A2 Sport Psychology A2 Sport Psychology RevisionRevision

GuideGuide

Sport PsychologySport Psychology

Individual Aspects of Sport PerformanceIndividual Aspects of Sport Performance Group DynamicsGroup Dynamics

Mental Preparation for Sport PerformanceMental Preparation for Sport Performance Competition EffectsCompetition Effects

Consequences of Sport PerformanceConsequences of Sport Performance

Individual Aspects of Sport Individual Aspects of Sport PerformancePerformance

PersonalityPersonality AttitudeAttitude

MotivationMotivation

PersonalityPersonality

Trait TheoriesSocial Learning Theories.

Interactio

nist T

heo

ries

• Inherited

• Stable

• Enduring

• e.g Eyensenk

• Learned

• Unstable

• Environment

• e.g Bandura

‘Personality is the sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him or her unique’ (Hollander)

Cattells 16PF (Trait Theory)Cattells 16PF (Trait Theory)

16 Personality Factors

Questionnaire.Answering a series of questions on a scale of 1-5 on how much

you agree with a statement.

Eysenck (Trait Theory)Eysenck (Trait Theory)Eysenck proposed that only two factors were necessary to explain individual differences in personality. He argued that Cattell's model contained too many factors which were similar to each other, and that a simple two factor model could encompass the 16 traits proposed by Cattell. This model had the following dimensions:

Extrovert – Lively, outgoing, sociable, expressive.

Introvert – Quiet, independent, private.

Stable – Calm, controlled.

Unstable (Neurotic) – Anxious, worried.

Personality Types (Trait Theory)Personality Types (Trait Theory)

TYPE A•characterised by :•impatience•works at a rapid pace•higher levels of stress•easily aroused•strong desire to succeed•anxiety in stressful situations•has a need to be in control

TYPE Bcharacterised by :•relaxed and patient•allow time for tasks to be completed•tolerance of others’ mistakes•delegates easily•low personal stress•calm and unflappable in most situations•less competitive

Leading on from Eysenck, two distinct personality types were identified.

PSYCHOLOGICAL COREPSYCHOLOGICAL CORE beliefs and values that remain more beliefs and values that remain more

or lessor less permanent permanent example : a sportsman’s belief that example : a sportsman’s belief that

fair play underlies his attitude on the fair play underlies his attitude on the field of playfield of play

ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOURROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR in other situations we may behavein other situations we may behave

differentlydifferently example : Getting frustrated example : Getting frustrated during a game and arguing with during a game and arguing with

the ref.the ref.

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT how the behaviour andhow the behaviour and

expectations of others expectations of others affect our affect our rolerole

example : a player argues with the example : a player argues with the referee because others have done referee because others have done

so and got away with it beforeso and got away with it before

Concentric Ring TheoryConcentric Ring Theory

TYPICAL RESPONSESTYPICAL RESPONSES• the way in which an individual the way in which an individual responds in certainresponds in certain situations situationsexample : Not arguing with the ref.example : Not arguing with the ref.

Psychodynamic TheoryPsychodynamic Theory

The ID

The EGO

The SUPER-EGO

Fullfill the ID(Steal Food/

Fight)

The moral ArmStealing and

FightingAre Wrong.

The Basic Instinct(Hunger/Anger)

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORYSOCIAL LEARNING THEORY explains behaviour in terms of the explains behaviour in terms of the

reactionreaction to specific to specific situationssituations we learn to dea with situations by we learn to dea with situations by

observingobserving others others or by or by observing the resultsobserving the results of our own of our own

behaviour on othersbehaviour on others and by and by modellingmodelling our own behaviour our own behaviour

on what we have seenon what we have seen athletes learn behaviour by athletes learn behaviour by

watching otherswatching others

BANDURABANDURA behaviour is determined by the behaviour is determined by the

situationsituation social comparisonsocial comparison behaving the same way as behaving the same way as

the peer groupthe peer group social approvalsocial approval or disapproval or disapproval

determines our determines our responsesresponses behaviour is reinforced or behaviour is reinforced or

penalisedpenalised

VICARIOUS CONDITIONINGVICARIOUS CONDITIONING the the learninglearning of emotional of emotional

responses through responses through observationalobservational learninglearning

learning to become angry after a learning to become angry after a valid referee decision has gone valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching against him / her by watching other players do the sameother players do the same

SOCIALISATIONSOCIALISATION sport has a sport has a socialisingsocialising effect effect participationparticipation in sport in sport establishes establishes

normsnorms and and valuesvalues of our society of our society

Personality is a combination of both genetically inheritted traits and learned behaviour.

• Somebody who is born with outgoing, aggressive and hot-headed personality characteristics may learn to control and modify them to be more controlled and less aggressive in their personality. – Parental discipline when a child misbehaves, negative reinforcement from peers.

• Somebody who is born with more introverted and quiet personality traits may develop a more open and extroverted personality through the environment that they are brought up in. – Lots of interaction with other people, opportunity to play sports and join teams.

Interactionist TheoryInteractionist Theory

MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITYMEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY

INTERVIEWSINTERVIEWS before or after the before or after the

eventevent not directly related to not directly related to

performanceperformance open ended and open ended and

flexibleflexible difficult to quantify difficult to quantify

accuratelyaccurately may be influenced by may be influenced by

the interviewerthe interviewer demand characteristicsdemand characteristics

QUESTIONNAIRESQUESTIONNAIRES before or after the before or after the

eventevent not directly related to not directly related to

performanceperformance rigidly and rigidly and

systematically set outsystematically set out able to quantify able to quantify

accuratelyaccurately would not be would not be

influenced by anotherinfluenced by another can be used to assess can be used to assess

specific traitsspecific traits demand characteristicsdemand characteristics

OBSERVATIONOBSERVATION made during an actual made during an actual

eventevent directly related to directly related to

performanceperformance varies according to the varies according to the

competitive nature of the competitive nature of the eventevent

difficult to quantify difficult to quantify accuratelyaccurately

may be influenced by the may be influenced by the observer’s views and observer’s views and attitudesattitudes

Demand characteristics refers to an experiment where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior accordingly

Limitations of Personality ProfilingLimitations of Personality Profiling

• Not always an accurate predictor of type of activity undertaken.

• Extroverts – will enjoy individual sports,

• Introverts will play team games.

•Not always an accurate predictor of levels of success in sport.

Damn it!

AttitudesAttitudesATTITUDESa combination of beliefs and feelings about :

objectspeoplesituations(called attitude objects)

this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them

learned or organised through experience

evaluativethey lead us to think and behave positively or negativelyabout an attitude object

tend to be deep seatedand enduringbut can change or be changed

FORMATION OF ATTITUDESFORMATION OF ATTITUDES

Where do our attitudes come from?

Family

Peers

Teachers/Coaches

Media

Past Experiences

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADICTHE TRIADIC MODEL MODEL

Affective (feelings/emotions)

Cognitive (Knowledge/Beliefs)

Behavioural (Intended behavior)

Going to the gym will get you fit.

I go to the gym twice a week.

I enjoy going to the gym

PREJUDICE AND SPORTPREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPESSTEREOTYPES

NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES womenwomen in strength, endurance in strength, endurance

and contact sportsand contact sports participation of particular participation of particular

ethnicethnic groupsgroups in specific in specific sports or positions within sports or positions within

teamsteams participation of the participation of the disableddisabled in in

physical activityphysical activity older ageolder age groups interest and groups interest and

ability at sportability at sport

PREJUDICEPREJUDICE a a prejudgementprejudgement of a person, of a person,

group, or situationgroup, or situation usually based on usually based on inadequate inadequate

informationinformation or inaccurate or or inaccurate or biasedbiased

informationinformation which which reinforcesreinforces stereotypes stereotypes example : example :

women are often excluded women are often excluded from male dominated from male dominated sports clubs or eventssports clubs or events

Positive Prejudice = my opponent will be quick at running because he is black.

Negative Prejudice = She can’t play football because she is a girl.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORTATTITUDES TO SPORT

POSITIVE ATTITUDEPOSITIVE ATTITUDE has a positive physicalhas a positive physical self- self-

conceptconcept satisfaction satisfaction from participation in from participation in

sportsport believe sportbelieve sport promotes health promotes health success at sportsuccess at sport willing to trywilling to try new activities new activities encouraged encouraged by significant by significant

othersothers participates participates regularlyregularly opportunity opportunity to participateto participate

NEGATIVE ATTITUDESNEGATIVE ATTITUDES had had negative experiences negative experiences at at

sportsport havehave lifestyle lifestyle which makes which makes

regular sport difficultregular sport difficult find sportfind sport frustrating frustrating lack lack encouragementencouragement unlikely unlikely to participate in sportto participate in sport have ahave a negative self concept negative self concept find sportfind sport boring boring

Changing AttitudesChanging AttitudesPersuasive Communication:

Changing attitudes through the process of persuasion.

The persuader needs to be significant & have high status. The message needs to be presented in a way that makes the recipient want to change attitude. The recipients needs to want to change their attitude The situation has to be right – attitudes are easier to change if others are present.

Cognitive Dissonance:

If a person holds 2 ideas that oppose & conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises.

This emotional discomfort is called dissonance.

e.g. You want to join the gym but don’t think you have enough time

Changing one aspect of the triadic model can change your attitude.

e.g. – You get a better understanding of the health benefits of joining the gym and make time in your life to attend twice a week.

MotivationMotivation

Intrinsic

• Competence

• Mastery

• Feeling good.

Extrinsic

• Praise/Critisism

• Fame

• Trophies/Medals

• Money

• Pace Points

Motivation “Drive to succeed”

Achievement MotivationAchievement MotivationACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATIONACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION the the drive to achieve success for its own drive to achieve success for its own

sakesake related to related to

Competitiveness (sport specific)Competitiveness (sport specific) persistencepersistence striving for perfectionstriving for perfection

influenced byinfluenced by personality factorspersonality factors

need to achieveneed to achieve need to avoid failureneed to avoid failure

situational factorssituational factors probability of successprobability of success incentive value of successincentive value of success

NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)

Tendency to approach success (TAS)Tendency to approach success (TAS) this personality type likes a this personality type likes a

challenge challenge (approach behaviour)(approach behaviour) is is not afraid of failurenot afraid of failure has high has high task persistencetask persistence AttributeAttribute success to success to internal internal

factorsfactors

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)

Tendency to avoid failure (TAF)Tendency to avoid failure (TAF) this personality type this personality type avoids avoids

challenges (avoidance behaviour)challenges (avoidance behaviour) does does notnot take take risksrisks often often gives upgives up AttributeAttribute success to success to externalexternal

factors.factors.

Achievement MotivationAchievement MotivationA = TASA = TAS

someone with a high need to someone with a high need to achieveachieve

will probably have a low need will probably have a low need to avoid failureto avoid failure

will choose difficult or will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are demanding tasks which are more riskymore risky

the hard route up a rock facethe hard route up a rock faceB = TAFB = TAF

someone with a high ne to someone with a high ne to avoid failureavoid failure

will probably have a low need will probably have a low need to achieveto achieve

will choose tasks which are will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily less risky and more easily achievedachieved

the easy route up the rock the easy route up the rock faceface

Incentive Value Incentive Value (Achievement Motivation)(Achievement Motivation)

A =A = probability of success lowprobability of success low (competing against the world (competing against the world

champion)champion) therefore strive very hard to therefore strive very hard to

winwin (incentive high)(incentive high) (will be highly chuffed if win)(will be highly chuffed if win)

B =B = probability of sucess highprobability of sucess high (competing in local club (competing in local club

match)match) therefore don’t need to try as therefore don’t need to try as

hard to winhard to win (incentive low)(incentive low) (and expect to win easily)(and expect to win easily) (not so pleasing)(not so pleasing)

Group DynamicsGroup Dynamics

Groups and TeamsGroups and Teams LeadershipLeadership

What is A Group?What is A Group?

2 or more people2 or more people Mutual awarenessMutual awareness Interacting with each otherInteracting with each other Common goal or purpose.Common goal or purpose.

CohesionCohesion

ENVIRONMENTALENVIRONMENTAL factors factors bindingbinding members to a team members to a team

contracts, location, age, contracts, location, age, eligibilityeligibility

avoid star system, provide avoid star system, provide opportunities for socialisingopportunities for socialising

PERSONALPERSONAL factors which members believe are factors which members believe are

importantimportant motives for taking partmotives for taking part

give opportunities for motives to be give opportunities for motives to be realisedrealised develop develop ownershipownership feelings and feelings and social social

groupingsgroupings within the team within the team

LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP the the behaviourbehaviour of leaders and of leaders and coachescoaches

coaches should use all leadership coaches should use all leadership behaviours to influence different behaviours to influence different individualsindividuals

TEAMTEAM factors relating to the factors relating to the groupgroup

team identity, targets, member ability and roleteam identity, targets, member ability and role creation of team short and long-term creation of team short and long-term goalsgoals rewardingrewarding of individual and team efforts of individual and team efforts

Steiner’s Model of Group Steiner’s Model of Group PerformancePerformance

Actual productivity = Potential productivity - Losses due Actual productivity = Potential productivity - Losses due to faulty processes.to faulty processes.

Potential productivityPotential productivity is primarily decided by the individual skill levels of is primarily decided by the individual skill levels of team members,team members,

Faulty ProcessesFaulty Processes are either are either Motivational LosesMotivational Loses or or Co-ordination LosesCo-ordination Loses..

Motivational Loses (Social Loafing)Motivational Loses (Social Loafing)

Motivational ProblemsMotivational Problems People seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their ownPeople seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their own Example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly Example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly

faster than single scullsfaster than single sculls This is social loafing This is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’‘the Ringlemann Effect’Why?Why? Individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group Individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group

cohesion cohesion can can hidehide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members Performers are not recognised for their contribution to the team.Performers are not recognised for their contribution to the team. Example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order Example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order

to win/or to win/or What can a coach do?What can a coach do? Loafing can be eliminated if the Loafing can be eliminated if the contributioncontribution of an individual can be of an individual can be

identifiedidentified Setting specific and Setting specific and measurable goalsmeasurable goals Recording Recording individual data/statiticsindividual data/statitics – passes/shots etc – passes/shots etc

Co-Ordination LossesCo-Ordination LossesCo-ordination lossesCo-ordination losses is depended on how is depended on how

players on the pitch co-ordinate their players on the pitch co-ordinate their movement and decision making with each movement and decision making with each other. Factors that affect it include;other. Factors that affect it include;

The The numbernumber or players on the pitch. or players on the pitch. if one player is being if one player is being selfish or aggressiveselfish or aggressive if a defence is if a defence is not working togethernot working together

The greater the The greater the task cohesiontask cohesion and and understanding of understanding of each others roleseach others roles there is there is between players, the less the losses dues to between players, the less the losses dues to co-ordination. co-ordination. Practice makes Perfect!Practice makes Perfect!

LeadershipLeadershipLeadersLeaders can can influenceinfluence the the behaviourbehaviour of of

others towards required goals others towards required goals will influence effective will influence effective team team

cohesioncohesion will help will help fulfil expectationsfulfil expectations of a of a

teamteam develops an environment in which a develops an environment in which a

group is motivated rewarded and group is motivated rewarded and helped towards its common goalshelped towards its common goals

Where do leaders come from?Where do leaders come from?

• emergent leadersemergent leaders come from come from withinwithin a a groupgroup

because of their skill and abilitiesbecause of their skill and abilitiesor through nomination / electionor through nomination / election

• prescribed leaders are prescribed leaders are appointedappointed by anby an agency outside theagency outside the

groupgroup

Characteristics of a good leaderCharacteristics of a good leader

• Empathetic

• Experienced

• Committed

• Communication Skills

Leadership TheoriesLeadership Theories

The ‘great man’ theory (trait)The ‘great man’ theory (trait) NATURENATURE leaders are born not madeleaders are born not made leaders have relevant innate personality leaders have relevant innate personality

qualitiesqualities

Social learning theorySocial learning theory NURTURENURTURE leaders learn their skills through watching and leaders learn their skills through watching and

imitating modelsimitating models leaders are formed leaders are formed throughout lifethroughout life

by social or by social or environmental influencesenvironmental influences observationobservation of a of a modelmodel high high statusstatus of a model of a model imitationimitation or copying of behaviour or copying of behaviour

Was Martin Johnson born to be a great leader or did

he learn the necessary qualities?

Or was it a combination of the two? (Interactionist)

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles

Three different types of leadership styles Three different types of leadership styles have been identified.have been identified.

Autocratic (Task) Orientated – makes all Autocratic (Task) Orientated – makes all the decisions.the decisions.

Democratic (Social) Orientated – shares Democratic (Social) Orientated – shares the decisions with members of the group, the decisions with members of the group, seeks advice and is prepared to change seeks advice and is prepared to change his/her mind.his/her mind.

Laissez Faire – lets others make Laissez Faire – lets others make decisions.decisions.

Each type of leader can be effective in Each type of leader can be effective in different situations.different situations.

Fiedler’s Contingency ModelFiedler’s Contingency ModelFiedler's model assumes that group performance depends on: Leadership style and Situational favourableness determined by three factors:

1. Leader-member relations - Degree to which a leader is accepted and supported by the group members.

2. Task structure - Extent to which the task is structured and defined, with clear goals and procedures. (facilities/equipment/weather/support)

3. Position power - The ability of a leader to control subordinates through reward and punishment.

High levels of these three factors give the most favourable situation, low levels, the least favourable. Democratic (Relationship-motivated) leaders are most effective in moderately favourable situations. Autocratic (Task-motivated) leaders are most effective at either end of the scale.

Fiedler suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change their situation to achieve effectiveness, rather than change their leadership style.

Member Characteristics

Leader Characteristics

Situational Characteristics

Actual (Leader) Behaviour

Satisfaction/Performance

Preferred (Leader) Behaviour

Required (Leader) Behaviour

Chellandurai’s Mutli-Dimensional Chellandurai’s Mutli-Dimensional Model of LeadershipModel of Leadership

Mental Preparation for Sports Mental Preparation for Sports PerformancePerformance

CommitmentCommitment (Self) Confidence(Self) Confidence

ConcentrationConcentration (Emotional) Control(Emotional) Control

Goal SettingGoal Setting

SpecificSpecific MeasurableMeasurable AcceptedAccepted RealisticRealistic Time Phased Time Phased ExcitingExciting RecordedRecorded

Effective goal setting is a useful tool that can be used to manage anxiety (control), raise motivation and therefore commitment levels and develop self confidence of the performer.

Goals should be progressive from short to long term.

Short Term

Medium Term

Long Term

Goals can be either

Process – Technique

Performance – Time

Product – Position

And…

Mastery/Task – Self improvement

Ego/Ability – comparison with others

Socially approved. – Seeking social reinforcement.

Self ConfidenceSelf Confidence

Self-Confidence

Self-Efficacy

A generic belief that one can succeed.

An attitude

The perception of an ability to perform a particular sporting task

A situational specific form of self-confidence.

BanduraBandura

Previous

Accomplishments

Vicarious

Experiences

Verbal

Persuasion

Emotional

Arousal

Efficacy Expectation

Performance

if arousal is too highstate anxiety - A-state

this could lead to low self-efficacymental rehearsal / physical relaxation could lead to greater confidence and a calmer approach

encouragement can lead to greater self-efficacyif the person giving encouragement is of high statuscompared with the performer

consist of past experiencesexample : previously performed skill at dribbling a soccer ballif this is successfulthen this leads to greater self-efficacyat this particular taskin the future

consist of what has been observed in othersperforming a similar skillexample : observing another player in your team dribbling a soccer ball, if the model is of similar age / abilityand is successfulthen this may lead to greater self-efficacy

SELF-CONFIDENCESELF-CONFIDENCEConfidenceConfidence arouses arouses positivepositive emotions emotions allows the athlete toallows the athlete to

remain calmremain calm under pressureunder pressure

facilitates facilitates concentrationconcentration enables enables focusfocus on the on the

important aspects of a taskimportant aspects of a task enables the setting of enables the setting of

challengingchallenging but but realistic goalsrealistic goals increases increases efforteffort

affects game strategies affects game strategies a confident player a confident player plays to winplays to win even if it even if it

means taking means taking risksrisks affects psychological momentumaffects psychological momentum

a confident athlete take each point or play at a confident athlete take each point or play at a timea time

and and never gives upnever gives up even when defeat is imminenteven when defeat is imminent

VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCECONFIDENCEtrait sport confidencetrait sport confidence thethe usualusual level of self- level of self-

confidenceconfidence example :a footballer is confident example :a footballer is confident

in his shooting ability.in his shooting ability.

competitivecompetitive orientationorientation the the perceived opportunityperceived opportunity to to

achieve a sport performanceachieve a sport performance Type of goals you set.Type of goals you set. example : the footballer is example : the footballer is

motivated to play well in the cup motivated to play well in the cup final.final.

state sport confidencestate sport confidence the level ofthe level of self confidence self confidence

related to arelated to a specific situation specific situation example :a footballer has low state example :a footballer has low state

confidence in taking a penalty in confidence in taking a penalty in the cup final.the cup final.

Sports Confidence

ConcentrationConcentration Involves focusing attention onto the Involves focusing attention onto the relevant environmental cuesrelevant environmental cues

maintaining attention focus until the skill has been completed. maintaining attention focus until the skill has been completed.

Arousal is linked to concentrationArousal is linked to concentration. When arousal is low, the . When arousal is low, the perceptual perceptual field widensfield widens taking in too much information for information processing taking in too much information for information processing system to deal with.system to deal with.

Selective attentionSelective attention is not in operation & concentration on relevant is not in operation & concentration on relevant information is difficult. information is difficult.

Information overload occurs & decision-making is impeded causing Information overload occurs & decision-making is impeded causing mistakes in performance. mistakes in performance.

As arousal increases, the perceptual field adjusts to the ideal width enabling As arousal increases, the perceptual field adjusts to the ideal width enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant information. Selective attention the performer to focus on the most relevant information. Selective attention is fully operational allowing selective attention to occur. is fully operational allowing selective attention to occur.

Awareness Cue UtilisationAwareness Cue Utilisation

Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal leads to a decrease in number of Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal leads to a decrease in number of cues that can be utilised. cues that can be utilised.

Cues can be used by the sportsperson•to direct attention •to trigger appropriate arousal responses•to enable attentional focus at a relevant moment

•sometimes, narrowing of attentional focus by an aroused player will cause lack of awareness of broader play issues

ATTENTIONAL STYLES (Nideffer)ATTENTIONAL STYLES (Nideffer)INTERNAL/NARROW - AINTERNAL/NARROW - A the player decides to concentrate the player decides to concentrate

on his own techniqueon his own technique

INTERNAL/BROAD - BINTERNAL/BROAD - B the player focuses on the team the player focuses on the team

tactics given by the coach before a tactics given by the coach before a game.game.

EXTERNAL/BROAD - CEXTERNAL/BROAD - C a player concentrates on the whole a player concentrates on the whole

game game all players’ positions and all players’ positions and

movementsmovements open skillsopen skills

EXTERNAL/NARROW - DEXTERNAL/NARROW - D the player concentrates on one the player concentrates on one

aspect of the gameaspect of the game the goalkeeperthe goalkeeper closed skillsclosed skills

Emotional ControlEmotional Control

Activation Activation – a state of readiness to perform.– a state of readiness to perform.

ArousalArousal - - a state of mental and physical a state of mental and physical preparednesspreparedness for action for action this is the level of this is the level of inner drivesinner drives which forces the sportsperson to which forces the sportsperson to strive to strive to

achieveachieve it needs to be underit needs to be under controlcontrol and at the right level and at the right level dependingdepending on the on the task task

and facilitates theand facilitates the ability to focus (concentrate) ability to focus (concentrate) Extroverts, Skilful performersExtroverts, Skilful performers and and simple taskssimple tasks require higher levels of require higher levels of

arousal.arousal.

AnxietyAnxiety – – an emotional state similar to fear associated with;an emotional state similar to fear associated with;

physiologicalphysiological (somatic) (somatic) arousalarousal psychologicalpsychological (cognitive) (cognitive) arousalarousal Can be both Can be both StateState and and TraitTrait

AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORYAROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY

WITH INCREASED AROUSALWITH INCREASED AROUSAL the the dominant habitdominant habit / most / most

usual behaviour will be usual behaviour will be reproducedreproduced

a a poorly-learned skillpoorly-learned skill will give a will give a performance full of performance full of mistakesmistakes

a a well-learned skillwell-learned skill will give a will give a skilled performanceskilled performance

DRIVE THEORYDRIVE THEORY

the the higherhigher the the arousalarousal level level the the higherhigher the achievement / the achievement /

performanceperformance level level the more likely that a the more likely that a well-well-

learned skilllearned skill (a dominant (a dominant response) will be producedresponse) will be produced

Expert Novice

Increased Arousal

Increased in Performance

Decrease in Performance

INVERTED U THEORYINVERTED U THEORYINVERTED U THEORYINVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM

AROUSAL DEPENDS ONAROUSAL DEPENDS ON

type of activity / task complexitytype of activity / task complexity grossgross skills (weight lifting) require skills (weight lifting) require

highhigh arousal arousal finefine skills (snooker) require skills (snooker) require lowlow

arousalarousal

skill level of the performerskill level of the performer the the more skilfulmore skilful the performer the performer the the higherhigher the optimum arousal the optimum arousal

could becould be

personality of the performerpersonality of the performer the more the more extrovertextrovert the performer the performer thethe higher higher the arousal likely for the arousal likely for

optimum performanceoptimum performance whereas whereas introvertsintroverts would optimise would optimise

performance at performance at lowerlower arousal arousal levelslevels

there is an there is an optimum arousaloptimum arousal level level if if arousedaroused more than this more than this performance will performance will declinedecline

EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCEEFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCEINHIBITIONINHIBITION inhibition of performanceinhibition of performance

PERFORMANCE OF SKILLSPERFORMANCE OF SKILLS stress may act directly on the stress may act directly on the

information processinginformation processing of skill of skill motor elements of skill are motor elements of skill are

performed performed less wellless well muscles tensemuscles tense muscular muscular controlcontrol is reduced is reduced

CONCENTRATIONCONCENTRATION concentration is difficultconcentration is difficult span of attention is narrowedspan of attention is narrowed

STRESSSTRESS awareness of being under awareness of being under

stress itself acts as a stress itself acts as a stressorstressor

Peak Flow ExperiencePeak Flow Experience

Excitement AngerPeak Flow Happiness Anxiety

Relaxed BoredDrowsiness Fatigue

High Somatic Arousal

Low Somatic Arousal

High Cognitive Arousal

Low Cognitive Arousal

When this happens the athlete assumes control

over all internal & environmental variables & a time of great happiness

& self-fulfilment is experienced.

Flow state is attained when the performer has a balanced perception of the demands of the situation & his/her ability to cope.

Individual Zone of Optimal Individual Zone of Optimal Fuctioning (Hanin)Fuctioning (Hanin)

Top athletes have different ZOF. Optimal level of arousal does not always occur at the mid point of the arousal continuum.

Optimal level of arousal is not a single point but a band width. Teachers and coaches need to be aware of their performer’s ZOF and work towards this.

0

Characteristics of being in the zone:Performance appears effortless & automatic with athlete feeling in full control; attention & concentration is focused; the execution of the skill brings enjoyment & satisfaction.

AnxietyAnxiety‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial inbalance between the individual’s

perception of their ability & their perception of the demands & importance of the situation.’

Speilberger identified both trait and state anxiety.

He measured them using simple aquestionaire.

Called the State-Trait-Anxiety-Inventory (STAI)

A similar test Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)was later devised to specifically look at the affect competition has on anxiety.

1 2 3 4

Not At All Somewhat Moderately So Very Much So

A. I feel at ease 1 2 3 4

B. I feel upset 1 2 3 4

12 3 4

Almost Never Sometimes Often Almost Always

A. I am a steady person 1 2 3 4

B. I lack self-confidence 1 2 3 4

 

Questions are asked about current feelings

(state) and general feelings (trait) a score out

of 80 is given.

Anxiety ManagementAnxiety Management

Different methods can be used to Different methods can be used to reduce anxietyreduce anxiety (and arousal levels) these include both (and arousal levels) these include both somaticsomatic and and cognitivecognitive techniques. These can be used to improve techniques. These can be used to improve performanceperformance, improve , improve focusfocus (selective attention), increase (selective attention), increase self confidenceself confidence and reduce the risk of and reduce the risk of aggressionaggression..

Cognitive

• Mental Rehersal

• Imagery

• Positive Self Talk

• Thought Stopping

• Rational Thinking

Somatic

• Progressive Muscular Relaxation

• Biofeedback

Competition EffectsCompetition Effects

Social FacilitationSocial Facilitation AggressionAggression

Social FacilitationSocial Facilitation

Social Facilitation – the positive effect an audience has on performance

Immediate effect of an audience is to: •Increase the arousal level of a performer•Increases speed of performance •Releases energy•Arouses competitive drive

Social Inhibition – the negative effects an audience has on performance

Social facilitation looks at the effect a crowd (other people watching) has on a players performance. When a player knows they are being watched it can have either positive or negative results.

Zajonc believed that the ‘mere presence’ of others is sufficient to increase arousal. He used drive theory to link the relationship between arousal and performance.

However, the quality of the performance depends on how well the skill has been learned.

Our ‘learned behaviours’ tend to be our dominant responses. A dominant response is the behaviour most likely to occur when we are pressured to respond.

As arousal increases we are more likely to see our dominant responses.

If you’re at the autonomous stage of learning, your dominant response is most likely to be the correct action but if you’re at the associative phase of learning you are more likely to show incorrect response.

Dominant Response Dominant Response (Social Facilitation)(Social Facilitation)

Arousal

Do

min

ant

Resp

on

se

Evaluation ApprehensionEvaluation Apprehension

The The Evaluation Apprehension TheoryEvaluation Apprehension Theory was proposed by Cottrell. He argued was proposed by Cottrell. He argued that we quickly learn that social rewards and punishments that we receive that we quickly learn that social rewards and punishments that we receive from other people are based on their evaluations of us. from other people are based on their evaluations of us.

When we find ourselves with a When we find ourselves with a social presencesocial presence, we will experience an , we will experience an acquired acquired arousalarousal based on based on evaluation apprehensionevaluation apprehension. In other words, performance . In other words, performance will be enhanced or impaired only in the presence of persons who can will be enhanced or impaired only in the presence of persons who can approve or disapprove the performance. approve or disapprove the performance.

Audience EffectsAudience Effects Homefield advantageHomefield advantage - Large supportive crowds are said to help the home team. Most evident - Large supportive crowds are said to help the home team. Most evident

in indoor sports. in indoor sports.

Proximity EffectProximity Effect - Crowds that are close to the action eg. basketball/ice hockey are said to - Crowds that are close to the action eg. basketball/ice hockey are said to increase audience influence.increase audience influence.

Distraction EffectDistraction Effect – The above can cause players to lose focus and become distracted from – The above can cause players to lose focus and become distracted from their performance.their performance.

As a resultAs a result

Information Processing is inhibited.Information Processing is inhibited. Wrong decisions can be made.Wrong decisions can be made.

Reaction time may be slowed down.Reaction time may be slowed down.

Important cues will be missed.Important cues will be missed.

Strategies to Combat Social Strategies to Combat Social InhibitionInhibition

Practice Practice selective attentionselective attention to cut out to cut out awareness of othersawareness of others

Cognitive visualisation such as;Cognitive visualisation such as; imageryimagery mental rehearsalmental rehearsal

Ensure essential skills are Ensure essential skills are over-learned over-learned & grooved& grooved to ensure dominant response to ensure dominant response is successfulis successful

Simulated Simulated crowd noisescrowd noises Raise athlete’s Raise athlete’s awareness of ZOFawareness of ZOF Incorporate stress management into Incorporate stress management into

trainingtraining Appropriate use of Appropriate use of attributionattribution to raise to raise

confidenceconfidence

AggressionAggression‘‘Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal

means.’ means.’

Differences between Differences between aggression & assertion.aggression & assertion. Aggression – intent to harmAggression – intent to harm Assertion – within the rulesAssertion – within the rules

3 types of aggression:3 types of aggression: Hostile (or reactive) Aggression:Hostile (or reactive) Aggression: Prime motive is the intent to harm or Prime motive is the intent to harm or

injury. Outside the rules of the game. Involves anger.injury. Outside the rules of the game. Involves anger.

Instrumental (or channelled) Aggression:Instrumental (or channelled) Aggression: Within the rules and although Within the rules and although prime motive is successful execution of skill, there is still intent to harm. prime motive is successful execution of skill, there is still intent to harm. Anger is not evident.Anger is not evident.

Assertive behaviour:Assertive behaviour: Does not attempt to harm & is within rules & spirit of Does not attempt to harm & is within rules & spirit of the game. Described as ‘non-hostile self-protective mastery behaviour. the game. Described as ‘non-hostile self-protective mastery behaviour.

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression Nature of the game (Nature of the game (contact/contact/non-contact)non-contact)

Wide division between Wide division between scoresscores Previous experiences could cause Previous experiences could cause grudgesgrudges or scores to settle or scores to settle

FrustrationFrustration caused by poor form, opposition & referee’s decisions caused by poor form, opposition & referee’s decisions Hostile Hostile crowdscrowds

VenueVenue – home or away – home or away Excessively high Excessively high arousaarousal levelsl levels

Extrinsic Extrinsic rewardsrewards

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionInstinct Theory – Trait Perspective: Aggression is genetically inherit.

Social Learning Theory – Social Learning Perspective: Aggression is nurtured through environmental forces. It is learned by watching & copying role models & becomes more acceptable if reinforced.

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - Interactionist Approach: Frustration develops when goal-directed behaviour is blocked. If aggressive act is successful, frustration is released & aggressor feels good & learns that violent strategies are successful. If aggression fails & results in punishment, further frustration is generated.

Aggressive Cue Hypothesis (Berkowitz) – Interactionist Approach: Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which sometimes will result in aggression. Aggressive cues such as bats or sticks will trigger aggression if arousal is high. The best players have the ability to control frustration and arousal.

Methods to Combat Aggressive Methods to Combat Aggressive TendanciesTendancies

•Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour & negatively reinforce aggressive behaviour

•Punish aggressive players

•Violent players should be withdrawn from aggressive situations

•Stress performance rather than outcome goals

•Emphasise non-aggressive role-models

•Attribute successful performance to skilfulness

•Use cognitive strategies such as rational thinking, self-talk & imagery

•Lower arousal levels

Consequences of Sport Consequences of Sport PerformancePerformance

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory

Attribution ThoeryAttribution ThoeryAttribution theory (Weiner) explains how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking, motivation and behavior.

Ability

Effort Luck

Task Difficulty

Un-Stable

Stable

Internal

External

Locus of Causality

Stability

Internal – factors within control of the individualExternal – factors out of performer’s controlStable – permanent Unstable – temporary & changeable

ConcentrationCommitmentControl of arousal ConfidenceAttitudeMental/physical preparation

AttributionAttributionAccording to attribution theory, According to attribution theory, high high achievers (TAS)achievers (TAS) will invite rather will invite rather than avoid tasks that could lead than avoid tasks that could lead them to success because they them to success because they believe success results from high believe success results from high abilityability and and efforteffort, and they are , and they are confidentconfident of their ability and effort. of their ability and effort.

However, they believe failure is However, they believe failure is caused by caused by bad luckbad luck or things that or things that are beyond their range of control. are beyond their range of control.

FailureFailure doesn't affect their self- doesn't affect their self-esteem but esteem but successsuccess builds pride builds pride and confidence. and confidence.

On the other hand, On the other hand, low achieverslow achievers (TAF)(TAF) avoid success-related actions avoid success-related actions because they tend to doubt their ability because they tend to doubt their ability and/or assume success is related to and/or assume success is related to luckluck or influence or to other factors or influence or to other factors beyond their control. beyond their control.

Even when successful, it isn't as Even when successful, it isn't as rewarding to the low achiever because rewarding to the low achiever because he/she he/she doesn't feel responsibledoesn't feel responsible. . Success does not increase his/her Success does not increase his/her pride and confidence.pride and confidence.

Mastery Orientation Learned Helplessness

Attribution RetrainingAttribution RetrainingAttribution retraining is when low achievers (usually TAF

personalities) are taught to alter their perception of why something went wrong or well.

• By giving feedback to the performer and analysing why something happened.

• The Athlete needs to have control over the situation.

• The coach needs to get the performer to attribute a lack of success to internal unstable factors so the athlete has control over the situation & provided the possibility of working through success.

This will help to prevent learned helplessness

The EndThe End