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Abstract of proposed paper for the Eighth Islamic Manuscript Conference at Queen’s College, University of Cambridge,

9-11 July 2012 for The Science of Manuscripts.

A visual analysis of the illuminated opening pages of a sixteenth century Iranian manuscript, and

a reconstruction with reference to contemporary treatises and empirical practical

experimentation. Anita Chowdry

Expanded Abstract

This paper covers a unique approach to studying and analyzing the processes and materials employed in

creating illuminated and illustrated manuscripts using a combination of non-invasive visual evidence,

empirical experimentation and studies of treatises contemporary to the material in question.

The documented process of investigation includes study-room notes and evidence from macro-photography,

followed by details of the author’s reconstruction of one of the pages. The reconstruction includes the

selection and preparation of paper, analysing and drawing the design, and discussing the challenges involved

on the subject of ruling lines, with reference to passages in treatises.

The analysis continues with the selection, preparation and properties of the colours used in the exercise and

some surprising observations about technique. There will be a demonstration of how processes and

preparations are informed by a combination of personal experience and recent re-translations by the author

of some well-known Iranian treatises, and finally a progressive series of images showing how the

reconstruction of the page has been built up.

The object of the case-study offered is SOAS MS. 25293 folios 1v-2r, a copy of the Divan of Jami dated 941AH

(1534-35 CE) probably produced in Herat. In a brief description of the manuscript in the 2007 catalogue

“Objects of Instruction: Treasures of the School of Oriental and African Studies” Anna Contadini comments

on the style:

“...The arrangement of this decoration, with its particular palette, strongly resembles that of manuscripts

produced in Herat, and its quality, together with that of the paper and the beautiful calligraphic nasta’liq

script, suggests that it may have been produced for a high ranking patron such as Bahram Mirza, governor of

Herat from 1530-1534.” (Contadini, 2007)

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OBSERVING, DECONSTRUCTING, AND RECONSTRUCTING THE SUBJECT

OBSERVING AND ANALYZING THE LAYOUT AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE DESIGN

The measurements of the manuscript are H: 23.5 cm X W:

14.5 cm; it has clearly been trimmed down slightly from its

original dimensions, repaired and rebound in a European

binding.

The design is basically a mirror-image of itself over the two

pages, symmetrical and restrained in its execution, in

keeping with styles of illumination developed in Herat over

the previous century.

This figure shows a scaled diagram of one side of the

design, with the measurements of some of the elements.

The layout of these two pages would have been designed

as an integral part of the general layout of the entire

manuscript; it is in fact the title-page(s) and contains the

title of the book, stylized invocations and dedications. In

this case we will examine one side of the double-page

design.

The first stage of drafting the design would be the mastar/jadval or ruling which would probably have been

done by a specialist according to specific formats favoured within the workshop. The outer border measures

2.5 cm in width, and is composed of a regular reciprocal arch design in lapis lazuli and gold, punctuated on

each of its three sides by a superimposed taj or crown design, each taj being identical. There is no border on

one side of the page, only a series of rulings indicating that this is the binding side. The section within the

border contains two identical cartouches, top and bottom, to contain title and invocations, and a central

text panel bordered on each side by an illuminated strip. Each element of the design is separated from the

other by a narrow gold border containing a band-e-rumi design, and the outer border is embellished with

lapis lazuli “rays”.

Observation of the jadval on the gutter edge of the page with

reference to a treatise translated by Minorsky[2] shows a similarity in

the sequence of colours and outlines between the 16th century

treatise and the manuscript. Interestingly the manuscript is lacking a

line mentioned in the treatise: “..Still lower, draw a light green

line...” . There is a clear cut in the original page at this point, and it

has been remounted on a fresh strip of paper. This suggests that the

absent green line was ruled in zengar or verdigris pigment which on

degrading could well have created a precise cut in the fabric of the

paper.

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Observation of the verso of one of

the illuminated pages shows

distinct areas where elements of

the illuminated design have

‘burned’ through the paper,

indicating the use of reactive

mineral pigments. In this case the

areas of discolouration

correspond to areas of red, white

and green, suggesting lead

carbonates and copper acetates.

Macro photography reveals details

of the craft of the mozaheb or

illuminator, showing the sequence

in which design elements and

colours were applied and also

greater detail of areas that have

degraded, such as the white

(possibly lead carbonate) above.

Areas of green (possibly copper

acetate) which have been applied

on top of gold appear to have

maintained their integrity.

There is great spontaneity of execution within the rigid overall structure of the design; the detailed elements

of eslimi or ‘arabesques’ and the floral elements are clearly drafted freehand, with an acceptance of the

inherent asymmetry. There is another interesting observation in the image above right, which shows a

detail of the taj: the stems of the foliage are burnished to contrast with the un-burnished gold ground. The

burnishing is executed on top of the ground, contradicting conventional wisdom in current practice, where

burnished areas are always executed first, with the un-burnished ground painted in around them. This is

further verified by the fact that the black lines that define the stems ‘mis-register’ with the burnished lines.

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The designs of different elements of the

illuminated page have been recreated using

proportional measurements and

observations from the original. Given that

the original illuminator has worked within a

traditional grammar in which infinite

variations can be built up using specific

conventions, this is not as difficult to

analyze as may first seem. There are

specific underlying constructions, such as

the reciprocal arches on the border, the

superimposed crenellated taj or crown,

the central eslimi motif on the taj and the

geometric band-e-rumi border that defines

and separates different parts of the overall

composition of the page. The design is

afforded an illusion of greater complexity

by means of the meandering floral ‘fillers’.

Below is a demonstration of how a simple

leaf element is used quasi-geometrically to

construct a variety of design elements such

as are seen in the illumination under study.

These constructions are known collectively

as eslimi, and some of the structures have

specific names, such a ‘dragon’s mouth’

dahan-e-azdehar. (Takestani, 2004)

There are several contemporary historical

references for design elements in

illumination; one of the most well known is

the treatise “Qanun al-sovar” written by

the 16th century painter Sadeqi Beg Afshar

(Afshar, circa 1530) who served in the

Safavid court. The original Persian text has

been published by Yves Porter. (Porter,

1994, 2007) In a wonderfully detailed

section about how to handle the bush

Sadeqi Beg cleverly inserts the main

‘principles’ of painting into his couplets

“...my master showed me the way, which

has Eslimi also Khatai, If you are aware of

Abru and Vaq, then you will be in demand

like a Niloufar Farangi , And do not forget

Band-e-Rumi, commit to memory the name

of each one.

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Understanding these ‘seven principles of painting’ or haft asl-e-naqqashi was clearly an important aspect of

an illuminator’s training at the time, and though we are not precisely clear as to the exact definition of all of

them, they can be roughly understood as follows: Eslimi is usually translated into English as ‘Arabesque’ and

refers to the structural designs above, based on stylized leaves and tendrils; Khatai could refer to anything to

do with line (khat) or with Chinese art, Abru means cloud – it is unclear whether this means marbling in the

Turkish sense of Ebru or whether is refers to Chinese cloud designs, Vaq refers to foliage designs

incorporating the faces of people or animals, and suggests legends of the island of Vaq-Vaq where voyagers

found beautiful maidens growing on trees; Niloufar is the Chinese-inspired lotus, Farangi means foreign,

referring to elements borrowed from European design, and Band-e-Rumi is a specific type of geometrical

border derived from Byzantine decorative art.

RECONSTRUCTING THE DESIGN

Undertaking the project of re-creating the illuminated page is a valuable exercise in that it holistically brings

into focus all aspects of the illuminator’s art. Basing this practice on fresh and rigorous observation and with

reference to historical records lends it authenticity as a process of research. Ideally it should be undertaken

in collaboration with scientific analysis; where this is not immediately possible, empirical deduction – which

may or may not be accurate, is acceptable as long as it is acknowledged as such. In this case I was obliged to

research modern papers in order to find a surface that would offer similar qualities to the original paper of

the manuscript. It needed to be thin and fine textured with a strong internal sizing so that it could withstand

the processes of dyeing and burnishing. In colouring the paper I referenced the work of Dr. Mandana

Barkeshli * on henna as a dye for paper (please help me with the exact reference for this academic paper).

Another challenge that presented itself was in the ruling of lines, a process which requires great skill and

adequate tools –I had to source historical tools for the purpose as modern tools are neither precise nor fine

enough for the job, and the challenge opened up another avenue for potential research – that of the design

and manufacture of technical and scientific instruments in 16th century Iran. (I hope someone can enlighten

us at the forthcoming conference)

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In the original page all the black lines are riled first, followed by burnished gold rulings and bands measuring

approximately 6mm in width which will take the band-e-Rumi design. White lines edging these sections are

painted on top of the gold, and finally the defining lines in black. White separations between elements of the

design are a distinctive feature of illumination in the Herat style, and it seems that all of these are also

applied at this stage.

Band-e-Rumi designs are rigidly geometrical ‘woven’ patterns which require guidelines for their

construction. At this small scale drawing them in would create an incomprehensible mess, so it is vital firstly

to understand the construction (see sketches above) and then to find a way of applying a framework that is

as unobtrusive as possible – the only practical solution at this scale is to make tiny pin-pricks indicating

intersections of the grid, using the eye to measure their distances. The use of a practiced eye for measuring

is clearly apparent when a section of the design on the original is observed in magnification – the work is by

no means mechanically perfect, and there are even areas where the illuminator has confused the sequence a

little. The white lines bordering the band-e-Rumi (degraded to grey in the original) are embellished with a

primitive pattern composed of tiny dashes and crosses – a simple device that was continuously and

extensively used in Iran and Mughal India to define illuminated passages.

The salient lines of the illuminated patterns are drawn in with black pigment and a brush using clear

calligraphic lines, precise and fluid at the same time. It is my opinion that the aesthetic for the execution of

illuminated design stems directly from that of calligraphy, with the emphasis on movement (harkat),

proportion and beauty of line – a fine example of the illuminator’s art such as this demonstrates that

mechanical exactitude is not a desired priority, but rather that the free-flowing ‘hand’ of the artist should be

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apparent. In his section ‘On holding the brush’ Sadequi Beg advises: “...Do not grasp your brush (at the place

of the knots) in your fist, with two fingers make a holding place for your brush; Three others will support

those two, so that the drawing of your brush becomes considered. At the time of working you must be

courageous; you must not hold the brush too tightly...” (Afshar, circa 1530)

After the areas of gold and the basic construction of the design have been applied, the pattern details are

built up in logical progression, starting with the eslimi structures, and progressing to the meandering floral

fillers.

The ground colours of lapis lazuli and black are applied at the end. Whereas this would seem to be an

unnecessarily tedious way of working – it would appear more logical to paint the elements on top of the

background – there are good reasons for this, driven by the properties of the pigments themselves, most

particularly the properties of the blue lapis lazuli ground.

Lapis Lazuli or lajevard is a precious pigment used extensively in Iranian illumination. The Herat school

favoured darker and richer shades whereas other centres of the art such as Tabriz, Shiraz and Esfahan

favoured a brighter cornflower blue. Lapis lazuli stone was and still is mined at Badakshan, now on the

border of Afghanistan, and the specialist process of extracting the pigment ‘lazurite’ from the mineral was

complicated and difficult, the details of which are not in the remit of this paper. What is important however

is the range of characteristics inherent in the pigment itself, which makes it equally difficult to use.

An earlier empirical experiment

demonstrates the difficulty in applying

other colours on top of a field of lapis

lazuli. This is particularly noticeable when

using gold, which sinks right into the lapis

lazuli and cannot be burnished. The

particles of the pigment, even when finely

ground, are gritty and sharp, making it

difficult to apply an even ground, and

difficult indeed to bind. Conservators will

also notice that though the colour itself is

very stable and does not degrade, that it

is prone to rub off like a powder, rather

than flake off like most colours.

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I have found that applying more gum Arabic medium than is necessary darkens the colour, and this may

have been one of the methods used by illuminators trained in Herat to create an illusion of richness in the

colour, and also to make it a little easier to handle. The overall conclusion is that the properties of the

pigment made it necessary to apply it last of all, using the illuminator’s skill to work it cleanly around the fine

lines of intricate design.

The range of colours used in the illumination are shown above, and include other pigments that require

more detailed consideration, such as zengar - verdigris or copper acetate- and kermes. This is still ‘work in

progress’ and may also extend the length of the paper beyond its permitted length (please advise)

For the conclusion to the presentation the intention is to show an animation with progressive frames

representing the documentation of the reconstruction as it developed, ending with a comparison between

the reconstruction and the original page.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Contadini, A. (2007). Objects of Instruction: Treasures of the School of Oriental and African Studies. London:

SOAS University of London.

Minorsky, T. A. (1959). Calligraphers and Painters: treetise by Qadi Ahmad, son of Mir-munshi (circa

A.H.1015,/ A.D.1606. Washington, D.C.: Washington D.C. Freer Gallery of Art. Occaisional papers; v.3, no.2.

Porter, Y. (1994, 2007). Painters, Paintings and Books: An essay on Indo-Persian Technical Literature, 12 - 19

Centuries. New Delhi: Manohar, Centre for Human Sciences, New Delhi.

Takestani, A. M. (2004). The Art of Illumination. Tehran: Soroush Press.