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Union CollegeUnion | Digital Works
Honors Theses Student Work
6-2018
A Study of the Pantheon Through TimeCaitlin Williams
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AStudyofthePantheonThroughTime
By
CaitlinWilliams
*******
Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfor
HonorsintheDepartmentofClassics
UNIONCOLLEGEJune,2018
ii
ABSTRACT
WILLIAMS,CAITLINAStudyofthePantheonThroughTime.DepartmentofClassics,June,2018.
ADVISOR:Hans-FriedrichMueller.
IanalyzethePantheon,oneofthemostwell-preservedbuildingsfrom
antiquity,throughtime.IstartwithAgrippa'sPantheon,theoriginalPantheonthat
isnolongerstanding,whichwasbuiltin27or25BC.Whatdiditlooklikeoriginally
underAugustus?Whywasitbuilt?WethenshifttothePantheonthatstandstoday,
Hadrian-Trajan'sPantheon,whichwascompletedaroundAD125-128,and
representsanexampleofanarchitecturalrevolution.Wasitevenatemple?We
alsolookatthePantheon'sconversiontoachurch,whichhelpsexplainwhyitisso
wellpreserved.MystudyaimsforanunderstandingofthePantheonincontextof
whatitmeantforthepeopleofRome,theempire,andmodernday.
iii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Abstract..........................................................................ii
Introduction......................................................................1
ChapterI:Agrippa’sPantheon.....................................................4
ChapterII:Hadrian’sPantheon..................................................17
ChapterIII:ThePantheonasaChurchandToday.................................40
Conclusion......................................................................52
Bibliography....................................................................55
1
INTRODUCTION
Asoneofthemostwellpreservedandcontinuallyrestoredbuildingsfrom
antiquity,thePantheonhasbecomeavastsubjectofresearch,yettherearemany
questionsthatsurroundthebuilding.ThePantheon’soriginalpurposeisstill
unknown.Wasitforreligioususe,forgovernmentbusiness,amemorialor
somethingelse?However,lookingatthePantheonthroughtime,beginning27B.C.
or25B.C.tothemoderndaypermitsustoanalyzethePantheontoseewhatthe
purposeofthePantheonwasatdifferentpoints,whyitissowellpreserved,aswell
asitsplaceinantiquityforthepeopleoftheRomanEmpire.
ThebestwaytostartlookingatthisisbylookingatAgrippa’soriginal
Pantheon.EventhoughthisfirstPantheonisnolongerstanding,itwasinthesame
placethecurrentPantheonstandsintheCampusMartius,sowecanexamineits
relationshiptootherbuildings.BylookingatwherethePantheonislocatedandwhy
itwaschosentobeplacedthere,wecananalyzetheimportanceofitslocation.By
lookingatwherethefirstPantheonwasbuiltbyAgrippa,wecanusethelimited
knowledgewegainforanalyzingabuildingthatlaterbecameaveryprominentand
stillwellpreservedpartofantiquity.Thereisalsostillsomeknowledgeaboutthe
PantheonthatcanbefoundbylookingatancientsourcessuchasCassiusDio.Dio
describeswhythePantheoniscalledthePantheon.Thisleadsusintolookingatthe
debateofwhatthePantheonwasforbaseduponthemeaningbehinditsname.In
additiontothis,IwilllookatAgrippa’sroleinbuildingthePantheon,whichwas
almostnamedthe“Augusteum”andwhyitwasnotnamedthis.Inregardtothe
religionoftheimperialcultanditsconnectiontotheassassinationofJuliusCaesar,I
2
amgoingtolookatsuchfeaturesasthealtar,oculus,domeandstatues.Iwillalso
contrasttheoriginalrectangularshapeofthebuildingwiththecurrentPantheon’s
circularform,anddiscussitssignificance.Finally,howdidpeopleinteractwiththe
uniquearchitectureofthePantheon?
Afterthisinitialinvestigation,IwilllookathowandwhorebuiltAgrippa’s
Pantheon,whichburneddowninafirein80A.D.andwhichwasagainstruckby
lightningin110A.D.Inotherwords,whatisthesignificanceofhowthebuilding
keptbeingrebuiltandreplaced?Ialsowilllookatthecontroversyofwhobuiltthe
Pantheonthatisstandingtodaybylookingatthebrickstamps,thebricktypesthat
wereused,andtheinscriptiononthebuilding.Ialsolookathowpeoplewouldhave
feltaboutandinteractedwiththePantheon,dependinguponwhowastheemperor
atthetime.IalsolookathowthearchitectureofthePantheonrepresentsthe
architecturalrevolutionthatoccurredinRomeandthemeaningofthematerials
used.Bylookingatthearchitecture,CassiusDio,andtheHistoriaeAugustaIanalyze
whetherthePantheonwasforpaganworshiporforotherpurposes.
Lastly,IwilllookatthereasonswhythePantheonisstillwellpreserved,
whichIattributetothePantheonhavingbeenconvertedtoaChristianchurch
becausethePopessponsoredrenovationstohelpmaintainandrefurbishmany
partsofthebuildingoveritshistory.Iexplainwhowasbehindtheconversion,when
thistookplace,andwhattypeofChurchthePantheonwasconvertedto.Ialso
describethecelebrationsandeventsthathaveoccurredinthePantheonafterthe
conversion.IwillanalyzethedifferencesinthePantheonfromapaganworshipto
ChristianworshipbylookingatMaryandJesusincomparisonwithVenusandMars.
3
AnotherdifferenceIlookatistheplacementofanaltarinsidethePantheonasa
churchandhowthereisnoevidenceofanaltarforthePantheonthatcanbefound
fromantiquity.IalsolookathowthePantheonhasinfluencedmodernarchitecture
bycomparingittosuchotherbuildingsastheDuomoofFlorence,andIdonot
neglecttodiscusshowthePantheonisusedbypeopletoday.
ThePantheontoday(PhotobyCaitlinWilliams)
4
CHAPTERI:Agrippa’sPantheon
ThefirstPantheonwaspartofamassiveplanthatincluded“Rome’sfirst
publicbathbuilding”byMarcusAgrippa.1Itisbelievedtohavebeencreatedin27
or25B.C.byAgrippa.2Agrippa’sPantheonandthePantheonthatiscurrently
standingtodaywerebothlocatedintheCampusMartius,whichtranslatesto“the
fieldofthewargodMars.”3Thebuilding’splacementontheCampusMartiuscould
havebeenmeanttounderscoreAugustus’sconnectiontoMars,andthiswouldhave
remainedtrueforthePantheonthatreplacedtheoriginalaswell.
In80A.D.theoriginalbuildingwasdestroyedbyafire,itburnedagainin110
A.D.,and,asaresult,theoriginalisnotthebuildingthatcanbeseenstandingtoday
inRome.4ThisfirstfireoccurredduringthereignofDomitian,and“inthetimeof
Trajan[thebuilding]wasstruckbylightningandburnedagain.Therestorationthen
carriedoutbyHadrianseemstohavebeenanentirelynewbuilding,probablyonan
entirelynewplan.”5OurknowledgeofAgrippa’sPantheonisfairlylimited,butithas
beenconcludedthatitwasprobablyalsoarotundaliketheonethatstandstoday.6
Onethingthatcanbetakenawayfromthefactthatthebuildinghasbeenrebuilt
throughouthistoryisthatitalwaysretaineduseandimportancefromthetimeit
wasbuilttopresentday.
TheidentificationofwhobuiltAgrippa’sPantheonandthePantheonthat
standstodayhasbeenthesubjectofdebatesamongscholars;however,thereisa
1 Perkins, 1977, 70. 2 Marder & Jones, 2015, 5. 3 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 4 Perkins, 1977, 70. 5 Richardson, 1995, 283 6 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4.
5
memorialtothefirstPantheonthatisretainedonthecurrentPantheonthatcanbe
recognizedasatributetoAgrippa’sPantheon,thepredecessorofHadrian’s
Pantheon,whichisthecurrentonestanding.Theinscriptiononthefacadereads,
“M.AgrippaL.F.Costertiumfecit,”whichmaybetranslatedas,“MarcusAgrippa,
sonofLucius,consulthreetimes,made[this].”7TheheritageofthePantheonhas
beendebatedovertimeandwhothecurrentPantheonwasbuiltbyhasbeenthe
subjectionofexaminationforalongtime.Ithasgenerallybeendecidedthatthe
PantheonthatstandstodaywasbuiltbyHadrian.Thisconclusionhasmainlybeen
cementedbythefactofthepresenceof“brickstamps,excavation,andliterary
sources.”8
ThePantheonisoneofthemostwellpreservedbuildingsfromantiquityand
inGreekmeans“allgods,”whichisnamelyatemplededicatedto“allgods.”9
However,accordingtoCassiusDiowho“providestworeadings”ofthename
Pantheon,“onederivingfromcelestialsymbolism,andtheotherfromstatuesof
multipledivinities,consistentwiththecommonperceptionofthePantheonasa
templetoallgods.”10ThereadingofthePantheonasbeingdedicatedtoallgods
showsRome’sinclusivenessofothergodswithinRome’sstatereligion.
ThroughfurtherexcavationandreadingsofsuchliterarysourcesasDio,
therehavebeenotherpossibilitiesofwhatthebuildingwouldhavebeenusedfor.
Agrippa’sbuildingplan,whichwaspreviouslymentioned,waspartof“Agrippa
7 Boatwright, 2013,19. 8 Boatwright, 2013, 19. 9 Jones, 2000, 179. 10 Jones, 2000, 179.
6
beautif(ying)thecityathisownexpense.”11CassiusDiodescribesthePantheonin
hiswritingswhentalkingabouttheplanandbuildingsthatAgrippahadbuiltfor
Rome.Diostates:
[regarding]thebuildingcalledthePantheon[,i]thasthisname,perhapsbecauseitreceivedamongtheimageswhichdecorateditthestatuesofmanygods,includingMarsandVenus;butmyownopinionofthenameisthat,becauseofitsvaultedroof,itresemblestheheavens.Agrippa,forhispart,wishedtoplaceastatueofAugustustherealsoandtobestowuponhimthehonourofhavingthestructurenamedafterhim;butwhentheemperorwouldn'taccepteitherhonour,heplacedinthetempleitselfastatueoftheformerCaesarandintheante-roomstatuesofAugustusandhimself.Thiswasdone,notoutofanyrivalryorambitiononAgrippa'sparttomakehimselfequaltoAugustus,butfromhisheartyloyaltytohimandhisconstantzealforthepublicgood;henceAugustus,sofarfromcensuringhimforit,honouredthemthemore.12
DioisdetailingtheoriginalPantheonanddiscussesthemeaningofitsname,
whichhasalsobeendebated.Hegivestwopossibilitiesofwhythebuildingwas
calledthePantheon:onepossibilityisbecauseofthenumerousstatuesofdifferent
godswithinthebuildingandtheotherpossibilityisbecauseofthebuilding’sdome
andoculus.HealsoexpressedhispersonalopiniononwhyhethinksthePantheon
gotthisnameandheattributesittothe“vaultedroof,”ratherthanitbeingforall
gods.Thisislikelybecausetherewerenoknowntemplesthatwerebuilttoworship
allgodsinantiquitybecauseeachgodneededtobeworshipedindividually,sothat
responsesfromthegodsintheformofomenscouldbeattributedtothepropergod.
Howcouldanomenassociatedwiththetempleof“allgods”havebeenassociated
withthecorrectgod?However,theoverallinconclusivenessaboutwhythe
11 Dio, trans. of 1917, 265. 12 Dio, trans. of 1917, 265.
7
Pantheonhasthisnameispartofitsmysterytoday.Dioalsotalksaboutthe
relevanceoftheAgrippa’sPantheontoAgrippaandAugustus’srelationshipwith
eachother.HedescribesAgrippa’sresponsibilityforhisbuildingprojectandhowhe
alsoincludedAugustusinthatproject.Hewantedto“honor”Augustusbyputtinga
statueofhiminsidePantheon;however,asaresultofthecarefullinethatAugustus
towedasemperorineverywayexceptname,hedeclinedAgrippa’soffer.This
decisionbyAugustusresultedinAgrippainstallingastatueofJuliusCaesarinside.It
alsoresultedin
put[ing]statuesofAugustusandhimselfintheporch.FromthisitappearsthatthedesignofthebuildingwasinhonorofAugustus’sdivineforebears,especiallyMarsandVenus,aforerunneroftheTempleofMarsUltor.13
Lookingfurtherintotherelationshipbetweentheirrelationship.Itisclearthatthe
nowPantheonwasactuallyintendedtobecalledthe“Augusteum”afterastatueof
Augustuswastobeputin,butthiswouldbetoomuchofa“deification.”14
Lookingatthereligiousconnections,onebelievesthatthebuildingnever
becametheAugusteum,becauseAugustuscouldnotacceptabuildingthatinvolved
blatantworshipforhimself.AsaresultofJuliusCaesar’sextensivepowerandrule
overtheRomanEmpirehewasassassinatedbyhissenators.Augustusinresponse
tohisadoptivefather’scruelandunexpecteddeathwasmorecarefulwithhowhe
ruledtheempire.Agrippa,ashistrustedadvisor,wasattemptingtocreateaplaceto
honorAugustus,whilehewasstillalive;however,beinghonoredasagodwhilestill
livingisoneofthereasonsthatCaesarwasassassinated.InthatperiodofRoman
13 Richardson, 1995, 283 14 Goldsworthy, 2015, 259.
8
history,theonlyacceptablewaytobehonoredlikeagodwouldhavebeenafter
one’sdeath.Augustuswasstillabletobeworshipedwhilehewasalive,butonly
hisGeniuswasworshipedinRomeandhereceivedcultichonorsinmanyprovinces,Augustuswasnotformallydeifieduntilafterhisdeathin14CE,whenatempleanddeificationweredecreedinhishonor.15
EventhoughAugustuswaswidelylovedbythecitizensofRomeitwasimportantfor
himnottomakethesamemisstepsthatCaesarmadesothathecouldavoidan
unnaturalandabruptdeathandendofhisreign.
Dioalsobringsuptheconceptofreligiousandimperialcultsinthisperiod.
BasedonDio’sdescriptionofthePantheon,itseemsthatthebuildingwasactually
intendedtobeaplacefortheemperortobealignedwiththegods.Duringthe
lifetimeofanemperortherewouldtypicallybenumerousimperialcultsthatwould
worshiphim.Theseimperialcultswouldmakestatuesoftheemperorandhonor
theemperorinordertousuallygainfavorwithhim;albeit,noneofthesecultplaces
wouldbewithinthecityofRomeitself.Upontheemperor’sdeath,hewouldbe
deifiedandworshippedasagod.Dioalsodescribesimperialcultsandtheirimpact
ontheruleofemperor.AsWarriorsummarizes,
TwocenturieslaterDiocommentsonthebeginningsofimperialcult:AugustusmeanwhileallowedprecintsinEphesosandNicaeatobededicatedtoRomaandtohisfatherCaesar,naminghimtheheroJulius…HeorderedtheRomanslivingtheretohonorthesedivinities.Buthepermittedforeigners,whomhecalledGreeks,toconsecrateprecintstohimself–theAsiansinPergamonandBithyniansatNicomedia.Thatiswherethispracticestartedandhasbeencontinuedunderotheremperors,notonlyamongGreeknations,butamongotherssubjecttoRomanrule.InRomeitselfandtherestofItaly,noemperor,nomatterhowworthyofrenown,hassofardaredtodothis.However,whentheydie,thosethatruledwithintegrityarealso
15 Warrior, 2006, 113.
9
grantedvariousdivinehonorsinRomeandheroa(shrinestoheroes)arebuilttothem.(Dio51.20.6-8)16TheimperialcultwasawayforAugustus,thefirstprinceps,andeveryfuture
princepstomaintainsupportforthemselvesfromRomansubjectsthroughoutthe
empire.ThesecitiesthatDiomentionscreatedtemplesandstatuesofAugustusin
thiscasetoworshiphimandgainfavorwithhim.ItwasimportantforRoman
subjectsoutsidethecityofRometobeabletoshowtheemperorthatthey
supportedhim.Thiswasakeyfactorinpublicworksandacustomarypartofpublic
lifeintheRomanEmpire.Thereasonsthat“noemperor,nomatterhowworthyof
renown”wouldputastatueofhimselfinRomeorhaveanimperialcultwithinthe
citywasbecauseofthelessonallsubsequentemperorshadlearnedfrom“Caesar
[whohad]intendedtobeproclaimedkingofRome.”17Becauseofthesepractical
guidelinesforanimperialcultoftheemperor,itwaspossibleformanycitiesto
“sharetheemperor,andforthecultoftheemperortoendurelongandspread”far,
butnotinthecityofRomeitself.18
Ontheotherhand,Dio’stwodifferentreadingsofthePantheonbringupthe
questionwhetherthiswasinfactatempleforallgodsorwasitinsteadaplacefor
peopletoworshipboththeemperorandgodsorwasitneitherofthese?Evenwith
theinformationthatisavailableandthebuildingitself,wecannotbecertainwhat
thebuildingwasactuallyintendedfor,although,wehave,ofcourse,educated
interpretationsofwhatitspurposewas.19Thereareothertheoriesonwhatthe
16 Warrior, 2006, 113-116. 17 Clifford, 2003, 149. 18 Clifford, 2003, 238. 19 Jenkyns, 2013, 352.
10
namePantheonmeansandwhyitwaschosenforthisbuilding.Becausethestatues
thatarebelievedtohavebeenplacedinthePantheonthatnolongerexist,thename
ishardertoexplain.Peoplearguethatitis“atempleofallthegods,atempleofthe
12Olympiangods,oratempleinwhichtheimageofarulerstoodinthecompanyof
suchdivinities.”20
Includedamongthesestatues,werestatuesofMarsandVenus.TheVenus
statuewaswearingearrings“madeofhalvesofapearl”fromCleopatra.21The
statuesofVenusandMarsaresignificantbecauseAugustusclaimedthesegodstobe
partofhislineage.VenuswasbelievedtobestowcharismaandcharmandMarswas
believedtogivewarintelligence.ThesestatuesunderscoreAugustus’sassociation
withthebuildingandconnecthimevenfurthernotonlywiththebuildingitself,but
alsotohisdivinelineage.InspectingVenusfurther,itisinterestingthatthestatue
woreearringsfromCleopatra.Thiscouldhavebeentohighlightthevictory
AugustushadoverCleopatraandMarkAntonytogainhispositionofprincepsafter
JuliusCaesarwasassassinated.ThiswouldfurtherstrengthenthePantheon’s
connectiontoAugustus,ifAgrippaindeedincludedthesetrophiesofwarasfeatures
inthebuilding.
ManyoftheinterpretationsofthePantheonrevolvearounditsusefor
religiouspurposesandthemainpieceofevidenceforthisisthedomeandoculus.
DuringAugutus’stimeasprincepshisgoalwastoreinstitutetraditionalRoman
valuesbackintotheculture.Partofthisreinstitutionwasbringinga“revivalinthe
20 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 21 Richardson, 1995, 283.
11
religiouslife.”22However,inthiscase,sincewearelookingatAgrippa’sPantheon,it
isunclearwhetherthebuildinghadadomeandoculusorexactlyhowmuchit
lookedlikethePantheonthatstandsbeforeeveryonetoday.Nevertheless,itisstill
interestingtolookatthePantheoninareligiousaspectbecauseRomanswere
usuallycarefultomakesuretemplesservedonespecificgod.InRomanreligion,
eachgodwouldrespondtoeachperson’sprayerinhisorherownway,andeach
omenthatwouldpresentitself,whetherthroughasacrifice,birds,lightning,or
someothermethod,meantadifferentanswerfromthespecificgodassociatedwith
anindividualtemple.Becauseeachtemplewasdedicatedtojustonegod,soomens
occurringinatemplecouldbeassociatedwiththecorrectdeity.Theseeventswould
be“opportunitiesfortheexchangeofmessages–prayersfrommentogods,
warningsandmessagesofacceptancefromgodstomenencodedintheentrails.”23
ThisconceptinRomanreligionbecomesimportantwhenapplyingittothe
Pantheonbecauseitbringsupthequestionofhowthistypeofstructurecould
possiblyserveasaspaceofworshipforallgodswhenitwouldbeimpossibleto
identifyanyomensascomingfromaspecificgod?However,asJenkynswrites
wedonotactuallyknowwhatfunctionthebuildinghad.Ontheotherhand,standard,authorities,areconfidentaboutwhatitrepresented:order,harmony,unity,theemperor’suniversalrulewithinacosmosgovernedbythegods.24AnotherinterestingaspecttoconsiderwiththePantheonisthattherewasno
knownaltar.AlthoughitiswidelyperceivedandbelievedthatthePantheonwasa
templefor“allgods”and“therearetextualclues…noaltarhasbeendiscoveredin
22 Simpson, 1997, 171. 23 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 37. 24 Jenkyns, 2013, 352.
12
frontofthePantheon.”25Analtarwouldhavebeenusedtoperformsacrifices:
“animalsacrificewasthecentralritualofmanyreligiousoccasions.”26Theseanimal
sacrificeswould“then[be]butchered,cooked,andeventuallyeatenbythe
worshippers”ifthesacrificeshowed“acceptablesigns.”27Itbringsupaninteresting
questionofwhatmakesaRomantempleatemplebecause“Romantemplestypically
hadaltarsinfrontofthem.”28Ifthisbuildingwasinfactatemple,thealtarwould
havebeenoneoftheleastimportantpartsofthepossiblesacredspacearoundthe
Pantheon.ThePantheonitselfwouldhaveonlyhousedcultstatuesandvotive
offerings.Themostimportantaspectofreligiousworshipwouldhaverequired
havinganaltarforofferingsacrificestothegods.Itispossiblethatthelackofan
altarcanbeattributedtothefirethatdestroyedAgrippa’sPantheon,andafterthe
fireperhapsanaltarwasneverrebuilt.Ontheotherhand,thislackofanaltarcould
beattributedtothefactthatPantheonwasneverintendedtobeatempleforall
gods,butinstead,aplaceforAugustustobehonored,butnotworshipped,asan
associateofthegods,andthislackofformalreligiouspurposewouldexplainthe
absenceofanaltar.
Asmuchaswequestionwhetherreligionwasevenpartofthepurposeofthe
buildingwemaypresumethattheuniqueappearanceofthebuilding’sinteriorand
exteriorledpeopletoexperiencethispieceofarchitectureindifferentways.The
Pantheonwasalsoauniquestructurethatwasmadeof“thecombinationofthree
distinctgeometricelements...acircularrotunda,arectangularportico,andafabric
25 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 26 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 36. 27 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 36. 28 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4.
13
thatmediatedbetweenthem.”29AlthoughmostpeopleinRomebelievedinthe
predominantpolytheisticreligion,itisalsoimportanttolookatthePantheonin
termsofhowthepeoplewhoexperienceditarchitecturallyasawaytoanalyzeits
placeinreligionandinsociety.
Romanreligionwaspolytheisticandincludedtheworshipofmanygodsand
goddesses.ThroughthecourseoftheempiretheRomanswereknownforaddingto
theirownreligionadditionalgodsthattheycameacrossthroughtheirconquestof
foreignlands.RomanreligionhaditscoreRomanmythologythat“asRomegrewin
population,size,andwealth,sothenumberoftemplesincreased,eitherbythe
buildingofnewtemplesforolddeities,orfornewdeitiesthathadbeenintroduced
orrecognizedforthefirsttime.”30AstheterritoryoftheRomanEmpireexpanded
sodidthedeitiesthatwereincludedintheRomanreligion.Someofthesecults
wouldadoptgodsfromoutsideRome,includingsuchgodsasIsisandOsris,whose
cultbecame“oneofthemajornewcultsinRome.”31Romanreligion“wasbasedon
traditionthatwentbackearlierthanthefoundationofthecityitself.”32
AgrippawasAugustus’sright-handmanandreceivedthepowerofmaius
imperiumproconsulare(anauthoritythatexceededthatofeveryothermagistrate
outsidethecityofRome)atonepointduringhisserviceunderAugustus.33Hewas
alsoAugustus’sson-in-lawandit“impliedapoliticalcloseness”andgaveAugustus,
29 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 30 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 87. 31 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 264. 32 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 2. 33 Goldsworthy, 2015, 353.
14
asfather-in-law,“adegreeofsuperiority”intheirrelationship.”34Aspartofbeing
Augustus’sright-handmanheplayedanimportantroleingovernment.Duringthis
periodofhisactivityingovernmentheworkedonbuildingprojectsthat“provided
plentyofwell-paidemploymentaswellasaconstantadvertisementforthegloryof
Augustusandthepeacehisvictoriesbrought.”35
Agrippa’sbuildingwasoriginallybelievedtohavebeenrectangularandfaced
south;however,morerecentlyitisbelievedthatAgrippa’sPantheonfacednorth
andactuallylookedmuchmoreliketheonethatisstandingtoday.36Through
furtherexaminationitwasfoundthatthecolumnsthatexisttodayarepartofa
preexistingbase,portico,andplatform.37Thefactthatthetemplealwaysfaced
northinsteadofsouthandhavingbeenswitchedinthepastisbackedupbyRoman
religiousbeliefsthatwhenatemplewasinaugurateditslocationwouldbechosen
specificallybysightlinesandsacredspace:switchingorientationswouldhavebeen
incrediblyirreverentaccordingtoRome’sreligiouspractices.38Thisisfurther
supportedbythefactthatafterthedestructionoftheoriginaltemple,thepurposeof
thereconstructedtemplewasnotaltered.Eventhoughitisunclearwhatthe
Pantheonwasfor,itspurposecanbeassumedtohaveremainedthesame,which
supportstheconclusionthatthebuilding’sorientationwasnotchanged.39Thetime
ofthisflipfromsoutherntonorthernorientationwouldhaveoccuredunder
34 Goldsworthy, 2015, 353. 35 Goldsworthy, 2015, 259. 36 Marder & Jones, 2015, 5. 37 Simpson, 1997, 170. 38 Simpson, 1997, 171. 39 Simpson, 1997, 171.
15
Hadrian.40BasedonHadrian’sstyleofrestoringmonumentsandbuildings,he
generallyshowedalotofrestraint,whichcanbenotedintheinscriptionstill“giving
credittotheoriginalbuilderbuttakingnoneforhimself,”hewouldhavenotbeen
“partytosuchadramaticalterationofareligiouselement.”41
Itisimportanttopointoutthatbecauseof“itsnorth-facingorientation,
Agrippa’sPantheonwasalignedaxiallywiththeentrancetotheMausoleumof
Augustusabouthalfamileaway.”42ThiswemayrelatebacktoCassiusDio’swriting
thatdiscusseshowAgrippacreatedthisbuildingforAugustus.Ifthebuildingdid
actuallyfacenorthinsteadofsouth,thesymbolismoftherelationshipbetweenthe
twobuildingswouldshowtheimportanceofAugustusonthelandscapeofRome.
TheMausoleumofAugustusbegantobebuiltin28BC,whichisrightbeforethe
Pantheonwasbuilt.43Thetimelineofthesetwobuildingsbeingsoclosetogether
canimplythattheywereintentionallyplannedtoconnecttoeachothersincethe
PantheonwasoriginallysupposedtobededicatedtoAugustus.
AnotherresultofthenewpossibleconnectionbetweenAgrippa’sPantheon
andtheMausoleumofAugustusistheshapeofthesetwobuildings.Asaresultof
currentscholarship,thebuildingisbelievedtohavealso“combinedaroundspace
withaportico”liketheonethatstandstoday.44Bothareinasimilarshape.The
PantheonisinarotundashapeandtheMausoleumofAugustusisinashapethatis
verysimilartoarotunda,althoughitisnotcompletelyadomeshape;insteaditisa
40 Simpson, 1997, 171. 41 Simpson, 1997, 171. 42 Marder & Jones, 2015, 7. 43 Richardson, 1995, 247. 44 Marder & Jones, 2015, 5.
16
mound.45However,eventhoughtheMausoleumofAugustusisnottechnicallya
rotunda,theresemblanceinshapeisuncanny.SincethePantheonwasoriginally
plannedtobeabuildingdedicatedtoAugustus,andtheMausoleumofAugustusisa
tombforAugustus,wemaywhatthesignificanceoftherotundashapewasto
Augustus’srule.Anothersimilaritythatboththesebuildingsshareisthatbecause
theywerecontinuallyusedfromantiquitytothepresentdaytheyhavebothbeen
preserved.EventhoughAgrippa’sPantheonisnotthecurrentPantheonthatstands
today,themerefactofitsreconstructionshowshowimportantitwastorebuildit
sothatitcouldcontinuetobeused.
WiththemorerecentbeliefthatAgrippa’sPantheonwasarotundainsteadof
arectangle,thisbuildingwouldhavestoodoutamongthearchitectureofRome-
eventhoughAgrippawascreatingmanynewbuildings,including,“hisbaths,the
BasilicaNeptuni,andtheSaeptaIulia.”46Itisimportanttoclarifythat“the
relationshipsamongthesebuildingsarenotatallclear,andtheirfunctionsseemto
havebeenverydifferentfromoneanother,butallseemtohavebeenmajor
monuments.”47NotmanybuildingsatthetimewereshapedlikethePantheon.At
thetime,Agrippawascommissioningmanybuildingprojectstoprovide
employmentforRomansandultimatelycontinuetorallymassivesupportfor
Augustus.
45 Richardson,1995, 247. 46 Richardson, 1995, 283. 47 Richardson, 1995, 283.
17
CHAPTERII:Hadrian’sPantheon
ThePantheonthatstandstodaywhatisknownasPiazzadellaRotunda,was
thePantheonthatisbelievedtohavebeencompletedduringthereignofHadrian
around125-128A.D..48ThroughthePantheon’spresenceinhistory,ithasbeen
rebuiltandrefurbishedmultipletimesbynumerousemperors;however,themost
well-knownanddocumentedisHadrian’srebuildingofthePantheonasaresultofit
burningdownfromalightningstrikein110A.D..Thebuildinghadbeenrebuiltby
Domitianin80A.D.andthenitwasdestroyedagainbylightningin110A.D.andhad
beguntoberebuiltbyTrajan,butwascompletedbyHadrian.Thefullextentto
whichTrajancontributedtotherebuildingofthecurrentPantheonthatis
attributedtoHadrianisunclear.49Untilthelate19thcentury,whenanexcavation
occurred,itwasunknownthatHadrianprovidedsuchalargecontributiontothe
rebuildingofthePantheon.50InthisexcavationRomanbrickstampswereanalyzed
anditwasconcludedthattherebuildingofthePantheonhadbegunwithTrajanin
110A.D.andthatHadriancompletedTrajan’sprojectofrebuildingthePantheon.51
PartofscholarsdifficultywithidentifyingHadrian’sconnectiontothe
buildingisthemodestyhehadwhilerebuildingandrefurbishingmonumentsin
Rome:“Althoughhebuiltinnumerableworkseverywhere,heneverinscribedhis
ownnameexceptonthetempleofTrajan.”52Whenhefinishedtherebuildingofthe
Pantheonherestoredtheoriginalinscriptiononthetempleinsteadofaddinghis
48 Marder & Jones, 2015, 7. 49 Richardson, 1995, 283. 50 Marder & Jones, 2015, 7. 51 Boatwright, 2013, 19. 52 Boatwright, 2013, 21.
18
owninscriptionabouthimself.Hadrianisknownasa“magnanimousrestorers”and
waswellknownforgivingcredittotheoriginalbuilderwhenapplicable.53Another
partofthedifficultyofidentifyingwhorebuiltthePantheonisthattherewasalack
of“procedure”orprotocolthatwasinplacewhenrefurbishingorrebuildingthese
buildings:itwasuptothe“imperialrestorertodecidewhethertoviewthe
structureashisowncreationorasdejurestillthehandiworkofthefounder.”54In
thecaseofthePantheonthisisrelevant.Hadrian,likeAugustus,isknownfor
restoringRome;however,thisrebuildingbyHadrianinvolvedmostlyrestorations,
whichresultedinhimrarelyputtinghisnameonanyofthebuildingstomarkhis
contribution.55IntheHistoriaAugustaitdescribesandlistsallthebuildingsHadrian
iscreditedwithrestoring,andnoteshowhedidnotsignanyofthem:
He[Hadrian]builtpublicbuildingsinallplacesandwithoutnumber,butheinscribedhisnameonnoneofthemexceptthetempleofhisfatherTrajan.AtRomeherestoredthePantheon,theVoting-enclosure,theBasilicaofNeptune,verymanytemples,theForumofAugustus,theBathsofAgrippa,anddedicatedalloftheminthenamesoftheiroriginalbuilders.56Butevenwiththisdifficultytherehaverecentlybeenground-breaking
scholarlystudies.LiseM.Hetlandputstogethermanyofthesestudiestoshowthat
thePantheonwasbegunbyTrajanandfinishedbyHadrian,whichbringsinto
questionhowmuchdidHadrianactuallycontributetotherebuildingofthe
Pantheon.AtonepointHadrian’sPantheonwasdeemedtohaveonlybeenrebuilt
byHadrian;however,thisideahasbeenrefuted.Itisnowbelievedthatwhatis
53 Stuart, 1905, 430. 54 Stuart, 1905, 428. 55 Hetland, 2015, 82. 56 Historia Augusta, 1921, 61.
19
knownasHadrian’sPantheonwasactuallybegunbyTrajan.Thesameresearchthat
determinedHadrian’sPantheontobeexclusivelyHadrian’shasbeenusedasan
argumentagainstit,thatis,onetheevidenceofthebrickstamps.Bricksingeneral
wereacommonandubiquitouspartofthebuildingofimperialbuildings.Theywere
overlaidwithmarble,butindividualbrickwouldhavehadbeenstamped,andthese
stampscanbeusedtodatethem.57HetlandlooksatBloch’sresearchon
brickmakersandhowhecreatesachronologyofbricksbothstampedand
unstamped.58Hisresearchwasusedtocreateastockpilingtheorythatlooksatthe
orderofbricksinbuildingsandwhenabuildinghasusedbricksfromvarioustime
periods.59ThistheorywasthenappliedtothePantheon,whichappearstohave
usedbricksmostlyfromTrajan’stimeperiodratherthanHadrian’s.60Another
possiblepieceofevidencethatcontributestotheargumentthatthePantheonwas
begunduringTrajan’stimeinsteadofexclusivelyinHadrian’sisHellmyer’s
hypothesis.61ThissaysthatthePantheon’sstyleissimilartoApollodorusof
Damascus’sstyle,whowasTrajan’smasterarchitect.62However,itisnotactually
knownwhothearchitectofthePantheonwas.Wehaveonlytheoriesthatare
primarilybasedonstylisticevidence.63Forthepurposesofthispaperwewill
concludethatHadrian’sPantheonwasbegunbyTrajanandfinishedbyHadrian.
57 Hetland, 2015, 83. 58 Hetland, 2015, 86. 59 Hetland, 2015, 90. 60 Hetland, 2015, 93. 61 Hetland, 2015, 95. 62 Hetland, 2015, 95. 63 Marder & Jones, 2015, 23.
20
InlightofthedetailedargumentandresearchoverwhobuiltHadrian’s
Pantheon,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatthePantheonwascontinuously
rebuiltandrefurbishedthroughhistoryanytimeitwasdestroyedorsignificantly
damaged.ThisconstantupkeepshowsthesignificanceofthebuildingtotheRoman
people,Rome,andtheemperor.ThePantheonwasinaverypopulatedpartofRome
andthecentralpartofthecapitaloftheRomanEmpire.Thiscentralityispossibly
partofthereasonwhythebuildinghasbeencontinuouslymaintained:itisan
integralpartofthearchitectureofRomeasacity.Itisinterestingtonotethat
despitethisupkeepofthebuilding,ithasneverbeenexplicitlydocumentedwhat
thebuildingwasusedforoverthealmosttwothousandyearsthatithasremained
standing.
BecausethePantheonwasinaverypopulatedpartoftheRomanEmpire,i.e.,
Rome,thequestionarisesofhowpeopleinteractedwithit.Justastoday,notall
citizensareequal,intheRomanempiretherewasevenmorediscrepancybetween
statuesofcitizenshipintheRomanEmpire.Thereweremanyclassesofpeopleand
subdivisionswithinclasses,butwemaysummarize:maleRomancitizens,female
citizens,freeRomansubjectswhowerenotcitizens,slaves,andforeignersfrom
outsidetheempire.Itisimportanttoacknowledgethatwithinthesegroupsthere
weresubdivisionsofpoor,middleclass,andelite.Withdifferentpeopleofdifferent
backgrounds,itmeansthateveryonewouldhavehadtheirownexperiencewithin
thePantheon.
Ifwemakethemostlikelyassumption,thatthePantheonwasatemple,then
wecouldstartpossiblymakingeducatedguessesabouthowdifferentgroupsof
21
peopleinteractedwithitasatemple.ItiseasytoassumethatbeingaRomancitizen
isatwo-dimensionalconcept.BecausetheRomanEmpirewassoexpansive,itis
importanttokeepinmindthattheRomancitizensweremulti-facetedandthat
thereweredifferenttypesofRomancitizens.Thiscanbedescribedas
theexaminationofthecharacteristicsofRomansocietyandlifein‘Roman’communities;[and]…thedefinitionof‘Roman’canbeconstructed,forexample,byreferencetotheforeign,Hellenicmodel,culturalinstitutional,whichtheRomansbothinfiltratedanddominated.64
TherearealsootherwaystodescribeandlookatRomancitizenshipinantiquity,as
inthecontextofpolitics,toinvestigatehowpeoplewouldhaveinteractedwiththis
monument.65
IfweviewthePantheonasatempleforboththegodsandtheemperor,a
personfromalowerclasscouldhavewalkedintothetempletopray.Itisalso
importanttoconsiderthetimeperiodwhenthePantheonwasrebuilt.Trajanand
Hadrianwerebothemperorsthatwerelovedbythepeopleandwereresponsible
formanypublicworks.Theylefttheirmarkhistoricallyasbeing“good”emperorsto
thepeopleandtheempire.Thispersonfromakowerclasswouldhavebeen
swarmedbyimagesofnotonlytheirgods,butalsooftheemperor.Thiscouldhave
instilledpridesincetheemperorcouldbeviewedasagodormaybefear,depending
uponwhotheemperorwasatthetime.Itisimportanttonotethatwhiletheperson
mayhavechosentoprayinatempleofallgodsthispersonwouldhavebeen
constantlyremindedofhisorherplaceinsocietyandwouldhavebeen“watched”
bythedivineemperorduringhisorhertimeofprayer.
64 Gardner, 1993, 1. 65 Gardner, 1993, 1.
22
If,ontheotherhand,anoblepersonwastohavewalkedin,thisperson
wouldstillhavebeenbombardedwithmanydifferentimagesandstatuesofthe
gods.Thisperson,however,maynothavefeltasthreatedbytheimageofthe
emperorbecauseoftheirhighstandingandpoliticalrankinsociety.Ontheother
hand,underatyrannicalemperor,highstatusindividualsmayhavebeenunder
morescrutiny.ObscurityofpersoninRomecouldhaveofferedmoresecuritythan
nobilityinsomecases.Thispersoncouldhavefeltacertainresentmenttothat
emperor.Overall,thenoblepersonwouldhavefeltmorelikeanequaltothe
emperorthanthelowerclasspersonwouldhave.Eachclasswouldhave
experiencedthisbuildingdifferentlyduringdifferentpointsintheempire.Itis
importanttoacknowledgethateachperson’sinteractionwiththebuildingwould
likelychangewithwhotheemperorwasatthetimeinRome.Lateronitwillbe
discussedhowpartofthereasonthePantheonstillremainstodayisbecauseitwas
switchedfrompaganworshiptempletoChristianity,soitcouldbeusedasachurch.
Boththeinteriorandexteriorarearchitecturalfeatsandinteresting
developments.Hadrian’sPantheonfacesnorthandconsistsoffourmajorparts:a
portico,transitionalblock,drumanddome.66Theintermediateblock’sonlypurpose
istoconnectthe“rectilineargeometryoftheporticoandthecirculargeometryof
therotunda;”otherthanthisandcontainingastaircase,itdoesnotactuallyhavea
use.67ThePantheon’sshapeisuniqueinitsappearancebecausethepronaosgives
theappearanceofaclassicaltemplewithitstriangularpediment;however,this
66 Waddell, 2015, 133. 67 Marder & Jones, 2015, 13.
23
pedimentis“exceptionallyhighandshallowtohidethedomebehindit.”68Itisnot
untilyouenterthatthePantheonrevealsitselfasarotunda.69Betweenthepronaos
andtheintermediateblockarelargebronzedoorsforthemainentrance,through
whichonestillenters.Thisintermediateblockalsoplaysanimportantrolewiththe
triangularpedimentinconcealingthedomeshapeofthePantheonfromeveryone
beforetheyenter.70OnceoneenterstherotundaofthePantheononewillseethe
cofferedcementdomeceilingwithanoculusinthemiddle.Thedomeofthe
Pantheonwouldhavebeencoveredinbronzeandtheoutsidebrickwouldhave
beencoveredinamarblesheathing,overall,givingthePantheonanappearanceof
grandeur.71
Theexteriorandinteriorutilizemarbleheavily,whichinthemselvesarevery
interestingtothearchitectureofthePantheonbecausethemarbleusedforthe
columnsandflooringwasshippedfromaroundtheRomanEmpire.Thisaspectof
thePantheonshowsitsconnectivitytotherestoftheRomanEmpirebecausethe
buildingwasbuiltwiththecooperationofotherregionsandthediverseoriginsof
thematerialrepresentsa“visualreminderoftheamplereachofRome’simperial
dominion,itsunity,anditscollectivewealth.”72Thesemarblescamefromthe
moderndayareasofItaly,Egypt,Greece,Turkey,andTunisia.73ThePantheonwas
originallybuiltwhentheRomanRepublichadalreadytransitionedtoanEmpire
withAugustusasthefirstemperor.Itisuncertainwhethermarblewasusedinthe
68 Richardson, 1995, 284. 69 Richardson, 1995, 284. 70 Richardson, 1995, 284. 71 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 152. 72 Marder & Jones, 2015, 17. 73 Marder & Jones, 2015, 17.
24
originalconstructionofthebuilding.UnderAugustus,theEmpirehadexpandedtoa
sizethatAugustusfeltshouldbemaintained,ratherthanfurtherexpanded.
However,duringthetimethePantheonwasrebuiltunderTrajanandHadrian,the
Empirehadexpandeddramatically.This“new”Pantheonvisuallyrepresentsthat
expansioninthearchitectureandthematerialthatwasused,specificallythe
marble.Allthesetypesofmarbleswouldhavebeenvisuallydistinctindifferent
appearancesandcolors,showingluxuryandderivationfromotherareasoutsideof
Italy.
ThecolonnadeintheexteriorofthePantheonconsistsofmarble,Corinthian,
monolithiccolumns.Havingthesemarblesandstonesimportedfromalloverthe
RomanEmpireforatemplewithinthecityofRomeshowstheconnectivitybetween
RomeandtherestofEmpire.ItshowsRome’sgreatpowerovertherestofthe
Empirebecausetheyareabletoimporttheseexpensivepiecesofmarbleandstone
fromallacrosstheMediterranean.EventhoughthePantheonisbelievedtohave
beenaRomantemple,itisdefinedwithresourcesfromareasoutsideofRome,but
withintheEmpire,thuschallengingtheideaofitbeingexclusivelyRoman.The
distancethatthemarbletraveleddisplayedthevastnessoftheRomanEmpire.The
marblewouldhavetraveledmostlikelythroughcoastaltravel,whichcanbe
identifiedthroughlookingatthe“wrecksofshipscarryingstone.”74Shippingstone
wasaveryexpensiveprocessandwouldrequirealotofwealth,whichtheemperor
utilizedinhischoiceofdesigninghowthePantheonwouldlook.TrajanandHadrian
74 Robinson, Damian, & Wilson, 143.
25
choosetoimportmarblefromacrosstheempiretoRomeasadisplayofpowerto
thepeopleofRomewhowouldseethebuildingonaregularbasis.
ThePantheonisnotjustanimpressivefeatthatshowsthereachand
connectivityoftheRomanEmpire,butitalsoisavisualrepresentationofRome’s
architecturalrevolutionintermsofallthetechniquesandskillsthathadtobeused
tocreateabuildingofthiscaliberanddetail.75ThePantheonusesconcreate,which
isatechnologicalfeatfortheRomansingeneral.Thedevelopmentofconcreateis
partiallywhatallowedthePantheontobebuilt,andconcretewasoriginally
developedtomakeproductionofbuildingsmoreefficientandcheaper,anditwas
alsoexploitedformanyprojectsaroundtheempire.76TheconcretethatRomeused
wasexceptionallylightbecauseitusedaspecificmaterialcalledtufa,whichis
volcanicash,tobuildbiggerarchesandbuildings.Thismaterialisalsowhatmade
thePantheonpossible.
DirectlyinfrontoftheporticoofthePantheonthereisbelievedtohavebeen
anarchcalled“theArchofPiety.”77Itisbelievedthatthisarchwaspossiblypartofa
processionalorder.78Itisbelievedtohavenotbeenatriumphalarch,butrathera
memorialarch.Theplacewherethearchislocatedwasalsoassociatedwithastory
about“whentheemperor[Trajan]waspreparedtogoforthtowarinhischariot,a
poorwidowfellathisfeet,weepingandcrying.”79Thestorygoesontodescribethat
thewidowwantedjusticeforhermurderedsonandwantedtheemperor’shelpin
75 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 142. 76 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 142. 77 Gardiner, 1986, 53. 78 Gardiner, 1986, 53. 79 Gardiner, 1986, 7.
26
gettingthisjustice.80Trajanjumpedoutofhischariotandhelpedthewomanget
justiceandsentencedthemurderertodeath.81Afterthisthewomanaskedifthe
murderercouldnotbekilled,andshetakehiminasasoninstead;Trajanagreed,
andsentherawaywith“richgifts.”82Eventhoughthearchwasnotpartofthe
Pantheoninanydirectway,itisimportanttonotewhatthephysicallandscape
wouldhavelookedlikeforRomancitizensapproachingthePantheon.Therewould
havebeenalargearchthataRomancouldgoaroundorthroughandoneitherside
onthewayleadingtotheentranceofthePantheontherewouldhavebeenbuildings
flankingthesides,allofwhich,almostconcealedthe“surprise”oftherotundashape
thatwasheldinside.
“VirtualreconstructionofthePantheonfromantiquity”(VirtualRomanPantheoninBlueMars/CryEngine)
80 Gardiner, 1986, 7. 81 Gardiner, 1986, 7. 82 Gardiner, 1986, 7.
27
ThePantheonisa“hemisphericaldome,ofwhichacrownwasexactlythe
sameheightabovethepavementastheinternaldiameterofthebuilding.”83The
detailedmeasurementsandintricacyinaccuracyofproducingthisbuildinghadto
beperfectinordertomakeitnotonlystand,butremainstandingthislong.The
Pantheon,isanexceptionalexampleofrepresentingthetechnological
advancementsofantiquity.ThePantheoncanfitaperfectsphereinsideitsrotunda
becauseoftheprecisemeasurementsusedtobuildit.Manytimes,whenlookingat
thePantheon,weperceiveitsseparationintotwoaspectsofarchitecturalanalysis,
ie.,rectangularandsphericalparts:therectangularpartincludestheporch,
intermediateblockandanythingoutsidetherotundawhilethesphericalpart
includesrotundaanddome.
Thehemisphericalshapeofthebuildingcouldbeformedbymakingsurethe
distributionofweightthroughoutthebuildingwasnevertoomuch.Thisbeganby
creatingasturdyfoundation.ThefoundationofthePantheonsitsona“solidringof
concrete,about24ft.,wideatthebaseand15ft.,deep,”andouterringswereadded
foranyadditionalsupportthatthebuildingcalledfor.84Theideaofconstantly
distributingweightcontinuedthroughoutthebuildingofthePantheon.Thedrumof
thePantheoncarriesmostofitsweightatthebottom,andasitgrowsinheightit
useslightermaterialstomakesurethatitdoesnotcollapseonitself:thebottomof
thedrumusestravertinethenprogresstolayersoftravertineandtufatofinallyjust
tufa.85
83 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 152. 84 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155. 85 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155.
28
However,becauseofthelargesizeofthePantheon,alternatingthematerial
thatwasusedinbuildingthePantheonwasnotenough.Therewereother
precautionsthatweretakenaswell.Throughoutthedrumtherearesevencavities
inthedrumtoremovesomeoftheweightbycreatingdeadspacewithinthe
interior.86Ontopofthesecavitiesarerelievingarches,whichcanbevisuallyseenin
thebrickworkontheexteriorsideofthedrum.87Relievingarchesworkbycreating
asurfacewhereinsteadofallthepressurehittingonespotinthestructure,it
dispersesthepressureacrosstheentirearch.Thisdevelopmentallowedthe
constructionofbiggerstructurestobeabletobemadebecausetheycouldsupport
morematerial.
“VisualizationofthesequenceofoperationsinbuildingthePantheon.”(Marder&Jones,2015,‘PlatesSection’204)
86 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155. 87 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155.
29
TheimageabovefromMarder&Jonesgivesavisualrepresentationofthe
methodusedtobuildthePantheonfromthebottomtothetop.Withinthesesteps,
onecanseetheweightwasafactorbecauseeachoftheselayerswouldhavebeen
builtoflighterandlightermaterialasthebuildingincreasedinheight.The
Pantheon’sthreeprimarylayersinthehemisphericalroundadarealsovery
prominentinthisimage.Theissueofweightcontinuedtobekeptinmindwhen
creatingthedomeaswell.Thecoffersinthedomewereusedtorelievesomeofthe
weightofthedomeitselfsothatitwouldnotcollapse.Thegeometrythatwasused
bythisstructurecreatesaseamlessandharmoniousappearance.88Abovethe
coffering,lighterconcreteinthedomewasalsoused.89
WhenlookingatthePantheoninregardtoitsdome,itisimportantto
acknowledgethatthePantheonisnottheonlydomedbuilding.Mostofthedomed
buildingsthatexistedintheRomanworldweretemples.Theyinclude:TheTemple
ofMercuryinBaiae,theTempleofVenusinBaiae,theTempleofDianainBaiae,the
TempleofApolloatLakeAvernus,andtheCaldariumoftheBathsofCaracalla.90Itis
importanttokeepinmindthatnotallthesebuildingsexistedatthetimethe
Pantheonwasbuilt.Thesedomedbuildingswerenotallthesamestyleasthe
Pantheon,butitisinterestingtolookatwhatothertypesofbuildingsusedasimilar
domeshape.Thisshapewasnotverycommon;however,thebuildingsthatdohave
itaremostlytemplesinBaiae.Thiscouldpossiblybeusedasevidencetojustifythat
88 Marder & Jones, 2015, 9. 89 Marder & Jones, 2015, 21. 90 Martines, 2015, 118.
30
thePantheondoesinsomewayfollowthesamepathasothertemplesbyhavinga
dome.AtthetimethatthePantheonwasbuiltitwasa“novelcombinationof
elementsfromahalf-dozendifferentbuildingtypes:baths,tombs,basilicas,temples,
triumphalarches,andtheaters.”91Someofthepossiblebuildingsthatcouldhave
influencedtheconstructionofthePantheonwereTrajan’sBaths,Trajan’sMarket,
theDomusAureaandthedomedtemplesatBaiae.92Trajan’sBathsfrigidariumisa
triplevaultthatspans85Romanfeetandhasmanyotherdomesandhalfdomes.93
Theselargedomesandvaultscouldhavebeenusedtoinspirethecreationofthe
Pantheon’sdome.Trajan’smarkethas170barrel-vaultedroomsandthisexpansive
techniquecouldhavebeenappliedtothePantheon.94TheDomusAureahadan
octagonaldomedroomandisviewedasaroomtoshowthecapabilityofconcrete.95
Thiscapabilityofusingconcretehasclearlybeenbuiltuponinitsusewithinthe
Pantheonitself.ThelastmajorbuildingsthatpossiblyinfluencedthePantheonwere
thetemplesatBaiae,outsideRome.Thesetempleshad“thinshells”anddidnot
havecoffering,butthesetemplesareexamplesofhowadomewasusedtocovera
buildinglikethePantheon.96
Thesepartsofthearchitectureareinterpretedbyscholarsasdesignedfor
religiouspurposes.ThePantheon’sdomeandoculuswerenotjustto“astoundthe
Romanpopulace,”butalsotorepresent“auniversalcosmology…[or]asDiointuits
91 Waddell, 2015, 132. 92 Waddell, 2015, 136-139. 93 Waddell, 2015, 136. 94 Waddell, 2015, 137, 139. 95 Waddell, 2015, 139. 96 Waddell, 2015, 139.
31
thecelestialhomeofthegods.”97Itis“theonlysourceoflight”anditisalsomeantto
bringthepersonintheoculus“tothecenterofthespace.”98Tobuildonthis,itis
importanttoacknowledgethattherewerenowindowsinthePantheonbecause
“beingdeniedvisualcontactwithsurroundingbuildingsputsthevisitorintherealm
removedfromeverydayreality.”99Aspreviouslydescribedinthefirstchapter,Dio
givesanexplanationforthebuilding’snamethathastodowiththeheavens,and
thisideacanalsobeattributedtotheoculus.Ontheotherhand,theoculuscould
haveworkedintandemwiththecoffersontheceilingtocreateasundial:
thealignmentofthesunbeamonthecoffersabovetheeasternexedrainthelateafternoonatthesummersolsticeanditshighlightingofthetransitionbetweentheperfecthemisphereofthedomeandthecylinderofthedrumatnoonontheequinoxofferstrongindicationsthatthebuildingcouldhavecontinuedtoserveasasundialaftertherebuilding,evenifthisisnotconsistentlyevidentinthepresentstateofthebuilding.100TheideathatthePantheoncouldhavebeenaphysicalsundialisan
interestingtakeontheoculusandthecoffering.Theoculushasbeenmainly
interpretedasanarchitecturalchoicetoconnecttheRomansandallthegods
throughthecenteroftheoculus.TheoculuscausesthePantheontobecomean
openairspacebecauseitallowsforalltheelementstocomeintothedome.Partof
thisunbreakableconnectioncanbeinterpretedtorepresenttheconnection
betweenthepeopleofRomeandthenaturalworld,whichiscontrolledbythegods.
Itisalsointendedtogivetheworshippersacloserpresencetothegodsbyenabling
onetolookuptothesky,whileconfiningonewithinthetemple:“theHadrianic
97 Jones, 2000, 182. 98 Martines, 2015, 100. 99 Jones, 2000, 183. 100 Thomas, 2017, 202.
32
Pantheonevokedthevaultofheavenwiththesun”andcouldbeconsidereda
“denotedareaoftheheavens”with“acosmicorientation.”101
Theoculusisalsobelievedtointeractwiththecofferinginacelestial
aspect.102Thecofferingofthedomeis“dividedintotwenty-eightparts…andtwenty-
eightwasconsidered‘perfect’”becauseitwasoneoftheonlynumbers“thatequal
thesumoftheirfactors”andbecausetwenty-eightwasanapproximateestimation
thattheRomanshadforthenumberofdaysinalunarcycle.103Theideaof
perfection,whichisconnectedwiththefiverowsof28coffersinthedomeofthe
Pantheonalsohasaconnectionwith
atraditiongoingbacktothePythagoreans,itwasinHadrian’stimethatNichomachusofGerasaincludedinthefirstbookofhisinfluentialIntroductiontoArithmeticadiscussionofperfectnumbers…[which]arelike‘bridges’and‘stairways’toknowledge.104
Thecofferingthatbranchesoffthedomeisalsopartofthe“celestialandterrestrial
themes”ofthePantheon,anditsconnectiontothegodswasnotacoincidence.The
Romanswerefamousfortheirmeticulousplanningofbuildings,andthe
overarchingstructureofthePantheonaswellasitsfluidconnectivitytothegods
fromparttopartrepresentadditionalpiecesofevidencethatshowhowPantheon
mayhavebeenplannedtobeusedfortheworshipofsomegods.Thisideaof
perfectionalsobringsuptheconstantconceptofbalancethatwasmaintainedin
classicalarchitecture.105Creatingatempleorbuildingthatwasaesthetically
101 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 285. 102 Jones, 2000, 183. 103 Jones, 2000, 183. 104 Martines, 2015, 102-103. 105 Martines, 2015, 103.
33
pleasingandofvastimportanceshowedrespecttothegodsandcouldbean
offering.
TheinteriorofthePantheonspeakstotheinclusivenessofRomanreligion
andoffersananswertothequestionofwhatthebuilding’sfunctionwas.Itcanbe
interpretedasavisualrepresentationoftheinclusionofgodsbothwithinRomeand
outsideRome.Thenookswithintherotundaofthebuildingwouldhavehoused
statuesofdifferentgods.Theinteriorandshapeofthebuildingwasbuiltas“the
celestialhomeofthegods”andthearchitectureisclearlyintendedtocreatea
connectivitybetweenthegodsandtheworshippersofthetemple.106
AlthoughthePantheonisaverywellpreservedbuilding,thecultstatuesthat
werepossiblypresentinthebuildingarenotpreserved,whichaddstotheproblem
offiguringoutwhatthetrueuseofthePantheonwas.Manyofthestatuesarenow
missingbecausetheyhaveeitherbeenrepurposedordestroyedduringthe
building’sconversiontoachurch.107Thereisdiscussionofwhatthestatuesinthe
Pantheonmayhaverepresented:weretheycultimagesorweretheyimagesofthe
emperor,andpartofthisdebatederivesfromourinabilitytoidentifythe
Pantheon’sactualfunction.108
OneofthesetheoriesofwhatcultstatuesinthePantheonrepresentedis
derivedbyretranslatingandlookingatthesyntaxofCassiusDio’sdescriptionof
Agrippa’sPantheon.109AdamZiolkowskilooksatthesyntaxofthepassagethat
describesAgrippa’sPantheonandthepossiblestatuesinitandconcludesthat
106 Jones, 2000, 182. 107 Thomas, 2017, 146. 108 Thomas, 2017, 147. 109 Thomas, 2017, 148.
34
insteadofDiojustreferringtothetwocultstatuesMarsandVenusbeinginthe
Pantheon,hewasactuallyjust“highlighting”thosetwostatuesinanoverall
referencetotheimageofmanygods.110ThisargumentsuggeststhatMarsand
Venuswouldhavejustbeenthemaintwocultstatues,butnottheonlyones.Nissen
goesontomaketheargumentthateachniche,exedraandintermediatetabernacle
wouldhavehelddifferentgodsanddeities,withMarsandVenusinthecentral
niche.111Followingthispossiblereconstructionofcultstatuesliningthewallsofthe
Pantheon,theywouldhavebeenplacedalongthewallsbyclassification.112
Keepinginmindthatthistheorywasbasedentirelyonthedissectionof
syntaxfromDio,itwouldneverthelesssuggestthattherewouldhavebeenasmany
asfifteencultstatuesinAgrippa’sPantheonandthirty-fourinTrajanandHadrian’s
Pantheon.113Intheimageabove,onecanseethesuggestedplacementofthecult
statueswithinthePantheon’sniches,aswellaswhichgodswerebelievedtohave
beendisplayedorhonoredwithinthePantheon.Nissenwasunsureexactlyhowto
choosewhatcultstatueswouldhavelikelybeeninthePantheon,sinceonlyVenus
andMarswereexplicitlymentioned.114However,Nissendidcomeupwithawayto
attempttofigureoutwhatotherstatueswouldhavebeeninthePantheon:
HefilledtheotherexedrasandintermediatetabernacleswithotherdeitiesselectedfromthelistsofgodsintheActsoftheSecularGamesof17B.C.—JupiterOptimusMaximus,JunoRegina,ApolloandDiana—andinthevariousclassificationsoftheRomans’penatesbythelateRepublicanauthorityNigidiusFigulusandtheimperialantiquarian
110 Thomas, 2017, 149. 111 Thomas, 2017, 149. 112 Thomas, 2017, 149. 113 Thomas, 2017, 190. 114 Thomas, 2017, 149.
35
CorneliusLabeo(whoincludeNeptune),Varro(whoaddsMinerva),andtheRepublicanhistorianCassiusHemina(whoidentifiesthemwiththeGreatGodsofSamothrace);andhedrewfurthersupportfromthecombatantsatActiumdescribedbyVirgilontheShieldofAeneas:Neptune,VenusandMinerva;andMarsandApollo.ThestatueofDivusJuliusNissenassignedtothenicheimmediatelytotherightoftheentrance,justifyingthisplacementbytheargumentthatitwouldhavesuitedtheorientationofhiscomet,onthewesternsideofnorth.Otherparticularpositionsaroundtherotundaheassignedonthebasisoforientationorsimplyproximity.Hegavethepositionofprecedence,intheaediculetotheleftasoneenters,tothegoddessSalusbecauseofherimportanceinthesacrificesoftheArvalBrethren.Hewasundecidedwhetherornotminordeitiesstoodbesidetheprincipalones.Mostofthis,ofcourse,waspurespeculation.
Eventhoughthismethodisnotperfectanddoesrelyheavilyondeductive
guessing,itprovidesuswithaninterestingandintellectualwayofanalyzingwhat
possiblecultstatueswereinthePantheon.Itispossiblethateventhoughthis
descriptionofcultstatuesfromDiowasapplicabletoAgrippa’sPantheon,itmay
applytoTrajanandHadrian’sPantheonaswell.Applyingthissimilarmethodto
TrajanandHadrian’sPantheon,theargumentgoesmoreindepthastohowmany
statueswouldhavebeenineachnicheandexedrabaseduponitsspecial
appearance.115Bylookingatthespace,itisclearthatthe“rearexedrawasdesigned
foraspecialpurpose,”possiblytoholdthecultstatuesofVenusandMars.116
115 Thomas, 2017, 190. 116 Thomas, 2017, 195.
36
“ReconstructionofstatuesinPantheonbyNissen.”(Thomas,2017,150)
However,despiteextensivespeculationandscholarlydebatearguingthatthe
Pantheonservedareligiouspurposesasatemple,itisstilluncertainwhatitstrue
purposewas.Aswehavediscussed,thewordPantheonmeans“allgods,”whichis
partofwheretheinterpretationthatthePantheonwasatemplehascomefrom,but,
ifwelookatthephysicalappearanceofthePantheon,itdoesnotlooklikemany
37
othertemples,“butfindsparallelsinimperialbathsandpalaces,andlater
mausolea.”117Typically:
Fewtempleswerecircular,andthosewererelativelysmall.Thequestionofsizeisrelevantsinceinteriorswereintendedprimarilyashomesforcultstatuesratherthanforgroupworship(whichfocusedonthealtaroutside),solargedimensionswerenotinherentlynecessary.Traditiondemandedsingleoccupancy,thatistosayonedivinityperroom,explainingwhytemplestotheCapitolinetriadhavethreeroomsandwhytheTempleofVenusandRomehastwo.SothePantheon,withitssinglevastcanopy,islunlikelytohavebeenatempleinthestrictsenseoftheterm,althoughthisdoesnotruleoutaspiritualrealmofsomekindandtemple-likeassociations…”118ThisaspectofRomantemplesbeingdedicatedtoonlyonegodandthe
specificityofbuildingsisveryimportanttounderstandingthePantheon.Itpresents
theargumentthatthePantheonbeingatempleisactuallyanincorrectwaytolook
atthebuilding,butthatitahybridofexpressingreligiousdevotion,butpossiblynot
toonegodinparticular.Itisimportanttolookatotherbuildingsincomparisonto
thePantheonbecausewhenlookingatthePantheonasapossibletempleitis
importanttolookatwhatatypicaltemplewouldhavelookedlikeandwhat
buildingsthePantheondoesactuallylooklike.TheRomancustomsforcreatinga
templewouldhavebeenstyledtohouseonegodshowingcompletedevotionto
theminthatonebuilding.InrelationtotemplesonCapitolinehill,itisinterestingto
lookattheTerminisTemple.
WhenRomanswerelookingtobuildtheTempleJupiterOptimusMaximus,
theyneededaplacetoputthetemplesoateachcurrenttempletheyaskedeachof
thegodsiftheycouldtakedownthetemple,everygodaccepted,exceptthegod
117 Jones, 2000, 179. 118 Jones, 2000, 179.
38
Terminis,whoisthegodofboundaries.Therefore,asaresulttheTempleofJupiter
OptimusMaximuswasbuiltaroundtheTempleofTerminisandthebuildingwas
givenanopenroofsothatthegodcouldbeconnectedtothisbuilding.Thiscaseis
veryrelevanttolookingathowtwogodsarehousedinalmostthesamebuilding,
butgiventworoomsforseparatedevotion.Itisalsorelevantforlookingatan
oculus.TheTempleofTerminisisareligiousbuildingthatisclearlydefinedbythe
factthatithasanaltarandfollowsthetypicaltempleformat,butithasanoculus
likethePantheon.Thereisadistinctconnectionspiritualandarchitecturewiseto
havinganoculusinabuildingtoallowthegodsandnaturetoinhibitaspaceandbe
withtheworshippers.
OneoftheinterestingusesofthePantheonthatisdiscountedmanytimes
whenlookingatwhatthePantheonwasusedforisDioCassius’sdescriptionof
Hadrian’sinteractionwiththePantheon:
He[Hadrian]transactedwiththeaidofthesenatealltheimportantandmosturgentbusinessandheheldcourtwiththeassistanceoftheforemostmen,nowinthePalace,nowintheForumorthePantheonorvariousotherplaces,alwaysbeingseatedonatribunal,sothatwhateverwasdonewasmadeinpublic.119
ManyoftheusesofthePantheonareattributedtoitspossiblereligious
functionasatemple;however,withthisdescriptionbyDioCassius(ascited
byHetland)itisinterestingtolookatthePantheonasapossiblebuilding
thatwaspossiblyrepurposednotjustforreligioususes,butalsofor
governmentproceduresandmeetings.ThePantheon,inarchitecturalterms,
wouldhavebeenbothanimpressiveandspiritualbuildingtoholdmeetings.
119 Hetland, 2015, 81.
39
Thebuilding’sarchitecturewouldbeaconstantreminderofthefarreachof
theempireandtheoculuscouldhaveprovidedawayforthegodstoobserve
thepeopleinthemeetingastheywererunningthegovernment.Basedon
this,ithasbeenarguedthatthePantheonwasnotspecificallyatemple,but
ratherfor“atribunalfortheemperor.”120
Asmuchaswequestionwhetheraformalandtraditionalreligiouspurpose
waseverpartofthepurposeofthebuilding,wemaypresumethattheunique
appearanceofthebuilding’sinteriorandexteriorledpeopleexperiencethispieceof
architectureindifferentways.ThePantheonwasalsoauniquestructurethatwas
madeof“thecombinationofthreedistinctgeometricelements...acircularrotunda,a
rectangularportico,andafabricthatmediatedbetweenthem.”121Althoughmost
peopleinRomebelievedinthepredominantpolytheisticreligion,itisalso
importanttolookatthePantheonintermsofhowthepeoplewhoexperiencedit
architecturallytoanalyzeitsplaceinreligionandinsociety.
120 Thomas, 2017, 147. 121 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4.
40
CHAPTERIII:ThePantheonasaChurchandToday
ThePantheonwasbelievedthroughoutantiquitytohavebeenalocationfor
paganworshiporatempletothegods.Today,however,itisachurch.Hadrian’s
Pantheonisoneofthemostwell-preservedbuildingsfromantiquityandpartofthis
longhistorycanbeattributedtothefactthatitwasconvertedtoachurch.The
Pantheon’sconversionintoachurchcanalsobeviewedasareflectionofthecityof
Romeitself,whichbecameChristian.Thebuildingwas,however,convertedtoa
churchmuchlaterthanthecitywas.IntheEarlyChristianperiodor“sub-phaseof
thelaterimperialage,thetemple-frontporch,withitsuncompromisinglypagan
associations,hadtogo.”122PartofthereasonthePantheonisbelievedtohavebeen
convertedtoachurchsubsequently,however,inspiteofthisearlierdestructive
urge,isbecause“thedesireofthepopestomakeRomeamonumentalcapitalagain,
broughtaboutthesecond,Renaissancephaseofhistory.”123
ThePantheonwasconvertedtoachurchinthemiddleagesbythedecision
ofBonifaceIV,whoaskedtheemperorPhocasinConstantinopletomakethis
changetothePantheon.124PopeBoniface’srequesttoappropriatethePantheonto
makeitachurchisfoundintheLiberPontificalis:
HeaskedtheemperorPhocasforthetemplecalledthePantheon,andinithemadethechurchoftheever-virginStMaryandallmartyrs;inthischurchtheemperorpresentedmanygifts125
Throughthiswefindoutthathe,beingBoniface,hadrequestedtheconversionof
thePantheonfrom,mostlikelyitsstatusasatemple,toachurch.Thisconversion
122 MacDonald, 1976, 104. 123 MacDonald, 1976, 108. 124 Thunø, 2015, 233. 125 Davis, 2010, 62
41
wasacceptedandbylookingatmedievalliturgicalcalendarsitcanbedetermined
“thattheChristianconsecrationofthePantheontookplaceonMay13of613.”126
Theyearoftheconversionislikely613;however,somescholarsarguethatit
occurredin609or610.127ThefactthatthePantheonwasonceapagantemplewas
somethingthatpeoplewantedtopushundertherug:
ThecollectivededicationofthePantheonto“allthemartyrs”meantthattheannualcelebrationofS.MaraeandmartyresonMay13alsobecametheoriginoftheRomanfeastinhonorofallsaints.AstheEnglishhistoriantheVenerableBededeclaredaboutacenturylater,thecollectivededicationwasaimedatreplacingtheearlierdedicationofthebuildingstothepantheonofthepagangodsandthusatsubstitutingsaintsfordemons,aclaimthatwasrepeatedthroughouttheMiddleAges.Theoft-repeatedstorythatPopeBonifacehad28cartloadsofmartyrs’bonestransferredherefromthecatacombsoutsidethewallsofRomewasprobablyinventedduringtheCounterReformationamillenniumlaterthantheChristianconsecrationandbearslittleresemblancetotheseventeenthcenturycultofrelicsinRome.
ThisbuildsontheobservationearlierthattheRomansaswellasotherEuropeans
weremakinganactiveefforttoalmosterasethememoryofthetimewhenapagan
religionwascelebrated.Theextraefforttocreateacelebrationaroundthe
consecrationofthePantheonbecomingachurchistomakesurethatthepublic's
attentionandbeliefssurroundingthebuildingareallChristian.Thecelebrationof
thefoundingofthePantheonisnolongerpracticedtoday;however,thereisstill
celebratedonSaturdaynightandSundaymorning.128Thechurchdoesputonanew
spectacleofcelebrationcalledthePentecostmass.129Thiscelebrationisnotforthe
consecrationofthechurch;instead,it“celebratesthedescendingoftheHolySpirit
126 Thunø, 2015, 234. 127 Thunø, 2015, 234. 128 Events at the Pantheon, 2018. 129 Events at the Pantheon, 2018.
42
ofthedisciplesofJesusChristafterhisascension.”130Thecelebrationisvery
differentfromthefirstyearlycelebrationthatwasheldtherebecausethis
celebrationnolongertriestoprovethePantheonisachurch,butinsteadembraces
itsstatisbycelebratingimportantChristianholidays.However,thecelebrationis
stillahugespectacle:firemengotothetopofthedomeanddroptonsofrosepetals
throughtheoculussymbolizinghow“theholyspirit[came]toearthandtherose
remindsushowJesusChristshedbloodforthepeople.”131
Rosepetalsfallingfromtheoculusat44meterstocelebratePentecostmass.(“RosePetalRainfallatthePantheon,Rome,”LuxeAssociatesTravel)
ItisinterestingtolookatthePantheonbeingembracedasachurchbecause
itisbelievedtohaveoncebeenaplaceofworshipforVenusandMars,andthe
emperors,butisnowaplaceofworshipforJesus,Mary,andmartyrs.Thechangeis
drasticwhenlookedatbeyondthescopeofa“centralizedsinglevolumetricspace”
130 Events at the Pantheon, 2018. 131 Events at the Pantheon, 2018
43
forChristianstousetoworship.”132ThetwomainRomangodsthatwere
worshippedtheretogetherwiththeemperorsareironicallyoppositesofthe
divinitiesthatarenowworshippedinthespace.Venus,thegodessesofsex,Mars,
thegodofwar,andtheemperors,havenorelationtoMary,Jesus,andthemartyrs.
Ontheotherhand,doestheoppositenatureofthenewdivinitieshelpusconfirm
thatVenus,Mars,andtheemperorswereindeedthemainfocusofthePantheon
beforeitsconversion?Notnecessarily,butthedifferenceinwhowasworshipped
underthesamedomeshouldnotbeoverlookedeither.Oneofthestarkest
differencesisthatVenus,goddessofsexisreplacedbyMary,thevirgin.Thisclear
oppositionbetweenfiguresisinterestingtoconsiderincomparingthepaganand
Christianreligions.Mars,whowasthegodofwar,isreplacedbyJesus,thePrinceof
Peace,andthemartyrs,whowerecommonChristianswhodiedfortheirbeliefs,
replacetheemperors,whoseauthoritycommandedtheirexecutions.The
conversionofthePantheonhelpsconfirmChristianity’scompleteoppositionto
paganism.
Preservationasachurchwouldbethe“salvation”forthePantheonandkeep
itfromfallingvictimtomostotherdamageandpillaging,andwouldalsoprovideit
withrestorationsandrepairs.133Itisimportanttopointoutthateventhoughthe
consecrationofthePantheonhelpedpreventthepillaginganddestructionofthe
Pantheon.Conversionwasnottotallyitssalvation.Conversionprovided,however,
anotherlayerofprotectioninkeepingthePantheonintact.Oneofthebestexamples
ofthisprotectionisintheneoclassicalperiodwhenamajorremodelingofthe
132 MacDonald, 1976, 104. 133 Joost-Gaugier, 1998, 27, 28.
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buildingoccurred.134Therenovationcommencedbecauseinthespringof1705a
smallareaofacolumnwascleanedrevealinga“gleamingsurface”andPope
ClementXIAlbaniandthecardinals“gaveanordertoextendtheworktotheentire
innercircleoftherotunda,uptothefirstcornice.”135Thisrestorationcostan
unspecifiedamount;however,itisdescribedas“considerable.”136Theeffectsofthe
restorationcampaignthatPopeClementXIpromotedandinitiatedarestillvisible
todayinthePantheon:itis“thefruitofthisextensiveprogramofworkscarriedout
lessthan300yearsago”thathasallowedthePantheontostaysowellpreserved.137
Theprogramincludedreplacingmissingcolumns,re-facingtheexedras,restoring
altarsandchapels,andmajorrestorationofthemainChristianaltarofthe
Pantheon.
Without“papal-sponsoredproject[s]governingtherestoration”ofthe
Pantheon,itwouldhavefallenbackintoalesspreservedcondition.138Becauseof
thePantheon’sstatusasachurchitwasgivenmoreattentionforrenovations.
Anotheroneofthelargerenovationprojectswasthatofthedomeandattic.139In
1756theceilingandatticofthePantheonwererepaired.140
Someofthepillagingthatoccurred,evenafterthePantheonwasdeclareda
church,beganundertheEmperorConstantiniusII.In663thebronzerooftileswere
134 Pasquali, 2015, 337. 135 Pasquali, 2015, 337. 136 Pasquali, 2015, 338. 137 Pasquali, 2015, 338. 138 Pasquali, 2015, 343. 139 Pasquali, 2015, 342. 140 Pasquali, 2015, 344.
45
removedfromthedome.141Eventhoughtherewassomepillagingthatoccurredon
thePantheon,“atthebeginningoftheMiddleAgesthePantheonmusthavebeen
oneofthefewmonumentalbuildingsofImperialRometohavesurvivedthe
barbarianinvasionsintact.”142
Becauseofitsstatusasachurch,thePantheonunderwentmanydifferent
restorationsandembellishments,notallofwhichlasted.143Thesechangesbeganin
theMiddleAgesandprogressedthroughtheRenaissanceperiodthrough
seventeenthcenturyandsoonuntiltoday.ThechangespromotedthePantheon’s
embraceofitsidentityasachurchinsteadofaPagantemple:
Insomesense,thefrequencywithwhichtheinteriorofthePantheonwasremodeledandrefurnishedasachurchcouldbeconstruedasantitheticaltotheidealizeddescriptionsandrepresentationsthatRenaissanceartistshaveleftintheirvedute,surveys,anddrawings.Indeed,someofthesamearchitects,sculptors,andpainterswhorecorded“reconstructed”theancientbuildingandthepiazzainfrontofitalsoparticipatedinorcontributedtotheirremodelingduringthisperiod.YetitbecomesevidentthatreflectionsonthepaganbuildingwerecombinedwiththeconsciousnessoftheChristianalterationsmadetoitovertimeandthatbothcametobearonattemptstounderstandthePantheon.Thus,inastonishinglydifferentiatedknowledgeofthebuildingwasobviouslyavailableinwhichbothertraditions–PaganandChristian–wereanalyzed.144
Theserestorationsandembellishmentsincludedthedomebeingrecoveredwith
sheetsofleadin1580,buildingthreenewcolumnsinredgranitein1662,restoring
themarblefacingoftheinterior,andoneofthemostnotableembellishmentswas
twobelltowers.145Thesebelltowerswerebuiltin1270andUrbanVIIIhadBernini
141 Joost-Gaugier, 1998, 27. 142 Vighi, 1962, 14. 143 Vighi, 1962, 16. 144 Nesselrath, 2015, 281-283 145 Vighi, 1962, 16.
46
buildthetwobelltowersthatbecamenicknamed“theass’sears;”theywere
removedin1883.146ThisrestorationswereundertakenbytheDirectionGeneralof
AntiquitiesandFineArts“torestoretheinteriorofthemonumenttoitsproper
simplicityanddignity.”147
“ThePantheonafterthe17thcenturyrestorations.”(Vighi,1962,17)
ThechangeofthePantheon’spurposetoservingasachurchitresultedin
newsculpturesandtheplacementofadditionalitemsinthebuilding:
fromthesixteenthcenturyonwardsthePantheonservedasaplaceofburialforfamouspersons,andinparticularofartists,followingtheexampleofRaphaelthefirsttowishtobeburiedthere.AftertheunificationofItalyitwasdestinedtoreceivetheremainsofRoyalty,andinitwereburiedVictorEmmanuelII,UmbertoI,venerationwithinthetemple.148
146 Marder, 2015, 296.; Vighi, 1962, 16. 147 Vighi, 1962, 17 148 Vighi, 1962, 16.
47
Raphael’srequesttobeburiedinthePantheonresultedinatimeperiodwhen
“friends,disciples,assistants,andfollowers”wereburiedinthePantheonwithhim,
whichinturnresultedin“[creating]themetaphoricalmeaningofpantheonasa
buildingservingasthememorialofthefamousdead:ashrinehonoringgreatmen
andwomen.”149
“InteriorviewfeaturingpierwitRaphael’stombandflankingniches.”(Marder&Jones,2015,211)
TheimageaboveshowsRaphael’stomb,whichwaspartofanewshiftfromusing
theexedraofthePantheonforcultstatuestousingthemforburialstructures,andis
animportantchangeofidentityforthePantheon.WhoisburiedinthePantheonhas
changedovertime.Raphaelisstillincluded,butitisnolongerincludespeoplewho
149 Nesselrath, 2015, 257.
48
wereassociatedwithhim.RaphaelwaslikelynotthefirstburialinthePantheon:
“thereisgoodevidenceofearlierburials…forwhichmedievalandearly
Renaissancetombslabsarestillpreserved,havingbeenremovedfromthefloor
duringrestorations.”150The“decorations”orornamentsaroundthePantheon’s
exedraandnicheschangedovertime.Theyalsoincludedburials,likeRaphael’s,as
wellasaltarsandfrescos.
Becauseofthesechanges,thePantheonisnowaveryelaboratehybridof
bothChristianandpaganelements.ItcontainsboththehistoryofChristianityas
wellasantiquity’spaganhistory.Itisimportanttonotethatinthescopeof
alterations,thereweresomemajorones,butnonethatcouldalteritsfundamental
shape:“thecylindricalspaceabsorbeditsnewreligiousfunctionswithoutany
seriousalterationsofthelayoutbyHadrian’sarchitects.”151
Anotheroneofthesekeychangesincludestheadditionofanaltar.Oneofthe
mainreasonsthatitisnotconfirmedthathePantheonwasoriginallyinfacta
templeisthelackofevidenceforanaltaroutsidethePantheon.Thereareother
reasonshistoriansarenottotallysurethePantheonwasatemple,includingits
unusualshapecomparedtoothertemples,buttheabsenceofanalaroutsidethe
templeisahugepieceofevidence.Itsunusualshapeissomethingthatstandsoutin
itsuseasaChristianchurchaswell,astheshapeofmostChristianchurcheswasnot
traditionallydomedlikethisone.Tohaveachurch,aswithatemple,oneneedsan
altar,whichtheChurchinstalledinthePantheon.Intheplaceofthecultstatuethat
wouldhavebeendirectlyoppositethemain,analtarwithacanopywasinstalledin
150 Marder & Jones, 2015, 28. 151 Thunø, 2015, 241.
49
theMiddleAges.152IntheMiddleAges,itisalsobelievedthatfourothersidealtars
wereinstalledinniches.153Intheneoclassicalperiod,thealtarbecameapointof
focusduringtherestorations,specificallytheurnthat“heldtheremainsoftheholy
martyrs.”154Theissueoftheurn’splacementinrelationtothealtarwasto“[recall]
theChurch’sdefinitivevictoryoverthepaganworldbytheconversionoftheurnto
Christianuse.”155
ThePantheonisstillaverypopularmodernattraction.Todaytouristscan
frequentthebuildingwhileitisopen,andthebuildingisstillanactivechurch.
TouristsorpeoplewhowanttoexperiencemassatthePantheoncanalsoattend
Christianservices.TheexactnumberofvisitorsthePantheonreceivesforboth
touristicandreligiouspurposesisunknown,butthePantheonwasuntilrecently
oneofthelastfreemonumentsinRomethatcouldbeexplored.ThePantheonwill
sooncharge2europerentry,startingsometimein2018,forpatronstoenterthe
temple,andexperiencetheuniquerotundaanddomeshape.156Theticketrevenue
willbeusedtomaintainthePantheonandpossiblyalsoforfuturerestorationsof
thebuilding,ifneeded.157
Whentouristsvisitthisbuilding,itisnotlikelythattheirthoughtsaboutthe
shapeofthebuildinggomuchbeyondthinkingthat“itisamazing,”orthatthey
analyzeitatadeeperlevel.Lookingbeyondthesurfaceofthisimpressivefeatofthe
RomansincreatingthePantheon,thePantheonhasalsohadahugeimpacton
152 Thunø, 2015, 243-244. 153 Thunø, 2015, 243. 154 Pasquali, 2015, 341. 155 Pasquali, 2015, 340-341. 156 Binnie, 2017. 157 Binnie, 2017
50
buildingshapesinlaterhistory.Manybuildingsthatareiconsofdifferentcities
aroundtheworldtodaywereinfluencedbytheshapeofthePantheon,itsbuilding
techniques,anditssize,includingtheDomeoftheRock,St.Paul’sCathedral,theU.S.
CapitolBuilding,numerousarenas,HagiaSophia,theDuomoinFlorence,andeven
theNottMemorialatUnionCollege.Thesebuildingsareveryimportantlandmarks
fortheircities,andtheyalloweadebttothepowerandreligiousimplications
associatedwiththeshapeofthePantheon.
Oneofthebestcomparisonsonemaymake,Ithink,isofthePantheontothe
DuomoinFlorence,whichisregardedasanotherimpressivearcheologicalfeat.The
DuomocanbeveryconnectedtothePantheon:
Florentinesassociatedthem[selves]withadistinguishedpast.TheyunderstoodthePantheoninRometobeatypicaltemple…inacityincreasinglyfascinatedbyantiquity,adomedcathedralofferedameansofcreatingadistinctivelyItalianalternative.158
TheconnectionbetweenFlorenceandRomeisalsoprominentbecause“theRomans
foundedFlorence.”159FlippoBrunelleschiiswhodesignedthedomeanditwasa
technologicalfeatbecauseitwasthelargestgroinvaulteverbuilt.160Brunelleschi
solvedthemysteryofhowtomakethedomebycreatingatwoshelleddome:“a
lightoutershellencasedathickinnershell.”161ThePantheonitselfdoesnothavea
groinvaultdome;however,theinspirationfortheDuomocanneverthelessbe
attributedtothePantheonbothbecauseofitsassociationwithRomeandbecauseit
hasthesameshape.Bothdomeswereconstructedusingplatforms,scaffolding,and
158 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 32. 159 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 32. 160 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 33. 161 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 33-34.
51
bothweretechnologicallyadvancedforthetimethattheywerebuilt.162The
Pantheonhasnotonlysurvivedmoreorlessintactphysically,butitsarchitectural
formcontinuestoinspireaswell.
162 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 34.
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CONCLUSION
BecausethePantheonisoneofthemostwellpreservedbuildingsfrom
antiquity,itisimportanttolookatthePantheon’splaceacrosshistory.Whatever
thePantheon’soriginalpurpose,whichisstillamystery,itsmeaninghaschanged
overtime.ThemainpurposeofthePantheonisbelievedtohavebeenasatempleor
placeofpaganworshipthatwasthenconvertedtoaspaceforChristianworship.
ThefirstPantheonwasbuiltatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpireby
Agrippa.Itwasburntdownbyafirein80A.D.,andstruckbylightningin110A.D.
BecausethefirstPantheonwasburntdown,thereislimitedknowledgeknown
aboutitsoriginalpurpose,eventhoughitisnowsuchaprominentbuildinginRome.
Aswehaveobserved,however,thelocationofthefirstPantheonwasthesameas
thelocationthatithashadthroughoutitssubsequenthistory.Itscentrallocationon
theCampusMartiusallowedforittohavemaximuminteractionwiththepeopleof
Rome.CassiusDioexplainsthatthewordPantheonmeans,“allgods,”andwhathe
believesthePantheonwaslikelyaplaceforworshippingallgods,becauseofits
celestialsymbolismandthemultitudeofstatuesinit.Forthisreason,Ilookedatthe
argumentsforwhetherthePantheonwasinfactatemple.Dio,asanancientsource,
providesastrongpieceofevidenceforthePantheonhavingbeenatemple,butI
comparedthistohowRomanreligionwaspracticedandhowitwouldhavebeen
impossibletoidentifyomensasderivingfromspecificgodsifmultiplegodswere
housedandworshippedthere.IalsodiscussedhowthePantheonwasa
representationofaturningpointinRome’sancienthistory,becauseitwasbuilt
underAugustus,specificallybyAgrippa,aspartofhiswiderbuildingprogram.This
53
buildingprojecthelpedraisemoraleamongthepeopleandthereasonwhythe
Pantheoncouldnotbecalledthe“Augusteum”wasbecauseoftheimpactJulius
Caesar’sassassinationhadonthepresentationofRomanrulersinthecityofRome.
Overall,thePantheonplayedalargeroleinsymbolizingashiftingovernmentfor
thepeopleofRome,andthereis,asaresult,evidenceforbothandagainstitsstatus
asatemple.
Followingthisdiscussion,Ilookedatthearguablythemostprominent
periodinthePantheon’shistory,whichiswhenthePantheonthatisstillstanding
todaywasbuilt.BylookingatthePantheon’sreconstructionandrefurbishmentby
multipleemperors,wewereabletoobservetheimportantandcriticalplacethatthe
Pantheonhadinhistory.Inlightofthis,itisindeedinterestingthatthereareno
writtenrecordsofwhatthePantheonwasusedforinhistory.Inparticular,Ilooked
atthedebatethatsurroundswhobuiltthePantheonthatstandstodayandconclude
thatithadbeenbegunbyTrajanandfinishedbyHadrian.Ialsobuiltonthe
argumentofwhetherthePantheonwasatempleornotbylookingatthe
architectureofthebuilding.Thedome,oculus,andoverallvastsizeofthebuilding
representanarchitecturalfeatofthetimeandanadvancementfortheRomans.I
alsofoundthatthematerialsused,specifically,themarble,representedthevastsize
oftheempireandservedtodemonstratethewealthandpowerRomeheldoverits
territories.LookingatthearchitecturalaspectsofthePantheon,Iconcludedthat
theyappeartohavehadreligiouselements,buttheabsenceofanaltar,whichisone
ofthepiecesthatpreventsusfromprovingthatthePantheonwasoriginally
constructedasatemple.Tobalancethisargument,Ilookedatotherancientsources
54
thatdescribethatthebuilding’suseforgovernmentpurposesbyHadrian.Ialso
talkedabouthowinspirationforthePantheon’suniqueappearancewasdrawnfrom
manydifferentbuildingsandhowRomanswouldhaveinteractedwiththePantheon
indifferentways,dependinguponwhowasemperoratthetime.
Toconcludeourhistoricaltour,IanalyzedhowthePantheonisoneofthe
mostwell-preservedbuildingsfromantiquitybecauseitwasconvertedtoachurch.
ThebuildingwasconvertedbyBonifaceIVtotheChurchofVirginStMaryandAll
Martyrs.EventhoughthePantheonwasstilllootedattimesafteritsconversiontoa
church,itsconversionprovidedalayerofprotectiontothebuilding.Asachurch,the
Pantheonwasrestoredmultipletimesthroughouthistoryundertheguidanceof
Popes.IalsolookedattheimportantdifferencesbetweenthePantheoninantiquity,
asalikelyPagantemple,comparedtoitsusenowasaChristianchurch.Ilookedat
howMaryandJesus,ontheonehand,VenusandMars,ontheother,arealmost
completeoppositesofeachother,andhowthealtar,thatwouldhavebeenoutside
thePantheoninantiquity,iftherehadbeenone,isnowinsidethePantheonfor
Christianworship.And,finally,ItalkedabouthowthePantheon,asthelargest
concretedomeeverbuilt,hascontinuedtoliveonandserveasaninspiration.Ithas
isanarchitecturalfeatthathasinfluencednotonlybuildingsinantiquity,but
buildingsthroughouthistorytothepresentday.Itsshapeisarepresentationof
power,andinmanyrespectsapowerthatcarrieswithitareligiousaspect.
55
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