a study of euphemisms in the context of
TRANSCRIPT
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A Study of Euphemisms in the Context of
English-speaking Media
Alireza Hojati
Faculty of Foreign anguages! Amin Higher Education "nstitution! #$%$ &ox
'()''-**'((! +istrict A,! nit ,.! Fouladshar! "sfahan! "ran
/el0 1'-.2(-())'-33'* E-mail0 harries$alireza4gmail$com
5ecei6ed0 %cto7er ,3! ,.(, Accepted0 8o6em7er '! ,.(, #u7lished0 +ecem7er 2(! ,.(,
doi0(.$3,1)9ijl$6*i*$,122 50 http099dx$doi$org9(.$3,1)9ijl$6*i*$,122
A7stract
Euphemisms are fre:uently used 7y speakers of different languages to soften the impact of
concepts ;ith the potential to cause offence and social disappro6al$ /oday! the use of
euphemisms has increased 7y the media and ne; and contro6ersial euphemism ha6e also
7een 7orn$ &earing these points in mind! this study ;as carried out ;ith the aim of eliciting
and :ualitati6ely examining a num7er of high-fre:uency euphemisms employed 7y
English-speaking media$ /o this end! three high-profile media ;ere selected and their ne;s
7ulletins ;ere recorded for a three-month-long period$ /he calculation of fre:uencies of
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different euphemisms used 7y the media organizations re6ealed that po6erty- and
military-related euphemism figured prominently in the ne;s 7ulletins! ;hile euphemisms
dealing ;ith economy! disa7ility! death and sex had lo;er fre:uencies of use$ /he :ualitati6e
analysis of data re6ealed insightful points! not least the influence of current and ongoing
affairs on the use of euphemisms and the in6ol6ement of other non-linguistic factors on
media discourse featuring euphemisms$
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($ "ntroduction
($( +efinition of the /erm
/he ;ord =euphemism$ has 7een succinctly defined 7y online Merriam->e7ster +ictionary as
?the su7stitution of an agreea7le or inoffensi6e expression for one that may offend or suggest
something unpleasant@ ,.(,B$ /he examination of the ;ord$s etymology re6eals that it is
originally a reek ;ord ;ith t;o parts! 6iz$ ?eu@! ;hich means ?good@! and ?pheme@! ;hich
means ?speaking@%nline Etymology +ictionary,.(,B B$
($, se of Euphemisms
Euphemisms can 7e found in most of the ;orld$s languages and fulfill certain important
functions in them$ %ne of the most significant functions of euphemisms! according to
#a6lenko,..)B! is ?to protect speakers from undesired emotional arousal@p$,).B$
Commenting on this function! Miller (111B has pointed out that gi6en the existence of
concepts deemed too offensi6e to speak a7out in almost all the ;orld$s languages! there
exists a need for speakers of different languages to find rounda7out! indirect and socially
accepta7le ;ays of referring to such concepts$ According to him! euphemisms can fulfill this
important function 7y sanitizing the language ;hich the speakers use$ Echoing this 6ie;!
Mayfield ,..1B has noted that euphemisms ?sanitize and camouflage actions! things! or
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e6ents that could appear unaccepta7le in light of professed 6alues@ p$,D.B$ Further!
im,.(,B has indicated that euphemisms are commonly used in people$s daily speech and
fulfill t;o functions in it! namely! toning done the nature of potentially offensi6e things
;hich people need to mention and speak a7out! and neutralizing negati6e connotations
associated ;ith offensi6e entities$
/here are many offensi6e and unmentiona7le things ;hich euphemisms refer to$ +eath! ;ar!
intercourse! 7odily functions and disa7ility are some of the concepts to ;hich euphemisms
routinely refer Stock;ell ,..,B! &rind >ilkinson,..'BB$
($2 Euphemisms and +eception
Although the use of euphemisms for making unmentiona7le concepts mentiona7le and less
offensi6e is generally considered a good and accepta7le thing! there are serious o7jections to
the use of such terms 7ecause they can also 7e used for decei6ing people ackall ,..1B!
Soles ,..1BB$ "n this connection! acone ,..2B has commented that ?euphemisms can also
hide seemingly simple and straightfor;ard ;ords 7ehind decepti6e or o6erly complex ones@
p$).B$ Further! a5oc:ue ,..)B! ;ho focused on contro6ersial aspects of some euphemisms!
has noted that euphemisms ;hich deal ;ith political! military and commercial concepts can
7e particularly decepti6e and contro6ersial ,..)B$ Safire,..'B has lent his support to this
6ie; and has added that apart from political! 7usiness and military euphemisms!
en6ironmental issues! ;hich recei6e a lot of attention 7y 7oth conser6ation groups and the
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mass media! ha6e led to the 7irth of many euphemisms! many of ;hich are misleading and
highly de7ata7le,..'B$
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Some examples of contro6ersial and misleading euphemisms include 5ichard 8ixon$s use of
=plausi7le denia7ility$ to refer to =deception$ Ford,..*B B! the use of the ;ord =do;nsizing$
to refer to the act of laying off a su7stantial num7er of a company$s ;orkers or employees
acone ,..2B B! the use of the term =collateral damageG to denote ci6ilian deaths in ;ar
situations Sarioglu ,.((B B! the employment of the term =extraordinary renditionG to refer to
?kidnapping follo;ed 7y torture@ /ri6ers ,.((B B! and the use of the term =enhanced
interrogation$ to refer to torture 8un7erg ,..1B B$
($* Euphemisms! Media and anguage earners
/he English-speaking media! including ne;spapers! magazines and satellite tele6ision and
radio channels! routinely employ a large num7er of euphemisms Mercer,..,B! Coleman
,..DB! McArthur,..3B B$ Further! these media are 7ecoming increasingly a6aila7le to EF9
ES learners and are 7eing increasingly used in different ES9EF settings for educational
purposes Chan! Chin 8agami ,.((B B$ As a result! today$s EF9ES learners ha6e a lot of
exposure to different types of euphemisms! regardless of ;hether the de6ote particular
attention to them or treat them as typical ;ords$ &esides! e6en discerning learners ;ho de6ote
special attention to euphemisms are 6ery likely to ha6e difficulty interpreting and making
sense of them$ "n this regard! 5oe! &urns Smith ,.((B ha6e commented that euphemisms
and figurati6e language pose significant pro7lems for foreign language learners since they
often lack the 7ackground kno;ledge needed for making sense of euphemisms and ;ords
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used figurati6ely in different contexts$
Echoing the 6ie;s of the a7o6e-mentioned authors! Hammond &ransford ,.(,B ha6e
noted that euphemisms can pose pro7lems such as confusion and failure to ade:uately
interpret information not only for language learners! 7ut also for language teachers$ i6en
this! the authors ha6e emphasized the need for preparing today$s language teachers for coping
;ith the many complexities of language-teaching! including those dealing ;ith euphemisms!
in a rapidly changing ;orld ;ith a rapidly changing language landscape ,.(,B$
/he most radical proposal in relation to euphemisms has 7een put for;ard on the ;e7site
http099esl$yourdictionary$com9euphemism-lessons$html$ According to an article entitled
=Euphemism essonsG! ;hich is a6aila7le on the foregoing ;e7site! there is a need to de6elop
language lessons ;hich focus exclusi6ely on English euphemisms and ade:uately introduce
them and important points surrounding them to non-nati6e learners of English$ According to
this article! the design and de6elopment of such lessons can 7e one of the most 7eneficial
;ays of helping English language learners$
&earing all of the a7o6e points in mind! there is a need for the de6otion of more scholarly!
research and pedagogical attention to commonly-used euphemisms in the English-speaking
media$
,$ #urpose of the Study
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/he aim of this study is to identify and examine fre:uently-used euphemisms featuring in
English-speaking media$ &earing in mind the use of numerous euphemisms and euphemistic
expressions 7y the many English-speaking media! the scope of the study is confined to ne;s
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7ulletins of a limited num7er of high-profile English-speaking tele6ision channels during a
fairly short period of time$ Further! the study aims to come up ;ith pedagogical points and
recommendations associated ;ith the findings$
2$ Methodology
2$( Materials
/o collect the data needed for this study! the researcher used materials featuring in a num7er
of 2.-minute ne;s 7ulletins of three internationally influential and reputa7le satellite
tele6ision channels$ /he channels used ;ere &&C >orld 8e;s! Alazeera English and
France ,* English$
2$, #rocedures
/he researcher used a small recording de6ice to record one 2.-minute ne;s 7ulletin from
each of the foregoing ne;s channels e6ery other day for a three-month-long period 7et;een
August (th and 8o6em7er (th! ,.(,$ /he ne;s 7ulletins ;ere selected on a random 7asis at
different times of the day early-morning! mid-morning! mid-day! early afternoon! e6ening!
mid-nightB$ /hroughout the data-collection period! the researcher checked the 6oice :uality of
recorded materials to make sure ;hat ;as 7eing recorded ;as :uite audi7le and suita7le for
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the su7se:uent data-analysis procedures$
2$2 +ata Analysis
"n order to analyze the data collected from the ne;s 7ulletins! the researcher first listened to
each 7ulletin three times in order to identify euphemisms used in it 7y ne; casters!
correspondents! analysts and commentators ;hose ;ords featured in it$ After the
identification of all the euphemisms used! the researcher calculated their fre:uencies and
su7jected the most fre:uent ones to further analysis$
For the :ualitati6e analysis of fre:uently-used euphemisms! the researcher consulted a
num7er of 7ooks and online sources! especially the most recent ones! to explore the meanings!
connotations and possi7le contro6ersies surrounding the fre:uently-employed euphemisms$
*$ 5esults
/he follo;ing ta7les present the study$s results$
/a7le ($*$ Military euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and fre:uencies of their use
+escripti6e Statistics
Euphemism
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Fre:uency of se
Friendly fire
32
Collateral damage9deaths
),
8uclear deterrent
3)
Soft /arget
)'
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/a7le ,$*$ Economy-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their
fre:uencies
+escripti6e Statistics
Euphemism
Fre:uency of se
&et;een jo7s
*)
+o;nsizing
3'
8egati6e gro;th
)(
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/a7le 2$*$ +isa7ility-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their
fre:uencies
+escripti6e Statistics
Euphemism
Fre:uency of se
#eople9/hose ;ith limited a7ility
(*
#hysically challenged person9s9people
2(
-impaired person9s9people
,,
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/a7le *$*$ Sex-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their fre:uencies
+escripti6e Statistics
Euphemism
Fre:uency of se
#ri6ates9#ri6ate parts
(,
"llicitB Affair
23
iaison
(*
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Sleep together9;ith s7
((
F >ord
1
C-;ord
D
Euphemism
Fre:uency of se
#ass a;ay
2,
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Final resting place
,D
/a7le3$*$ +eath-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their fre:uencies
+escripti6e Statistics
/a7le )$*$ #o6erty-related euphemisms used 7y the three ne;s channels and their fre:uencies
+escripti6e Statistics
Euphemism
Fre:uency of se
i6e in reduced circumstances
32
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Financially challenged
3D
+isad6antaged
D,
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/a7le D$*$ Summary ta7le ;hich summarizes fre:uencies of use of each category of
Euphemisms
+escripti6e Statistics
Category of Euphemisms
/otal Fre:uency of se
Military euphemisms
,21
Economy-related euphemisms
()3
+isa7ility-related euphemisms
)D
Sex-related euphemisms
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''
+eath-related euphemisms
31
#o6erty-related euphemisms
(',
3$ +iscussion and Conclusions
At the 7eginning of this section! the aims 7eing pursued 7y this study ought to 7e repeated$
As mentioned pre6iously! the first aim of the current study ;as to identify fre:uently-used
euphemisms employed 7y three high-profile international ne;s channels$ /he second aim
;as to examine the most fre:uently-employed euphemisms :ualitati6ely$ /a7les of the
=5esults$ section help determine ;hich euphemisms ha6e had high fre:uencies of use and
;hich ones can 7e regarded as the most fre:uently-used euphemisms$
As ta7le ($*$ sho;s! although all the four military euphemism had high fre:uencies of use!
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t;o of them! 6iz$ =soft targetG and =collateral damageG ;ere used more fre:uently than
others)' and ), respecti6elyB$
According to figures presented in ta7le ,$*$ =negati6e gro;thG had the highest fre:uency of
use )(B! follo;ed 7y =do;nsizing$! ;hose fre:uency of use ;as 3'B! in the category of
economy-associated euphemisms$
&ased on data presented in ta7le2$*$! euphemisms =physically-challenged person9sG and
I-impaired person9sG had the highest fre:uencies of use in the category of
disa7ility-associated euphemisms!2(B and ,,B respecti6ely$
/a7le *$*$ illustrates that there ;ere apprecia7le numerical differences associated ;ith the
fre:uencies of sex-linked euphemisms$ "n this category! =illicit affairG had the highest
fre:uency of use23B$ %ther euphemisms of this category! ho;e6er! had su7stantially lo;er
fre:uencies of use$ =iaison$! the second most fre:uently-used euphemism of the category!
for instance! had the fre:uency of (*B$
/a7le3$*$! ;hich pro6ides information on death-associated euphemisms! sho;s that 7oth
euphemisms of this category had similar fre:uencies$ Ho;e6er! one of them! 6iz$ =pass a;ay$!
;as used more fre:uently than the other one$
/a7le )$*$! ;hich deals ;ith the category of po6erty-associated euphemisms! indicates that all
the three euphemisms falling into this category had fairly high fre:uencies$ Ho;e6er! one of
them! 6iz$ =disad6antaged$! ;as used more fre:uently than others$ "n fact! the foregoing
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euphemism had the highest fre:uency of use among all the euphemisms of the six categories
discussed a7o6e$
/a7le D$*$! ;hich summarizes other ta7les$ data! re6eals that! o6erall! military euphemisms
and po6erty-linked euphemisms had the first and second highest fre:uencies of use
respecti6ely$ >hat is nota7le is that military euphemisms ;ere used apprecia7ly more
fre:uently than po6erty-related euphemisms! 7ut! one po6erty-linked euphemism had the
highest fre:uency of use among euphemisms of all the six categories in :uestion$
/o :ualitati6ely interpret the data discussed presented a7o6e! a num7er of points ha6e to 7e
taken into account$
/he first point is that all the euphemisms the current study focused on ;ere taken from three
international English-speaking mass media$ All the three media associations in :uestion ;ere
either >estern &&C >orld 8e;s and France ,* EnglishB! or >estern-leaning Alazeera
EnglishB$ /he affiliations and leanings of these media organizations!
;hich ha6e 7een repeatedly accused of media 7iaseffries,.(.B! +ar;ish,.(.B!
#almegiano,.(,BB! ha6e no dou7t affected the discourses used 7y their ne;s-casters!
correspondents! commentators and guests from ;hose ;ords research data ;ere collected$
/he second point is that! as ta7le D$*$ illustrates! a fairly large num7er of euphemisms ;ere
used 7y the three fore-mentioned media organizations$ tele6ision ne;s 7ulletins! ;hich
corro7orates rillo,..3B$s ;ords on the fre:uent employment of euphemisms! 7oth
innocuous and potentially decepti6e ones! 7y the English-speaking media$
/he third point is that! gi6en researcher$s use of ne;s 7ulletins$ materials for data collection!
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all the euphemisms elicited and analyzed ;ere the ones dealing ;ith current affairs!
unfolding de6elopments and ongoing situations and crises associated ;ith the three-month
period during ;hich the data ;ere collected$ /his partly accounts for the use of a large
num7er of military and economy-associated euphemisms$
>ith regard to the category of military euphemisms! most of the high-fre:uency euphemisms
;ere directly related to the ongoing crisis in Syria! some ;ere related to military 6iolence in
parts of Mali and Sudan! and a small num7er ;ere linked to sporadic 6iolence and armed
clashes in #akistan! Afghanistan! i7ya and Egypt$
"n relation to category of economy-related euphemisms! high-fre:uency euphemisms ;ere all
related to the unfolding economic crisis in Europe and the nited States as ;ell as its
repercussions in Asia and emerging countries$
As ;ith the category of po6erty-related euphemisms! the most high-fre:uency euphemism!
6iz$ =disad6antaged$! ;as used many times 7ecause of the deteriorating state of the glo7al
economy and its undesira7le conse:uences! especially unemployment and rising po6erty! in
different countries all across the ;orld$
>hat the discussion of the findings illustrates! and has already 7een highlighted! is that the
time period during ;hich research data ;ere collected and the type of media materials used
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for data-collection purposes ha6e had a significant impact on the study$s findings$ /he time
period for data-collection of this research ;as characterized numerous military and financial
incidents and de6elopments ;hich recei6ed extensi6e media co6erage! and it explains ;hy
euphemisms associated ;ith these issues ;ere used far more fre:uently than euphemisms
relating to other categories$ So! it has to 7e said that if the study$s data collection part had
7een carried out during another time period! the euphemisms$ fre:uencies! and conse:uently
the study$s findings! could ha6e 7een different$ /herefore! there is a need for future research
to pick o6er this topic and use more di6erse media materials during longer periods in order to
enrich this line of research$
/his study is ine6ita7ly linked in 6arious ;ays to some other areas and lines of research not
least +iscourse Analysis and Critical +iscourse Analysis$ So! the findings can 7e examined
from these perspecti6es as ;ell$
>hat needs to 7e highlighted here is that media discourses! ;hich are far from neutral %tt
Mack,..1BB! are influenced 7y a large num7er of factors not least the leanings and
affiliations of different media organizations and their funders8asser! &erlin >ong,.((B$
/herefore! the type of discourse used 7y one media outlet can 7e profoundly influenced 7y
such factors and 7ecome 6ery different from the type of discourse another media association
uses in its co6erage of ne;s$ "n this study! as ;as stated earlier! all the research data ;ere
collected from three media organizations ;ith strong >estern or >estern-leaning affiliations
and stances$ i6en this! and the fact that media discourses are so po;erful these days that can
e6en ideologize the language used in different media Milani,.(.B B! it has to 7e
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ackno;ledged that the study$s findings ha6e 7een deeply influenced 7y the 7iased and
ideologized discourses employed 7y the ne;s sources used$
Jet another point ;hich must 7e mentioned in this part is that some of the euphemisms used
7y different media are contro6ersial and di6isi6e! so much so that there are profound
disagreements as to their use and potential for deception$ A clear example is the fre:uent use
of =humanitarian9armed inter6entionG 7y the >estern media to refer to attempts 7y some
>estern countries to get directly in6ol6ed in other countries$ military crises or ci6il ;ars$
/he term! ;hich might seem :uite innocuous and accepta7le! can har7or a lot of contro6ersial
and unpleasant things 7ehind its 6eneer and! therefore! its use 7y the >estern media! deser6es
scholarly attention and scrutiny from the perspecti6e of Critical +iscourse Analysis$ i6en
the contro6ersiality and se6erely di6isi6e political aspects associated ;ith the foregoing
euphemism! despite its fre:uent use 7y the three media used for data-collection! it ;as
excluded from the study$ /his di6isi6eness also holds true for the military euphemism
=collateral damage9deathsG! ;hich! as this study sho;s! had a high fre:uency of use$ "t has
7een used many times 7y ;arring parties to mildly refer to the allegedly unintentional
infliction of harm to non-com7atants in ;ar situations$ /he nited States! 8A/% and "srael
ha6e all made use of this euphemism many times Schmidl,...BB and! therefore! it has
7ecome a dou7ly contro6ersial euphemism too$ "t is hoped that gi6en the increasing use of
euphemisms! especially contro6ersial ones! 7y different media ;ith different leanings and
affiliations! future research ;ill focus on such terms and expressions and analyze them from!
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among other perspecti6es! Critical +iscourse Analysis and Media +iscourse Analysis points
of 6ie;$
/he final point is that! gi6en the complexities and contro6ersies inextrica7ly linked ;ith
euphemisms! they deser6e more pedagogical attention$ #erhaps the radical notion of
designing courses exclusi6ely dealing ;ith euphemism is not a popular or feasi7le one! 7ut!
gi6en the exposure of many ES9EF learners to media materials and the use of these
materials for language-learning purposes! there is a need for the clarification! explanation and
critical examination of euphemisms ;ith high fre:uencies of use 7y the English-speaking
media in ES9EF classes$
)$ Concluding 5emarks
As this paper re6eals! euphemisms often function as a dou7le-edged s;ord$ Although they
can 7e used for legitimate and justifia7le purposes! they can also 7e used for the utterly
reprehensi7le purpose of deception$ "n our constantly-changing and increasingly
inter-connected ;orld! euphemisms ha6e a special place and! as noted earlier! are ;idely
coined and used 7y different political and military indi6iduals and entities for rather dodgy
reasons$ /he First ulf >ar! the &alkans$ >ar of the (11.s! the "ra: "n6asion of ,..2! the
aza >ar of ,..'-1! and the current ;ar 7et;een "srael and aza militants ha6e all gi6en
rise to the emergence and fre:uent use of euphemisms$ "t seems that ;ith the changing
military! political! economic and en6ironmental landscape of our ;orld! the linguistic
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landscape is also ine6ita7ly changed! and the international media! depending upon their
affiliations and editorial policies! ;ill continue to coin and peddle different euphemisms for
7oth legitimate and illegitimate reasons$
/he current Ara7-"sraeli conflict is perhaps a timely reminder of the use of euphemisms and
the contro6ersial issues inextrica7ly linked ;ith them$ "srael$s use of terms such as =surgical
air strikesG and =taking out terror targetsG! ;hich ;e ha6e heard time and again from the
English-speaking media! are good examples of terms ;hich may 7e seen as euphemisms to
;hich some may o7ject$
Another current international de6elopment presenting us ;ith good examples of euphemisms
is the scandal surrounding the erst;hile +irector of the C"A$ /he use of euphemisms such as
=inappropriate communicationsG and =pri6ate affair$ to refer to his displaying marital
infidelity ser6e as other recent examples of euphemisms$
"n today$s ;orld! the proliferation of media organizations in all parts of the ;orld and their
7iased discourses ha6e ;orked hand in hand to lead to the unremitting 7om7ardment of
glo7al citizens ;ith euphemisms many of ;hich they cannot make sense of ade:uately$ So! it
is necessary for future research to focus attention on the 7iased media discourse and
euphemisms of media entities in the Middle East! Asia and Africa and shed more light on
ho; ne;s consumers are exposed to different euphemisms 7y different media$ As for the area
of language education! gi6en that today$s teenagers and adults are largely sa66y ;ith the
"nternet and digital de6ices and ha6e access to them! it is necessary for curriculum designers
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as ;ell as language educators to raise the a;areness of learners regarding euphemisms$
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#erhaps a general introduction of euphemisms and the purposes they ser6e coupled ;ith
different examples of them can 7e the first effecti6e step in this direction$
5eferences
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Hymns Ancient Modern td$
Chan! >$! Chin! alter de ruyter$ http099dx$doi$org9(.$(3(391D'()(*3(.,.'
Coleman! 5$ ,..DB$ &lue Monday0 Fats +omino and the ost +a;n of 5ock InG 5oll$ /he
nited States of America0 +a Capo #ress$
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/eachers Should earn and 7e A7le to +o$ San Francisco0 >iley Sons$
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effries! "$ ,.(.B$ #olitical +e6elopments in Contemporary China0 A uide$ 8e; Jork0
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States of America0 5outledge$ http099dx$doi$org9(.$*2,*91D'.,.2*)*1'*
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Continuum "nternational #u7lishing roup$
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Social #sychology 5e6ie;$ /he nited States of America0 5outledge$
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8asser! "$! &erlin! $! >ong! S$ EdsB$ ,.((B$ Examining Education! Media! and +ialogue
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Cengage earning$
Stock;ell! #$ ,..,B$ Sociolinguistics0 A 5esource &ook for Students$ 8e; Jork0 /aylor
Francis$
/ri6ers! 5$ ,.((B$ /he Folly of Fools0 /he ogic of +eceit and Self-+eception in Human ife$
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>e7 5eferences
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http099esl$yourdictionary$com9euphemism-lessons$html0 5etrie6ed on %cto7er ,.th! ,.(,$