A Study of Changing Trends of the Ambient Dry Bulb Temperature

and Relative Humidity in Malaysia and Brunei

C. K. Chang +

Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning& Refrigeration Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France

Institute, Section 14, Jalan Teras Jernang, 43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia1

Abstract. Climate change is likely to have a significant impact on the HVAC system design, especially in

tropical climates, such as Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of

20 years of meteorological data (1988 – 2007) from seven weather stations in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur-

Subang), Bayan Lepas, Kota Bharu, Miri, Sibu, Bintulu and Kuching) and one in Brunei (Bandar Seri

Begawan). Studies are focused on the dry bulb temperature and relative humidity. A rising trend for

temperature has been identified. The annual average dry bulb temperature has increased at ~0.6 oC in Kuala

Lumpur (Subang) over the past 20 years, whilst the relative humidity has decreased at ~3 percentage points

for the same period. The analysis results have implied that the changing degree of the climate in each study

city is different. Hence, it is advisable to generate individual weather data for cities and towns in Malaysia

and Brunei for building thermal load calculation purposes. This will help to produce a more accurate heat

load calculation for the HVAC systems in a building. The weather data can also be used to forecast the future

of the Malaysian climatic scenario, which will help the building designer to counter climate change

implications on the building load. The authors strongly believe that the results obtained serve the purpose in

designing viable HVAC systems in the future in Malaysia and Brunei.

Keywords: HVAC, weather data, climate change

1. Introduction

The climate is changing globally with the earth warming up gradually over a range of timescale. Natural

events and human activities are believed to be the factors causing these phenomena. There are many human

activities contribute to climate change such as the burning of fossil fuels, agricultural activities, deforestation

of vast areas for housing development, road building, shipping, and etc. These activities directly increase the

emissions of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water vapor, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, tropospheric ozone and

Methane (CH4), which are known as greenhouse gases that have been authenticated as presumably the

decisive responsible factors for climate change [1]. The third assessment report (IPCC 2001) concluded that

“most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse

gas concentrations”. It has been found that a doubling of atmospheric CO2 concentration results in an

increase in the mean global temperature of 2 °C, with considerably more warming at the poles [2]. According

to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [3] report, the ground temperature is predicted to

rise about 1-6 oC from 1990 to 2100. The consequences are the sea level is expected to raise, rapid heat

waves, inundations and droughts will occur frequently and unpredictably. Referring to climate change in

Australia, the solar radiation technical report 2007, a warming trend of 0.16oC per decade occurred since

1950 [4]. This report also mentioned that since 1750, the increase of CO2 has caused a large change in the

radiative forcing in the climate system. Australian surface temperatures have increased significantly, the

precipitation decreased in south-west Australia since the mid-1970s, droughts that accompanied by higher

temperatures in Australia in 1994, 2002-03 and 2006-07, the decline in snow cover in recent decades, the

increase of the warm days/nights frequency and a decrease of cool days/nights frequency have been

attributed by the increased of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere or anthropogenic warming [4]. Climate Corresponding author. Tel.: + 603-8913 2800; fax: +603- 8925 8845.

E-mail address: chang@unikl.edu.my.

International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, V0l. 100 (2017) DOI: 10.7763/IPCBEE. 2017. V100. 4

19

change is also expected to cause flooding and sea level rise in the future. According to the IPCC assessment

(IPCC, 2007) it is expected that the winter rainfall might increase by 10-15%, whilst the summer rainfall

might decrease by up to 20% over England by the 2080s under the A1B (medium) emissions scenario.

Christel Prudhomme et al. found that there will be an increase in both the magnitude and frequency of

flood events in the UK in the future [5]. As for the global sea level rise, it is projected to be increased 18-59

cm by 2100. It was stated in the Climate change in Australia technical report 2007, that the sea level rise on

the east coast of Australia may be greater than the global mean sea level rise. In addition to the consequences

mentioned above, it is important to mention here that climate change also has a direct significant effect on

the building power consumption and building thermal load. There have been many studies carried out on the

impact of climate change on the building cooling and heating energy demand. Frank had studied the impact

of climate change on the cooling and warming demand in Zurich-Kloten region [6]. Mirasgedis S et al. had

simulated the impacts of climate change on electricity demand in Greece in his studies [7]. On the other hand,

Scott et al. had investigated the effects of climate change on electricity consumption in a building in their

research [8]. There are a few researches done in Hong Kong that were relevant to climate effects on cooling

load determination and energy performance in their buildings [9]-[11]. Admittedly, the climate change brings

a significant effect on the building’s cooling and heating load, the electricity consumption and the outdoor

design conditions for the air conditioning system globally as captured in Y.H. Yau et al. [12]. According to

the Asean Energy Organization, 50% to 60% of energy consumption in buildings throughout its member

states is due to the HVAC system operation [13]. Goodsall CJ and Lam JC in their research mentioned that

40-60% of the total power consumption in a commercial building in Hong Kong contributed by air

conditioning systems [14]. The air conditioning system consumes about 60% of electricity in Saudi Arabia

[15]. Admittedly, climate change has direct impact or influence on building cooling or heating load

calculation. From another study done by Peng Xu et al. [16], they simulated the building energy usage for

2040, 2070 and 2100 time scenario based on the IPCC’s worst case carbon emission scenario, A1F1, the

electricity use for cooling will increase by 50% over the next 100 years in certain areas of California. On the

other hand, they re-ran the simulation under the IPCC’s most likely carbon emission scenario (A2), the

cooling electricity usage was projected will increase by 25%. Air conditioning systems have become a

necessity or a need for Malaysians due to its hot and humid climate.

The authors have studied the Malaysian climate change profile which has a significant effect on the air

conditioning cooling capacity estimation. The authors focused on the changing trend of the dry bulb

temperature and relative humidity in several cities in Malaysia and Brunei, viz. are Bayan Lepas, Subang,

Kota Bharu, Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu and Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei. These two (2) parameters have direct

influence on the building thermal load calculation.

2. Research Methodologies

2.1. Characteristics of the Study Areas

According to Koeppen climate classification, Malaysia and Brunei are categorized under Group Af

climate, which is the tropical rainforest climate. It is considered as a hot and humid tropical climate. It is a

sub-category from tropical climates. Figure 1 depicts the Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification in Asia-

Pacific. The characteristic of tropical climates is the average temperatures of the whole year is above or equal

to 18oC. Basically, it demonstrates constant high temperature at sea level and low elevations. Whilst, the

tropical rainforest climate normally occur within 5-10o latitude of the equator where Malaysia and Brunei are

located. The average precipitation is at least 60mm for all twelve (12) months. The main variable of this

climate is the precipitation, neither temperature nor air pressure. The average temperature for the coastal

plains, inland and mountain areas, and the higher mountain regions of Malaysia is 28oC, 26

oC and 23

oC,

respectively. The average daily temperature for Brunei varies from 24oC to 30

oC. The relative humidity for

both countries is fall between the range of 70 and 90 percent (%). Due to the Doldrums Low Pressure System

influence all year round, there are no natural seasons under this climate.

20

Fig. 1: Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification in Asia-Pacific

2.2. Data and Analytical Methods

This paper focused on an analysis of 20 years of meteorological data (1988 – 2007) from 7 weather

stations in Malaysia and 1 weather station in Brunei. These are Kuala Lumpur (Subang), Bayan Lepas, Kota

Bharu, Kuching, Sibu, Miri, Bintulu, and Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei. Kuala Lumpur (Subang), Bayan

Lepas and Kota Bharu are located on the Peninsula of Malaysia, whereas Kuching, Sibu, Miri, Bintulu and

Bandar Seri Begawan are located on the Island of Borneo. Kota Bharu which is located at the east coast of

Peninsula of Malaysia, Kuching, Sibu, Miri, Bintulu and Bandar Seri Begawan are exposed to the Northeast

Monsoon from December to March [17,18,19] that will bring heavy showers to Malaysia, whilst Bayan

Lepas and Kuala Lumpur (Subang) that are located at the West coast of Peninsula of Malaysia are exposed to

the Southwest Monsoon from May to September. This monsoon is considered drier than the former. Due to

the rain shadow effect of the Sumatran mountain range, Kuala Lumpur (Subang) does not receive heavy rain

falls from Southwest Monsoon [20]. Figure 2 indicates the exact location of the weather stations.

Fig. 2: The location of studied weather stations (Image source: Google Earth)

Daily weather data was obtained from the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) [21] and The

Brunei Meteorological Service (BMS) [22] for the period of 1988 to 2007. Studies were focused on yearly

average, maximum and minimum of dry bulb temperature, and relative humidity for the 8 weather stations.

Furthermore, a comparison of the trends for the past 20 years among the weather stations has been

undertaken. This serves to indicate the potential implications of a changing climate in view of the current

climatic trends.

21

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characteristics of the Study Areas

Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate the yearly average dry bulb temperature and average relative humidity

profile from 1988 to 2007 of the investigated weather stations. Based on the 20 years daily meteorological

data (1988 – 2007) from the Malaysian Meteorological Department and The Brunei Meteorological Service,

a rising trend has been observed for the dry bulb temperature in all 8 studied cities. For example, the annual

average dry bulb temperature has increased by ~0.6 oC in Subang (near, Kuala Lumpur) over the past 20

years, whilst the relative humidity has decreased by ~3.4 percentage points over the same period. Whereas,

Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei experienced an increase of ~0.6 oC for its dry bulb temperature and a decrease

of ~5.7 percentage points for its relative humidity over the same period

Average Dry Bulb Temperature vs Year

Year

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Dry

Bu

lb T

em

pe

ratu

re (

oC

)

25.5

26.0

26.5

27.0

27.5

28.0

28.5

Dry

Bu

lb T

em

pe

ratu

re (

oC

)

25.5

26.0

26.5

27.0

27.5

28.0

28.5Subang

Kota Bharu

Kuching

Bayan Lepas

Miri

Bintulu

Sibu

Brunei

mean temp Regr

Fig. 3: Average Dry Bulb Temperatures from 1988 to 2007 for selected weather stations in Malaysia and Brunei

Average Relative Humidity vs Year

Year

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Rela

tive H

um

idity (

%)

74

76

78

80

82

84

86

88

Rela

tive H

um

idity (

%)

74

76

78

80

82

84

86

88

Subang

Kota Bharu

Kuching

Bayan Lepas

Miri

Bintulu

Sibu

Brunei

mean RH Regr

Fig. 4: Average Relative Humidity from 1988 to 2007 for selected weather stations in Malaysia and Brunei

From Figure 3, Bayan Lepas on the Malaysian Peninsula has shown higher average dry bulb

temperatures during this period; its changing trend resembles Subang. There was a peak manifested in 1998

for every studied city, except Bayan Lepas, there was an anomalous peak in 2002. Figuratively, Sibu,

Kuching, Bintulu, Miri and Bandar Seri Begawan have similar dry bulb temperature changing trends which

can be seen in Figure 3. These five (5) cities are situated on the Island of Borneo and facing the South China

Sea. These cities are surrounded by vast areas of forestry or vegetation, and geographically near the sea and

22

rivers. We perceived that for those cities exposed to the Northeast monsoon which bring abundance of

monsoon rain experienced a higher relative humidity compared to those cities like Kuala Lumpur (Subang)

and Bayan Lepas which do not. Literally, there is a positive correlation between rainfall and humidity which

states that high humidity can be both a cause and consequence of deep convection rainfall [23]. Conversely,

the dry bulb temperature for these cities will be lower compared to Bayan Lepas, Subang etc.

Bayan Lepas (Lat 5.3oN, Long 100.2

oE) is a high density and compact city. Its city area is estimated

about 200 km2 with the city population of about 141,000 in 2007. It is the main industrial hub of Penang,

where factories of many multinational companies are located. The excessive burning and combustion of

organic substances to produce energy, industrial processes and transport has imparted a significant

greenhouse gas emission. Therefore, the economic activities in Bayan Lepas are believed to be the main

contributor to the highest yearly average dry bulb temperature city among the eight (8) studied cities. Subang

(Lat 3.11oN, Long 101.55

oE) has matured into a community well-provided with amenities. The total area of

Subang is about 70 km2 with the population about 708,296 in 2010. The density is about 10,118/km

2. There

are numerous schools, colleges, hospitals, places of worship, and vibrant commercial areas in the town. The

daily heavy traffic flow increases the emission of CO2 and heat rejection from the vehicles has caused the

higher dry bulb temperature in the city. Other researches, e.g Sailor [24] and Roth [25], have shown that

waste heat and moisture generated by energy consumption in the urban cities to the environment have been

generally ignored especially in tropical climates. Therefore, the rising dry bulb temperatures over the past 20

years could have been potentially caused by the urban heat island (UHI) effects and the commercial activities

that cause high heat emission rates in both cities, viz. Bayan Lepas and Subang. UHI is considered as one of

the most important contributors to the high ambient dry bulb temperature in urban cities. Fan and Sailor [26]

did a temperature simulation and suggested that waste heat from human activities, vehicular traffic, buildings

and human metabolism has contributed about 2-3 oC to the nighttime UHI of Philadelphia in winter. This

phenomenon was supported by Chen et al. [27] who did numerical simulations on waste heat emissions’

effect on UHI intensity in Hangzhou City, and Rohinton Emmanuel et at. [28] who did the urban heat island

effect in mature cities. In Anne K.L. Quah and Mattias Roth’s research, which was done in Singapore, has

revealed that the mean hourly heat release hit the maximum value of 113 Wm-2

in the commercial area, 17

Wm-2

in the high density public housing area and 13 Wm-2

in the low density residential areas, respectively

over a 24-h period [29]. The total area for Kota Bharu (Lat 6.16oN, Long 102.28

oE) is 403 km

2 with its

population about 491,237 in 2010. It is located at the East Coast of Peninsula Malaysia. Generally, the dry

bulb temperature at Kota Bharu is lower than Subang and Bayan Lepas. Compared to Bayan Lepas and

Subang, it is less developed. With its geographical location which is exposed to the Northeast Monsoon that

normally brings heavy showers from November to March, hence the average dry bulb temperature is lower.

Kuching (Lat 1.48oN, Long 110.33

oE) has a vast area of about 1,863 km

2 with population of about

617,887 in 2010. It represents a less developed area that is still covered with rainforest in most of the areas. It

is surrounded by rainforest and is near to an estuary. Transpiration or water evaporation through trees will

increase the water vapor content in the air. And marine air flow moderates temperatures and increases

humidity. Therefore, Figure 3 and Figure 4 show that Kuching is experiencing the highest relative humidity

and lowest temperature among the studied cities. Sibu (Lat 2.33oN, Long 111.83

oE) is an inland town, and it

is located at the confluence of the Rajang and Igan Rivers. It is about 60 km away from the ocean. Sibu’s

area is about 2,230 km2 with its population of about 247,995 in 2010. The density is approximately 111/km

2.

Comparing to other cities, Sibu has fallen behind its regional rivals in its level of economic development.

From the Figure 3 and 4, it displays a lower dry bulb temperature and higher relative humidity compared to

others due to its geographic location. Bintulu (Lat 3.2oN, Long 113.03

oE) is a coastal town and it has a

widest land among the studied cities, with the total area about 7,220 km2 but the lowest population of about

189,146 in 2010. There are three (3) liquefied natural gas plants in Bintulu. The production of the plant is

believed has led to the higher dry bulb temperature compared to Sibu and Kuching. The total area and

population for Miri (Lat 4.33oN, Long 113.98

oE) is 4,707 km

2 and 300,543 (in 2010) respectively. It has

similar dry bulb temperature changing profile with Bintulu. This is due to both having similar oil and gas

industries in the city. Miri showed the highest dry bulb temperature and relative humidity among the towns

of Sibu, Bintulu and Kuching. Bandar Seri Begawan (Lat 4.93oN, Long 114.93

oE), Brunei more developed

23

and urbanized compared to Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu and Miri. That is the reason for its higher dry bulb

temperature and lower relative humidity. The urbanization and commercial activities have contributed to

these results.

Figure 5 and Figure 6 demonstrate the maximum and minimum of dry bulb temperature for each studied

city from year 1988 to 2007. Obviously, the cities can be categorized into two (2) groups viz. Peninsula

Malaysia and Island of Borneo based on the temperature range characteristics. But, there is an exception,

where Kuching’s maximum and minimum of dry bulb temperature changing characteristic has fallen into the

Peninsula Malaysia group. The same occurs to the maximum and minimum of relative humidity of the

studied cities which was exhibited in Figure 7 and 8. The graphs have shown an increasing trend for both

maximum and minimum dry bulb temperature over the past 20 years, or in other words, the climate has

changed. Among the studied cities, Subang has experienced the highest dry bulb temperature in 1998 which

was 31.4oC.

Maximum Dry Bulb Temperature vs Year

Year

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Dry

Bulb

Tem

pera

ture

(oC

)

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

Dry

Bulb

Tem

pera

ture

(oC

)

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

Subang

Kota Bharu

Kuching

Bayan Lepas

Miri

Bintulu

Sibu

Brunei

Fig. 5: Maximum Dry Bulb Temperature from 1988 to 2007 for selected weather stations in Malaysia and Brunei

Minimum Dry Bulb Temperature vs Year

Year

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Dry

Bulb

Tem

pera

ture

(oC

)

23

24

25

26

27

28

Dry

Bulb

Tem

pera

ture

(oC

)

23

24

25

26

27

28Subang

Kota Bharu

Kuching

Bayan Lepas

Miri

Bintulu

Sibu

Brunei

Fig. 6: Minimum Dry Bulb Temperature from 1988 to 2007 for selected weather stations in Malaysia and Brunei

Referring to Figure 7 and 8, the maximum and minimum relative humidity of the studied cities can also

be categorized into the same groups as occurred in the dry bulb temperature. Kota Bharu has the highest

relative humidity that was 98.6% in 1994 over the past 20 years among the studied cities. It occurred during

the rainy season from November to March brought by the North East Monsoon. At every year end, Kota

Bharu will be experiencing serious flooding due to the continuous heavy showers brought by the monsoon.

24

Maximum Relative Humidity vs Year

Year

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Re

lative H

um

idity (

%)

80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

100

Re

lative H

um

idity (

%)

80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

100

Subang

Kota Bharu

Kuching

Bayan Lepas

Miri

Bintulu

Sibu

Brunei

Fig. 7: Maximum Relative Humidity from 1988 to 2007 for selected weather stations in Malaysia and Brunei

Minimum Relative Humidity vs Year

Year

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Rela

tive H

um

idity (

%)

40

50

60

70

80

90

Rela

tive H

um

idity (

%)

40

50

60

70

80

90

Subang

Kota Bharu

Kuching

Bayan Lepas

Miri

Bintulu

Sibu

Brunei

Fig. 8: Minimum Relative Humidity from 1988 to 2007 for selected weather stations in Malaysia and Brunei

Table 1 displays the summary of observed weather data trends for the studied cities. Based on these

summary results, the authors found that the trends observed in Malaysia and Brunei is similar to the

temperature rise observed as a global trend [2]. Furthermore, 1988 was the hottest year over the past 20 years

for all 8 sites which corresponds to the announcement by NASA climatologists in January 2008 that 1998

was the Earth’s warmest year in a century [30]. This gives confidence in the validity of the analyzed data.

Table 1: Summary of weather change from 1988 to 2007

City Bayan

Lepas

Kota

Bharu Kuching Sibu Bintulu Miri

Kuala

Lumpur

(Subang)

Bandar Seri

Begawan Weather

element

Dry bulb

temperature

(oC)

+0.8 +0.4 +0.4 +0.4 +0.2 +0.6 +0.6 +0.6

Relative

Humidity

(%)

-2.4 -0.1 0.0 -1.9 -3.4 -3.3 -3.4 -5.7

Note: + denotes increment; - denotes decrement

25

4. Conclusions

A control of CO2 emissions is crucial to prevent the global warming effect to worsen. The Kyoto

Protocol was enforced in February 2005 to monitor the overall reduction of emissions based on an offer and

demand market economy. From Figures 3 and 4, and Table 1, it can be seen that there is a changing trend for

the climate in Malaysia and Brunei. It is parallel to the reports from the World Bank that the CO2 emission

(kt) in Malaysia has increased from 42,724 in 1988 to 194,919 in 2007. On the other hand, according to

World Bank reports, the population of Malaysia was 16.94 million in 1988 and has been increased to 27.186

million in 2007 which has contributed to the increase of CO2 emissions, either from the building sector or

transportation sector. Attention should be taken earnestly as the climate change will result in a significant

impact on the energy consumption on buildings, especially contributed by heating, ventilating and air

conditioning (HVAC) systems in Malaysia. The analysis results have implied that the changing degree of

the climate in each study city is different. Hence, it is advisable to generate individual weather data for cities

and towns in Malaysia for building thermal load calculation purposes which is also the further studies of the

author in the future. This will help to produce a more accurate heat load calculation for the HVAC systems in

a building. The weather data can also be used to forecast the Malaysian future climate scenario, which will

help the building designer to counter climate change implications on the building load.

5. References

[1] IPCC. Climate change 2001. Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel of Climate

Change 2001.

[2] IPCC. Climate change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

UK and New York, NY USA, 2007.

[3] IPCC. Climate change 2001: synthesis report, third assessment report. Cambridge: Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change 2002.

[4] Climate change in Australia – Technical Report 2007.

[5] Christel Prudhomme, Dorte Jakob, Cecilia Svensson. Uncertainty and climate change impact on the flood regime

of small UK catchments. Journal of Hydrology 2003; 277:1-23.

[6] Frank T. Climate change impacts on building heating and cooling energy demand in Switzerland. Energy and

Buildings 2005; 37:1175-1185.

[7] S. Mirasgedis, Y. Sarafidis, E. Georgopoulou, V. Kotroni, K. Lagouvardos, D. P. Lalas, Modeling framework for

estimating impacts of climate change on electricity dema nd at regional level: case of Greece. Energy Convers

Manage 2007; 48:1737-1750.

[8] M. J. Scott, L. E. Wrench, D. L. Hadley Effects of climate change on commercial building energy demand. Energy

Source 1994; 16:17-32.

[9] J. C. Lam, C. L. Tsang, D. H. W. Li, Long term ambient temperature analysis and energy use implications in Hong

Kong. Energy Convers Mange 2004; 45:315-327.

[10] Lam Jc. Climatic influences on the energy performance of air-conditioned buildings. Energy Convers Mange 1999;

40:39-49.

[11] D. H. W. Li, S. L. Wong, J. C. Lam, Climatic effects on cooling load determination in subtropical regions. Energy

Convers Mange 2003; 44:1831-1843.

[12] Y. H. Yau, H. L. Pean. The climate change impact on air conditioner system and reliability in Malaysia – A review.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2011; 15:4939-4949.

[13] Ir. John Budi Harjanto Listijono. Asean Energy Organization, Energy efficiency and conservation in HV, 2008.

[14] C. J. Goodsall, J. C. Lam, A survey of building envelope designs for commercial buildings in Hong Kong. Build

Res Inf 1994; 22:79.

[15] O. M. Al-Rabghi, M. H. Al-Beirutty, K. A. Fathalah, Estimation and measurement of electric energy consumption

due to air conditioning cooling load. Energy Convers Mange 1999; 40:1527-1542.

26

[16] Peng Xu, Yu Joe Huang, Norman Miller, Nicole Schlegel, Pengyuan Shen. Impacts of climate change on building

heating and cooling energy patterns in California. Energy 2012; 44:792-804.

[17] L. Juneng, F. T. Tanggang, C. J. C. Reason, Numerical case study of an extreme rainfall event during 9-11

December 2004 over the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics 2007;98:81-98.

[18] F. T. Tangang, L. Juneng. E. Salimum. P. N. Vinayachandran, Y. K. Seng, C. J. C. Reason, S. K. Behera, T.

Yasunari, On the roles of the northeast cold surge, the Borneo vortex, the Madden-Julian Oscillation, and the

Indian Ocean Dipole during the extreme 2006/2007 flood in southern Peninsular Malaysia. Geophysical Research

Letters 2008; 35, L14S07. doi:10.1029/2008GL033429

[19] Z. M. Zuki, A. R. Lupo, Interannual variability of tropical cyclone activity in the southern South China Sea,

Journal of Geophysical Research 2008;113, D06106. doi:10.1029/2007JD009218

[20] M. N. Desa M. A. B. Noriah and P. R. Rakhecha, Probable maximum precipitation for 24 hours duration over

Southeast Asian Monsoon region – Selangor, Malaysia, Atmospheric Research, 2001;58(1):41-54.

[21] Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD), Ministry of Science Technology & Innovation (MOSTI), Jalan

Sultan, Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Website URL: http://www.met.gov.my

[22] The Brunei Meteorological Service, Department of Civil Aviation, Ministry of Communications BB2513, Brunei

Darussalam, Website: http://www.civil-aviation.gov.bn/bms

[23] J. Caroline, Muller, E. Larissa Back, Paul A. O’Gorman, and Kerry A. Emanuel, A model for the relationship

between tropical precipitation and column water vapor, Geophysical Research Letters, DOI:10.1029

[24] D. J. Sailor, A review of methods for estimating anthropogenic heat and moisture emissions in the urban

environment. International Journal of Climatology 2011; 31(2):189-199.

[25] M. Roth, Review of urban climate research in (sub) tropical regions. International Journal of Climatology 2007;

27:1859-1873.

[26] H. Fan, D. J. Sailor, Modeling the impacts of anthropogenic heating on the urban climate of Philadelphia: a

comparison of implementations in two PBL schemes. Atmospheric Environment 2005; 39(1):73-84.

[27] Y. Chen, W. M. Jiang, N. Zhang, X. F. He, R.W. Zhou, Numerical simulation of the anthropogenic heat effect on

urban boundary layer structure. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 2009; 97:123-134.

[28] Rohinton Emmanuel, Eduardo Kruger. Urban heat island and its impact on climate change resilience in a shrinking

city: The case of Glasgow, UK. Building and Environment 2012; 53:137-149.

[29] K. L. Anne, Quah, Matthias Roth. Diurnal and weekly variation of anthropogenic heat emissions in a tropical city,

Singapore. Atmospheric Environment 2012; 46:92-103.

[30] Leslie McCarthy 2007 was ties as Earth’s Second-Warmest Year, Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2008.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/earth_temp.html

27