a survey of tdma-based mac protocols for vehicular ad hoc
TRANSCRIPT
International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT)
ISSN: 2249 – 8958, Volume-8 Issue-5C, May 2019 India.
1247
Published By:
Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering
& Sciences Publication Retrieval Number:E11780585C19/2019©BEIESP
DOI: 10.35940/ijeat.E1178.0585C19
Abstract— MAC design in a vehicle network is a challenging
task due to high node speed, frequent topology changes, lack of
infrastructure, and different QoS requirements. Several medium
access control protocols based on Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) have recently been suggested for VANETs in an effort to
guarantee that all cars have sufficient time to send safety
messages without collisions and to decrease the end-to-end delay
and the loss ratio of packets. The reasons for using the
collision-free media access control paradigm in VANETs are
identified in this document. We then present a new topology-based
classification and provide an overview of the MAC protocols
suggested for VANETs based on TDMA. We concentrate on these
protocols ' features as well as their advantages and constraints.
Finally, we provide a qualitative comparison and address some
open problems that need to be addressed in future studies to
enhance the efficiency of TDMA-based MAC protocols for
vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle to infrastructural (V2I)
communications.
Keywords: VANET, IEEE 802.11p, DSRC, MAC protocol,
TDMA.
INTRODUCTION
Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are primarily
designed to improve safety on roads. They can also be used to
improve traffic management conditions and to provide
on-board infotainment such as Internet access, video
streaming, etc [1]. VANETs are an example of Mobile Ad hoc
Networks (MANETs) but with their own specificities: high
node mobility with constrained movements and the mobile
nodes have ample energy and computing power. In VANETs,
communications can either be between vehicles V2V
(Vehicle To Vehicle) or between vehicles and road side units
V2I (Vehicle to Infrastructure). The applications for V2V and
V2I can be divided into the following three services: safety
services, traffic management and user-oriented services.
Safety services have special requirements in terms of
quality of service. In fact, bounded transmission delays as
well as low access delays are mandatory in order to offer the
highest possible level of safety. At the same time,
user-oriented services need a broad bandwidth. Medium
Access Control will play an important role in satisfying these
requirements.
In VANETs, the nodes share a common wireless channel
Revised Version Manuscript Received on April 19, 2019.
Siman Emmanuel, Computer Science, Federal University Wukari,
Taraba, Nigeria. & Computer Science, Faculty of computing, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia. (Email:
[email protected]) Ismail Fauzi Bin Isnin, H Computer Science, Faculty of computing,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia.
Mohd. Murtadha Bin Mohamad, Computer Science, Faculty of
computing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia.
using the same radio frequencies, so inappropriate channel
use can lead to collisions and bandwidth waste. Channel
sharing is therefore the main problem in the quest for
high-quality service. Medium Access Control (MAC) systems
must be intended to effectively and fairly share the medium
between the distinct nodes. However, traditional wireless
MAC protocols are not suitable for use in VANETs due to the
special characteristics of VANETs, which either leads to the
adaptation of these traditional MAC protocols or to the design
of new mechanisms, [5]. Generally, one of two wide
classifications of MAC protocols is: contention-based and
contention-free. Each node can try to access the channel when
it has data to be transmitted using the carrier sensing
mechanism in contention-based protocols. Several nearby
nodes can sense a free channel and thus decide to
simultaneously access and transmit their information, causing
collisions at the target nodes, [6]. Contention-free MAC
protocols attempt to prevent this by at any specified moment
assigning access to the channel to just one node in a
neighborhood. Contention-based protocols do not require a
predefined timetable, each node will compete for access to the
channel when it needs to be transmitted without any guarantee
of achievement.
This can trigger issues such as packet loss or big delay in
accessing apps in real time. Contention-free protocols, on the
other hand, can provide limited delays for real-time
applications, but require the regular exchange of control
messages to maintain the schedule table and require time
synchronization between all the network nodes. MAC
protocols must give an effective broadcast service with
predictable limited delays in order to provide QoS and
decrease collisions in VANET networks. They also have to
deal with frequent changes in topology, different node spatial
densities and the hidden / exposed node issue. Multi-hop
communication and nodes (cars) must be supported going in
opposite directions. The significance of these problems was
verified by developing a particular IEEE standard to support
VANETs. The IEEE 802.11p, the emerging standard used to
enable vehicle communication, is a contention-based MAC
protocol, using a priority-based access scheme using
Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) and Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA /
CA) mechanisms in [9]. The IEEE 802.11p standard does not
provide limited communication delay with a reliable
broadcast mechanism. In VANETs, which are specifically
designed to improve road safety, this disadvantage is
A Survey of TDMA-based MAC Protocols for
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks
Siman Emmanuel, Ismail Fauzi Bin Isnin, Mohd. Murtadha Bin Mohamad
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March 2019|Siddhartha Institute of Technology & Sciences, Telangana, India.
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DOI: 10.35940/ijeat.E1178.0585C19
particularly important. It is therefore a particularly difficult
job to design an effective MAC protocol that meets the
QoS demands of VANET apps.
An evolving field of VANET studies is TDMA-based
MAC protocols where time is split into slots and only one car
can access the channel at each slot, in [10]. All cars in TDMA
use the same frequency channel at a separate moment without
any code sequence. This implies the transmitter and the
receiver must be synchronized with the frequency. Unlike the
FDMA system, the TDMA method guarantees that they will
not experience interference from other concurrent
transmissions in [4], which may suffer from interference
between cars using the same frequency band and begin
transmitting at the same moment. In addition, TDMA can
support I2V communication effectively as it is possible to use
fixed RSUs to generate and handle the TDMA slot booking
timetable. Another significant characteristic of the TDMA
system is that it enables allocation to separate cars of a distinct
amount of time slots. This implies that, by concatenating or
rescheduling time slots based on access priority, the
bandwidth resources can be allocated on demand to separate
cars. However, by offering collisions with TDMA, a
collision-free transmission with limited access delay, can
happen in essence, and TDMA is better adapted to VANET
demands. MAC protocols have drawn a lot of attention
recently, particularly those based on the TDMA method, and
many protocols have been suggested in [11]. While these
protocols can provide deterministic access time without
collision, they must be conscious of the slot distribution of the
neighbors in order to function effectively. Moreover, most of
them use real-time systems that provide location and time data
such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) that allows them
to synchronize the cars that communicate. However, due to
the high mobility of vehicles in VANETs that can affect the
performance of these protocols in [13], many problems arise.
Therefore, to avoid collisions, the scheduling mechanism in
TDMA protocols should take into account the mobility
features of VANETs.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section presents in the vehicle ad hoc network a
structured literature review related to the TDMA-MAC
protocol. TDMA-based MAC protocol guaranteeing efficient
broadcasting service and quality of service (QoS) for
inter-vehicle communications and solving hidden / exposed
terminal problems caused by random access in multi-hop
network architecture[3][14]. Unlike the IEEE 802.11p
standard, it is a single channel protocol that is not suitable for
dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) using seven
DSRC channels and assigning time slots based on vehicle
direction to reduce vehicle-to-vehicle collisions in, [15][2].
However, for the control channel (CCH) and service channels
(SCHs), it employs two half-duplex transceivers,
respectively. Many contention-free TDMA MAC protocols
have recently adopted cluster-based architecture because with
the help of cluster head (CH) they can provide effective
topology control, fair channel access within each cluster and
minimize intra-cluster and inter-cluster transmission
collisions in [16].
Clustering-based multichannel MAC (CBMMAC)
protocol uses both contention-free and contention-based
access mechanisms and supports applications that are both
safety-relevant and non-safety service. However, there are
two half-duplex transceivers for each vehicle, [17][18]. A
cluster-based MAC (TC-MAC) multichannel TDMA
protocol combines a cluster-based centralized management
method with a new dynamic TDMA slot booking mechanism.
In contrast to the standard IEEE 1609.4 structure, its frames
are not divided into two segments [8]. By using SCH during
the CCHI, TC-MAC can improve the use of bandwidth. It is
designed for simple one-way highway scenarios, however,
and the likelihood of collisions with transmission is very high
for bidirectional expressway scenarios and urban scenarios
where collision problems can easily occur. The critical review
of the literature providing the necessary background
information and the basis for the material presented in the
following sections.
1. Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC)
The Dedicated Short Range Communication Specification
is based on the present IEEE 802.11p wireless connectivity
standards, with modifications to the PHY and MAC layers to
ensure reliable and low latency in car communication, 5 GHz
Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) and
Wireless Access Vehicle Environment (WAVE) IEEE 1609
for safety and networking., [19]. The U.S. Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) allocates 75M-Hz of
bandwidth resources in the 5.9G-Hz band, specifically for
inter-vehicle (i.e., V2V or V2I) communication in VANETs,
commonly known as dedicated short-range communication
(DSRC). DSRC splits the spectrum of 75M-Hz into seven
frequency bands, including one control channel (CCH) for the
transmission of safety or control texts and six service channels
(SCHs) for the transmission of service texts in figure 1.
Europe, Japan and China have suggested their own vehicle
network norms and communication protocols. Based on the
network of cellular LTE, S. Chen, Hu, Shi, & Zhao, S. In the
VANET environment, [20] suggested LTE-V as a alternative
for V2X. The program in China is considered to be a more
appropriate vehicle communication network technology.
Europe has assigned a dedicated 5855-5925MHz channel for
DSRC, while Japan has selected 755.5-764.5MHz as a
specialized communications band for smart transport systems.
The aim of this Specification is to create Smart Transportation
Systems (ITS) to enhance ITS communications architecture
for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure
(V2I) traffic management, transportation safety and mobility.
The Dedicated Short-Range Communication Technology
was developed for short distance mobile vehicle applications.
More specifically, the short distant communication takes
place between the on-board unit (OBU) on the vehicle and the
beacon in the (fixed) road environment. This basic system
shows all the elements described in the idea of the DSRC.
DSRC packet messaging technique was created to operate at
5.8 GHz frequency using typically 10 MHz bandwidth with
International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT)
ISSN: 2249 – 8958, Volume-8 Issue-5C, May 2019 India.
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DOI: 10.35940/ijeat.E1178.0585C19
information rates of up to 2048 Mbps. This is the European
standard accepted by the European Standards Committee
(CEN), [15][21]. However, the separate requirements (used
frequency, amount and length of channels, etc.) were used in
separate nations and continents. For example, the U.S. DSRC
protocol uses 5.9 GHz frequency split into seven 10 MHz
bands. Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) is a
collection of initially intended procedures for Intelligent
Transportation Intelligent Communications, [22], figure 1.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) was instrumental in
reducing daily commute times and reducing congestion in
intersection traffic. Traditional ITS uses, [23], smart
intersections capable of detecting vehicles using loop
detectors, magnetic detectors or cameras and adapting the
decision on traffic light accordingly. Such solutions are very
expensive and in most cities over the past three decades have
therefore not scaled well. Dedicated short-range
communication (DSRC) technology is a very attractive new
technology.
According to [24], the DSRC system has two main
operating modes: a broadcast mode and a peer-to-peer mode.
A typical DSRC device includes two independent radios: one
dedicated to receiving and broadcasting on the public safety
broadcasting channel (i.e. channel 172) and one dedicated to
peer-to-peer communications on the control and general
service channels. Although different types of traffic safety
related messages may be broadcast by the public safety
channel, the BSM is considered representative of the size and
frequency of most DSRC safety messages. The basic frame
format for broadcast security related DSRC messages is
similar, but the associated packet lengths will vary.
Figure 1: DSRC Framework
The IEEE 802.11p standard is a single channel protocol
that is not suitable for dedicated short-range communication
(DSRC) in multichannel scenarios. Hadded et al. (2015)
Based on ADHOC MAC, VeMAC can use the seven DSRC
channels and allocate time slots based on vehicle movement
direction to significantly reduce transmission collisions
between vehicles. However, it uses two half-duplex
transceivers respectively for the control channel (CCH) and
service channels (SCHs), Figure 1. For VANETs such as
ADHOC MAC and VeMAC protocol, multiple access
(TDMA) based MAC protocols are suggested to solve the
above problems. ADHOC MAC is a distributed MAC
protocol based on TDMA that provides efficient broadcast
and service quality (QoS) guarantees for inter-vehicle
communication and solves hidden / exposed terminal
problems caused by random access in multi-hop network
architecture, [7].
2. Time Division Multi Access (TDMA)
According to [25], VANETs highlights the weaknesses of
regional MAC standards. MAC protocol is responsible for the
wireless resource distribution between vehicles. It must
ensure that live critical safety messages are delivered with a
limited delay. MAC standardization has a setback as the work
is based on a contention-based mechanism due to unbounded
delay in security messages. Less-based contention mechanism
such as CDMA, SDMA and TDMA. TDMA-based MAC
solves only a few problems by evaluating the basic idea,
operation and performance of these protocols to outline the
current status of MAC research for VANETs. Discussing and
identifying the limitations of regional standards. It also
develops important MAC protocols based on TDM, clearly
stating their basic idea, operation and performance, followed
by their comparison. VeSOMAC (Vehicle Self Organizing
MAC): This protocol is proposed to contain free access
technique that uses in-band control mechanism where each
node shares a bit map with its neighbors, containing slot
information. In both synchronous mode and asynchronous
mode, it can operate. Improved TCP throughput in this
protocol. The results of the simulation are based solely on the
highway scenario.
Based on [26] Originally, black-burst (channel jamming
signal) was used in wireless networks to inform one-hop
neighbors about the channel's use and to prevent collisions by
forcing reference nodes. Using the redundancy time at the
beginning of time slot, each vehicle sends a black burst after a
random delay from the beginning of the reservation slot to
inform its neighbors of the time slot's access will. By using the
randomly shifted black-burst, a node can detect other nodes
that reserve current slot in two-hop range in advance and
decide to reserve current slot or re-select another idle slot.
After successfully reserving the selected slot, the black-burst
part in the subsequent frames will be removed. Black-burst is
based on a novelty time slot acquisition scheme for the
TDMA / CSMA multi-channel MAC hybrid in VANETs. In
this scheme, all contending nodes broadcast a black burst at
the beginning of the selected slots to inform others about the
access of their selected idle slots within their two-hop range.
The proposed access scheme can reduce the number of access
collisions significantly. The results of the simulation show the
superiority of the scheme in time slot acquisition. However,
the performance of BB-MAC is much better than HTC-MAC
when the density becomes higher, figure 2. The proposed slot
acquisition scheme, called BB-MAC, can significantly reduce
access collisions and speed up time slot acquisition compared
to the above-mentioned protocols. This scheme was limited to
a vehicle node medium density.
According to [27], provide a reason for the interactive and
time-critical distance-bounding phase in which the prover is
required to send the response to the verifier as soon as the
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challenge has been received to minimize the delay. In
CSMA / CA, however, both RSU and cars must compete on
the same channel for transmission opportunity, while at the
same moment only one party is permitted to send packages.
For example, an RSU and a vehicle will run a distance
bounding protocol and more specifically assume that they
have already completed the slow phase and will do the
bounding phase of the n-rounds distance, then the RSU will
send a challenge and start its clock. It is difficult to ensure that
the car will be able to send the reply in time as it could be in
the queue to transmit data in order to prevent possible
collision. The waiting time is not deterministic and can't be
pre-measured. As a result, the challenge / response
propagating round-trip time can not be correctly obtained
from the recorded moment, which fails the range limitation.
The implement TDMA to a suggested system in order to
prevent this issue. In particular, TDMA operates in a
time-slotted structure, i.e. a virtual frame with a set of time
slots with the same time period (e.g. 1ms). When the node can
send information without collision, each node is allocated at
least one time slot in each frame, in figure 2. TDMA is a
method used to enable multiple nodes to transmit on the same
frequency channel based on the slot researvations as follows
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Slot Reservation
Figure 2: Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Slot
Reservation
• Addresses scalability.
• It divides the signal into different time frames.
• Each frame is divided into several time slots, where each
node is assigned to a time slot to transmit.
• The length of the time slot may vary, based on the needs
of the node assigned to it.
• The main advantage of TDMA is reducing interference
between nodes.
According to [13][28], the writer regarded the design of the
MAC layer due to the progressively extensive application
demands in VANETs, which one must consider the
low-latency and high-reliability transmission specifications
for security texts, as well as the high-throughput requirements
for entertainment and service emails. The Author adopts a
TDMA-based access system to provide vehicle
contention-free transmission and guarantee message
transmission reliability. Also embrace a system of
contention-based negotiation to guarantee that cars using
service channels are fair. There are few assumptions about the
model before introducing the channel frame structure: First,
each vehicle is equipped with a half-duplex transceiver that
can only work on the CCH or SCHs simultaneously. Second,
for inter-vehicle synchronization, GPS will provide an
accurate UTC clock signal. [12], a channel frame structure
shows a schematic diagram of one synchronization period
channel frame structure. The CCH framework is split into the
era of broadcasting and negotiation. The broadcast period
consists of time slots of equal length, and the amount of slots
will alter with traffic densities to enable the car to periodically
broadcast status messages. The negotiation period is based on
the system for back-off access to guarantee fairness between
cars that access SCHs. The three-way handshake protocol is
used during the negotiation period; the car can choose to
access an accessible service channel each time a handshake
protocol is finished. Therefore, the length of the SCHs will
adapt to the results of the negotiations. When compared, the
fresh system somewhat improves SCH's throughput. Existing
MAC protocols based on TDMA may result in slot
assignment collisions when multiple vehicle sets move with
different speeds together. Contrary to this, intersections have
the greatest need for reliable data communication to ensure
the safety of driving.
TABLE 1: Qualitative comparison of TDMA-based MAC protocols in VANET
HTC-
MAC
CTMA
C
TDMA-CS
MA
PTMAC RCMA
C
FCM-
MAC
EQM-
MAC
APDM MoMA
C
ABC VeSOM
AC
BB-MA
C
Referenc
es
Nyojen
et al
Hadded
et al
Y. Nguyen et
al
Jiang et al N. Ngujen
et al
Yao et al Song et al Song et al Liu et al Lyu et al Hag & Liu X. Zhang et
al
Publishe
d
2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2017 2017 2017 2018 2018 2019 2019
Channel Multiple Single Single Multiple Single Multip
le
Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Single
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Pure
TDMA
No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Merging
collision
Solve
d
Solve
d
Solved Possible Possible Possib
le
Possible Possible Posible Solved Possible Possible
Access
collision
Solve
d
Solve
d
Possible Solved Solved Solve
d
Solved Solved Solved Solved Solved Solved
Mobility High High High High Medium High High High High High High Medium
Density
(scalability)
High High High High High High High High Medium Medium High Medium
Broadcast
service
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Mobility
model
Highw
ay
Highw
ay
Highway/U
rban
Highway Highway Highw
ay
Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway
Vehicular
traffic
Bidirectio
nal
Bidirectio
nal
N/A Bidirectio
nal
Unidirecti
onal
Unidirect
ional
Bidirecti
onal
Bidirecti
onal
Unidirecti
onal
Unidirecti
onal
Unidirecti
onal
Unidirecti
onal
Data Traffic
load
High
load
High
load
Medium High load High load High
load
High
load
High
load
High load High load High load Medium
Control
overhead
High High Medium High Medium Mediu
m
Medium Medium Low Low Medium Medium
Transmission
range
Mediu
m
Mediu
m
Medium Medium Medium High High High Low N/A High High
Multimedia
applications
Yes No No
Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Real-Time
applications
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Positioning
System GPS
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Time
Synchronizatio
n
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Simulato
r
MATL
AB
MOV
E/SU
MO/
NS23
4
MATLAB SUMO/
MATLA
B
MATLAB NS2 NS3 NS3 SUMO SUMO N/A OMNET++
3. Cluster based Time Division Multi Access (TDMA)
VANET is based on the reliability of the Medium Access
Control (MAC) protocol, according to [16], figure 3. VANET
must provide reliable and timely delivery for a security
application. Quality of service (QoS) requirement such as
delivery delay and packet loss rate cannot be guaranteed
under conventional MAC protocol, particularly under high
vehicle mobility, heavy traffic conditions, frequent changes in
network topology and high network density affecting timely
delivery of critical safety applications [7]. Despite increasing
vehicle density and transmission range, even if the CH moved
out of the cluster without the need for cluster reconfiguration,
the vehicles would still remain connected to the existing
cluster for a long time. The approach enhanced the stability of
the cluster. In addition, it significantly minimized the delay in
broadcasting safety messages by using the worst-case
scenario. Compared to the threshold-based approach, CH
achieved a reduction of approximately 50 percent in the delay
in transmitting safety messages to CMs. The process
minimizes interference in adjacent clusters and delivered
safety massages efficiently. It also provides stability to the
cluster and minimizes overhead cluster. Only vehicles that
move in the same direction and have the same road ID are
considered to form a cluster group on a highway within a road
segment. A message moving in a different direction from a
neighboring vehicle is not considered and is ignored. The
vehicles ' arrival rate is supposed to be a Poisson process.
Figure 3: clustering Transition Model, [16].
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According to [7][31], the standard IEEE 802.11p only
provides VANETs with a contention-based MAC protocol
while using an enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA)
mechanism. However, due to the lack of request-to-send /
clear-to-send (RTS / CTS) exchange, it does not provide an
effective broadcast service with limited communication
delay. Also, when the multiple nodes attempt to send their
safety messages simultaneously, the probability of
transmission collisions increases. MAC protocols based on
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) such as ADHOC
MAC and VeMAC protocol could solve the above problem.
ADHOC MAC is a distributed TDMA-based MAC protocol
that provides efficient broadcasting and service quality (QoS)
guarantees for inter-vehicle communication and solves
hidden / exposed terminal problems caused by random access
in multi-hop network architecture. Unlike the IEEE 802.11p
standard, it is a single-channel protocol, not suitable for
dedicated short-range communication (DSRC), which uses
seven DSRC channels and allocates time slots based on
vehicle direction to reduce vehicle-to-vehicle collisions.
However, for the control channel (CCH) and service channels
(SCHs), it employs two half-duplex transceivers,
respectively. Many contention-free TDMA MAC protocols
have recently adopted cluster-based architecture because with
the help of cluster head
(CH) they can provide effective topology control, fair
channel access within each cluster, and minimize intra-cluster
and inter-cluster transmission collisions. This paper proposed
an average time-based clustering algorithm for link expiration
(ALET-CA), which takes into account multiple factors, such
as relative distance and relative node velocity, and radius for
transmission.
Figure 4: The basic flow of a clustering algorithm [32]
Network model is only for intra-vehicle clusters and
inter-vehicle clusters. Because of its high speed and the dense
building in the network, cluster structure is more suitable in
VANET, according to [17][33]. Cluster algorithm is used to
generate multiple clusters where the cluster head (CH) with a
maximum connectivity clustering algorithm selects the node
with the highest adjacent nodes, but is not suitable for stable
cluster structure, figure 4. Modifications in topology change
node connectivity. The nodes used by the ALM clustering
algorithm's mobility and location do not consider the node's
relative position in the cluster structure. The relative node
movement is not considered by adopting weighted
clustering algorithm. The current traffic load is not
considered by a stable algorithm based VMaSC, which
calculates the neighboring node speed function. The SWC
and AMA-composed AMAC protocol uses clustering and
access information to solve clustering problems for
high-speed vehicles. The VeMAC protocol combines random
access with fixed allocation access, and uses the technique of
random selection to select time slots to reduce transmission
collisions and then achieve high network throughput.
TDMA Assignment Algorithm
• Clusterhead based clustering scheme
• One transceiver on-board
• vehicles are equipped with GPS
• 1 CCH (cch)
• 6 SCHs (k)
• N vehicles
• τ is the slot size in SCHs
• a mini-slot on the control channel
• channel j mod k during time slot [j/k] j ; also, vehicle j
owns the ordered pair (j and k, [j/k] j)
• The j-th mini-slot of slot ( [j/k] - 1 mod [N/k] on channel
cch
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The Vehicle Ad-hoc Network (VANET) involves cars
with specialized access points, according to [34]. It transmits
and gets data from the Sensor Nodes (SNs) and environment
to manage traffic loads. Destination routing, car velocity and
direction management are therefore significant issues in
VANETs. This document introduced the use of VANETS to
hybridize Q-LEACH clustering based on FCM. The ideal CH
was achieved from the group of SNs through this clustering.
The data gathered by these CHs is transmitted to the near-CH
highway side unit. The RSU-BS communication took place
via the IEEE 802.11.p protocol. Based on the BS information,
users know about the environment on the roadside. The
performance of this FCM-Q LEACH-VANET was analyzed
in terms of energy consumption, total packet transmission,
network latency and performance. Results showed that the
FCM-Q LEACH-VANET performs better than the IDVR
protocol. The suggested technique has been introduced with
distinct amount of SNs and 10 highway side units. The output
of FCM-Q LEACH-VANET evaluated the VANET
effectiveness with Dynamic VANET Routing Intersection
(IDVR). There is currently an intensive research on the
problems of reliability and scalability of the routing protocol
across large urban VANETs.
Clustering can be used to improve the scalability and
efficiency of VANET routing as it results in the production of
hierarchical network structures by grouping cars together
based on correlated spatial distribution and relative velocity.
These organisations, in relation to the benefits of routing, can
serve as the grounds for collision detection or congestion
detection, information dissemination and entertainment
applications. The [32], reviews the design choices taken when
VANET-oriented clustering algorithms are created. It
introduces a taxonomy of cluster head selection methods,
cluster membership and cluster management issues, and
identifies fresh directions and latest trends in the design of
these algorithms. Also, methodologies for clustering
performance validation are reviewed and a key shortcoming is
identified as the lack of realistic modeling of vehicle
channels. The significance of a strict and standardized
performance evaluation system using realistic car channel
models is demonstrated by [24].
TABLE 2: Qualitative comparison of TDMA-based MAC protocols in cluster-based network topology
VMaSC-L
TE
WCS-MA
C
BEFM-MAC STCM SCMAC CCFM-
MAC
AMAC EWCA FCM-Q
LEACH
Adaptive
IEE802.11p
References Ucar et al Xie & Li Torabi &
Gbahfarokhi
Shalin &
Kim
Cao et al Y. Zang Chen et al Bello et al Engineering Nguyen et al
Published 2016 2016 2016 2017 2017 2018 2018 2019 2019 2019
Channel Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple Multiple
Pure TDMA No No No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No
Access
collision
Solved Solved Possible Possible Possible Solved Possible Possible Possible Possible
Inter-cluster
interference
Possible Possible Solved Solved Solved Solved Solved Possible Possible Possible
Mobility High High High High High High High High N/A Medium
Density
(scalability)
Medium High High Medium High high High high Low Low
Broadcast
service
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Mobility
model
Highway Highway Highway Highway Highwa
y
Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway
Vehicular
traffic
Unidirectio
nal
Unidirectio
nal
Unidirectiona
l
Unidirecti
onal
Unidirec
tional
Unidirect
ional
Unidirectiona
l
Unidirectiona
l
Unidirectiona
l
Unidirectiona
l
Traffic load High load Medium Medium Medium Medium High load Medium High load Medium Medium
Control
overhead
Low Low Low Low Medium Low Low Low Medium Medium
Transmission
range
Low Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Multimedia
applications
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes
No Yes No
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Real-Time
applications
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes
GPS System Yes No Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes
No Yes Yes
Time
Synchronizati
on
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes
Simulator NS37SU
MO
N/A SUMO, NS2 &
MATLAB
N/A NS2 &
SUMO
MATLAB SUMO, NS2 &
MATLAB
SUMO&NS3 MATLAB
2015b
NS335
4. Hybrid TDMA/CSMA multi-channel MAC protocol
As in [24][35][36], many packet types like HELLO packet,
SWITCH packet, and WSA / RES / ACK packet are
broadcast during the contention period. Therefore, because of
the number of packets transmitted, there is a higher
probability of collision. Thus, the overhead control will
decrease the CCH throughput. A Hybrid TDMA / CSMA
multi-channel MAC (HTC-MAC) protocol for VANETs is
presented to solve the disadvantages of HER-MAC. Not only
does HTC-MAC remove unnecessary overhead control, but it
also improves the control channel throughput. Simulation and
analysis demonstrate that HTC-MAC outperforms
HER-MAC in the average number of time-slot nodes.
However, when the node density is large, HTC-MAC needs a
bigger ANC's payload size to transmit data to its neighbours.
A centralized TDMA-based MAC protocol called CTMAC
that used RSU as a vehicle channel coordinator within its
communication range[37][9]. The ways in which slots are
assigned and reused among the coverage fields of the RSU are
intended to prevent accidents triggered by the issue of vehicle
interference in overlapping regions. When the results of
ADHOC and VeMAC MAC protocols were compared,
CTMAC was able to provide a lower rate of access and
merging collisions as well as the overhead needed to create
and maintain TDMA schedules. CTMAC does not promote
multichannel operation and the control channel's secure
smulti-hop broadcasting service. The PTMAC protocol
proposed to decrease the number of packet collisions,
especially for encounter collisions. Potential collisions
between cars could be identified, predicted, and then
eliminated by intermediate cars before they actually happen
[22]. The simulations show the protocol's effectiveness.
Unbalanced traffic densities will not degrade PTMAC, [19],
since no slot partition is used. PTMAC is also suitable for
handling four-way traffic under different traffic densities,
unlike a few existing MAC protocols that work only for one
way or two-way traffic scenarios. The results show that with
the least number of collisions and the highest delivery rate, the
PTMAC works best. Since ADHOC MAC enables a car to
compete for any vacant slot without taking into account the
nature of mobility of the cars, it is appropriate for only
one-way traffic and its efficiency is significantly impacted by
the enormous amount of crashes under such a four-way
intersection situation. This is because not only does PTMAC
eliminate collisions between vehicles from opposite
directions, but it also prevents collisions from the same
direction. Designing a new prediction-based TDMA MAC
(PTMAC) protocol to reduce the likelihood of encounter
collisions while maintaining high slot utilization and with
very small additional overheads. Most collisions of the
encounter can be predicted and potentially eliminated before
they actually occur. The forecast is based on the data already
supplied by the car to help apps related to safety.
• The freshly constructed PTMAC protocol is proven to
be appropriate for two-way traffic and four-way junctions in
metropolitan areas. Unbalanced densities of traffic will not
degrade PTMAC's efficiency.
• By evaluating and comparing our PTMAC protocol to
ADHOC MAC and even odd TDMA MAC, PTMAC
demonstrates improved efficiency with lower
collisions and greater shipping rates for two-way and
four-way intersection situations.
Table 3. Different adaptive IEEE 802.11p–based multi-channel MAC protocols.
Reference Protocol
name
Interval divisions Optimized object Advantages Disadvantages Publis
hed
V. Nguyen et
al
RCMAC Safety interval
WSA/ACK interval
Safety Interval
WSA/ACK interval
Improves time slot
acquisition through RSU
coordination
All nodes in constant speed.
Not suitable for multi-hop
2016
Nguyen et al
HTC-MAC
Safety interval
Safety interval
WSA/ACK interval
Supports the various QoS
requairments
Has a drawback in supporting
throughput- sensitive
non-safety application.
2016
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Hadded et al
CTMAC
Safety interval
Coordination control frame
interval
Safety interval
WSA/ACK interval
In a large area covered, it
avoid collision by
interference between vehicles
in overlapping region.
Do not support multi-channel
operation. The high are equip
with RSU which are very
expensive
2016
Y. Nguyen et
al
TDMA-CS
MA
WSA/ACK interval
Safety interval
Safety interval
WSA interval
The length of the BF is not
uniform. Therefore, each
vehicle dynamically adjust
the BF length according to its
neighbor
Collision between the two-hop
neighbors attempt to access
available time slot.
2016
Jiang et al PTMAC
WSA/ACK interval
Safety interval
Safety interval
WSA interval
Potencial collision between
two-hop communication
range can be ditected by
immediate vehicle predicted
and eliminated before it
occur. Reduce number of
collision and has the high
delivery rate
Based on prediction instead of
real world scenario. It do not
eliminate collision totally
2016
Ucar et al VMaSC-LT
E
Safety interval
WSA interval
Safety interval
WSA interval
It forward efficient data with
minimizing delay
Is not applicable to urban traffic
scenario and path information of
vanet
2016
Xie & Li
WCS-MAC
Safety Interval and
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
It forward efficient data with
minimizing delay
A time delay for CH election
result in longer average total
transmission time of an SCA
sesson. Connection is set up
only between CH and CM
2016
Torabi &
Gbahfarokhi
BEFM-MAC Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
It has a better performance in
terms of fairness and bandwidth
utilization.
Inter-cluster communication is
not addressed. The collision
between nodes from different
cluster occur and the hidden
nodes collision
2016
Shalin & Kim STCM Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
Enhance packet delivery
in CCH and throughput
in SCH
Limited to inter-cluster
communication with limited
nodes
2017
Cao et al
SCMAC
Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
Enhance packet delivery
in CCH and throughput
in SCH. Achieves reliable and
scalable periodic beaconing in
vehicular environment. It solves
hidden terminal problems.
The channel fading is ignored to
focus on the MAC layer
performance. The concurrent
broadcasting will cause
collision
2017
Yao et al.42
FCM-MAC
Coordination Control Frame
interval WSA and safety
message RES interval
WSA and safety
message
High channel utilization.
Supports the reliability for safety
application. Allows safety and
non-safety messages transmitted
in a flexible way.
Considers WSA and safety
messages with the same packet
arrival rate.
2017
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Song et al.41
APDM ORP interval Safety and
WSA/ACK interval
Safety and
WSA/ACK interval
Reduces the safety packet
delay. Improves the system
throughput in VANETs.
Once optimal node leaves the
neighborhood, the channel
access schedule is lost and
collision between messages will
occur.
2017
Song et al.40 EQMMAC Safety interval Vehicle
identification interval
WSA/ACK interval Provide the high saturation
throughput. Improves
transmission delay for
non-safety application
Vehicles require two
transceivers.
2017
Y. Zhang et al CCFM-MA
C
Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
No packet collision during
the process of inter-cluster
and inter-cluster
Limited to intra-cluster
communication with limited
nodes. Do not include RSU in
the process
2018
Chen et al
AMAC
Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
Reduces transmission
collision and achieved
high throughput
Uses half-duplex transmission
and do not includes RSU in the
process. In high way scenarios
courses break in transmission
2018
Liu et al MoMAC Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
It assign time slot according
to road topology and lane
distribution on road
In V2V communication every
vehicle need to periodically
broadcast their status and turn
signal status to all neighbors
within one-hop. There is no
efficient slot assignment for
uneven traffics
2018
Liu et al ABC Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
Efficient beacon rate to avoid
a rear-end collision based on
individual estimates
TDMA must reduce energy
waste in the contention
protocol and with limited
stability adaptability. Hard to
dynamic change from frame
size or slots assignment when
new nodes join
2018
X. Zhang et al BB-MAC Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
It reduces collision and
speed-up time slot
acquisition
Is only limited to medium
density of vehicle nodes
2019
Engineering FCM-Q
LEACH
Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
it enhances network
performance, especially
betwee CH and RSU
It do not work on selection of
CH in cluster network because
the choice is based on trust
degree. Transport of packet
using IEEE802.11p from RSU
to BS i.e. contention based is
not suitable for multi-hop
2019
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Nguyen et al
Adaptive
IEEE
802.11p
Safety interval
WSA/ACK interval
Safety interval
WSA/ACK interval
Improve saturated
throughput, adapt to amount
of traffic data and ensure
safety package transmission
Not suitable for multi-hop
communication. When CH move
out of their cluster, channel
access schedule is lost and
collision between messages occur
2019
Bello et al.
EWCA Safety interval,
WSA interval
Safety and Safety
critical SCA interval
WSA interval
Minimize interference in
adjacent clusters. Provide
efficient delivery of safety
messages. Provide cluster
stability and minimizes cluster
overhead, and maintenance
A messages from neighboring
vehicles moving in different
direction is not considered, due
to merging amongst the
adjacent cluster. Uses poison
process to arrival rate of
vehicle’
2019
Hag & Liu VeSOMAC Safety interval, Safety and Safety critical
SCA interval WSA
interval
It can operate in synchronize
and in asynchronies mode.
Improve TCP throughput
in this protocol
Vehicles require two transceivers.
Unbounded delay in the delivery
of safety messages.
2019
VANET: vehicular ad hoc network; MAC: medium access
control; WSA: Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment
Service Advertisement; ACK: Acknowledgment; SCHI:
service channel interval; QoS: quality of service; CCH:
control channel; RES: Reservation; CH: control head; CM:
control member
CONCLUSSION
The standard IEEE 802.11p only provides VANETs with a
contention-based MAC protocol while using an enhanced
distributed channel access (EDCA) mechanism. However,
due to the lack of request-to-send / clear-to-send (RTS / CTS)
exchange, it does not provide an effective broadcast service
with limited communication delay. Also, when the multiple
nodes attempt to send their safety messages simultaneously,
the probability of transmission collisions increases. MAC
protocols based on Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
such as ADHOC MAC and VeMAC protocol could solve the
above problem. ADHOC MAC is a distributed TDMA-based
MAC protocol that provides efficient broadcasting and
service quality (QoS) guarantees for inter-vehicle
communication and solves hidden / exposed terminal
problems caused by random access in multi-hop network
architecture. Unlike the IEEE 802.11p standard, it is a
single-channel protocol, not suitable for dedicated
short-range communication (DSRC), which uses seven DSRC
channels and allocates time slots based on vehicle direction to
reduce vehicle-to-vehicle collisions. However, for the control
channel (CCH) and service channels (SCHs), it employs two
half-duplex transceivers, respectively. Many contention-free
TDMA MAC protocols have recently adopted cluster-based
architecture because with the help of cluster head (CH) they
can provide effective topology control, fair channel access
within each cluster, and minimize intra-cluster and
inter-cluster transmission collisions. In table 5, gives detail
analysis laveraging the applications of different TDMA
protocols leveraging the VANET uptil date. The advantages
and disadvantages are clearly stated and uniquely presented
in figure 1,2 and 3. The analysis suggested for VANETs to
guarantee that all vehicle have sufficient time to send safety
messages without collisions and to decrease the end-to-end
delay and the loss ratio of packets.
Figure 5: The number of TDMA-based MAC protocols
proposed for each year.
Figure 6: The number of TDMA-based MAC protocols
proposed for each year
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Figure 7: The number of TC-MAC protocols proposed
for each year
Future work:
Use multi-channel DSRC band to facilitate spatial reuse
of channel resources to develop a contention-less scheme
based on TDMA that contains unbounded delay.
The RSU capable of listening to all broadcast messages
and doing traffic condition statistics on each segment of the
road and then using their time slots to broadcast up-to-date
slot allocation scheme.
A CH in a cluster-based TDMA-MAC with the
responsibility of allocating a slice of time to their CMs to
reduce energy wasted.
An average time-based clustering algorithm for link
expiration, which takes into account multiple factors, such as
relative distance and relative node velocity, and radius for
transmission. Network model is only for intra-vehicle clusters
and inter-vehicle clusters.
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AUTHOR’S PROFILE
Siman Emmanuel, PhD Student, Department
of Computer Science, Faculty of Computing,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Lecturer
Computer Science, Federal University Wukari,
Taraba, Nigeria.
Ismail Fauzi Isnin, PhD, Senior
Lecturer, Department of Computer
Science, Faculty of Computing, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. Doctor of
Philosophy, University of Plymouth,
United Kingdom, • Research: A Study on
Wireless Communication Error
Performance and Path Loss
Prediction..Mobile Adhoc Network; Robotic
Mohd Murtadha Mohamad, Senior
lecturer,Faculty of Computing, PhD in
Electrical, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Heriot-Watt University UK. Research:
Robotic;Artifficial Intelligent; Motion
Planing; Ubiquitius Posisioning;
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network