
Describe the characteristics of a good-quality paà te aÁ choux pastry.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
11.2.3 Rolling
Define ``lamination'' (see p 472 in your prescribed book):
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(1) Lamination
Process:
. Roll the dough with minimum hand contact to spread the fat and gluten
in fine sheets layered on top of each other.
. If the dough is overmanipulated (by rolling it too much, too hard and
too often), the flakiness, tenderness and crispness of the pastry will
decrease.
113 FOO1501/1
(2) Chilling the dough
. When the dough has been mixed, it must be properly wrapped and
chilled in the refrigerator for a certain time.
. Why? Chilling makes the dough easier to handle and prevents the fat
from melting into the flour. Chilling gives the flour more time to
rehydrate, and the gluten strands get an opportunity to relax so that
they can expand at the same rate as the gases during baking.
. Take the dough out of the refrigerator, leave it at room temperature
until it is malleable, and then start rolling.
. Dough can be refrigerated for up to four days or frozen for up to six
months.
(3) Rolling surface
. How much dough is rolled at a time? Only the amount of dough needed
for one crust.
. Why are marble rolling boards often used? A cold surface is best for
rolling the dough.
. How much flour must be used on the rolling board and pin? The
minimum.
(4) General guidelines
Study p 472 in your prescribed book. List a few general guidelines to
follow when rolling dough.
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(5) Rolling plain pastry
. Roll the dough in a circle that is 3-5 cm larger than the bottom of the
pan. The wider diameter provides sufficient dough to cover the sides of
the pie pan.
. Figure 23-7 shows how the piecrust is transferred to the pan.
``Stretching dough to fill a pie pan may cause it to shrink back
during baking.''
. Press the dough gently to get rid of air bubbles.
. Put the top crust over the filling by using the same procedure as for the
bottom crust.
114
Study pp 472±473, figures 23-8 and 23-9, in your prescribed book. List
different options for decorating the top crust in order to ventilate and seal
the top and bottom.
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........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
Practise these techniques in the kitchen.
(a) Using an alternative for piecrusts
Study p 473 in your prescribed book. Flour is not the only ingredient
that can be used to make piecrusts. Name some of the other options.
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(6) Rolling puff pastry
A Study p 474, figure 23-10, in your prescribed book.
Characteristics of a good-quality puff pastry:
1 higher in volume and fat than other pastries
2 flaky, tender, delicious, rich and high in calories (kcal)
. Fold the fat block and dough together before rolling.
. Repeated folding creates numerous layers of alternating fat and
dough.
(a) Laminating puff pastry dough
A Study p 474, figures 23-10 and 23-11, in your prescribed book.
. Keep the dough cold during the whole process.
. If the fat is too warm it will flow into the dough, and if the fat is too
cold it will damage the dough.
. The chilled dough is rolled into a 6 mm thick rectangle Ð
31 cm 6 46 cm. The fat block is placed on top of the dough and
then the two are folded together.
. The dough is chilled in between the rolling and the folding
processes.
115 FOO1501/1
. Use a sharp knife to cut the dough. Why? A blunt knife will press
the layers together, which will drastically decrease the pastry
volume during baking.
(7) Frozen rolled puff and phyllo pastry
. Puff pastry and phyllo pastry are available in the frozen-food section of
supermarkets.
. Purchase such dough at supermarkets with high turnovers to be sure of
the best quality.
. Defrost the phyllo pastry for 12 hours in the refrigerator and for
another hour at room temperature to facilitate handling.
. Cover the dough with a layer of plastic wrap and a clean moist towel to
protect it from drying out. Brush with a thin layer of butter to keep the
dough supple.
. Butter or water is used as a ``glue''.
. Cut, roll and fry or bake the pastries (see p 474, figure 23-12, in your
prescribed book).
11.2.4 Fillings
The list of possible pie and pastry fillings is endless. Fillings can be sweet
or savoury (eg fruit, cream, custard, cooked pies, poultry, fish).
4ACTIVITY 11.2ACTIVITY 11.2
Study pp 474±478 in your prescribed book. List the basic ingredients of
the following pie fillings and explain how they are prepared: fruit, cream,
custard, chiffon and meringue.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
11.2.5 Baking
(1) Pans
. Pans that help absorb the heat are best to use for pies (eg Pyrex glass
pans or pans with dull finishes).
. Shiny metal pans deflect heat and thick metal pans take too long to
heat.
. The size of the pan determines the number of pie slices.
Study p 478 in your prescribed book. Discuss the different pan
placements in the oven for pies and puff pastries and custard-base pies.
. Pies and puff pastries
. Custard-base pies
116
(2) Temperature
218±232 8C
(3) Timing
The type of pastry, the size of the product and the filling influence the
baking time. Baking is complete when the crust is lightly and delicately
browned.
Define ``blind bake'':
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(4) Testing for doneness
. Pies and pastries are done when the crust is lightly and delicately
browned.
. Leave the pie in the pan on a cooling rack to prevent moisture
condensation (causing a soggy lower crust).
Study p 479, table 23-6, in your prescribed book.
4ACTIVITY 11.3ACTIVITY 11.3
Study pp 463, 472±474 and 478±479 in your prescribed book.
What is the best temperature for baking pastries? Why is this
temperature recommended?
Briefly discuss the following terms: lamination, streusel topping and
mealy texture.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
4ACTIVITY 11.4ACTIVITY 11.4
Study p 472 in your prescribed book.
State the possible causes of the following problems associated with
pastry preparation: low volume, insufficient flaking, flowing fat.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
117 FOO1501/1
11.3 STORAGE OF PASTRY
Pastries are best served fresh from the oven. However, pastries will keep
longer if they are refrigerated and some can be frozen.
Product Storage
1 Pastry dough Frozen for up to 6 months
2 Unbaked pies Frozen for up to 4 months
3 Baked berry pies Frozen for 6 to 8 months
4 Pies with milk and egg Do not freeze (milk and egg may separate)
ingredients
5 Custard and cream pies Frozen commercially, but not recom-
mended for home freezing
6 Pies containing milk, Keep refrigerated to avoid bacterial
eggs, custard, cream growth (food-borne illness)
and meringue
118
UNIT 12
Sweeteners
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. discuss the functions of natural sweeteners
. list different forms of sucrose
. discuss the differences between different syrups
. explain the differences between sugar alcohol and other sweeteners
. list alternative sweeteners and briefly discuss their sweetness
compared to that of sucrose
. list and discuss the functions of sugar in food
INTRODUCTION
Every day researchers are on the lookout for new methods to extract
sweeteners from the natural plant world. Sugar cane and sugar beets are
the primary sources of sucrose (table sugar). Sugar is the most widely
used sweetener in food preparation. Other types of sweeteners are
syrups, sugar alcohols and alternative sweeteners.
What are the functions of sugar in foods?
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 20 in your prescribed book for information on available
sweeteners.
12.1 NATURAL SWEETENERS
Natural sugars are produced in plants through the process of photo-
synthesis. (Study p 404, figure 20-2, in your prescribed book.)
The plants that provide most sweeteners are:
. sugar cane
. sugar beets
. maple trees
. corn
119 FOO1501/1
Lactose in milk is the only sweetener of animal origin and it is not very
sweet.
Sweeteners may be categorised:
(i) into three major groups, based on
(ii) their different chemical structures which
(iii) influence their functions in foods and beverages.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Sugars Syrups Sugar alcohols
12.1.1 Sugars
Sugar provides 4 calories (kcal) per gram.
Once extracted from its source, sugar becomes a refined carbohydrate.
By mass, sugar is the number one food additive because of its ability to
sweeten.
Most of the sugar is used by manufacturers of confectionery products,
followed by foods such as tomato sauce, heavy syrup, canned fruit and
nondairy creamers.
The many kinds of sugar differ in terms of individual characteristics and
their functions in food.
(1) Sucrose (table sugar)
Source: Sugar cane or white sugar beets
Once processed, there is no difference between these two sugars.
Obtaining table sugar from plants:
. Harvested sugarcane is washed and machine-shredded.
. Juice is extracted from the cane by crushing and squeezing.
. Water is sprayed on the cut and pulverised sugarcane.
. More juice flows out and is collected.
. Sugar beets are washed, sliced and soaked in vats of hot water to
remove the sugar.
. The juices from both sugarcane and sugar beets are heated and
concentrated in evaporation tanks to create a thick syrup that is known
as molasses.
. Vacuum equipment lowers the boiling point of the syrup. Advantage:
The syrup may be concentrated without burning.
. Large sugar crystals form as the solution becomes saturated.
. A centrifuge is used to separate the crystals from the molasses. The
centrifuge spins the solution at very high speeds and separates
particles and/or liquids according to their density.
120
(a) Types of sucrose
The types of sucrose are listed in your prescribed book on p 405,
table 20-1. The types of sucrose are produced from refined sugar that
is further processed.
4ACTIVITY 12.1ACTIVITY 12.1
Study p 405 in your prescribed book. Discuss the differences between the
different forms of available sucrose mentioned in table 20-2.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(2) Glucose (dextrose)
. Glucose is a basic building block of most carbohydrates.
. It is the most important sugar found in blood.
Sources: fruit, vegetables, honey, and corn syrup
Uses: confectionery products, beverages, baked goods, canned fruit,
fermented beverages
Baking industry: enhances crust colour, texture, crumb; is a component
in dry mixes; tempers the sweetness of sucrose
(3) Fructose (levulose or fruit sugar)
Sources: fruit, honey
Uses: rarely used in food preparation (Why? Fructose causes excessive
stickiness in confectionery products, overbrowning in baked products,
and lower freezing temperatures in ice cream.) Fructose is primarily used
in pharmaceutical products.
(4) Lactose
Source: found in milk, extracted from whey for commercial use in baked
products
Uses: promotes browning in baked products; serves as a filler in pills
(5) Maltose (malt sugar)
Uses: characteristic malt taste in certain confectionery products and milk
shakes; flavouring and colouring in beer manufacturing
12.1.2 Syrups
Syrups are sugar solutions that vary in viscosity, carbohydrate
concentration, flavour, and price.
121 FOO1501/1
(1) Corn syrup
Sources: a by-product of cornstarch; a viscous liquid: 75% sugar, 25%
water
Uses: in soft drinks and processed foods to reduce costs (Dried corn
syrups are used in dry mixes for beverages, sauces and instant breakfast
drinks.)
Study p 407 in your prescribed book. Explain how corn syrup is made.
.........................................................................................................
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.........................................................................................................
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Define ``dextrose equivalent'':
.........................................................................................................
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(2) High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
Sources: treating cornstarch with a glucose isomerase enzyme
Uses: see p 407 in your prescribed book (The beverage industry alone
uses 90% of HFCS.)
Advantages:
. greater sweetening power, so that less is needed
. cost is below that of sugar
. clarity and colourlessness contribute to its industrial popularity
(3) Honey
Sources: Bees collect nectar during their flight. The nectar is converted
through enzymatic action into fructose and glucose molecules. The bees
deposit these molecules in honeycombs where the water evaporates to
create a thick, sweetened syrup.
Study p 407 in your prescribed book. Why is honey not recommended for
children under one year of age?
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
122
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Honey is extracted from the comb and then heated to 608C for 30 minutes
to destroy most microorganisms. It is then filtered and packed in airtight
containers.
Use: Honey is also sold as unfiltered comb honey, or whipped, creamed,
dried and infused.
Dried, granular honey is used in baked products, confections and dry
mixes. Honey in all its forms is used in all kinds of foods (eg pancakes,
glazed pork, teas).
Storing honey: A high sugar content prevents the growth of bacteria so
that honey can be stored in a cool, dry place for years.
Study p 408 in your prescribed book. Discuss the guidelines to follow in
substituting honey for sugar in recipes.
.........................................................................................................
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(4) Molasses
Sources: thick, yellow to dark brown liquid by-product of the juice of
sugar cane or beets (Most of the sugar in molasses is sucrose.)
Process: The liquid is repeatedly boiled. To be called molasses, it must
contain no more than 75% water and 5% mineral ash.
Uses: food preparation, baking (enhances the flavour of breads, cakes and
cookies), making rum (by fermenting molasses)
(5) Maple syrup
Sources: The juice of the maple tree is harvested. The clear, almost
tasteless watery juice is boiled down at a sugarhouse. Maple syrup's
flavour and colour develop during the boiling process. Maple syrup is
graded and sold by colour. The darker the colour, the more pronounced
the flavour. It must contain at least 65,5% sugar.
See pp 408±409 in your prescribed book.
(a) Maple sugar
Process: Maple syrup is boiled until most of the water has evaporated
and sugar crystallises out of the syrup.
123 FOO1501/1
Define ``crystallisation'':
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(6) Invert sugar
Define ``invert sugar'':
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.........................................................................................................
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Sources: available in clear, liquid form; resists crystallisation.
Process: See p 409 in your prescribed book.
Uses: to develop the soft, fluid centre of certain chocolates; commonly
used by professional confectioners to yield a smooth, melt-in-the-mouth
texture
Explain how invert sugar is made:
.........................................................................................................
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12.1.3 Sugar alcohol
Sugar alcohol is not a carbohydrate but the alcohol counterpart of
specific carbohydrates.
Sources: Sugar alcohol is found naturally in fruits and vegetables or
synthesised from certain sugars. Sugar alcohol for commercial use must
be prepared in a laboratory.
A Study p 409, Chemist's Corner, in your prescribed book.
Sugar alcohols: sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, maltinol, isomalt, lactitol,
erythritol
124
(1) Sugar alcohol in food
Why are sugar alcohols a useful ingredient in various dietetic foods?
Since they have the ability to contribute sweetness, tendency to be slowly
absorbed, with a cooling sensation in the mouth when they dissolve.
Uses: sugarless gums, dietetic sweets, sugar-free cough drops, throat
lozenges, breath mints, tablet coatings
Define ``humectant'':
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Sugar alcohol Advantage
Sorbitol: 1,6±3 calories (kcal)/g, acting Low kcal, cooling sensation
as a humectant
Mannitol: 1,6±3 calories (kcal)/g Low kcal, cooling sensation
Xylitol: 1,6±3 calories (kcal)/g Low kcal, cooling sensation
(2) Problems with sugar alcohol
. Sugar alcohols are more slowly absorbed from the small intestine than
other sugars and this can cause diarrhoea, abdominal pain and gas.
. The consumption of food products that contain more than 30 g of
sorbitol is not recommended.
. Only limited quantities of xylitol are permitted in special dietary foods.
12.2 ALTERNATIVE SWEETENERS
Despite the controversy over the safety of alternative sweeteners, they
continue to be in demand by diabetics, people watching their weight, and
individuals trying to prevent tooth decay. The chemical structures of
alternative sweeteners vary tremendously. Their relative sweetness
compared to sucrose's also range over a wide spectrum. See p 413, table
20-5, in your prescribed book.
Study p 410±413 in your prescribed book. Discuss one drawback of
alternative sweeteners and what can be done to compensate for this
problem.
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125 FOO1501/1
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Only five alternative sweeteners have been approved for use by the FDA:
(i) Saccharin
(ii) Aspartame
(iii) Acesulfame-K
(iv) Sucralose
(v) Neotame
4ACTIVITY 12.2ACTIVITY 12.2
Study pp 410±412 in your prescribed book.
Only five alternative sweeteners have been approved for use in the United
States. Name them.
Discuss their basic chemical structures and their sweetness compared to
that of sucrose.
List each sweetener's advantages and disadvantages.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
12.2.1 Pending alternative sweeteners
Name the two alternative sweeteners pending approval in the United
States.
1 ............................................... 2 ..............................................
Why was cyclamate banned in the United States in 1970?
12.2.2 Other sweeteners
Complete the table below. See p 413 in your prescribed book.
Alternative sweetener Sources Uses
1 Glycyrrhizin
2 Dihydrochalcones
3 L-sugars
4 Stevioside
5 Thaumatin
6 Tagatose
7 Trehalose
126
12.3 FUNCTION OF SUGAR IN FOOD
Providing sweetness is not sugar's only function in food. Due to their
chemical arrangements, various sugars differ in their sweetening ability.
Their chemical structure also influences how each dissolves, crystallises,
browns, melts, absorbs water, contributes to texture, ferments and
preserves food.
12.3.1 Sweetness
A Study p 413, table 20-5, in your prescribed book.
Sugars are not equal in their ability to sweeten bland foods or to minimise
sour and bitter tastes.
The following factors determine the sweetness of sweeteners:
. the type of sugar and its concentration
. the temperature
(Cold foods and drinks taste sweeter than hot foods and drinks.)
. the pH, other food ingredients, and the taster's sensitivity to sweetness
12.3.2 Solubility
A Study p 413, figure 20-4 and table 20-6, in your prescribed book.
Solubility is determined by measuring how many grams of sugar will
dissolve in 100 ml of water. As temperatures increase, more sugar is
dissolved. Increasing the concentration of sugar raises the boiling point
of water. Fructose is the most soluble type of sugar. The solubility of a
sweetener influences the observed mouthfeel and texture of a food or
beverage.
12.3.3 Crystallisation
Crystallisation is a vital process in the manufacturing of confectionery
products. Sugars with low crystallisation such as lactose have a greater
tendency to crystallise and fructose, with its high solubility, does not
invert. Invert sugar and corn syrup also resist crystallisation, which is
why they are often used in the production of confectionery.
Study pp 413±414 in your prescribed book. Describe how to prevent
crystallisation when heating sugar solutions.
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127 FOO1501/1
12.3.4 Browning reactions
Two major types of browning involving sugars are the Maillard reaction,
which depends on protein (amino acids) and sugar (reducing), and
caramelisation which depends on dry heat.
See p 414 in your prescribed book for key terms.
Define the ``Maillard reaction'' (see p 46 in your prescribed book):
.........................................................................................................
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When sugars are heated, caramelisation is the result. For example:
Sucrose heated in a dry pan melts into a clear, viscous mass at 160 8C.
If heating continues to 170 8C, the mass will become smooth and glossy
and start to caramelise.
The melting temperatures of sugars differ.
Qualities of caramelised sugars: less sweet, more flavourful than the
original sugar, slightly bitter, and the darker the caramel, the less sweet
it is
Uses: Caramelised sugars give a distinct flavour and colour to food
products (eg desserts, frostings, ice-cream toppings, dessert sauces).
12.3.5 Moisture absorption (hygroscopicity)
The hygroscopic nature of sugars influences the moistness and texture of
food to which they have been added. Fructose has the best ability to
absorb moisture from the air and impart it to the food.
4ACTIVITY 12.3ACTIVITY 12.3
Study pp 414±415 in your prescribed book. Define ``hygroscopic''.
Describe the role this characteristic of sugar plays in food preparation.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
12.3.6 Texture
Many foods rely on sucrose for body and texture:
128
1 Without sugar Soft drinks feel flat in the mouth, so bulking
agents are added
2 Inulin (occurs Increases viscosity, adds a creamy, fat-like
naturally in plants) consistency to a liquid, used as a texturiser
to provide body to beverages, improves the
texture of low-fat ice creams, makes crea-
mier sauces, helps aerate nonfat icings
12.3.7 Fermentation
The ability of carbohydrates to be fermented plays a role in the
production of certain foods.
Uses: producing beers, wines, cheeses, yogurts, certain breads
Study p 415 in your prescribed book. Discuss the conditions that are
desirable for fermentation.
. .....................................................................................................
. .....................................................................................................
. .....................................................................................................
. .....................................................................................................
12.3.8 Preservation
High concentrations of sugar act as a preservative by inhibiting the
growth of microorganisms.
Foods were preserved in sugars long before canning and freezing methods
were developed.
Uses: jams, jellies
The relative sweetness of sweeteners compared to sucrose:
1 Glucose Half as sweet
2 Fructose Sweetest of all granulated sugars
3 Lactose Least sweet of all sugars
4 Corn syrup Sweeter
5 HFCS Great sweetening power, so that less is needed
6 Honey More pronounced flavour
7 Invert sugar Sweeter
129 FOO1501/1
UNIT 13
Confectionery products
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. classify confectionery products according to their ingredients and
preparation method
. explain how to prepare confectionery products
. explain the functions of the ingredients for preparing confectionery
products
. discuss the difference between crystalline and noncrystalline
sweets
. list the different categories of sweets that are available
. explain how sweet thermometers are used
. discuss the process of manufacturing chocolate
. discuss the different types of chocolates
. explain how sweets and chocolate should be stored
INTRODUCTION
Sugar and its close relative, corn syrup, are the basic ingredients of
almost all sweets and are essential to the confectionery production
process.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 24 in your prescribed book for information on making
sweets.
13.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS
Different sweets are eaten all over the world. They are classified
according to their ingredients and/or preparation method (see p 484,
table 24±1, in your prescribed book).
(1) Ingredients
. Most sweets are syrup-based, meaning they are made from a simple
130
syrup mixture (eg jelly beans, nougat and marshmallows). The basic
ingredient of sweets is sugar with added flavourings.
. When chocolate or nut pastes are used, the sweets are fat-based.
. An example of a combined syrup- and fat-based sweet is chocolate-
covered candy bars.
(2) Preparation
. Crystalline sweets are soft, creamy and smooth (eg fudge and fondant).
. Noncrystalline sweets are made of sugar solutions that did not
crystallise (eg hard sweets and jellybeans).
Define ``crystalline sweets'':
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Define `'noncrystalline sweets'':
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13.2 PREPARATION OF SWEETS
When it comes to preparation, sweets are ``temperamental''. The
production of sweets is highly sensitive to timing, temperature and the
skill of the chef. Practice and patience are needed to ply this art.
13.2.1 Steps to confectionery preparation
There are four basic steps in confectionery preparation:
(i) creating a syrup solution
(ii) concentrating this solution via heating and evaporation
131 FOO1501/1
(iii) cooling
(iv) beating
13.2.2 Crystalline sweets
Crystalline sweets are soft, smooth and creamy and are formed from
sugar solutions that yield many fine, small crystals (eg fudge, fondant and
divinity).
Define `'nuclei'':
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The goal in preparing these sweets is to develop numerous, very fine
nuclei in the syrup solution to serve as the basis of the sugar crystals.
Study p 485 in your textbook. How are small nuclei generated?
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Crystals are a compilation of loosely packed sugar molecules organised
around these nuclei. The rate of nuclei formation determines the size of
the sugar crystal.
(1) Sweets start with a syrup solution
Glucose, invert sugar or corn syrup is added to sucrose. Why? To make it
more soluble and less likely to form large crystals.
This same functional characteristic can be problematic.
Why? Too many monosaccharides may make the syrup so runny that it
never crystallises.
Invert sugar has several benefits. It is usually purchased commercially or
made by adding an acid such as cream of tartar to sucrose (see p 409 in
your textbook).
132
Ingredient Benefit
Invert sugar Invert sugar's hygroscopic nature prevents sweets
from drying out
Corn syrup Contributes to chewiness, adds viscosity, slows
the dissolving rate of sweets in the mouth,
strengthens the structure of sugar crystals so they
are less likely to be affected by temperature or
mechanical shock
Glucose Crystallises more slowly than sucrose and is
sweeter than sucrose
Fructose Crystallises more slowly than sucrose and is
sweeter than sucrose
Other (chocolate, Interfere with large crystal formation
fat, cream, eggs)
(2) Heating the syrup
. Temperature influences crystallisation at all stages of heating and
cooling.
. The temperature of a syrup solution reflects its concentration.
. The syrup is heated to supersaturation to increase the amount of sugar
that can be added.
. Moisture escapes through evaporation. A hard mass is formed
primarily of the sugar that is left behind.
. The concentration increases. The boiling point increases and
eventually exceeds the boiling point of pure water.
. Reaching a particular sweet's final temperature is crucial.
. High temperature: hard sweets
. Low temperature: soft sweets
Why do confectionery makers consider the weather when they prepare
sweets? There are two ways to determine the correct final temperature
for particular sweets:
(i) using a sugar thermometer
(ii) the cold-water test
What does the cold-water test measure? The syrup's consistency.
A very small amount of the mixture is dripped into a cup of very cold
water and observed for softness and firmness (pinch it between two
fingers).
Experience is the best teacher in learning the precise look and feel of the
sweets mixture (see p 486, Table 24-2 in your prescribed book).
133 FOO1501/1
4ACTIVITY 13.1ACTIVITY 13.1
Study p 486 in your prescribed book. Explain the proper use of a sugar
thermometer, including how to check the thermometer for accuracy, how
to immerse it in the mixture and how to read the thermometer.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(3) Avoid vigorous stirring
Stirring can cause crystal formation. Vigorous boiling or stirring must be
avoided when the solution is heated to its final temperature.
Define ``seed'':
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Splashing on the side of the container can initiate crystal formation. One
sugar crystal falling into the mixture can start a chain reaction, resulting
in a large sugar mass.
Study p 487 in your prescribed book. Name two methods to prevent this
reaction.
1 .....................................................................................................
2 .....................................................................................................
Large crystals instead of the desired small ones are likely to develop if
this reaction is not prevented.
(4) Cooling and beating
. The final temperature of the syrup is reached.
. The solution is cooled immediately without any additional movement.
. Do not stir in flavouring or move the thermometer or spoon.
. As the mixture cools, it becomes supersaturated and this allows the
formation of nuclei.
. Immediate cooling prevents further evaporation of moisture.
(a) Cooling is crucial
Study p 487, figure 24-1, in your prescribed book.
Hot solution: The sugar molecules move rapidly. Small crystals are less
134
likely to aggregate. Small crystals that do occur grow large because of the
greater contact frequency among the sugar molecules.
Cooled solution: The sugar molecules slow down.
The syrup mixtures for crystalline sweets are quickly cooled to slow
molecular movement and stirred to form small crystals by aggregation of
the molecules.
(b) Stirring during cooling
. The desired cooler temperature has been reached.
. Stirring the mixture: promotes the formation of numerous small
crystals that contribute to a smoother consistency in the sweets.
. Crystallisation is initiated by beating the mixture rapidly until its
shiny, glossy appearance turns dull.
4ACTIVITY 13.2ACTIVITY 13.2
Study p 487 in your prescribed book. How do beating and cooling the
syrup solution affect the formation of crystals when sweets are prepared?
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(5) Types of crystalline sweets
Study pp487±489 in your prescribed book. Then complete the table below.
Type Ingredients Final temperature Cooled temperature
of syrup of syrup
Fondant
Fudge
Divinity
See p 488, Chemist's Corner 24-1 in your prescribed book.
Study p 488, table 24-3, in your prescribed book.
13.2.3 Noncrystalline sweets
Noncrystalline sweets are formed from sugar solutions that did not
crystallise and are amorphous, or without form. Noncrystalline sweets
include caramel, toffee, hard sweets and gummy sweets.
Two major methods are used to inhibit crystallisation:
(i) creating very concentrated sugar solutions
(ii) adding large quantities of interfering agents to block the sugar
molecules from clustering
135 FOO1501/1
The high viscosity prevents crystallisation by obstructing molecular
movement.
(1) Concentrating the sugar solution
. High temperatures cause much of the water to evaporate.
. The result is a very concentrated syrup.
. The degree of evaporation determines the percentage of moisture.
(2) Interfering agents
Define ``interfering agent'':
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Interfering agents prevent crystallisation in several ways:
. by preventing nuclei formation
. by physically coating the crystals and preventing their growth
. by decreasing water activity, so that less water is available in which
the sugar can dissolve
The two main interfering agents used in confectionery production are
corn syrup and cream of tartar (see p 489 in your prescribed book).
(3) Types of noncrystalline sweets
Noncrystalline sweets vary in their degree of sugar solution concentra-
tion and the types of interfering substances that are added.
Example Ingredients Temperature and
process
Hard and brittle, Peanut brittle, Syrup, flavour, 170 8C caramelisation
1% moisture toffee colour, baking
soda
Caramels Syrup, fat, cocoa, 163 8C
(waxy, chewy butter, milk prod- Maillard reaction
texture) ucts, corn syrup
Taffy The same as ca- Pulled to aerate (light-
ramels, but er, chewier, paler
more concen- than caramels)
trated solution;
added flavour-
ings
136
Aerated sweets Marshmallows, . Corn syrup, Aerated physically and
jelly beans, . egg white chemically by the ad-
gum drops . foam (marsh- dition of sodium bi-
. mallows) carbonate or by the
. Starch, addition of foam (eg
. gelatin, egg white foam)
. pectin Ð
. (gummy tex-
. tures)
Gelatin is used in the production of confectionery to:
. stabilise marshmallows and other aerated products
. add elasticity to gums and jelly beans
. soften and bind water in caramels and other chewable sweets
13.2.4 Chocolate
A Study p 492, figure 24-6, in your prescribed book.
Chocolate is derived from the tropical cocoa or cacao tree. Chocolate is a
main ingredient in many different types of sweets.
(1) Obtaining chocolate liquor from cocoa beans
. Cocoa beans are blended into various combinations to obtain specific
flavours and colours that are further developed by roasting the beans.
. The hull and germ of the cocoa beans are removed until only the nibs
remain.
. The nibs contain 54% cocoa butter.
. The nibs are ground very fine, heated and the result is chocolate liquor.
What is responsible for chocolate's melt-in-the-mouth appeal and its
brittle snap at room temperature?
(2) Conching
The chocolate's characteristic flavour and consistency develop during
conching [kneading and mixing].
. Process: Warmed chocolate (21 8C±71 8C) is kneaded and aerated by
machines. Why? To increase its smoothness, viscosity and flavour.
. Several ingredients may be added, poured into blocks and cooled,
packed and stored.
(3) Tempering
The tempering process takes place after conching and before forming.
137 FOO1501/1
Why? Because tempering gives chocolate that ``snap'' when bitten into or
broken in half.
This process comprises three basic steps:
(i) melting
(ii) cooling
(iii) rewarming
Define ``enrobe'':
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(a) Factors that affect tempering
Do's Dont's
1 Correct chocolate
2 Correct temperature
3 Correct timing
4 A specific quantity of fat
5 On clear, cool days not exceeding
218C
6 A minimum of 750 g of chocolate
7 Chop or grate the chocolate prior
to heating for faster, more uni-
form melting
Too much humidity can inter-
fere with the solidification of
the chocolate
Study p 493-494 in your prescribed book. Describe the three most
common tempering methods:
Tabliering Seeding Cold-water method
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Study p 495 in your prescribed book. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of using nontempered coatings instead of using tempered
chocolate?
138
Advantages Disadvantages
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Study p 493 in your prescribed book. Table 24-6 lists bloom and other
problems in chocolate production as well as several solutions.
4ACTIVITY 13.3ACTIVITY 13.3
Study pp 492±494 in your prescribed book. Discuss ``conching'' and
``tempering'' in the production of chocolate and describe the desired
results these processes produce.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(4) Types of chocolate products
Chocolate differences are based on how much cocoa butter and other
ingredients are added to the chocolate liquor.
Types Chocolate Ingredients Sold as or Other
liquor characteristics ingredients
. Baking 35% Liquor, cooled, Bitter, Sugar, cocoa
chocolate solidified into unsweetened butter, lecithin,
cakes chocolate flavouring
. Cocoa Liquor with Natural cocoa
most of the and Dutch cocoa
cocoa butter See p 482 in your
removed prescribed book
. Semi-sweet 15% Sweeter, Sugar, extra
chocolate smoother taste cocoa butter
. Sweet Equal parts of Sweeter, Sugar, extra
chocolate liquor and sugar smoother taste cocoa butter
. Milk 10% Sugar, cocoa Lighter colour,
chocolate butter, dried sweeter, milder
whole-milk flavour
solids (12%)
. Imitation 0% Cocoa fat is re- Less costly
chocolate placed with
vegetable fat;
. White 0% Cocoa butter Sugar, milk, fla-
chocolate vour, lecithin
139 FOO1501/1
13.2.5 Frosting
See p 454 in your prescribed book. Frosting is also called icing. Frostings
can be cooked or uncooked and are spread on baked products such as
cakes. They improve the appearance, flavour and texture of baked
desserts, retain moisture and increase shelf life.
Some frostings are flat or simple for decoration (eg butter, cream and
fondant).
13.3 STORAGE OF SWEETS
Storage requirements vary depending on the sweets:
. Hard sweets and brittle keep for long periods if they are properly
wrapped, because they do not support the growth of microorganisms.
Their surfaces can become gummy if the sweets are exposed to
moisture and stored for long.
. Sweets such as fudge which has a higher moisture content than hard
sweets, become softer and smoother in texture if left in an airtight
container. As the sugar crystals enlarge, graininess develops.
. Fat and milk products are subject to rancidity. The result is off-
flavours and odours. Refrigeration and freezing can delay this
degradation.
. Humectants act to hold moisture. They improve shelf life. Glycerin,
sorbitol, pectins and gums are commonly incorporated into sweets.
(1) Shelf life of chocolate
Chocolate can stay on a cool (18 8C), dry (humidity of 50%) shelf for over
a year. However, the chocolates must be properly wrapped. Due to their
milk content, milk and white chocolates have a shelf life of about eight
months to one year.
Fat bloom Slightest melting, cocoa butter crystals form a
greyish or whitish film on the chocolate surface
Sugar bloom High humidity, rougher in appearance and texture
140
UNIT 14
Frozen desserts
UNIT OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
. list different types of frozen desserts
. list the different ingredients in the different types of frozen
desserts
. explain how to prepare different frozen desserts
. discuss factors that affect the quality of frozen desserts
. explain the mixing and freezing methods in preparing frozen
desserts
. describe the storage of frozen desserts and the influence of
temperature fluctuations on the quality of these desserts
INTRODUCTION
From the early days, ice has been flavoured with nectar, fruit pulp and
honey to be enjoyed as a special treat. Today, these commercially frozen
treats are popular and commonly consumed desserts all over the world.
X SELF-STUDYSELF-STUDY
Study chapter 25 in your prescribed book to learn more about frozen
desserts.
14.1 TYPES OF FROZEN DESSERTS
The ingredients, especially the type and proportion of milk fat and milk
solids-not-fat (MSNF) and the way in which these and other ingredients
are combined, make one frozen dessert different from another. In
addition to the milk and MSNF, sugar, stabilisers, emulsifiers, water, air
and flavourings are added when frozen desserts are prepared.
Define ``stabiliser'':
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14.1.1 Ice cream
Ice cream is high in fat. Ice cream is prepared by simultaneously stirring
and freezing a pasteurised mix of dairy and nondairy ingredients.
Study p 501 in your prescribed book. What is the influence of MSNF on
ice cream?
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What does it mean when an ice cream is labelled ``premium'' or ``super
premium''?
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Which products increase the fat content of ice cream?
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See p 501, table 25-1, in your prescribed book.
Define ``body'' in this particular context:
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(1) Low-fat ice cream (ice milk)
. Contains more sugar than milk.
. Contains less than 7% fat.
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Definitions for commercial low-fat ice cream based on 125 ml serving:
1 Reduced-fat ice cream Less than 7 g of milk fat
2 Light or low-fat ice cream Less than 3 g of milk fat
3 Nonfat ice cream Less than 0,5 g milk fat
(2) Imitation ice cream
. Replace the milk fat and MSNF in ice cream with other ingredients (eg
vegetable fat, tofu, soy protein, corn oil).
. Replace the sucrose with sorbitol for diabetic use.
14.1.2 Frozen yoghurt
List several reasons for the popularity of frozen yoghurts.
The use of full-fat or non-fat yoghurt will determine the calorie and fat
value of the dessert (see p 501, table 25-1, in your prescribed book).
14.1.3 Sherbet
Sherbets contain less than 2% milk fat. Their creamy consistency is often
due to egg whites and/or gelatin. More sugar is added, so their caloric
value is actually very similar to that of regular ice cream.
14.1.4 Sorbet
Sorbets consist of pure ed fruit or fruit flavouring and sugar syrup made
of equal quantities of sugar and water simmered together. Countless
flavours are possible and include any fruit and fruit combination. The
consistency of a sorbet is harder than that of ice cream or sherbet.
14.1.5 Water ices (glace s)
Glace s consist of sweetened water and fruit juice. Gelatin, vegetable
gums, egg whites, flavourings and/or colourings may be added. The
mixture is gently stirred a few times while freezing to promote crystalline
formation.
A Study p 503 in your prescribed book. What is the difference between
``granites'' and ``granitas''?
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14.1.6 Still-frozen desserts
These desserts are not stirred while they are freezing. The use of whipped
egg whites or whipped cream produces an airy, velvety texture without
large ice crystals.
4ACTIVITY 14.1ACTIVITY 14.1
Study pp 500±503 in your prescribed book. Describe how the basic
ingredients of the following frozen desserts differ: ice cream, low-fat ice
cream, imitation ice cream, frozen yoghurt, sherbet, sorbet, water ices
and still-frozen dessert. Include an example for each type of dessert.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
14.2 PREPARATION OF FROZEN DESSERTS
The preparation of frozen desserts is very time-consuming. Most people
and food service establishments rather buy the finished product than
prepare it.
Method
1 Combine the ingredients.
2 They may or may not be cooked.
3 Churn by using an ice cream freezer (electric or hand-held) until
frozen.
OR
1 Combine the ingredients.
2 Place in a mould until frozen.
14.2.1 Factors that affect quality
The structure of frozen desserts depends on the crystallisation of water
in a sugar mixture.
Crystals are made by:
1 Churning a mixture while it is in the process of freezing.
OR
2 Placing the mixture in a mould where it is allowed to freeze.
Three general factors are crucial to the quality of frozen desserts:
. flavour
. texture
. body
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(1) Flavour
Cold mixtures mute flavours, so the mixture must be boldly flavoured
before freezing. The possibilities are limitless, but the most popular
flavour is vanilla. What is your favourite flavour? Nuts, sweets, cookies
and other ingredients may be added to the cold mixtures.
(2) Texture
A smooth texture is preferred in most frozen desserts. The exception is
frozen ices and granites.
4ACTIVITY 14.2ACTIVITY 14.2
Study pp 504±505 in your prescribed book. A smooth texture is
important to the majority of frozen desserts. Describe the factors that
affect the texture of frozen desserts.
HAND IN AS PART OF YOUR PORTFOLIO
(3) Body
(a) Commercial ice cream has more body than homemade ice cream
because of the added stabilisers (no more than 0,5%).
Name a few stabilisers:
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Describe how stabilisers prevent the forming of larger crystals during
fluctuating temperatures:
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(b) Ice cream shrinks as it ages because of:
. collapsing films around the air cells (See p 505, figure 25-4, in your
prescribed book.)
. mechanical compaction because the dipper presses against the ice
cream during scooping
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(c) Overrun
Define ``overrun'':
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Overrun prevents the ice cream from being too hard, dense or cold.
1 Commercial ice cream Overrun of 70±100%
2 Volume of air is equal to the volume Overrun of 100%
of the mix before churning
3 Damaged body, foamy texture Too much overrun
4 Heavy, compact, coarse texture Too little overrun
5 Premium ice cream Low overrun and high fat content
6 Super premium Very low overrun and high fat
content
7 Frozen dairy dessert Overrun of more than 150%
14.2.2 Mixing and freezing
Type Ingredients Mixing Freezing
1 Ice cream Cream Churned in a ice Below 718 8C
cream machine or
by hand (fig 25-6)
2 Frozen Yoghurt-based The same The same
yoghurt
3 Sherbet Syrup-based The same The same
4 Sorbet Sugar syrup + The same The same
fruit pure e
5 Water ices One part sugar + Sometimes stirred Place in a mould,
four parts liquid periodically during cover and freeze
and flavouring freezing
6 Still-frozen Whipped cream or Place in a mould,
desserts egg-white foams cover and freeze
and other
ingredients
Study pp 506±509 in your prescribed book. Why is salt added to the
space outside the container of the ice cream freezer?
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14.3 STORAGE OF FROZEN DESSERTS
Temperature 718 8C or below
Time One to two months
Prevent the absorption of odours from other foods and exposure to
moisture build-up by putting the whole container in an airtight plastic
bag. For the same reason, commercial ice cream is sometimes covered
with thin, plastic film.
14.3.1 Texture changes
Protect frozen desserts as much as possible from fluctuations in
temperature.
Cause Result
Transport from the shop, repeated Ice crystals melt, becomes water,
removal from the freezer, tempe- attaches to neighbouring crys-
rature fluctuations in the freezer tals, the crystals become larger
and larger, and the result is a
coarse texture
14.3.2 Scooping frozen dessert
Leave the frozen dessert in the refrigerator for about 15 minutes. Dip the
dipper in cool water before scooping; it helps to keep the ice cream from
sticking to the dipper. It is better to skim the dipper over the surface
because scooping downward into the container results in fewer servings
per tub.
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