a strategy for the conservation and sustainable …...£20 9 780855 210052 isbn 0-85521-005-2 a...

£20

9 780855 210052

ISBN 0-85521-005-2

A Strategy for the Conservation and SustainableDevelopment of our Marine Environment

Departm

ent for the Environm

ent, Food and Rural A

ffairs–

Safeguarding O

ur Seas.

PB

6187. May 2002.

Ministerial foreword 2

Executive summary 3

Chapter 1Our vision and its delivery 5

Chapter 2Protecting marine biodiversity 13

Chapter 3Integrated coastal management 23

Chapter 4Tackling pollution from land-based sources and dumping at sea 29

Chapter 5The importance of shipping and ports 37

Chapter 6The contribution of offshore activities and renewable energy 45

Chapter 7Sustainable fisheries 55

Chapter 8Facing up to climate change 63

Chapter 9Making best use of marine science 69

Annex ASummary of targets and timescales for delivering our vision 77

Annex BGlossary of terms 79

Contents

A

B

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In the UK, we have made good progress in tackling the problemsfacing our oceans and seas. But we must do more nationally andinternationally to tackle the threats that remain if we are to

safeguard our seas for future generations.

These threats are very real. Many commercial fish stocks areoverexploited. Industrial waste continues to find its way into theworld’s oceans. Ecosystems can be destroyed by invasive non-indigenous species. And the effects of climate change on marinehabitats and species are potentially enormous.

There is an urgent need for a coherent and integrated approach to face up to these threatsand conserve marine biodiversity. Safeguarding Our Seas provides this. It sets out our visionfor our marine environment and details past achievements. But more importantly it containsnew ideas and initiatives to show how we will work to turn our vision into reality.

It describes how our initiatives will enhance marine nature conservation and conservebiodiversity. They will also improve management of our marine resources and developscientific research to help us make more informed policy decisions. Our initiatives will alsostreamline regulation for those who make their living from the sea whilst better protecting the marine environment. And they will involve stakeholders in making the decisions thataffect them.

I am grateful to the devolved administrations and other stakeholders who helped to preparethis report. In particular, the Scottish Executive contributed fully to the drafting of the reportand hosted one of our stakeholder workshops in Edinburgh.

But this report is only the first step. Much remains to be done if we are to turn our vision intoreality. We must not underestimate the challenge that lies ahead. Oceans and seas make upover 70 per cent of the surface of our ‘blue planet’. That gives some indication of the size ofthe task we face in safeguarding our seas. Delivering our vision requires commitment andperseverance from us all. We owe it to future generations to succeed.

Rt Hon Margaret Beckett MP

ForewordBy the Rt Hon Margaret Beckett MPSecretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

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We need to use the resources and opportunitiesoffered by our oceans and seas while protectingecological processes and ecosystems. This is thefoundation for sustainable development.

We can achieve our vision by adopting anecosystem-based management approach. Weformally endorsed this at the 5th North SeaConference in March 2002.

For the UK, and our Overseas Territories andCrown Dependencies, the principles that underpinour policy for the marine environment are:

• sustainable development – the needs of futuregenerations should not be compromised by theneeds of people today;

• integrated management – looking at the widerpicture so that all those who manage orinfluence the marine environment worktogether at all levels with a commonunderstanding;

• conservation of biological diversity –conserving and enhancing biological diversitywithin the UK and contributing to theconservation of global biodiversity;

• robust science – understanding the processesand influences that impact on the marineenvironment and using research to informpolicy-making and marine management;

• the precautionary principle – sensibly erring onthe side of caution where the scientificevidence is not conclusive; and

• stakeholder involvement – involving allstakeholders so that they are an integral part ofthe decision-making process.

Chapter 1 of this report sets out our vision.Subsequent chapters set out what has alreadybeen achieved and current policy for the full rangeof activities that take place in UK waters and thecoastal zone such as fishing, aquaculture,shipping, ports, offshore oil and gas extractionand offshore renewable energy. The final chapterdraws out the role of marine science in policy-making which is inherent in the precedingchapters.

Most importantly this report sets out how we willwork to achieve our vision by developing newideas and initiatives, particularly at the cross-cutting level. New initiatives include:

• protecting important habitats – we willannounce the first sites to receive Special Areaof Conservation and Special Protection Areastatus under the Habitats and Birds Directivesbeyond 12 nautical miles later this year;

• improving marine conservation in the UK – wewill follow up the Interim Report of the Review ofMarine Nature Conservation by testing some ofthe ideas developed during the review in aregional seas pilot scheme in the Irish Sea. Thepilot scheme will start in May 2002;

• pressing for sustainability – we will work withthe European Commission to implement itsfisheries biodiversity plan and to ensure thatthe review of the Common Fisheries Policygives full weight to sustainability andbiodiversity matters;

• becoming more integrated – we will explore therole of spatial planning for the marineenvironment and provide a focal point to buildon existing seabed mapping for coastal watersaround the UK;

Executive summaryOur vision for the marine environment is clean, healthy, safe,productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas. Within one generation we want to have made a real difference.

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• working more effectively – we will review theregulatory framework affecting development inthe coastal area with a view to simplifying theregulatory system and protecting the marineenvironment;

• improving co-ordination in Government – we willexamine how to improve co-ordination of thegranting of consents between Governmentdepartments for activities that affect the seabedand how the granting of individual consentsmight be made more efficient;

• assessing progress – we will work with othercountries at the regional level to developindicators – Ecological Quality Objectives – forthe sustainable management of our marineenvironment;

• involving stakeholders – the English, Welsh andScottish Coastal fora and Northern Irelandstakeholders will explore how the EuropeanCommission Recommendation on IntegratedCoastal Zone Management should beimplemented;

• delivering development goals – we will use the2002 World Summit on SustainableDevelopment to emphasise the contribution thatsustainable marine management can make tofood security, poverty eradication and widerdevelopment;

• affording more protection to marine species andhabitats on the high seas – we will explore withother countries, and through appropriateinternational bodies, the case for, and the feasibilityof, marine protected areas on the high seas;

• better international co-operation – we will pushfor greater co-operation and co-ordinationbetween countries at the international andregional level and within the United Nations, itsagencies, regional fisheries organisations andregional fisheries conventions, and for a trulyglobal membership of the key internationalmaritime agreements and bodies;

• improved marine scientific research – we willreview the arrangements for marine research toensure that we have the science base to under-pin our policy goals; and

• effective monitoring – we will develop ourenvironmental monitoring framework andproduce an integrated assessment of our seasin 2004.

Much work remains to be done on a number offronts to take these initiatives forward. Stakeholderinvolvement will be crucial. As a first step we willhold a workshop this autumn to consider howbest to achieve our vision. We will also consult bythe end of this year on the scope and content ofsubsequent marine stewardship reports, whichwill show how we are implementing our vision andnote progress made.

Some policy matters covered in this report arethe responsibility of the devolved administrations.The Scottish Executive and National Assemblyfor Wales were integral to the preparation ofthis report. The Northern Ireland Executive hasmonitored progress of the report and will wishto consider the implications for Northern Ireland.

Chapter 1Our vision and its delivery

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• We depend on the oceans and seas to helpmeet our economic and social needs. At thesame time, they contain unique habitats anddiverse forms of life.

• Our vision is one of clean, healthy, safe,productive and biologically diverse oceansand seas. Within one generation we want tohave made a real difference by building onthe progress already made.

• We are putting an ecosystem-basedapproach at the heart of our strategy toreconcile conservation objectives andindividual needs.

• We will deliver our vision by pursuingpolicies that promote sustainabledevelopment, integrated management,stakeholder involvement, robust science andthe precautionary principle.

THE IMPORTANCE OF OUR OCEANS

1.1 Oceans and seas cover over 70 per cent ofthe Earth’s surface. They are a major and distinctsource of the world’s biodiversity and naturalresources. Without them, there would be no lifeon our planet.

1.2 The waters around the UK are incrediblydiverse and productive. They are influenced bycolder arctic waters in the north, temperate watersmore usual at this latitude and warmer influencessuch as the Gulf Stream.

1.3 Our understanding of marine ecosystems isstill far from complete, but up to half of the UK’sbiodiversity – over 44,000 species – may be foundin our seas. New species and habitats, such asthe Darwin Mounds cold water coral reefs off theNorth West of Scotland, are still being discovered.

1.4 Our oceans and seas offer us food, bothfrom fishing and aquaculture, and opportunities toexploit renewable energy sources such as wind

power. And on or under the seabed there areminerals and energy supplies.

1.5 More than half of the world’s populationlives within 60 km of the coast. Some 950 millionpeople, mainly in the developing world, rely onthe marine environment for their primary sourceof protein. Their health, and indeed the generalhealth of our planet, depends in no small part onthe condition of our oceans and seas.

1.6 In addition, 98 per cent of world trade byvolume – about 5.5 billion tonnes – is transportedby sea. The full range of marine-related activitiesin the UK – including fishing, tourism and offshoreoil and gas extraction – has been estimated tocontribute some 3 to 4 per cent of GDP anddirectly employ around 423,000 people.1

OUR VISION

1.7 As an island nation, the seas and the lifethey contain are an integral part of the UK’snational identity and are an important part of thecommon heritage of mankind.

1.8 Within the framework of the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS2) andinternational law, our vision for the marine

Our vision and its delivery

1UK Marine Industries World Export Market Potential – a report for the Foresight Marine Panel: Douglas-Westwood Associates, October 2000.2UNCLOS came into force in 1994. It contains a legal framework covering navigation, maritime boundaries, fisheries, the marine environmentand marine scientific research. To date, 138 states are members, including the UK. We strongly support it and encourage all states to join.

Porpoise – one of over 44,000 marine species© Crown Copyright. Photographer Tom McInnes

environment can be summarised as working forclean, healthy, safe, productive and biologicallydiverse oceans and seas. Within one generationwe want to have made a real difference totackling the threats that marine ecosystems face.This vision covers all oceans and seas and theiradjacent coastal areas. It is a long term vision, butone that requires short to medium term outputs,targets and aspirations.

1.9 In recent years we have made real progressin protecting the seas around our own coasts andwe have played a full part in European andinternational efforts to protect the oceansregionally and globally. But much more still needsto be done if our oceans and seas are to be used wisely.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1.10 Following the Earth Summit in 1992 in Riode Janeiro, nearly 180 countries agreed a plan ofaction, Agenda 213, for delivering sustainabledevelopment. This recommended that allcountries should produce national sustainabledevelopment strategies. The UK’s strategy Abetter quality of life4 was published in May 1999. Itbuilt on the previous government’s 1994 strategy,but recognised that a broader approach wasneeded to emphasise the social dimension ofsustainable development alongside economicissues, the environment and resource use.

1.11 Sustainable development means workingtowards a better quality of life for all by ensuringthat the needs of future generations are notcompromised by the actions of people today.Long term threats, such as climate change, aswell as short term threats, need to be addressed.

1.12 The natural resources that our seas offersuch as fish, minerals and oil have to be usedprudently. We need to make sure that we use theresources that our seas offer efficiently and thatthere are alternatives available for non-renewableresources. Marine life and habitats have to beprotected. We need to reflect the economic andsocial needs of communities and individuals.

ADOPTING AN ECOSYSTEM-BASEDAPPROACH

1.13 An ecosystem-based approach is needed todeliver our vision. The UK formally endorsed thisapproach at the 5th North Sea Conference inMarch 2002.

1.14 The International Council for the Explorationof the Sea’s (ICES) current working definition ofan ecosystem approach is the integratedmanagement of human activities based onknowledge of ecosystem dynamics to achievesustainable use of ecosystem goods andservices, and maintenance of ecosystem integrity.

1.15 In other words, we need better to integratemarine protection objectives with sustainablesocial goals and economic growth and addressconservation objectives alongside the full range of

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• Sustainable development – so that theneeds of future generations are notcompromised by the actions of peopletoday

• Integrated management – looking at thewider picture and developing a commonunderstanding

• Conservation of biological diversity –conserving and enhancing biologicaldiversity within the UK and contributing tothe conservation of global biodiversity

• Robust science – understanding ourmarine environment better and integratingscientific knowledge into policy-making

• The precautionary principle – sensiblyerring on the side of caution where thescientific evidence is not conclusive

• Stakeholder involvement – involvingstakeholders as an integral part of policy-making

Delivering our vision will require:

“clean, healthy, safe, productive andbiologically diverse oceans and seas”

We want to see this both nationally andglobally. Within one generation we want tohave made a real difference.

Our vision for the marine environment:

3Agenda 21 – Action plan for the next century, endorsed at United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit) 1992.4A better quality of life – A strategy for sustainable development for the UK, Cm4345, May 1999.


human activities and demands that we place onthe marine environment.

1.16 Past management of our oceans and seashas often been fragmented, sectorally-based anddriven by short-term economic gain throughpolicies such as yield maximisation. Action wastaken only when scientific evidence provedbeyond reasonable doubt that there was aproblem – with the effect that it was often too lateto devise and implement a solution. Andstakeholders were not always properly involved inpolicy-making and implementation.

1.17 An ecosystem-based approach tomanagement represents a new and morestrategic way of thinking. It puts the emphasis ona management regime that maintains the healthof ecosystems alongside appropriate human useof the marine environment, for the benefit ofcurrent and future generations. This requiressetting clear environmental objectives both at thegeneral and specific level, basing management ofthe marine environment on the principles ofsustainable development, integratedmanagement, conservation of biodiversity, robustscience, the precautionary principle andstakeholder involvement.

1.18 An ecosystem-based approach also meanstaking steps to ensure that sectoral actions do not

compromise marine ecosystems and theirconstituent parts. Nature conservation objectivesneed to be an integral part of our thinking aboutmarine development proposals. This emphasisesthe importance of integrated assessments basedon the environment, marine resources and socio-economics; and planning our use of our marineresources accordingly.

1.19 Central to responsible stewardship is asound understanding of the way the marineenvironment functions and how our oceans andseas respond to human activities. Our strategyemphasises the importance of and need forrobust scientific research together with effectivemonitoring and reporting procedures. It is crucialthat marine scientific research and knowledge isfully integrated into policy-making.

1.20 Where scientific evidence is not conclusive,we need sensibly to apply the precautionaryprinciple. This means, for example, takingpreventive measures where there are reasonablegrounds for concern that direct or indirect inputsto the marine environment may harm humanhealth, living resources and marine ecosystemsor other legitimate uses of the sea, even whenthere is no conclusive evidence of a causalrelationship between the inputs and the effects.

1.21 Delivering our vision also requirescommitment to the principle that the costs ofpollution prevention, control and reductionmeasures are borne by the polluter and the user.Furthermore we fully support the identification ofbest available techniques (BAT) and bestenvironmental practice (BEP).

HOW WE WILL DELIVER

Integrated stewardship

1.22 We see stewardship as entrusting peoplewith a responsibility to care for the communitythey belong to. It means involving people inprotecting the oceans and seas and using theresources they offer wisely. The benefits ofstewardship include better decision-making,reduced reliance on regulation, generating apositive role for people and organisations andgreater inclusiveness.

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• Providing and working within a set of clearenvironmental objectives

• Greater use of environmental and socio-economic assessments

• More strategic management of ouractivities in the marine environment

• Taking policy decisions and managementactions that take account of biologicaldiversity and ensure sustainabledevelopment

• Making better use of scientific knowledgein the policy-making process

• Developing more focused research andmonitoring

• Full stakeholder involvement

Adopting an ecosystem-basedapproach means:


1.23 We need to take account of the fact thatmany activities take place simultaneously in ourmarine environment. Better integration and moreeffective management of conflicting pressuresand demands placed on the marine environmentis a prerequisite for conservation. This is why weneed to strengthen co-operation in spatialplanning processes for the marine environment.

1.24 Many different Government Departmentsand the devolved administrations haveresponsibility for regulating different activities andprotecting the marine environment. In particular,the waters around Scotland, Wales and NorthernIreland out to 12 nautical miles are territorial seas5

and are the responsibility of the respectivedevolved administrations.

1.25 The creation of the Marine Consents andEnvironment Unit (MCEU) in April 2001 provides astreamlined facility for administering certainapplications for marine works consents inEngland and Wales. But more can be done toimprove the current regulatory system, protectour oceans and seas and simultaneously managethe different human activities that take place inthe marine environment.

1.26 We also need to bring together all work thatmaps habitats and human effects on the marineenvironment in the waters around the UK. Weneed to identify gaps where further mapping isneeded. We must ensure that we deliver a joined-up approach to seabed mapping that provides forbetter co-ordination and co-operation as part ofan ecosystem-based management approach. As a first step, we will hold a workshop to explore how best to take our seabed mappinginitiative forward.

1.27 We will continue to press for greater co-operation and co-ordination between countries atthe international and regional level and within theUnited Nations, its agencies, regional fisheriesorganisations and conventions, and marinescience organisations. We will use theforthcoming World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD), to be held inJohannesburg, South Africa, to emphasise thecontribution that sustainable marine managementcan make to food security, poverty eradicationand wider development objectives.

Emphasising sustainability

1.28 Delivering our vision in a way that maintainsecosystems in a self-sustaining state requires aregulatory framework that ensures that they canaccommodate appropriate human demands andactivities. It is therefore crucial for sustainabledevelopment that human demands on the marineenvironment are properly assessed andunderstood.

1.29 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)procedures ensure that the environmentalconsequences of specific projects are taken intoaccount when the project is authorised. Werequire EIAs for many activities that impact on theseabed. Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA) provides analysis and evaluation of theenvironmental effects of a proposed policy, planor programme. An EC Directive providing for SEAof certain plans and programmes was agreed in2001 and will be transposed by mid 2004. Thiswill help to ensure that environmental concernsare properly integrated into other sectors and willprovide for more informed decision-making. BothSEA and EIA provide opportunities for

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• Review the legislation affecting developmentin the coastal area with a view to simplifyingthe regulatory system and protecting themarine environment

• Explore how co-ordination betweenDepartments might be improved in theissuing of individual consents for activitiesthat impact on the seabed

• Work through OSPAR to explore spatialplanning for the marine environment at theregional level

• Provide a focal point to build on existingseabed mapping

• Implement the EC Recommendation onIntegrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

• Use the Review of Marine NatureConservation regional seas pilot scheme toexamine how we can integrate natureconservation into key sectors

To become better integrated we will:

5Under international law, the territorial seas around the UK are the waters in the 0-12 nautical mile zone from the coast. The zonebeyond territorial waters where the UK has sovereign rights extends from 12 to up to 200 nautical miles.


stakeholders to express their concerns and forthose concerns to be addressed when decisionsare taken.

1.30 The UK has ratified the OSPAR Conventionfor the Protection of the Marine Environment of theNorth East Atlantic and is a contracting party to it.The Convention requires Contracting Parties totake all possible steps to prevent and eliminatepollution and take the necessary measures to

protect the maritime area against the adverseeffects of human activities so as to safeguardhuman health and conserve marine ecosystemsand, when practicable, restore marine areaswhich have been adversely affected. It requiresthe applications of the precautionary principle, thepolluter pays principle, BAT and BEP. OSPAR hasdeveloped and put in place five strategies todirect its work in the medium to long term. TheUK is also an active participant in the North SeaConference.

1.31 The UK is playing a leading role in thereview of the Common Fisheries Policy which isdue to be completed by the end of 2002. Thecreation of the Department for Environment, Foodand Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has brought asharpening of focus on the relevance ofenvironmental considerations to fisheriesmanagement. The creation of the ScottishExecutive Environment and Rural AffairsDepartment (SEERAD) has yielded similarbenefits in Scotland. We are working for a policythat is both economically and environmentallysustainable. We also want to involvestakeholders, such as fishermen, scientists andmanagers, much more closely in decisions thataffect them.

Improving marine conservation

1.32 A key element of our ecosystem-basedapproach is the conservation and, wherepossible, enhancement of marine ecosystems ina way that conserves biological diversity andensures sustainable development of our marineresources. We want to meet the EU 6th

Environmental Action Programme objective ofhalting the loss of biodiversity by 2010.

1.33 At the 5th North Sea Conference we agreedto identify and designate by 2010 relevant areas ofthe UK’s seas as areas of marine protectionbelonging to a network of well-managed sites.Decisions will be based on a clear understandingof natural processes and the ecologicalrequirements of marine species, habitats andecosystems. This will help to safeguard threatenedand declining species, habitats and ecosystemfunctions, as well as areas which best representthe range of ecological character in our seas.

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• To help achieve sustainable developmentby promoting: - integrated environmental and

development decision-making- environmentally sustainable policies

and plans- consideration of best available

techniques and alternatives

• To strengthen and streamline projectEIAs by:- early identification of potential impacts

and cumulative effects- addressing strategic issues related to

justification of the plan and location ofprojects

- reducing the time and effort needed toassess individual projects

The aims and benefits of SEA are:

• Where appropriate, require SEA and EIAfor policies and projects respectively andsee how arrangements for co-operationand information sharing can be improved

• Implement OSPAR’s strategies forhazardous substances, eutrophication,radioactive substances, offshore industriesand biological diversity

• Use WSSD to emphasise the importance ofthe marine environment to food securityand poverty eradication

• Work with the European Commission toensure that the current review of the CFPgives full weight to sustainability andbiodiversity issues

To emphasise our commitment tosustainability we will:


1.34 Within Europe, we will be among the firstcountries to apply fully the Habitats and BirdsDirectives to the limit of jurisdiction of UK waters.The UK is also in the lead in drawing up criteriafor selecting sites which are important for habitatsand species beyond our immediate territorialwaters. We aim to consult on regulations toenable the designation of Special Areas ofConservation (SACs) and Special ProtectionAreas (SPAs) beyond territorial waters later thisyear. These measures will improve the protectionavailable to habitats and species in UK waters.

1.35 Our Review of Marine Nature Conservationis assessing the success of previous measures toprotect the marine environment. We will be

piloting a regional seas framework for marineconservation in the Irish Sea, starting in May thisyear. The results of the pilot should be available inearly 2004. Stakeholder involvement will be animportant element in taking forward the pilot.

Supporting policy through robust scienceand monitoring

1.36 An ecosystem-based approach to marinemanagement depends on developing focusedresearch on processes and influences on themarine environment and making effective use ofexisting scientific knowledge and advice in policy-making. We want to maximise the value ofGovernment-funded science as a basis fordelivering our vision.

1.37 To improve our understanding of the marineenvironment, UK Government Departments, thedevolved administrations and Governmentagencies carry out regular monitoring of thequality, structure and functioning of the marineenvironment. We also work with the researchcouncils to support high quality scientific researchto further support and inform the development ofpolicy. Whilst current arrangements work well,they will nevertheless be reviewed to ensure thelink between marine scientific research andpolicy-making.

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• Consider how marine scientific researchand policy-making might be betterintegrated

• Develop our environmental monitoringframework and produce an integratedassessment of our seas in 2004

• Develop a pilot programme in operationaloceanography to support coastalmanagement, emergency response andmarine management

• Work through OSPAR to develop EcologicalQuality Objectives to assess our success indelivering an ecosystem-based approach

• Work with stakeholders to develop co-ordinated monitoring and open access tomarine environment data

To reflect the importance of marinescience we will:

• Apply the Habitats and Birds Directives outto the limit of jurisdiction of UK waters anddesignate SACs and SPAs

• Pilot a framework for nature conservationin the Irish Sea as the next step of ourReview of Marine Nature Conservation

• Implement the UK’s Biodiversity ActionPlan which sets targets for conservation,restoration and enhancement of importantspecies and habitats

• Work internationally to protect marinebiodiversity and explore how marineprotection on the high seas might beimproved

To improve marine conservation we will:


Grey seal – part of the marine ecosystemPhotographer Rohan Holt

1.38 Through OSPAR we are developingEcological Quality Objectives, initially for theNorth Sea, which will contribute to our frameworkof indicators. Ecological Quality Objectives aretools that can support the development andapplication of an ecosystem-based managementapproach. By describing the quality of theenvironment at which policies and managementactions are aimed, they provide a benchmarkagainst which performance can be judged andsuccess measured.

Stakeholder involvement

1.39 We recognise the need for full stakeholderparticipation. As part of the preparation of thisreport, we held three workshops with keystakeholders – two in London and one inEdinburgh. Stakeholders included Governmentagencies, environmental non-governmentalorganisations and representatives of the businesscommunity. The views of stakeholders showedthat there was a real appetite for stakeholderparticipation and stakeholder views have helpedto shape the scope of this report and our overallstrategy.

1.40 Preparing this report is only the first step.We want to involve stakeholders in taking forwardthe measures summarised in this report andmonitoring progress made in meeting our goals.Stakeholder involvement is already working wellin many areas, such as the Review of MarineNature Conservation. We will hold a workshop thisautumn with key stakeholders to consider howbest to take forward the full range of proposalscontained in this report. We will also consult onwhether current arrangements for stakeholderinvolvement are adequate and on the scope andcontent of future Marine Stewardship Reports. We will issue our consultation paper by the end of 2002.

TAKING THINGS FORWARD

1.41 This chapter has summarised our vision andthe key initiatives that will help us to deliver clean,healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverseoceans and seas. It outlines how an ecosystem-based approach can deliver this goal based onthe principles of sustainable development,integrated management, conservation ofbiodiversity, robust science, the precautionaryprinciple and stakeholder involvement. Theremainder of the report sets out in more detailwhat we have already achieved and how we willdeliver our vision based on the initiativessummarised in this chapter.

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• Hold a workshop in the autumn to decidehow best to take forward the initiatives inthis report

• Hold a joint conference of the English,Scottish and Welsh Coastal fora, togetherwith Northern Ireland stakeholders, todiscuss plans to implement the EC’s ICZMRecommendation

• Consult on whether a new stakeholderbody is needed for the wider marineenvironment and what its remit might be

• Consult on the scope and content of futureMarine Stewardship Reports

To promote stakeholder involvement inthe marine stewardship process we will:


• The marine environment contains a uniqueand distinct collection of species andhabitats. Up to half of the UK’s biodiversitymay be found in our seas.

• We will conserve and, where possible,enhance and restore this biodiversity.Adopting an ecosystem-based approachrequires us to manage all human activities ina way that maintains ecosystem integrity.

• We will continue to play a leading role ininternational fora both at the global andregional level to help conserve marinebiodiversity.

• The UK’s Review of Marine NatureConservation is examining how we canimprove the protection afforded to the UK’smarine biodiversity and ecosystems. Our IrishSea pilot scheme will show the way forward.

A VITAL RESOURCE FOR LIFE

2.1 Marine biodiversity is the variety ofspecies and habitats found in our oceans, seasand coasts. It includes everything from thelargest animal in the world – the blue whale –to the smallest bacterium and seaweed. Marinebiodiversity plays a fundamental role in thebalance of life on our planet.

2.2 Human activities and climate change candamage marine ecosystems. By movingtowards an approach based on ecosystems we will be better able to address threats tomarine biodiversity and ensure that thisapproach plays a key part in all our policiesthat affect the marine environment. Thischapter shows how we are taking forward ourcommitment to improve marine biodiversity at the international, regional, national and local levels.

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Chapter 2 Protecting marine biodiversity

Protecting marinebiodiversity

Seafan – marine biodiversity plays a fundamental role in the balance of life on our planetPhotographer Rohan Holt

INTERNATIONAL ACTION

2.3 We are committed to working with othercountries to promote the conservation of marinewildlife and habitats worldwide through theimplementation of relevant conventions andagreements. This section outlines some of theUK’s main international obligations.

The Convention on Biological Diversity

2.4 The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD) was adopted at the Rio Earth Summit. Itsobjective, which provides the main framework formuch of our work, is the conservation ofbiological diversity, the sustainable use of itscomponents and the fair and adequate sharing ofbenefits from the use of genetic resources.

2.5 The Convention’s 1995 Jakarta Mandaterepresents a global consensus and hasestablished a focus for international action onmarine and coastal biodiversity. It is founded on anumber of basic principles, including theecosystem approach (which is elaborated underthe Convention as the Malawi Principles) and theprecautionary principle. The work programmefocuses on priority areas for action with focus onnational and regional actions.

2.6 The UK’s Darwin Initiative plays animportant role in our contribution to implementing

the CBD internationally, including in relation tomarine biodiversity. It seeks to help safeguard theworld’s biodiversity by drawing on the UK’sstrengths in this area to assist those countriesthat are rich in biodiversity but poor financially.

Coral reefs

2.7 The UK is working internationally to protectcoral reefs under the Jakarta Mandate. We are afounding member of the International Coral ReefInitiative (ICRI), a partnership between states andnon-governmental bodies. The UK has committedsubstantial funding to support the development ofimproved understanding and better managementof coral reef ecosystems, recognising theimportance of their resources to the livelihoods ofmany vulnerable coastal communities indeveloping countries.

2.8 In September 2001, the World ConservationMonitoring Centre, based in Cambridge,launched The World Atlas on Coral Reefs, the firstcomprehensive assessment of the state of theworld’s coral reefs. The 6th Conference of theParties of the Biodiversity Convention in 2002 willdecide upon a work plan on coral bleaching as

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• Integrated marine and coastal areamanagement

• Marine and coastal living resources• Marine and coastal protected areas• Mariculture• Alien species and genotypes

The Jakarta Mandate work programmehas five main elements:

Coral reefs contain more than one third ofthe world’s marine species. They are a majorprovider of food and jobs for localeconomies, a major focus for tourism, and asource for medical research. But pollution,sewage, unsustainable fishing, coastaldevelopment and rising sea temperaturesmean that 10 per cent of coral reefs are nowseverely depleted and over 50 per cent arethreatened.

Coral reefs

• The 1992 Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD)

• The 1979 Convention on the Conservationof Migratory Species of Wild Animals (BonnConvention)

• The 1979 Convention on the Conservationof European Wildlife and Natural Habitats(Bern Convention)

• The 1975 Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species (CITES)

• The 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlandsof International Importance (Ramsar)

• The 1946 International Convention for theRegulation of Whaling

Main international conventions applyingto the conservation of marine biodiversity

part of its overall work programme on marine andcoastal biodiversity.

Wetlands: the Ramsar Convention

2.9 The work of the Ramsar and BiodiversityConventions are closely related. Ramsar aims tosecure the wise use of wetlands as a key meansof achieving sustainable development. The UKhas listed 168 Ramsar sites, which are wetlandsof international importance, of which 13 are inOverseas Territories. We are currently carrying outa review of Ramsar sites in the UK. This follows a recommendation from Ramsar for an increase inthe area of wetland designated as being ofinternational importance, in particular under-represented wetland types. We will continue toaddress issues relating to full and effectiveimplementation of the Convention through ourNational Ramsar Committee.

Endangered species: CITES

2.10 The UK plays an active role in theConvention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies (CITES), which protects endangeredspecies of animals and plants by restricting andmonitoring international trade in them. A numberof important marine species are listed onAppendix I of the Convention, which means thatall international commercial trade in thesespecies, their parts and derivatives is prohibited.Other species, which may become endangered ifthey are subject to over-exploitation from trade,are listed on Appendix II.

2.11 In April 2000, the UK proposed the listing ofthe Basking shark on Appendix II. An Appendix IIlisting means that international trade is onlypermitted where it would not be detrimental to thespecies. The Appendix II proposal failed narrowlyand the UK has since listed the Basking shark on

Appendix III. This means that no CITES party mayallow the import of Basking sharks (or their partsor derivatives) from the UK unless a valid exportpermit is presented and, as Basking sharks areprotected in UK waters, such certificates wouldnot normally be issued. Imports from othercountries must be accompanied by a documentcertifying that they did not originate in the UK.

2.12 The UK will resubmit the Appendix II listingproposal to the next CITES conference in Chile, inNovember 2002. To support this, the UK hascommissioned research into the life history andmigratory patterns of Basking sharks.

Whaling: the International WhalingCommission

2.13 The UK ceased whaling in 1963. We areopposed to all forms of whaling, except for somelimited indigenous whaling, and strongly supportthe International Whaling Commission’s (IWC)1982 moratorium on commercial whaling. The UKwould like to see all other forms of whalingended. We believe that whaling does not serveany genuine need and involves unacceptablecruelty. The UK has been successful inmaintaining the IWC moratorium (despiteincreased pressure from pro-whaling nations) andin establishing whale sanctuaries in the Indianand Antarctic Oceans.

2.14 The UK has taken the lead in the IWC inpromoting whale-watching as an alternative wayof making use of whale resources. Whale-watching continues to grow in popularity and hasthe potential to become more economically viablethan the whaling industry. We believe that theIWC has an important role to play and willcontinue to encourage the IWC to developguidelines in this area and oversee discussion.

2.15 In April 1998 the Government established aConsultative Forum on Whaling. This forumconsists of representatives of organisationsinterested in the conservation of whales andmeets regularly to discuss whale conservationissues and to advise the Government on itspolicies in the IWC. The next meetings of the IWCwill be in Shimonoseki, Japan in May 2002 andBerlin, Germany in June 2003.

15

• Great whales • Marine turtles• Sea otters• Guadeloupe fur seals• Monk seals• Dugongs and manatees

Marine species listed on CITES Appendix I:


Migratory species: The Bonn Convention

2.16 The Bonn Convention provides an effectiveumbrella for international action to protectmigratory species. Action is sometimesapproached, or initiated, at the regional level asthe following examples illustrate.

Small cetaceans: ASCOBANS

2.17 Small cetaceans, which comprise dolphins,porpoises and some whales, are caught in thenets of commercial fishing vessels – known as by-catch. Addressing this problem has been apriority for the UK, and we have promoted aregional approach through the BonnConvention’s Agreement on the Conservation ofSmall Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas(ASCOBANS). At the meeting of the Parties inBristol in July 2000, the UK was instrumental insecuring agreement to reduce by-catch levels ofsmall cetaceans to no more than 1.7 per cent ofthe best available abundance estimates. This isdiscussed later in this chapter.

Albatrosses and petrels in the SouthernHemisphere: ACAP

2.18 The UK hosts important breeding sites onaccount of its Overseas Territories in the Southernhemisphere. Consequently we played a majorrole in negotiating the Agreement on Albatrossesand Petrels. We are a range state under theagreement and are working with others to bring itinto force this year. It will protect 21 species ofalbatross and seven of petrel. Measuresproposed include an Action Plan andconservation measures such as reducing by-catch and prohibiting egg taking. An AdvisoryCommittee will be charged with developingconservation guidelines to assist ContractingParties in the implementation of the Action Plan.

Marine turtles: the Bern Convention

2.19 The UK is making an active contribution tothe work of the Bern Convention, including workon marine turtles. The detrimental impact ofvarious forms of fishery by-catch and of touristresort development on nesting beaches, in theMediterranean and North Atlantic are major

themes of the Convention’s recent work. The UKis raising marine turtle awareness among touristsand tourism operators. In March 2002 we signeda Memorandum of Understanding under the BonnConvention on the Conservation andManagement of Marine Turtles and their Habitatsin the Indian Ocean and South East Asia.

Marine protection on the high seas

2.20 The high seas are beyond the jurisdiction ofany state, and are, in the words of the UnitedNations Convention on the Law of the Sea, thecommon heritage of mankind. Yet the high seasare home to a number of unique habitats such asdeep sea hydrothermal vents on mid-oceanridges and sea mounts. We will explore with othercountries and through appropriate internationalfora the case for, and the feasibility of, marineprotected areas on the high seas. We will alsowork within the International Seabed Authority toensure that any use, including prospecting, of theseabed under the high seas, takes place on anenvironmentally sound basis.

Working through the European Union

The Habitats and Birds Directives

2.21 These two European Directives have asignificant influence on the conservation and

16

This ran from 1996 to 2001 to establishmanagement schemes on selected marineSACs. It focuses on 12 marine SACs aroundthe UK, aiming to develop specific areas ofknowledge needed for the management andmonitoring of European marine sites. Theproject was run as a partnership between allthe UK conservation agencies. Managementgroups were established, made up fromnational and local Government, NGOs,commercial interests and leisureorganisations. These groups aim to useexpertise and experience to promotestrategic, co-ordinated management toprotect the environmental resource at SAC sites.

The UK Marine SACs Project


protection of marine species and habitats in theUK and the rest of Europe. We have alreadytaken considerable action within the UK’sterritorial waters and there are currently 71 marineSPAs and 62 candidate SACs.

Beyond the 12 mile limit

2.22 Work is under way to develop legislation toapply the Habitats and Birds Directives beyondterritorial waters. We expect to consult onregulations later in the year. We havecommissioned the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) to identify potential SACs andSPAs beyond territorial waters.

2.23 At the 5th North Sea Conference we agreedto identify and designate by 2010 relevant areasof the UK’s seas as areas of marine protectionbelonging to a network of well-managed sites.Decisions will be based on a clear understandingof natural processes and the ecologicalrequirements of marine species, habitats and

ecosystems. The JNCC’s work in identifyingpotential SAC and SPA sites will help us to takeforward this commitment.

2.24 The Darwin Mounds, a large cold water reefsystem, found 185km off the north-west coast ofScotland, are prime candidates for investigationfor SAC status. They are expected to be the firstsite to be confirmed once the necessaryregulations are in place.

2.25 Further information on the distribution ofvulnerable marine habitats and species in UKwaters has been produced through the MarineLife Information Network (MarLIN) and can befound at: www.marlin.ac.uk

The EU’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans

2.26 The UK has argued successfully thatnational and, where appropriate, regionalstrategies and action plans under the main

17

The EC Habitats Directive: requires MemberStates to protect areas that support certainnatural habitats or species of plants oranimals of Community interest listed in theDirective. It provides for a range of measuresincluding conservation of important wildlifefeatures, the protection of agreed speciesfrom damage, destruction or exploitation,and the surveillance of natural habitats andspecies. The most demanding obligationsrelate to the selection, designation andprotection of sites as Special Areas ofConservation (SACs).

The EC Birds Directive: protects all wild birdsnaturally occurring within Member States. Itcovers the protection, management andcontrol of these species and lays down rulesfor exploitation. It applies to all wild birds,nests and habitats. Under the Directive,Member States are required to take specialmeasures to conserve the habitats of certainrare species of birds and regularly occurringmigratory birds. In particular each Member

State is required to designate the mostsuitable areas of such habitats as SpecialProtection Areas (SPAs).

Together the SACs and SPAs will create anetwork of protected areas across theEuropean Union known as Natura 2000. ThisEuropean-wide network of sites is designed topromote the conservation of habitats, wildanimals and plants, both on land and at seaand is a major contribution by the EC toimplementing the Convention on BiologicalDiversity. In the UK the Directives have beentransposed into legislation by the Wildlife andCountryside Act 1981 and the Conservation(Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994, asamended.

The Moray FirthThe Moray Firth was designated as a marineSpecial Area of Conservation because it ishome to the world’s most northerly bottlenosedolphin population.

The Habitats and Birds Directives


Conventions, such as the Convention onBiological Diversity, are key to integratingenvironmental considerations into the policies ofimportant economic sectors. The EuropeanCommission, as part of the requirements of itsoverall Biodiversity Strategy, has adopted a suiteof Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs). We havecontributed to the development of these and fullysupport them. Two are relevant to marinebiodiversity – one on the conservation of naturalresources and one on fisheries.

2.27 The natural resources action plan makesparticular reference to the full implementation ofthe Habitats and Birds Directives and sets outpolicy priorities for helping preserve biodiversityacross the Community, as well as promotingintegrated coastal zone management. The

fisheries BAP focuses on conservation andsustainable use of fish stocks, the reduction ofthe impact of fishing activities on marine andcoastal habitats and non-target species, such assharks and rays, and preventing aquaculturehaving a harmful impact on differentecosystems.

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• Assess and prioritise those species andhabitats in need of protection

• Assess and prioritise the effects of humanactivities

• Promote the establishment of a network ofmarine protected areas

• Develop Ecological Quality Objectives

OSPAR’s 1998 Biodiversity Strategy isworking to:

Darwin Mounds -– corals, associated invertebrates (echiuran worms, spider crab, starfish) and fish© Southampton Oceanography Centre

Working through OSPAR

2.28 At the regional level of the North EastAtlantic, valuable work is being undertakenthrough the OSPAR Convention and itsBiodiversity Strategy. At the 1998 meeting inSintra, Portugal, Ministers agreed a new Annex Vto the Convention, which contains provisions onthe protection of ecosystems and biodiversity.

2.29 Annex V requires the UK and otherContracting Parties to take the necessarymeasures to protect and conserve marineecosystems and biodiversity of the North EastAtlantic, and to restore, where practicable,adversely affected areas. It also provides for theadoption of programmes and measures to assistmanagement of human activities that can have anadverse impact on the marine environment.Annex V came into force on 30 August 2000.

2.30 At the 5th North Sea Conference, the UKagreed to work through OSPAR to pilot the mostadvanced Ecological Quality Objectives(EcoQOs) in the North Sea and work to developthe remaining EcoQOs by 2004. It was alsoagreed that where ecological quality target levelswere not being met, policies that are contributingto this failure would be reviewed and thatcoherent monitoring arrangements, which arediscussed later in this report, will be establishedso that progress made in meeting EcoQOs canbe assessed.

THE NATIONAL DIMENSION

Evaluation, new initiatives and stakeholderinvolvement: developing an ecosystem-based approach

2.31 We have been developing a number of newapproaches to evaluate the success of existingmeasures to protect the marine environment.These demonstrate a commitment to adopting anecosystem-based approach, founded onstakeholder involvement, and are detailed below.

The Review of Marine Nature Conservation

2.32 In its 1998 consultation document, Sites ofSpecial Scientific Interest: Better Protection and

Management, the Government recognised thatthe creation of a network of Marine NatureReserves (MNRs) under the Wildlife AndCountryside Act 1981 had not been as successful as originally hoped. As a result it established theReview of Marine Nature Conservation (RMNC) toevaluate the success of previous statutory andvoluntary marine nature conservation measuresand identify examples of current best practiceand existing barriers to successful marineconservation. The main aim of the Review is toput forward practical and proportionate proposalsfor improving marine nature conservation.

2.33 A Working Group was set up to take theReview forward. This group includes GovernmentDepartments and agencies, regulatory bodies,the devolved administrations, conservation NGOs,

19

The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981implements the EC Birds Directive andprotects all species of wild bird fromintentional killing, injuring or taking of birdsor their eggs. Protection is also afforded toany nest of a wild bird while it is in use orbeing built. Certain birds listed on Schedule1 of the 1981 Act are also protected fromdisturbance while building or in a nest ornear a nest containing young.

The 1981 Act also protects certain species ofanimals in Great Britain including all speciesof whales, dolphins, porpoises and Baskingsharks from intentional killing, taking orinjuring, and for certain species protectsagainst disturbance. It also affordsprotection to a number of marine plants bymaking it an offence intentionally to pick,uproot or destroy any protected plant.

The Act also enables the establishment ofMarine Nature Reserves (MNRs) and Sites ofSpecial Scientific Interest (SSSIs). Forexample, the waters around Lundy Island offthe north coast of Devon have beendesignated as a MNR. SSSIs are used toprotect coastal habitats of ecologicalsignificance.

The domestic legislative framework:


commercial and leisure interests. The Review’sinterim recommendations were produced inMarch 2001.

2.34 A key outcome of the interim report was theproposal for a regional seas pilot scheme to testways of integrating nature conservation into keysectors in order to make an effective contributionto sustainable development on a regional basis. Itwill also seek to determine the potential ofexisting regulatory and other systems fordelivering effective marine nature conservationand aim to identify any gaps in existing systemsand make recommendations on how to fill them.

2.35 The pilot scheme will take place in the IrishSea. It will involve all key stakeholders – local,regional, national and international – in asinclusive a manner as possible at every stage inthe development and implementation of the pilot.It is hoped that the findings of the pilot will beavailable in early 2004. The results are expectedto make a significant contribution to ourconsideration of how we apply an ecosystem-based approach.

The Review of Non-native Species Policy

2.36 The Government is undertaking a review ofits policies on non native species, including inrelation to the marine environment. Their

introduction can have major effects intransforming ecosystems, altering natural habitatsand threatening native species. Co-ordinatedaction is needed to address these issuesinvolving Government, industry and conservationbodies.

2.37 The aim of the review is to evaluate theeffectiveness of current statutory and non-statutory procedures for dealing with theintroduction and establishment of non-nativespecies and to identify examples of current bestpractice within the UK and abroad. It will alsoidentify the main vectors for introduction andspread and put forward proposals for improvingmeasures to limit the impact of non–nativespecies. These could include proposals in areasof research and monitoring, trade, and control ofnon–native species.

2.38 At the 5th North Sea Conference, it wasagreed that OSPAR should investigate how bestto prevent, control or eradicate, as appropriate,the introduction of harmful invasive species in theOSPAR region. This will take account of the

20


• There is a need to set strategic goals formarine nature conservation

• There is a need to draw togetheridentification of those habitats and specieswhich are nationally important and justifyconservation action

• The regional seas approach to natureconservation should be tested through apilot scheme

• There should be a further drive torationalise regulation, especially in coastalwaters

• An exercise should be undertaken toidentify best practice in marineenforcement, both at home and abroad

Key recommendations from the interimreport of the RMNC include:

• The UK BAP was prepared in response torequirements under the BiodiversityConvention agreed in 1992

• The UK BAP establishes the framework forthe conservation of species and habitatsas well as the integration of biodiversityinto all areas of policy

• The UK BAP has some 40 individual actionplans for important marine and coastalhabitats and species, including mammals,reptiles, fish, molluscs, sea anemones,corals, and algae

• The action plans set objectives and targetsfor conservation, restoration andenhancement

• Working in partnership is an essentialelement of the UK BAP

The individual action plans and a report onprogress on the first five years of the UKBAPcan be found at: www.ukbap.org.uk

The UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP):

results of ongoing work in organisations such asthe International Maritime Organisation (IMO) andthe Convention on Biological Diversity. Ballastwater from ships as a vector for spreading non-native species is specifically addressed inChapter 5.

The UK Small Cetacean By-Catch ResponseStrategy

2.39 In July 2001 the Government set up aWorking Group to develop a UK Small CetaceanBy-Catch Response Strategy. The aim of theStrategy will be to identify what measures can betaken and the constraints on those measures, towork towards meeting the 1.7 per cent by-catchtarget set by ASCOBANS in 2000. The strategywill consider the effects of every type ofcommercial fishery carried out by UK fisheries,cover all waters within the UK’s ExclusiveFisheries Zone and take account of measuresused to reduce by-catch in other countries.

2.40 The strategy will be produced later this yearand will help us to deliver on the commitmentmade at the 5th North Sea Conference to aim toreduce the by-catch of harbour porpoises below1.7 per cent of the best population estimate, anda precautionary objective to reduce by-catches ofmarine mammals to less than 1 per cent of thebest available population estimate. We will workwith ASCOBANS and other relevant bodies todevelop and adopt a recovery plan for theharbour porpoise in the North Sea.

2.41 The Government is pleased that the MarineWildlife Conservation Bill, a private member’s Bill

introduced by John Randall MP, has completed itsHouse of Commons stages and will now beconsidered by the House of Lords. The Bill, ifenacted, will permit the notification of marine sitesin England and Wales which are of specialinterest by virtue of their fauna, flora or geologicalor physigraphical features. Such sites will be ofnational importance.


2.42 We will work with the EC and MemberStates towards the EU 6th Environmental ActionProgramme objective of halting biodiversitydecline by 2010. In contributing to this objectivewe will promote the sustainable use of the seasand the conservation of marine ecosystems. Abetter understanding of marine ecosystems andour impacts on them through the work that is intrain, especially the identification of indicators, willhelp us to identify whether we are on track toachieve this ambitious goal.

2.43 Working with stakeholders we are makinggood progress. We will continue to work toidentify species and habitats which justifyconservation action through various forumsincluding the Review of Marine NatureConservation and OSPAR. We will try to identifywhere action needs to be taken quickly to protectthem. We will continue to work internationally andat the regional level to implement Conventions toconserve marine biodiversity and protectendangered species and habitats.

2.44 We will build on marine protection affordedin Territorial Waters under the Habitats and BirdsDirectives by applying these Directives out to thelimit of jurisdiction of UK waters. We will identifyand designate relevant areas of the UK’s seas asareas of marine protection belonging to a networkof well-managed sites by 2010. We will alsoexplore how marine protection on the high seasmight be improved. We are also working toassess the threats posed by non-native invasivespecies so that appropriate action can be takento tackle the threat.

2.45 We will strive to improve our scientificunderstanding of our seas in order to base ourdecisions on the best available knowledge. The

21

The 1994 Small Cetacean Abundance in theNorth Sea (SCANS) project aimed toestimate abundance and identify the mainsummer concentrations of small cetaceansin the North Sea. The UK Continental Shelfpopulation of harbour porpoise is estimatedto be in the order of 150,000. Theseestimates of abundance have been usedextensively by a number of internationalorganisations including ASCOBANS.

The SCANS project


Review of Marine Nature Conservation, perhapsthe most fundamental review of its kind, shouldhelp us achieve this aim, as should ourcommitment to build on seabed mappinginitiatives to improve our understanding of marinehabitats. We hope that the Irish Sea Pilot Schemeunder the Review will produce constructive ideason how we can improve our management of themarine environment.

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• We want to develop a new, shared vision forthe future of our coastal areas. This isessential for the stewardship of our seasand the success of an ecosystem-basedapproach.

• The coastline of the United Kingdom is oneof the most diverse in Europe. We mustbalance the conservation of this vitalresource with the economic and socialactivities that take place there.

• We are encouraging local partnerships todeliver local solutions and developopportunities within the Government’sframework of national policies. Integrated coastal management is central toachieving this.

OUR UNIQUE COASTLINE

3.1 Our coastal areas are the link between theland and the sea. Each stretch of coast isdifferent. The extent and variety of the UK’scoastline makes it rich in species and habitats ofnational and international significance. Over athird of its length is designated for its scenic ornatural beauty.

3.2 Coastal areas are subject to constantnatural processes such as storms, flooding anderosion, which are likely to increase with globalwarming. By the 2080s, climate change andnatural land movement may lead to a rise in sealevels of up to 86cm in south east England andup to 58cm in the west of Scotland, which couldthreaten property and livelihoods6.

3.3 One in three people in the UK live within 10 km of the coastline. It provides importantcommercial, residential and leisure opportunities.Many communities have social and economicissues that are specific to their coastal location

such as seasonal unemployment and lack ofaffordable housing.

3.4 The Government’s strategic aim seeks tobalance these competing pressures. We promotethe sustainable management of coastal areasbased on both conservation value and thedifferent human activities that take place there.But different circumstances require differentresponses. What is best for one stretch of thecoast may not be right for another.

3.5 Our approach, therefore, is to set theregulatory framework for managing specificcoastal issues, such as development planningand the control of ports and harbours, whilstencouraging a more flexible, discretionaryapproach to the overall management of coastalareas.

3.6 This builds on existing administrativestructures so that local authorities, harbourauthorities, environmental agencies and otherbodies each retain their statutory responsibilities,but work together at the most appropriate level.

23

Chapter 3 Integrated coastal management

Integrated coastalmanagement

Durdle Door, near Lulworth – part of over 20,000 km of UKcoastline© Dorset County Council

6UK Climate Impacts Programme 2002

Rather than impose decisions, we seek toencourage local solutions and the development ofopportunities within a clear framework of nationalpolicies. Stakeholder involvement is crucial.

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

3.7 The concept of integrated coastalmanagement is central to an ecosystem-basedapproach. It brings together everyone involved inthe management and use of the coast within aframework that works to achieve common goals.The objective is to establish sustainable levels ofeconomic and social activity in our coastal areaswhile protecting the coastal environment.

3.8 Integrated coastal management typicallyinvolves a partnership of local authorities,statutory agencies, local conservation bodies,businesses and recreational groups who,together, produce a joint action plan for aparticular stretch of coast. These widely-usednon-statutory plans are a useful tool forencouraging participation, dialogue andconsensus. Their content must be tailored to localcircumstances, but they will normally look at awhole host of issues including coastaldevelopment, conservation, recreation, historicalheritage, flood defence and tourism.

3.9 In September 2000, the EuropeanCommission published a proposal for aRecommendation on Implementing IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICZM) acrossEurope7. This asks all European Uniongovernments to conduct an overall stocktaking toanalyse which laws, institutions and stakeholders

influence the planning and management of theircoastal zone.

3.10 Then, based on these results, eachgovernment should prepare a national coastalstrategy. These should identify the roles of thedifferent stakeholders in the coastal zone; theappropriate mix of instruments for implementingthe principles of ICZM; measures to promotemore public participation; and suitable sources oflong-term financing for local initiatives.

3.11 The principles in this proposal are alreadypart of the UK’s approach to coastal policy andthe Government welcomes the Recommendationas providing fresh impetus to delivering effectivecoastal management in Europe. We have been akey player in negotiations on the text and hope itwill be adopted later in 2002. Our plan is then tocarry out a wide-ranging review of all theinstitutions, laws and stakeholders that influenceour coastline, prior to starting a consultationprocess on draft coastal strategies for each of thenational administrations.

MANAGING OUR COASTLINE

3.12 Over the last decade, the Governmentand the devolved administrations have publisheda range of advice for coastal decision-makersincluding guidance on planning policy, bestpractice and discussion papers.

3.13 Coastal fora in England, Scotland andWales, with membership representing nationalgroups from a range of sectors, have broughtstakeholders together. For example, the ScottishCoastal Forum, established by Government in1996, has regular meetings and a detailed workprogramme which aims to encourage national

24


• taking a long term view• a broad holistic approach• adaptive management• working with natural processes• support and involvement of all relevant

administrative bodies• use of a combination of instruments• participatory planning• reflecting local characteristics

Principles of Integrated CoastalManagement:

The statutory planning system plays animportant role in coastal management. Arange of national planning policy guidancehas been published to direct local planningauthorities in the control of coastaldevelopment above the low-water mark,including PPG20 in England, NPPG13 inScotland and PPW in Wales.

Coastal planning

7COM (2000) 545 final

debate on coastal issues. Early effort concentratedon reviewing the existing managementarrangements but the Forum has now startedwork on developing its own coastal strategy andhas commissioned a range of research reports.These are available on the Forum’s web site:www.scotland.gov.uk/environment/coastalforum.The latest information on good practice andforthcoming events is distributed to coastalmanagers through its electronic newsletter.

3.14 A number of well-regarded local andregional partnerships have evolved across the UKto establish practical management arrangementsfor protecting estuaries and the coastalenvironment. For example:

• The Severn Estuary Partnership is actively helpingcollaboration between the parallel agencies atwork on either side of the Welsh/English border.

• The management committee of StrangfordLough – Northern Ireland’s leading marine sitein terms of conservation – has been resolvinglocal problems since its formation in 1992 andacts as an advisory body to the NorthernIreland Government.

• The Dorset Coastal Forum is raising awarenessin communities along the South West coastthrough improved visitor facilities, educationprogrammes, newsletters, information boardsand a website.

• The Moray Firth Partnership in the north east ofScotland has developed a community grantsscheme so local groups can undertake a rangeof projects to deliver integrated coastalmanagement in their area.

3.15 We will hold a joint conference with thenational coastal fora, plus key stakeholders fromNorthern Ireland, to take place after the EUproposals on ICZM have been adopted.Representatives from local and regionalpartnerships will also be invited to participate todiscuss the Government’s plans for implementingthe Recommendation.

3.16 In addition, we will be inviting views onwhether a new overarching stakeholder

consultation group covering all marine issues,including coasts, is needed to deliver ourecosystem-based approach to marinemanagement.

3.17 The principles of integrated coastal zonemanagement are also reflected in work the UK isundertaking to develop the EC Biodiversity ActionPlans (BAPs) as part of its lead in promoting theintegration of environmental considerations intothe main economic sectors. BAPS werediscussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

3.18 The coastal zone is also important fortourism and recreation, and includes a significantcultural heritage, as revealed through underwaterarchaeology. There are, for example, manythousands of historic shipwrecks around thecoast of the UK. To date, 52 of these have beenselected for protection under the Protection ofWrecks Act 1973.

3.19 Our initiative to review the regulationsaffecting development of the coastal area willneed to consider the full range of activities thattake place in the coastal zone. The aim of thereview will be to help identify ways in which theregulatory system can be simplified and

25


In 1998, the Government published a reviewof coastal bye-law powers in England andWales. This made recommendations aimedat improving the management of coastalleisure and recreational activities. We willproduce a guide for local authoritiesexplaining the range of powers open to themand intend to look at new legislation whenParliamentary time permits.

Coastal bye-laws

The archaeological survey and exploration ofdesignated sites is carried out under licencefrom the relevant Secretary of State orMinister. Much of the work is carried out byamateur divers, assisted by professionalarchaeologists, including the ArchaeologicalDiving Unit of St Andrew’s University inScotland.

Designated wrecks

rationalised without reducing the level ofprotection currently afforded to the marineenvironment. It is considered preferable to givethis review a relatively narrow focus –development in coastal areas – in order toproduce meaningful results. Similarly the workthat OSPAR will undertake to explore the role ofspatial planning will help to improve co-operationand management of the range of differentactivities that take place in coastal waters.

FLOOD AND COASTAL DEFENCE

3.20 Protecting the coast from erosion andflooding is a particular concern in England andWales and requires a co-ordinated approach tomanaging the coastal zone. For example, in 1993,a new flood and coastal defence strategy waspublished that encouraged the development ofShoreline Management Plans (SMPs) based oncoastal sediment cells. It recognised that thereshould be a presumption that natural coastalprocesses should not be disrupted except wherelife or important natural or man-made assets wereat risk. This might mean no active intervention,only limited intervention or the deployment of softengineering techniques, for example at PorlockBay in north Somerset where the pebble ridgewas allowed to be breached by the sea andnatural processes have resumed.

3.21 The first SMPs covering the whole coastlineof England and Wales were completed in 1999.They provide the basis for a holistic, sustainableapproach to coastal defence planning over thenext 50 years.

3.22 The next round of SMPs begins this yearwith the aim of further improving theconsideration of long-term natural processes,including climate change and integration with theplanning system. This will be supported by thefindings of a £1 million research project on thelikely future evolution of the coastline. The results,due shortly, will be a GIS-based system formodelling the probable coastline changes overthe next 50 to 100 years.

3.23 The new SMPs should also contribute tothe targets set out in the UK BAP for theconservation, restoration and, where appropriate,

enhancement of those species and habitatsconsidered to be of conservation importance.

IMPROVING WATER QUALITY

3.24 Achievements under a number of ECDirectives have played, and will continue to play,a key part in improving the quality of water andprotecting aquatic life around our coasts.

3.25 The Bathing Water Directive8 sets mandatorywater quality standards as well as more stringentguideline levels that Member States mustendeavour to meet. In 2001, 546 identified coastalbathing waters were sampled in the UK. 95 percent passed the mandatory standards and 57 percent met the guideline values (up from 77 per

26


CHaMPS is an initiative being developedthrough the EU Life funded Living with theSea project, which is being undertakenjointly by English Nature, NERC, theEnvironment Agency and DEFRA. Theproject, which runs from December 1999 toDecember 2003, will involve the preparationof seven CHaMPS, best practice guidance onhabitat creation, and a framework formanaging European habitats on changingcoastlines. Each CHaMP will identify likelylosses and gains in wildlife habitats over thenext 30-100 years, the flood and coastaldefence works that need to be undertaken tomaintain protected habitats, and the newhabitats that will need to be created to offsetlosses. CHaMPS will also include strategichabitat-monitoring programmes to mapfuture changes. The actions will be deliveredthrough Shoreline Management Plans and flood and coastal defence strategies and schemes.

Coastal Habitat Management Plans(CHaMPS)

• £2 billion has been invested since the early1990s

• A further £600 million is being investedbetween 2000 and 2005

Improving bathing water:

8Directive 76/160/EEC

cent and 30 per cent respectively in 1990) whichare required to qualify for a Blue Flag award.

3.26 The UK is working closely with the EC todevelop a revised bathing water policy that takesaccount of developments in science, technologyand research. We are looking to develop aDirective that protects public health and is rootedin sound scientific evidence and takes intoaccount cost benefit analysis.

3.27 In addition, the Shellfish Waters Directive9

aims to protect and improve the quality of watersin which shellfish grow. There are currently 161designated waters in the UK, up from 40 in 1998.A further 75 were designated in Scotland inMarch. The Directive sets mandatory water qualitystandards that must be met for designatedshellfish waters, together with more stringentguidelines that Member States must endeavour tomeet. All shellfish waters have comprehensivepollution reduction programmes in place, whichinclude intensive water quality monitoring.

3.28 The Water Framework Directive10 sets out aframework for protecting waters, including coastalwaters, with the aim of achieving demandingwater quality targets by 2015. This will be carriedout through comprehensive river basinmanagement and should contribute to theprotection of specific marine sites. This willinclude, inter alia, setting water quality standardsand emission controls for priority substances. Wewant the UK to be amongst the leaders in Europein ensuring successful implementation and willpool our expertise and work with the EC andMember States to deliver the targets.

3.29 The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive11

(UWWTD) sets standards and deadlines for thetreatment of sewage according to the populationserved by sewage treatment works, and thesensitivity of the receiving waters to adverseeffects from their discharges. The Directive alsocovers waste water collecting systems andlimiting pollution from storm water overflows. Bythe end of 2002, 98 per cent of discharges fromsewage treatment works serving populations over15,000 people will receive primary and secondarytreatment before entering receiving waters.

3.30 Furthermore, by the end of 2005 in Englandand Wales, primary and secondary treatment willbe the minimum standard for all freshwater,estuarine and coastal discharges from sewagetreatment works serving populations of 2000 ormore. This minimum standard for coastaldischarges goes beyond the requirements of the Directive.

3.31 The Blue Flag award for beaches provides acomparison with coastal resorts across Europe.As well as meeting the guideline values forbathing water quality, the beach must be clean,well-managed and promote sound environmentalmanagement. National sustainable tourismindicators12, published in 2001, include thenumber of beaches with a Blue Flag or a SeasideAward (a similar scheme that applies for ruraland resort beaches). Last year, UK beachesreceived 55 Blue Flags and 308 Seaside Awards(up from 41 and 260 respectively in 1999).


3.32 Over the last decade, we have madeconsiderable progress in understanding thestewardship of our coastline and its waters. Weare now about to move into a new phase ofincreased emphasis and awareness.

3.33 We welcome the EC’s proposals for aRecommendation on ICZM. If adopted, they willbe a driving force for progress at all levels: locally,regionally, nationally and internationally. Once wehave a clear idea of the final text of theRecommendation later in 2002 we will hold a jointconference of the national coastal fora. This willbe a chance to discuss the way forward andbegin consultation on the Government’s plans forimplementation.

3.34 We will continue to invest to drive upcompliance with EC Directives to improve waterquality. We want to be amongst the leaders inEurope in ensuring successful implementation ofthese Directives.

3.35 Our initiative to provide a focal point to buildon existing seabed mapping in coastal watersaround the UK and consider how best to make

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19Directive 79/923/EEC10Directive 2000/60/EC11Directive 91/271/EEC12National Sustainable Tourism Indicators – Monitoring Progress Towards Sustainable Tourism in England, English Tourism Council, 2001


the data available to interested parties willimprove our understanding of the coastal zoneand provide for more informed decision-makingat all levels. Our commitment to developEcological Quality Objectives and ourenvironmental monitoring framework will enableus to assess our progress in delivering anecosystem-based approach to marinemanagement of our seas, oceans and coasts.

3.36 We will also undertake a comprehensive,factual review of all the institutions, laws andstakeholders that influence our coastal areas.Once this has been completed we will beginconsulting on draft coastal strategies for each ofthe national administrations. In 2006 we will havedeveloped an overarching vision for the future ofthe UK’s coastline, underpinned by a fullyintegrated set of strategies for England, Wales,Scotland and Northern Ireland.

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• Globally about 80 per cent of marinepollution comes from a variety of land-basedactivities. The UK is working nationally andthrough OSPAR, the EC and otherinternational fora to tackle pollution fromland-based sources.

• Continued research is providing a betterunderstanding of the significance of theeffects of hazardous substances andendocrine disrupters. The UK and itspartners are working through OSPAR toreduce or eliminate inputs of radioactivesubstances and hazardous substances ofmost concern by 2020.

• Over the past 20 years the UK has phasedout most forms of dumping of waste at seaand the remainder are strictly controlled.The UK encourages other countries to applysimilar controls and to ratify the LondonConvention Protocol 1996.

LAND-BASED POLLUTION

4.1 Land-based activities such as farming,together with industry and households, have ahuge potential impact on the marine environmentif they are not properly regulated. It is thereforevital that the stewardship concept and anecosystem-based approach encompass themanagement of pollutant releases and provide anunderstanding of the main pathways by whichpollutants reach the seas.

4.2 Contamination of marine wildlife, habitats,seafood and seawater with chemicals, sewage orother land-based pollutants is a cause ofecosystem damage and disease in coastal

communities in many parts of the world. Certainpersistent organic substances such as PCBs andheavy metals such as cadmium can accumulatein shellfish and in top predators, includinghumans. Some substances known as endocrinedisrupting chemicals (EDCs) also have thepotential to impair reproductive processes inaquatic organisms.

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

4.3 At the national and regional level, work isbeing undertaken through the EC and OSPAR totackle the threats that hazardous substancespose to the marine environment. OSPARDecisions and Recommendations and ECDirectives have reduced discharges of heavymetals, organic substances and other hazardouschemicals into the North East Atlantic. Figure 4.1(overleaf) shows how UK inputs of heavy metalsand lindane into the marine environment havefallen since 1985. The UK has published astrategy on the Sustainable Production and Useof Chemicals to avoid harm to the environmentor to human health through environmentalexposure to chemicals13.

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Chapter 4 Tackling pollution from land-based sources and dumping at sea

Tackling pollution fromland-based sources anddumping at sea

The UK is working nationally and internationally to tacklepollution Photographer Paul Kay

13Sustainable Production and Use of Chemicals: A strategic approach, DETR, December 1999

4.4 As part of OSPAR’s strategy for hazardoussubstances, a work programme has beendeveloped to identify those hazardoussubstances which are of greatest concern,prepare assessments on the main sources and

pathways to the marine environment and todevelop or promote appropriate measures toachieve the 2020 cessation target for thesesubstances. Around 30 substances for priorityaction have been identified so far and individualContracting Parties take forward work onspecific substances. The UK is taking the leadon mercury, octylphenol and 2,4,6 tri-tert-butylphenol. Another key priority is to developappropriate monitoring and assessmenttechniques to measure progress.

4.5 The Integrated Pollution Prevention ControlDirective (IPPC)14 requires that all majorindustries apply BAT to limit discharges andemissions of hazardous substances into theenvironment. National regulations have beenadopted to implement the provisions of theDirective and to improve transparency. TheEnvironment Agency has set up an on-linefacility which enables the public to see thelevels of key substances which are beingemitted from particular installations in specificareas: www.environment-agency.gov.uk.

4.6 Effort is now switching to prioritisingadditional hazardous substances, using agreedhazardous properties as selection criteria, andidentifying substances of equivalent concernsuch as endocrine disrupters; together with thedevelopment of biological monitoring techniqueswhich can reveal the cumulative effects of

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14Directive 96/61/EE

Objective• to prevent pollution of the maritime area by

continuously reducing discharges,emissions and losses of hazardoussubstances, with the ultimate aim ofachieving concentrations in the marineenvironment near background values fornaturally occurring substances and closeto zero for man-made syntheticsubstances.

TimeframeBy 2000: the Commission will, for the wholeOSPAR maritime area, work towards thereduction of discharges, emissions andlosses of hazardous substances which couldreach the marine environment, to levels thatare not harmful to man or nature with the aimof their elimination

By 2020: the Commission will implement thestrategy progressively by making everyendeavour to move towards the target of thecessation of discharges, emissions andlosses of hazardous substances

OSPAR’s 1998 Strategy for HazardousSubstances

Figure 4.1: UK Inputs (waterborne loads/year) of heavy metals and lindane (as reported to the 5th North Sea Conference)

1985 27 79.9 1275 1660 3630 15601988 19.9 65.9 893 633 3168 14201990 11.8 63.6 850 667 3920 7801991 10.6 63.4 711 655 3800 9101992 8.4 45.3 729 539 3870 6891993 8.9 39.7 704 637 3203 7291994 7.3 36.7 720 558 3462 6361995 6.1 30.7 645 419 2805 6271996 4.6 26.6 469 330 2110 3701997 4.8 19.6 497 389 2178 4191998 6.0 22.5 660 606 2660 5911999 4.3 22.8 664 558 2609 494

Year Mercury Cadmium Copper Lead Zinc Lindane(t) (t) (t) (t) (t) (kg)

mixtures of chemicals. Another priority is thefurther development and implementation of aEurope-wide framework for ensuring that risksfrom chemicals are minimised and that harmfulchemicals are not used or put on the market.

4.7 As noted in Chapter 3, the Water FrameworkDirective establishes a strategic framework forprotecting waters, including coastal and transitionalwaters, with the aim of achieving demanding waterquality targets by 2015. Certain priority substanceswill be subject to cessation or phasing out ofdischarges, emissions and losses within 20 yearsof the adoption of measures for this purpose.

International efforts

4.8 Internationally we are in the process ofratifying the 1998 Protocol on Heavy Metals tothe 1979 UNECE Convention on Long RangeTransboundary Air Pollution. The Protocol aimsto reduce the total annual emissions of cadmium,lead and mercury to below 1990 levels.It requires the application of BAT to certaincombustion and industrial sources togetherwith the application of emission limit values forparticulates, lead and mercury to certain newstationary sources and certain existing sources.

4.9 The UK has begun preparations to ratify theStockholm Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants (POPs). POPs are chemicals that aretoxic, persistent, bioaccumulate in fatty tissues andbiomagnify through the food chain. The Conventionwas signed by 127 countries in May 2001 inresponse to the need for urgent global action toprotect human health and the environment fromPOPs. It seeks the elimination or restriction ofproduction and use of 10 intentionally producedPOPs, including PCBs and DDT. These chemicalshave already been banned by many signatories tothe Convention, including the UK.

4.10 The UK has also taken a leading role insupporting the implementation and developmentof the Washington Global Programme of Action(GPA) and associated Washington Declaration,which was adopted by 108 governments in 1995in Washington, USA. This reflects the importancethat the GPA has for making a major contributionto our environmental and development objectives.

4.11 The GPA is designed as a framework forintegrated, multi–sectoral action to be drawnupon by national governments to assist them inprotecting the marine environment from theconsequences of land-based activities. Nationaland regional programmes of action are identifiedas the key modes for action in taking forward theGPA. It was reviewed by governments inMontreal in November 2001. The resultingMontreal Declaration underlined the commitmentof the international community to GPAimplementation.

4.12 Particular emphasis was placed on the roleto be played by the regional seas conventions,including OSPAR, and how they can play a keypart in improving oceans governance, includingbringing together all stakeholders around thecommon focus of the GPA. This will includeworking within OSPAR to explore a twinningarrangement with the West African Regional Seas Convention.

EUTROPHICATION

4.13 Eutrophication is the undesirable effect ofnutrient enrichment of our seas as a result ofhuman activities. It tends to occur in coastal areasof the eastern part of the North Sea or theWadden Sea, or in susceptible estuaries. Theeffects of eutrophication can include changes inspecies composition and increased oxygenconsumption in water and sediments. This canhave detrimental effects on benthic fauna and thewater column.

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• improving the health, food security andeconomic well-being of coastalcommunities, as well as protecting coastalhabitats and species

• fostering better co-operation and resourceallocation among the UN agency and donorcommunity through its multi-sectoral andintegrated approach, as well as facilitatingthe mobilisation of resources from theprivate sector

The GPA can help to deliverenvironmental and developmentobjectives by:

4.14 The UK is working with its partners in the ECand OSPAR to combat the threats that eutrophicationposes. An initial assessment of the OSPAR maritimearea, which includes UK marine waters, is currentlyunder way within the remit of OSPAR in order toassess their eutrophication status. This willcomplement assessments of freshwater estuariesand nearshore waters which are being undertakenunder relevant EC Directives. The results of thecurrent UK assessment under OSPAR will beavailable in 2003.

4.15 Under the Nitrates Directive15, action plansto control the agricultural sources of nitrates arerequired in catchment areas draining to marineareas found to be eutrophic. Under the UrbanWaste Water Treatment Directive (UWWTD),investment programmes provide more stringenttreatment to reduce nutrients (nitrogen and/orphosphorus) at qualifying sewage worksidentified as sensitive areas. Marine waters alsogain an indirect benefit in terms of reducednutrient inputs due to action under the Directivesin respect of any designations of inland waters.

4.16 Nitrate Vulnerable Zones under theNitrates Directive will expand significantlyduring 2002 following consultation. Separateconsultations are being carried out in England,Scotland and Wales. A review of sensitiveareas was carried out in 2001, as required bythe UWWTD, and further designations areexpected in 2002.

4.17 The OSPAR Strategy to CombatEutrophication requires the application of reductionmeasures in respect of those sources of nutrientswhich contribute directly or indirectly to problemareas in the OSPAR maritime area. Where anarea is designated as a potential problem area,the OSPAR Strategy calls for preventive action.

4.18 More generally, the UK has developedcodes of good agricultural practice which areaimed at reducing the emissions and losses ofnutrients from agriculture for the general benefitof the land, air and waters in and around the UK.

4.19 The UK has also signed up to theGothenberg Protocol, which aims to abate acidrain, eutrophication and ground level ozone.

Parties to this Protocol have to meet individualceilings by 2010 for four transboundary pollutants:sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organiccompounds and ammonia. The protocol setsemission limit values for certain processes andemission reduction strategies. There is also anobligation to provide public information on theproblems of acidification, eutrophication andground level ozone, as well as offer best practiceguidance on feedback and reductions.

4.20 Emission levels for the four transboundarypollutants covered by the Protocol have reducedover the past decade, substantially in mostcases. For example, in 1998 emissions ofnitrogen oxides (1753 kilo tonnes) were less thantwo thirds of the level in 1990 (2788 kilo tonnes);while emissions of ammonia have reduced byabout 5 per cent over the same period (from 366to 350 kilo tonnes). This is the result of greaterefficiency, better technology, cleaner fuels and

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15Directive 91/676/EEC

Objective• To combat eutrophication in the OSPAR

maritime area, in order to achieve andmaintain a healthy marine environmentwhere eutrophication does not occur. Thetarget date for achieving this objective is2010.

Assessment of eutrophication statusIn order to determine what action is requiredunder the OSPAR Strategy, there is a need toclassify marine areas as problem areas,potential problem areas or non-problemareas. This is to be done by application ofthe OSPAR Common Procedure.

Action requiredAction within catchment areas, eg to reducethe discharges, emissions and losses ofnutrients, will be required depending uponthe eutrophication status of the receivingmarine waters. The main sources are theeffluents from sewage treatment works andlosses from agriculture. The principalnutrient of concern is nitrogen.

OSPAR’s 1998 Strategy to combateutrophication

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more stringent regulation; all of which havereduced nitrogen deposition in the marineenvironment. The ceilings agreed for emissionsunder the UNECE Protocol for 2010 will continuethis downward trend (eg 1181 kilo tonnes fornitrogen oxides; 297 kilo tonnes for ammonia).The UK is to prepare a strategy setting out howthe Gothenburg Protocol will be delivered.

4.21 The forthcoming EU National EmissionCeilings Directive will also set emission ceilingsfor the same four pollutants for the EC. TheDirective was proposed to show the ECscommitment to reducing acidification,eutrophication and ground level ozone. Underthe Directive the UK has been set lower ceilingsfor both sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

4.22 Radioactive substances are closelyregulated to protect the natural environmentfrom harmful levels of radioactivity and tosafeguard quality of life. In particular, regulatoryarrangements are designed to ensure thatradioactive wastes are not created

unnecessarily, and that those wastes that arecreated are managed and disposed of in waysthat protect the public, the workforce and theenvironment. Much has been done in the UKthrough the application of Best PracticableMeans to achieve substantial reductions indischarges over the last 25 years.

4.23 In the wider context of environmentalprotection and sustainable development, we arecommitted to managing radioactive wastes,whether they are in solid form or as liquid oraerial authorised discharges, in ways that willnot place greater burdens on future generations.Protecting our seas is a major part of thiscommitment. As can be seen from figure 4.2, wehave dramatically reduced the most harmfulradioactive discharges into the marineenvironment, as indicated by the estimateddoses to the Sellafield critical group of fish andseafood consumers.

4.24 These discharge reductions have causedthe impact of radioactive substances in themarine environment to decline to the extent thatthe OSPAR Quality Status Report 2000 does not

Figure 4.2: Estimated dose to the Sellafield critical group of fish and seafood consumers 1971–2000

1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001

Dos

e (m

Sv

per

year

CE

D)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5 Dose assuming early high consumption for winkles

Dose based on measured early consumption for winkles (i.e. based on data derived from contemporary BNFL & MAFF Annual Reports)

34


list this as an issue of major importance. In thepast, the driving force for reducing radioactivedischarges has been the protection of humanhealth. The new challenge is to ensure that non-human biota are also adequately protected.This is being addressed internationally, in partthrough the OSPAR Convention.

4.25 In June 2000 the Government issued forconsultation a draft UK Strategy for RadioactiveDischarges 2001-2020 to show how the UK isworking towards achieving the OSPAR target for2020. The final version of the UK strategy, whichwill be updated every four years, will be publishedthis year. It will include estimated dischargeprofiles, from the various nuclear sectors, from2001 to 2020 and show how we will implementthe OSPAR targets rigorously and transparentlyand in a way that is proportionate to the risks,costs and benefits involved.

4.26 In implementing the OSPAR Strategy, theOSPAR Commission has undertaken to developenvironmental quality criteria for the protection of the marine environment from adverse effects of radioactive substances and to report onprogress by 2003.

4.27 In addition, the EC’s Marina II study islooking at concentrations of radioactive

substances in different compartments of themarine environment and is expected to providethe data against which OSPAR can determinehistoric levels. A key element of the project isfurther development of the scientific tools forassessing radiation exposure and risk, especiallyto marine organisms. This project will provide anupdate on the original Marina study on theradiological exposure of the European Communityfrom radioactivity in north European waters, usingdata on discharges and environmentalconcentrations up to January 2000. The UK fullysupports such evidence-based policy-making.

The terms “close to zero” and “historiclevels” are not defined in the OSPARStrategy and no agreement on theirinterpretation has been reached within theOSPAR Commission. The UK has fundedresearch projects to identify keyenvironmental indicators for radioactivesubstances, to develop modellingapproaches for predicting futureenvironmental concentrations on the basis of these indicators, and to investigatestatistical approaches to the definition of“close to zero”.

What do we mean by “close to zero”and “historic levels”?

OSPAR’s 1998 Strategy for Radioactive Substances

Objective• Prevent pollution of the maritime area from

ionising radiation through progressive andsubstantial reductions of discharges,emissions and losses of radioactivesubstances, with the ultimate aim ofconcentrations in the environment nearbackground values for naturally occurringradioactive substances, and close to zerofor artificial radioactive substances.

In achieving this objective, the following issuesshould, inter alia, be taken into account:

• legitimate uses of the sea• technical feasibility• radiological impacts to man and biota

Time frameBy 2000: the Commission will, for the wholemaritime area, work towards achievingfurther substantial reductions or eliminationof discharges, emissions and losses ofradioactive substances;

By 2020: the Commission will ensure thatdischarges, emissions and losses ofradioactive substances are reduced to levelswhere the additional concentrations in themarine environment above historic levels,resulting from such discharges, emissionsand losses, are close to zero.

4.28 As well as taking action to reduceradioactive discharges, the UK ensures that allshipments of radioactive materials are strictlyundertaken within the terms of all relevantinternational recommendations and requirementscovering nuclear safety, security and nuclear non-proliferation. For more than 30 years, shipmentsof nuclear materials and radioactive wastes havebeen safely carried out between Europe andJapan without a single incident resulting in therelease of radioactivity. The ships used to carrythe transport flasks are purpose built to meet thehighest safety requirements of the InternationalMartime Organisation’s International MaritimeDangerous Goods (IMDG) Code as it relates tothe transport of nuclear materials. Thisincorporates the requirements covering thetransport of nuclear materials established by theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

ENDING DUMPING AT SEA

4.29 The UK has considerably reduced its use ofthe sea for disposal purposes, with consequentbenefits for the marine environment. In the past,sea disposal was seen as a convenient outlet forwaste material from coastal communities. Nowonly dredged material is disposed of in significantquantities. Applicants for licences to dispose ofdredged material are first required to seekbeneficial uses for it.

The London and OSPAR Conventions

4.30 In 1972 the Convention on the Prevention ofMarine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and OtherMatter, also called the London Convention wasadopted. This was the first major global initiative

designed to protect the marine environment fromunregulated dumping or incineration of wastefrom vessels, aircraft or platforms. Currently,78 countries are contracting parties to the LondonConvention. A Protocol to the Convention wasagreed in 1996. This strengthens existing globalcontrols by greatly reducing the range ofmaterials which may be considered for seadisposal. The UK was one of the first countriesto ratify the Protocol and has been active inpromoting increased membership, particularlyamong developing countries. At present theProtocol has been ratified by 15 countries –11 short of the number required to bring itinto force.

4.31 The OSPAR Convention was drawn up in1992 as a successor to the 1972 Oslo Conventionfor the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumpingfrom Ships and Aircraft and the 1974 ParisConvention for the Prevention of Marine Pollutionfrom Land-Based Sources. It therefore covers notonly disposal from vessels but also pipelinedischarges. As far as sea disposal from vessels,platforms or aircraft is concerned, Annex II of theConvention bans all material from being dumpedat sea except for dredged material, inert materialof natural origin and fish waste from industrialprocessing operations.

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• Radioactive waste ceased in 1982• Industrial waste ended in 1992• Sewage sludge was phased out in 1998

Incineration of waste at sea has not beenpermitted since 1990

UK sea dumping of:

British Nuclear Fuel Limited (BNFL) and itsshipping arm, Pacific Nuclear Transport Ltd(PNTL) began transporting nuclear materialsby sea in 1966.

Its ships have carried over 4,000 flasks andcovered over 4.5 million miles without asingle incident involving the release ofradioactivity. PNTL ships are purpose-built tomeet the highest standards of safety.

Transporting radioactive materials by sea

Although the dumping of waste is prohibitedunder the OSPAR Convention and thedumping of garbage and litter from ships inthe North Sea is prohibited under MARPOLAnnex V, marine litter remains a problem formany coastal communities and the marineenvironment. At the 5th North SeaConference, Ministers agreed to give priorityto projects that effectively address theproblem of marine litter.

Marine litter

4.32 At the Ministerial Meeting of the OSPARConvention, held in Sintra, Portugal, in 1998, thedumping, and leaving wholly or partly in place, ofdisused offshore installations within the maritimearea was prohibited. This was a significant stepforward from the previous position of consideringeach on a case-by-case basis.

4.33 The Ministers agreed that derogationswould be possible if there are significant reasonswhy an alternative to re-use, recycle or disposalon land is preferable in the case of the footingsof steel installations weighing more than 10,000tonnes or of concrete installations (there areonly 11 concrete platforms in the UK watersto which the derogation might apply). Ministersagreed to strive to avoid using derogations.The topsides of every installation and any steelinstallation placed in the sea after 9 February1999 must be completely removed at the endof its useful life.

UK legislation

4.34 The UK implements international obligationsand imposes national regulation on deposits inthe sea by means of the Food and EnvironmentProtection Act 1985 (FEPA). The disposal,including the beneficial use of dredged materialin the sea, requires a licence issued under FEPA.This is only granted after chemical analysis ofthe material to be dumped and detailed scientificassessment of the potential environmentalimpact. Disposal at sea is not permitted wherean alternative option is available and increasinglyalternative uses are being found for materialdredged from the sea, either in soft sea defencesor to mitigate habitat loss caused by rising sealevels or land reclamation.


4.35 Much has been achieved in recent years totackle many of the problems of marine pollutionfrom land-based activities and dumping at sea.Inputs of some hazardous substances havedecreased considerably due to control measuresthat have been adopted. We will continue to workthrough the EC and OSPAR to prioritise additionalhazardous substances for further action and

develop and implement a Europe-wide frameworkto ensure that risks from chemicals areminimised. We will work towards the OSPARtarget of cessation of discharges, emissions andlosses of hazardous substances by 2020.

4.36 In tackling nutrients and eutrophication,we will complete the assessment of theeutrophication status of all UK marine waters,under OSPAR, by the end of this year. This willprovide the basis for identifying those catchmentareas from which nutrient inputs are eithercreating problems or have the potential to do so.This, in turn, will allow any significant sources ofnutrients to be identified and priorities to beestablished for remedial or preventive action.

4.37 For radioactive substances, we will publishthis year the final version of the UK Strategy forRadioactive Discharges 2001–2020. This willshow how the UK is working towards achievingfurther substantial reductions in radioactivedischarges, as required by the OSPAR Strategy.We will update this strategy every four years.

4.38 The UK has already taken substantial stepsto reduce the impact of sea disposal. We willcontinue to encourage countries, particularlydeveloping countries, to ratify the 1996 Protocolto the London Dumping Convention

4.39 To support the development of an ecosystem-based approach to managing our marineenvironment we will optimise the UK’s marineenvironment monitoring system and develop aframework of indicators, which will include theEcological Quality Objective developments withinOSPAR. We will develop a first integratedassessment of the UK marine environment in2004, which will help to demonstrate our progresstowards an ecosystem-based approach.

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37

Chapter 5The importance of shipping and ports

• Shipping and ports serve our nation’seconomic needs, supporting thecompetitiveness of both national andregional economies. Both need to operatein a way that is sustainable.

• The Government is committed to reducingthe risk of marine pollution occurring fromaccidental or deliberate shipping dischargesby taking pre-emptive action throughinternational and domestic fora.

• The Government has a well-rehearsedNational Contingency Plan in place tocounter actual or threatened pollution froma shipping incident, and stands ready, withthe ports industry, to deal with incidentsso as to minimise damage to our coastline.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SHIPS AND PORTS

5.1 Over 90 per cent of the UK’s overseas tradeis carried by sea with 7 per cent of our internal

freight also moved by sea. Over 388 milliontonnes of international freight passed through UKports in 1999. This represents 95 per cent of theUK’s international freight tonnage movementsand 75 per cent by value. Another 177 milliontonnes of domestic freight moved through UKports. Over 70 million passenger journeys peryear are taken to, or from, our ports.

5.2 It is in the national interest that the shippingindustry remains effective and efficient, and thatour ports remain able to handle current UK tradeand its potential development efficiently andsustainably. The demonstrable impact ofshipping activity and port development andoperations, especially on coastal wetlandsand wildlife in territorial waters, highlightsthe importance of adopting the stewardshipconcept and an ecosystem-based approach tothe management of these activities. Responsiblestewardship is necessary to ensure themanagement of shipping and ports iscompatible with national and internationalenvironmental objectives.

The importance ofshipping and ports

Milford Haven port – over 90% of UK overseas trade is carried by seaPhotographer Paul Kay

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5.3 The UK is adjacent to one of the world’sbusiest sea-lanes – the English Channel – andmost of the ships passing our shores do notcall at our ports. Shipping is by its nature aninternational industry which requires internationalcontrols to regulate it. These are put in placein the UK by working through the InternationalMaritime Organization (IMO). Safe seas forthose that use them are an important elementof our vision.

5.4 In addition we work within the EuropeanUnion to ensure common application of the IMOrequirements across the Community. As a coastalstate, our ability to restrict or control shippingmovements in or near our waters is necessarilylimited by established freedoms of navigation,principally through UNCLOS.

5.5 We involve stakeholders through the MarinePollution Advisory Group (MPAG), a group whichhas proved most successful in assisting policydevelopment on live issues as well as actingas a useful forum for exchange of views. Chairedby Government, MPAG comprises representativesof a number of UK Government Departmentsand devolved administrations, local governmentassociations, non-departmental public bodies,industry associations and non-governmentorganisations. The broad range of interestsrepresented on MPAG, and its ability to focus onspecific issues and pursue them to a conclusion,has enabled the Group to make a particularlyvaluable contribution to policy development inthe field of marine pollution during recent years.We are looking at how we might further developthe work of MPAG.

5.6 Pollution arising from shipping movementscontributes a relatively small fraction of the overalllevel of marine pollution. But the effects ofaccidental or deliberate discharges can damagea local area environmentally and economically.Addressing the threat posed by pollution byshipping, both accidental and operational, isinstrumental in delivering our ecosystem-basedapproach. Our policies are aimed at reducing therisk of such pollution though international anddomestic action and at ensuring that whenincidents do occur our national responseminimises the damage caused.

THE UK’S APPROACH

5.7 Since Lord Donaldson’s 1994 report SaferShips, Cleaner Seas following the sinking of theoil tanker Braer off Shetland in 1993, the UK hasradically altered its approach to the environmentalrisks arising from shipping. The UK carried outfurther reviews following the grounding of the SeaEmpress on rocks in the entrance to Milford Havenin 1996. Actions were taken domestically andthrough both the IMO and the European Union.

5.8 To reduce the risk of accidental dischargeswe are also seeking to enhance the standard ofthe world’s shipping fleet and to eliminate sub-standard operators. This is done, primarily,through port state control inspections of foreignflagged vessels using our ports to ensure theycomply with international standards set by theIMO. We also seek to ensure that our own vesselsoperate to the highest standards and that all flagstates are reminded of their responsibilities undermaritime law.

5.9 Our aim is to reduce operational dischargesfrom ships by detecting and deterring, throughprosecution, those who continue to dischargeillegally. This is backed up by the provision ofadequate port waste reception facilities to ensurethat there is no excuse for discharging ship wasteduring sea passages.

5.10 We have also radically altered our responsearrangements to maritime casualties. We havetaken steps to ensure that environmentalconsiderations are fully taken into account during

Sea Empress – oil spills can damage a local area’senvironment and economy © Crown copyright MCA

39


salvage and clean-up operations. We are furtherworking to ensure that adequate compensation ismade available, with the minimum delay, to thosewho suffer economically following a pollutionincident caused by a ship.

5.11 A further consequence of the Sea Empressincident was that the Government developeda Port Marine Safety Code with all sides of theindustry. Published in March 2000, the Code is anational standard and a guide to best practice.It also offers a framework for harbour authoritiespreparing policies and plans in consultation withlocal users and other interests. With the support

of the ports industry, the Government is alsodeveloping national standards for all port marinepersonnel, including pilot training and examination.

5.12 In his 1994 report Lord Donaldson expressedconcern about the lack of knowledge of shippingmovements around our coasts. Since then the UKhas put in hand comprehensive shipping surveys,together with compulsory IMO reportingrequirements in the English Channel. At otherlocations there are voluntary reporting systemsand the UK has actively supported the mandatorycarriage by IMO regulation of transponders whichwill allow our Coastguard to identify and monitorall shipping movements around our coasts.

INTERNATIONAL MEASURES

Protection for Special Areas

5.13 The UK has worked with neighbouringstates to convince the international maritimecommunity through the IMO of the need tointroduce tighter rules and standards to regulatedischarges from ships in their waters under theInternational Convention for the Prevention ofPollution from Ships (MARPOL). The UK playeda lead role in persuading the IMO to agree tothe designation of North West European waters –including the North Sea, the English Channel, theIrish Sea and other UK waters – as a Special Areaunder Annex I of MARPOL (covering preventionof pollution by oil) and for the North Sea to bedesignated a Special Area under Annex V ofMARPOL (covering prevention of pollution bygarbage from ships). Under these provisions,the disposal into the sea of both oil and garbageis governed by much more stringent limits thanin other marine areas under international law,recognising that our waters deserve greaterprotection from pollution deriving from ships.

Anti-fouling paints

5.14 Anti-fouling paints are used on the hulls ofships to prevent marine organisms from attachingthemselves, thereby slowing down the speedof the vessel and increasing fuel consumption.Some of the most effective active ingredientsin anti-fouling paints are organotins, particularlytributyltin (TBT). However, these compounds can

Routeing measures, introduced throughagreement at the IMO, are designed to makeshipping around the UK safer by protectingthe marine and coastal environment. Theyinclude a deep water route to the west of theOuter Hebrides (which laden tankers over10,000 gross tonnes are normally requestedto use rather than passing the Little Minch orNorth Minch), the Traffic Separation Schemein the English Channel, and a number ofAreas To Be Avoided (including thoselocated around the Orkney Islands and theShetland Islands). Compulsory reportingmeasures are also in place in the Channel.

Routeing measures

• The code applies the well-establishedprinciples of risk management and safetymanagement systems to port marineoperations

• It applies to all harbour authorities withpowers to direct shipping and to regulatenavigation. It also applies to locallighthouse authorities. Harbour authoritiesmust be openly accountable for their legalduties and powers

• The code holds them accountable for theoutcome of their policies, their procedures,their allocation of resources to safetymanagement and their management ofpersonnel.

Port marine safety code

40


have serious detrimental effects on theenvironment. The UK has banned the sale anduse of TBT paint for vessels under 25 metressince 1987.

5.15 The IMO’s Marine Environment ProtectionCommittee recognised that TBT is a worldwideproblem and has developed an internationalinstrument. The International Convention on theControl of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on ships,adopted in October 2001, bans the applicationof organotin from 1 January 2003 and its use asan anti-foulant on ships from 1 January 2008.It sets out a system of survey, certification andenforcement to implement the ban and includesa mechanism to regulate other systems if theypose an environmental risk. The UK is workingtowards early ratification of the Convention,taking into account developments in Europe.The European Commission is proposing toamend a Directive to ban the marketing and useof organotin acting as biocides on all ships,and is developing a regulation which would applysome elements of the Convention to EU flaggedships and ships calling at EU ports if theConvention is not in force by 1 January 2003.

Ballast water management

5.16 Ships use ballast water for safe and cost-effective operations, for example to adjust theirstability, particularly when they are unloaded orpartially unloaded. But there is a risk that non-native marine species can be introducedinadvertently when ships discharge ballast waterand ballast tank sediment, usually in port.If these species become established they canupset local ecosystems.

5.17 OSPAR and the North Sea Conferencesupport the need for concerted action through theIMO to establish mitigation and control measuresfor the management of ships’ ballast waterand sediments. The IMO’s Marine EnvironmentProtection Committee produced guidelinesin 1997. Since then, it has been working ondrafting an International Convention for theControl and Management of Ships’ Ballast Waterand Sediments. The UK chairs the Working Groupthat is developing the Convention. A DiplomaticConference to adopt the Convention is scheduled

for 2003. The Convention will require all shipswhich use ballast water to meet minimumrequirements, such as a ballast watermanagement plan, and allow for stricter controlsto be applied in designated ballast watermanagement areas.

International Safety Management (ISM) Code

5.18 The ISM Code, which will apply to mostinternationally trading vessels from July 2002,provides an international standard for the safemanagement and operation of ships and forpollution prevention. As part of it, shippingcompanies must establish an environmentalprotection policy, which must be periodicallyaudited both internally and externally. The UKregards the ISM Code as an important meansof encouraging environmentally responsibleshipping, and a major factor in the eliminationof sub-standard ships and problems associatedwith these. Similar measures are beingintroduced on small domestic passenger vessels,and consideration is being given to an extensionof the ISM Code to all UK registered vessels.

International oil pollution compensationregime

5.19 At the IMO in October 2000, the UK playeda leading role in achieving agreement to asubstantial increase in the maximum amountavailable under the international oil pollutioncompensation regime. From November 2003 theamount of compensation available for any singleoil spill from a tanker will rise by 50 per cent toapproximately £180 million.

Hazardous and Noxious SubstancesConvention

5.20 The UK took a high profile in the work up toand during the 1996 IMO Diplomatic Conferencewhich successfully adopted the InternationalConvention on Liability and Compensation forDamage in Connection with the Carriage by Seaof Hazardous and Noxious Substances 1996 (theHNS Convention). The convention will introducea compensation fund similar to that applying foroil tanker pollution which will avoid the need for

41

court actions, making it much easier for claimantsto recover their losses. It will require compulsoryinsurance and provide a right of direct actionagainst the insurer.

5.21 The UK is actively working to achieve theentry into force of the Convention and is co-ordinating a working group of IMO MemberStates, interested industry parties and otherstakeholders to assist potential State Parties inresolving any practical difficulties in setting up theregime. The UK is also pressing hard in Europefor the early implementation of the Conventionamongst EU Member States as part of a strategyfor maritime liability, preparedness and response.

Bunkers Convention

5.22 Ships’ fuel oil (bunkers) was the onesignificant source of marine pollution from shipswhich was not covered by an internationalagreement to establish specific liability andcompensation arrangements. The InternationalConvention on Civil Liability for Pollution DamageCaused by Bunker Oil 2001 (the BunkersConvention) was successfully adopted in March2001, and the UK played a key role in pressingfor this convention and on the work leading to itsdevelopment. Like other maritime conventions onliability and compensation, the BunkersConvention will apply the principles of strictliability and compulsory insurance, with a right ofdirect action against the insurer.

5.23 The UK is now actively working to bring theBunkers Convention into force. The Conventionforms part of the strategy of maritime liability,preparedness and response that the UK hasinitiated within Europe to encourage theimplementation of a raft of important IMOconventions amongst EU Member States.

DOMESTIC MEASURES

Prosecutions and Port State ControlDetentions

5.24 We are working with other Europeancountries to deal with the problem of illegaldischarges from ships. Prior to 1998, prosecutions

for marine pollution offences were not co–ordinatedby a single agency and were neither frequent norvery successful. However, since the establishmentof the Maritime and Coastguard Agency’s (MCA)centralised Enforcement Unit, there has been amuch larger number of prosecutions and thesuccess rate has been close to 100 per cent.Aerial surveillance plays a significant role inidentifying and deterring marine pollution byships. We also share satellite information withother states which are Contracting Parties to theBonn Agreement.16

5.25 The MCA publishes the names of those itsuccessfully prosecutes for pollution or otheroffences. A list of foreign ships detained in ourports following port state control inspections ispublished monthly.

Emergency Towing Vessels

5.26 Recognising the value of tugs in preventinggroundings and other incidents, the UKintroduced Government-funded EmergencyTowing Vessels (ETVs) on a trial basis in 1994.Initially ETVs were stationed at Dover andStornoway for the winter months only. Afterfurther review, the number of ETVs was increasedto four – stationed at Dover (with the collaboration

A key outcome of the 5th North SeaConference was a commitment by North Seastates to work through the Bonn Agreementto create a network of investigators andprosecutors to enforce more effectively theinternationally agreed rules and standardsfor the prevention, control and reduction ofpollution from ships.

This network will help to increase the rate ofdetection of illegal discharges and improvethe investigation and successful prosecutionof offenders. The process of developing theincreased co-operation and co-ordinationneeded to make the network effective willstart later this year with a conference hostedin Sweden.

Prosecuting offenders – a new network


16The Bonn Agreement is an international agreement by North Sea coastal states, together with the EC, to offer mutual assistanceand co-operation in combatting pollution and using surveillance as an aid to detect breaches of anti-pollution regulations.

42

of the French Government), Stornoway, the FairIsle Channel, and in the South West approaches.The last three were originally on station in winteronly, but since October 2001 all four ETVs havebeen on station all year round.

Double hull tankers

5.27 An accelerated timetable for introducingdouble hull tankers is now in place as a resultof the IMO reacting quickly and positively to anEU proposal following the sinking of the oil tankerERIKA off the coast of France in December 1999.This means that by 2015 (rather than by 2025)tankers with partial hull protection will not beallowed into the ports of EU Member States,UK Overseas Territories, Russia and the BalticStates unless they are double hulled. Unprotectedsingle hull tankers will not be allowed to operateanywhere in the world after 2007.

Marine Environmental High Risk Areas

5.28 For some time, the UK has been engagedin the complex process of identifying marineand coastal areas which are at particular risk frompollution from shipping due to the combinationof high environmental sensitivities and high levelsof shipping risk. These are known as MarineEnvironmental High Risk Areas (MEHRAs). Theestablishment of MEHRAs is intended to provideextra protection over and above the high level ofprotection which the UK already provides to itscoastal and marine areas. MEHRAs are a nationalinitiative which will complement existing protectionmechanisms, emphasising the UK’s commitmentto protecting its coastal and marine environment.

5.29 Stakeholder involvement has been, and willcontinue to be, an important element in thedevelopment of MEHRAs. We have developedand applied a rigorous and robust methodologyfor this purpose, and we are taking steps toidentify MEHRAs and evaluate the protectivemeasures already in place, the adequacy ofprotection offered by these measures and theadditional measures required.

5.30 After identification of MEHRAs, the UKwill monitor the effectiveness of the measures

protecting the areas and assess whether furtherprotective measures may need to be introducedat a later stage, in which case the UK would seekagreement through the IMO as necessary.A separate report will be issued on MEHRAs andthe other measures taken to protect our watersfrom pollution from ships.

National Contingency Plan

5.31 Following a wide-ranging review, inFebruary 2000 the UK published a revisedNational Contingency Plan for Marine Pollutionfrom Shipping and Offshore Installations settingout how the relevant agencies and authoritiesin the UK will respond to such incidents. The UKis also a party to the International Conventionon Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation 1990 (OPRC). The UK applies thisthrough regulations which provide a frameworkfor oil pollution planning and response at localand regional levels, which is compatible with theNational Contingency Plan. We are also in theprocess of acceding to the 2000 OPRC (HNS)Protocol. A special post created in 1999, theSecretary of State’s Representative for MaritimeSalvage and Intervention (SOSREP), providesoverall command and control of operationsduring marine emergencies.


Maritime emergencies must allow for thepossibility of simultaneous operations atsea, in the air and on shore. On behalf ofthe Secretary of State, SOSREP has thepower to oversee, control and – if necessary– intervene in salvage operations withinUK waters involving vessels or fixedplatforms where there is a significant riskof pollution. The powers of directioninvested in SOSREP are extensive, andare called into play when he believes thatthe public interest is not being adequatelyprotected. As well as being an internationalfirst for the UK, the SOSREP role has provedvery successful in a number of incidents.

SOSREP

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF PORTS

5.32 Port operators under expansion pressuresmust rise to the challenge of sustainabledevelopment, as set out in the Government’spublication Modern Ports – A UK Policy17. Wherepolicy responsibility no longer remains with theUK Government, the Scottish Executive, NationalAssembly for Wales and the Northern IrelandAssembly have the opportunity to developpolicies for sustainable development which reflecttheir own local circumstances. Since many portsare located on estuaries and close to designatedwildlife sites a balance must be struck betweennature conservation and the need for new portdevelopment.

5.33 Sustainable development policies aim tomanage new development, not rule it out.Sensitive sites, such as those which areinternationally or nationally recognised orprotected, are subject to restrictive controls,reflecting the sensitivity of our coastline.Appropriate safeguards for such sites areessential to an ecosystem-based approach andare therefore built into regulations which includeprocedures for approving new development.

5.34 A Port Marine Safety Code was publishedin March 2000. A Guide to Good Practice onMarine Operations will support the Code. This isa long-term commitment which the Governmentwill undertake jointly with the ports industry andother stakeholders. National standards for allport marine personnel will also be developed.We will also, as a priority, develop guidancefor port operators on development controlprocedures.

Port waste reception facilities

5.35 Port waste reception facilities can enhancethe protection of the marine environment byremoving any incentive – practical or financial –for ships to dump their waste at sea. The UKstrongly supports the MARPOL requirement forthe provision of adequate waste receptionfacilities which do not cause undue delay toships using them.

5.36 The UK introduced domestic legislation witheffect from January 1998 covering all places thatprovide ships with berths (including fishing andpleasure vessels). Port authorities are requiredto plan the provision of waste reception facilitiesin consultation with users, and ensure that anycharging arrangements do not discourage theuse of reception facilities provided at port. By theend of 2001, the UK’s MCA had approved 641port waste management plans. The UK playedan active part in negotiating an EC Directiveto establish a port waste reception regime acrossthe EC, which was adopted in September 2000and will come into force in December 2002.


5.37 Over the last decade, the UK has takenconsiderable action at home and throughinternational fora to make shipping safer and toreduce the risk of marine pollution fromaccidental or deliberate discharges. Ships arenow subject to tighter controls, in port and whenat sea. Tighter restrictions such as the global banon unprotected single hull tankers in 2007 will beintroduced in coming years to further protect themarine environment.

5.38 The majority of offenders that do not complywith internationally agreed rules for the prevention,control and reduction of pollution from ships aresuccessfully prosecuted. We will work withContracting Parties to the Bonn Agreementto create a new network of investigators andprosecutors between North Sea States that willhelp further to secure more prosecutions anddeter non-compliance with shipping pollutionregulations. We will also take an active role atthe North Sea Ministerial Meeting on theenvironmental impacts of shipping. It was agreedat the 5th North Sea Conference that this will takeplace by 2006 in Sweden and will also addressthe environmental consequences of fishing.

5.39 We will identify Marine Environmental HighRisk Areas during 2002 to afford added protectionto particularly sensitive marine and coastal areaswhich could be at higher risk from a shippingpollution incident than other areas.

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17Modern Ports – A UK Policy published by DETR, November 2000 ISBN 1-851124-44-6 priced £12

44

5.40 We will review the regulatory frameworkaffecting coastal and marine development,including ports, with a view to simplifying theregulatory system and protecting the marineenvironment. Stakeholder involvement will bean integral part of this review. The ultimate aimwill be to deliver sustainable developmentthrough a modern, transparent, efficient andeffective coastal and marine development system.


45

Chapter 6 The contribution of offshore activities and renewable energy

The contribution ofoffshore activities andrenewable energy• Our offshore oil and gas industry plays a

vital role in meeting the economic and socialneeds of the UK. We are continuing to takesteps to ensure that this is not at theexpense of the marine environment.

• We are carrying out over the next 5 years aStrategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)of the entire United Kingdom ContinentalShelf (UKCS) to ensure that future oil andgas licensing is carried out on a sound andinformed basis.

• Renewable energy, including wind, wave andtidal power, has an important part to play inthe Government’s energy policy and intackling climate change. We have set a firmtarget for renewable energy to make up 10per cent of electricity sales from licensedsuppliers by 2010.

• Marine dredging of sand and gravel makesa significant contribution to the supplyof aggregate to the construction industry.A precautionary approach is followed andEnvironmental Impact Assessments (EIA)are required before any licence foraggregate dredging is granted.

OIL AND GAS: A VITAL CONTRIBUTION

6.1 Oil and gas production from our offshoreinstallations makes an essential contribution tomeeting the UK’s energy needs, accounting foraround 85 per cent of the nation’s primary energyproduction. It accounts for some 15 per cent ofindustrial investment, employs some 26,000people and has contributed over £170 billion tothe Exchequer since its inception. We are workingclosely with the industry and stakeholders tomaximise the economic benefit to the UK whilst

Offshore oil extraction contributesto the UK’s economic needsPhotographer Rohan Holt

46


seeking to minimise the impact of oil and gasactivities on the marine environment.

6.2 In the context of marine stewardship,considerable progress has been made indeveloping a comprehensive and effectiveenvironmental regime for the management ofthe UK’s offshore oil and gas activities which,during 2001, produced 118 million tonnes of oiland 113 billion cubic metres of gas. A majorpublic consultation exercise on the future ofthe environmental regime in 1999 found generalsupport for an integrated approach, formed aroundan environmental permit system and incorporatingrobust Environmental Management Systems.

6.3 The offshore sector was one of the first tomeet the Government’s call in its SustainableDevelopment Strategy for individual sectors to setout their strategies for sustainable development.Through the UK Offshore Operators Association(UKOOA), the industry developed and publisheda sectoral sustainability strategy in April 200118.This welcome initiative looked at environmentaland social effects as well as businessperformance. It set out the industry’s vision andstrategic objectives and was based on extensiveconsultation with stakeholders.

6.4 Over the last few years we have developedan interlocking set of regulations and agreementsto protect the environment. These form a

hierarchical structure covering, at the highestlevel, generic and wide ranging considerationsthrough the Strategic Environmental Assessmentprocess. At the next step down the more site-and activity-specific aspects are covered by theEnvironmental Impact Assessment legislationand the Habitats Directive, both of which aremore focused in their application. This is furtherunderpinned by legislation aimed at regulatingspecific activities with regard to their impact viaatmospheric emission and discharges to the sea.This structure will form the basis of delivering anecosystem-based approach to the managementof offshore oil and gas activity.

6.5 In this way a very effective regulatoryframework has been created which ensures thatenvironmental implications of all developmentsand activities are properly assessed in order tominimise any impacts. Key component parts ofthe framework include:

• Applying the Habitats Directive out to the limitof jurisdiction of UK waters to provide forconsideration of prospective SACs and SPAs tobe built into any proposals for offshore activity;

• Environmental Impact Assessment;• a ban on the discharge of oil and synthetic

based muds;• consents for seismic surveys and exploration

activities;

Figure 6.1: Production of Oil and GasSource: Development of UK Oil and Gas Resources 2001, DTI (Brown Book 2001)

1970 1975 1990 1995 2000

Mill

ion

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nn

es o

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il eq

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Year

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Total�Oil�Gas

18Striking a Balance – UKOOA, 2001

• consents for atmospheric emissions fromoffshore combustion units; and

• new statutory controls on the use anddischarge of chemicals.

6.6 Through its team of EnvironmentalInspectors, the DTI, as the offshore oil and gasregulator, ensures that legislative requirementsare being met and that best environmentalpractice (BEP) is encouraged. We shall continueto take a precautionary approach and, whereappropriate, we will avoid licensing for explorationin areas that might become protected sites.

6.7 Stakeholder involvement is important inmaking progress in identifying the issues thatneed to be addressed. In 1999 a forum was setup between the Government and the offshoreindustry to provide a focus for high level andauthoritative consideration of environmentalissues at the strategic level. In the same year,a separate offshore forum was also establishedto bring together Government, industry andenvironmental groups and aims to build a greatershared understanding of offshore environmentalissues and to provide for face-to-face dialogueon key issues.

6.8 The removal of offshore installations fromthe marine environment inevitably hasenvironmental impacts and involves safety,technical and economic considerations. Removalis a large-scale engineering undertaking involvingmanagement choices of the options availablein the particular circumstances so as to arriveat the optimal solution. The DTI and industry haveestablished workgroups to improve the optionsavailable through collaboration on capabilitiesand scheduling and the development oftechnologies for lifting, cutting, transporting, etc.

Working at the regional level

6.9 Through our partners in the OSPARConvention, we are playing a full and positivepart in developing and implementing the OSPARstrategy relating to the offshore oil and gassector. The strategy emphasises the importanceof a goal-setting approach to environmentalregulation and promotes the use by industryof internationally recognised environmentmanagement systems. The UK industry hasalready committed itself to having all UKCSproduction being covered by such systems bythe end of 2002. In addition, the OSPAR Strategieson Biological Diversity and Hazardous Substancesare relevant to the offshore oil and gas industry.

6.10 There are challenges ahead. OSPAR’sQuality Status Report 2000 (QSR) records thatinputs of oil from offshore oil and gas activities tothe OSPAR area were reduced by over 60 per centin the period 1985 to 1997, as shown in Figure 6.3overleaf. It notes however that oil inputs fromproduced water (that is, water used in the

47


�

��

��

��

Development and �Site Specific

ASSESSMENT (SEA)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT��ASSESSMENT (EIA)/��HABITATS DIRECTIVE

Oil in��Produced�

Water

Combustion�Emissions

Chemicals�Use and��

Discharge

Drilling�Discharges

Activity�Specific

�Environmental Inspection

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Figure 6.2: The hierarchical structure of assessmentin decision-making

Mobile drilling rigs, permanent platforms,subsea structures, pipelines and powercables require consent from DTLR underSection 34 of the Coast Protection Act 1949.Applicants need to provide details abouttheir proposal to enable the Department toascertain whether obstruction or danger tonavigation is caused or is likely to result. Todo this DTLR consult other GovernmentDepartments and Agencies, including DTI. InScotland, the Scottish Executive administersall Section 34 consents except thoseconnected with the oil and gas industry.

Protecting the marine environment frompipelines and cables

48


extraction process that becomes contaminatedwith oil) continue to increase as fields mature andthe number of installations has increased. InOSPAR’s consideration of how to address this,the UK took the initiative in developing a goal-setting approach. The outcome was agreementby OSPAR in June 2001 to a challenging target ofa 15 per cent reduction on current inputs by 2006.The industry has taken a positive attitude to thischallenge and the Government will work closelywith them in its pursuit.

6.11 The QSR also identifies leaching from olddrill cuttings as a possible source of oil althoughit points out that the quantities released will besmall if the cuttings are not disturbed. The UKindustry has taken up the issue of how these oldcuttings should be addressed and hasundertaken a major joint industry project over thelast two years to determine BEP and BAT bystudying and comparing the differentmanagement options available and consultingstakeholders. The final report was presented inFebruary 2002 for consideration within OSPAR.

Offshore oil and gas: taking things forward

6.12 Good progress has been made to date intackling the environmental challenges that the oil

and gas industries face in helping to meet oureconomic and social needs. The two specificchallenges which now face us in our environmentalmanagement of the offshore sector are how tomanage existing mature fields as they reach theend of their productive life and how to minimiseimpacts from future developments, particularly aswe move into previously unexplored areas.

6.13 We will continue to minimise the impacton the environment as we promote furtherexploration and exploitation of our oil and gasresources. To this end, we shall continue todevelop by 2003 an integrated, comprehensive,environmental regulatory regime that is seamlessfrom pre-licensing through exploration,development and eventual decommissioning;and work through OSPAR to meet therequirements of the relevant OSPAR strategies.

6.14 We are also undertaking, on a phasedbasis, a SEA of the entire UKCS and will not holdnew licensing rounds on any area until it hasbeen assessed. This process will be subject towide stakeholder consultation. With over 830,000square kilometres of sea making up the UK’scontinental shelf, this is a major commitment.Doing so will leave us well placed to make sensibleand informed decisions on future development and

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Year

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Figure 6.3: Average oil content in produced water

49


will give us a wealth of information on our marineenvironment that will be of much wider benefitthan just oil and gas. We will want to build on thisin taking forward our commitment to more generalseabed mapping, initially in the UK’s coastal zone.

6.15 We have made a good start and SEAs forthe “White Zone”19 and parts of the North Seahave already been completed. Details of theseand our plans for remaining areas can be foundon the internet at www.habitats-directive.org. Alsoat the strategic level we are committed todeveloping an R&D programme which is focusedon making progress on the priority areas forknowledge and technology development. This willbe reflected in evidence-based policy and themost effective, targeted, action being taken toprotect the environment. This will be supported bya comprehensive monitoring programme that willgive an indication of the impacts of current activityand the effectiveness of the present regime.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

6.16 Government policy recognises the need toensure secure, diverse and sustainable suppliesof energy at competitive prices. Renewableenergy, such as wind, wave and tidal power,has an important part to play in the Government’soverall energy policy. It can help to increase boththe diversity and security of our energy suppliesand help us to meet our environmental objectives,and help tackle the threat posed to the marineenvironment by climate change.

6.17 As many as 20 offshore wind farms are inthe early stages of development around the coastof the UK and plans for more are beginning totake shape. We are also committed to acceleratingthe development of renewables in a wide range ofother technologies. We are granting funding of

over £260 million between 2001 and 2004 toencourage further research and developmentin renewable energy and support early projects,especially in offshore wind, energy crops andphotovoltaics.

6.18 We have set ourselves an ambitious targetfor the Renewables Obligation under whichlicensed electricity supply companies will haveto provide a specified proportion of their electricitysupplies from renewable energy sources, risingto 10 per cent by 2010. The Obligation in Englandand Wales, which is expected to last until at least2027, is mirrored in Scotland, where the promotionof renewables is devolved. Looking further aheadto 2050, the recent Performance and InnovationUnit’s Energy Review has recommended thatthe target for electricity generated by renewableenergy should be increased to 20 per centby 2020, subject to a review of the workingof the Renewables Obligation in 2007.

6.19 Although the Renewables Obligation is amarket-led initiative, it will include a price cap toprotect consumers. Renewable energy sourceswill also be exempt from the Climate ChangeLevy. We will be developing regional strategies forrenewables to assist with meeting the requirementsof the planning process. We expect to see themarket for renewable electricity reach somewherebetween £1.5 to £2 billion a year by 2010.

Offshore wind turbines – playing their part in the UK’s energy policyPhotographer Paul Gilliland

The Government has set a firm target forrenewable energy sources to make up 10 percent of electricity sales from licensedelectricity suppliers by 2010. This couldresult in carbon savings of 2.5 million tonnesper annum by 2010.

Our target for renewable energy:

19The White Zone is a part of the UKCS between the Shetlands and the Faroe Islands.

6.20 Offshore wind farms will need to make asubstantial contribution if we are to meet the targetof 10 per cent renewables under the obligation.As with other offshore activities, responsiblestewardship with respect to the marine environmentand new developments will be essential.

6.21 The UK currently has two offshore windturbines installed and commissioned off Blyth.These generate enough electricity to supply 3,000homes. In April 2001, the Crown Estate completedthe first round of pre-qualification for seabed leasesfor wind farms around England and Wales. In all,18 wind farm developers successfully completedthe pre-qualification stage. If all the proposedprojects are implemented, the power generated willbe between 1000MW and 1500MW, or even higher,enough to power over 1 million households.In February 2002, an additional site was madeavailable through open competition off the northcoast of Northern Ireland. The proposed schemewill generate between 150 – 250 MW for NorthernIreland. The next stage is for developers to seekconsents, which will qualify them to apply for acapital grant. The first application round closes on

1 July 2002, a second round by 31 December 2002and a third round of applications by 30 June 2003.

6.22 In addition to seabed permissions,offshore wind farms are subject to consentfrom Government under a range of legislation,including the Electricity Act 1989, the Food andEnvironment Protection Act 1985 and the CoastProtection Act 194920. The Government hasestablished the Offshore Renewable ConsentsUnit to serve as a focal point for offshore windfarm consent applications and to promote a co-ordinated streamlined approach to obtaining thepackage of consents required. This has proveduseful in sharing information between regulators,arranging meetings between all parties and co-ordinating consultations so as to avoid repeatedapproaches to common consultees (eg EnglishNature). However, the role of this unit does notaffect the statutory roles of the variousdepartments, agencies and authorities indetermining a decision under each Act.

6.23 Applications for consents are subject to EIA,which requires developers to submit detailedenvironmental and other data for assessment bythe licensing/consenting authorities. The EIAprocess will ensure that effects on the marineenvironment and other users of the sea areidentified and minimised, and that all interests areconsidered. Public consultation will be carried outin each case. Where consent is granted, this willbe subject to conditions, and is likely to includea requirement for monitoring the physical andbiological effects of the installation, such ascolonisation by marine life.

6.24 New developments will also be subject tothe provisions of the Wildlife and Countryside Act1981 and the Conservation (Natural Habitats &c)Regulations 1994, as amended. Provided thatwind turbines are carefully sited – eg to avoidmigratory paths for birds – offshore wind energyshould have a relatively modest and localisedimpact on the marine environment and anydisturbance caused during the installation phaseshould be overcome within a fairly short period.

6.25 Other offshore energy technologies such aswave power, tidal streams and tidal barrages areat a much less developed stage. A range of wave

50


20In Scotland, these consent powers are devolved to the Scottish Executive, who are also working to streamline the consents processfor offshore power developments.

Figure 6.4:Proposed wind farm development locations

Reproduced by permission of the Crown Estate.

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energy devices are being developed either bycompanies or universities. The most advanceddevice is a small shoreline oscillating watercolumn off Islay in Scotland. This is still at theadvanced experimental stage although it isoperating commercially.

6.26 In general there are two key problems toovercome in developing wave power technologies:designing a device that can withstand the rigoursof the sea for long periods without breakdownor frequent maintenance; and designing a devicethat produces useful amounts of electricityat competitive prices. Research is also lookingat how to overcome the potential navigationalhazards of wave energy devices, the potentialproblem of noise, visual effects, how best to installdevices and the conversion and transmission ofenergy. The Government is keeping under reviewthe practicality of tidal stream and tidal barrageenergy devices for generating electricity.

Renewable energy: taking things forward

6.27 Renewable energy is a new marine industryand needs to be developed within a coherent policyand marine resource management frameworkthat takes account of environmental impactand monitoring data as it emerges. Consultation,information exchange and sharing expertisewith other marine industries and stakeholderswill be vital to ensure cumulative impacts andsocio-economic issues are addressed whilstworking towards meeting the target of 10 per centunder the Renewables Obligation.

6.28 We want to exploit its potential fully andsafely, taking into account global and Europeancommitments linked to the Kyoto protocol, whilstprotecting marine habitats and species. We willwork through OSPAR to develop a comprehensiveset of criteria that can be used when deciding onapplications for the development of offshore windenergy installations, and to develop advice onBAT for the location, construction, operation andremoval of offshore wind energy parks in a waythat both develops their potential and safeguardsmarine ecosystems. Following consultation, theGovernment will publish an Energy White Paperlater this year.

MARINE DREDGING FOR MINERALS

6.29 Marine dredging of sand and gravel makes asignificant contribution to the supply of aggregateto the construction industry, particularly in thesouth east of England and South Wales.Marine dredged material is also used for beachnourishment and flood and coastal defenceschemes. In 2000, about 13.4 million tonnes wereused by the construction industry in Englandand Wales, 7.3 million tonnes were used by theindustry within mainland Europe and 2.2 milliontonnes were used for coastal defence.

6.30 The contribution that marine dredged sandand gravel makes to the national supply ofaggregates is an important factor in consideringthe likely future contributions from all sources(eg land won aggregates and recycled materials)and the sustainable management of these. Thecurrent policy on aggregate provision in Englandis set out in Minerals Planning Guidance Note 6(MPG6). In Scotland, national planning policyguidance is set out in National Planning Policy

Figure 6.5:Crown Estate licensed dredging areas

Reproduced by permission of the Crown Estate.

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Guideline 4: Land for Mineral Working (NPPG4).Policy in Wales is given in Minerals PlanningPolicy Wales (MPPW).

6.31 In the context of marine stewardship, ouraim is for responsible use of this resource,recognising both the potential for environmentalimpact, and the economic importance of theindustry. The UK has a comprehensive system inplace to ensure that aggregate dredging does nothave unacceptable impacts on the environment.This precautionary approach is essential to thedevelopment of an ecosystem-based approach.It is achieved through a Government View (GV)Procedure, which was introduced in 1968 (andrevised in 1998). This provides Government withan opportunity to consider the environmentaleffects of a dredging proposal before the CrownEstate issue a licence. In future, activities will alsobe subject to the Habitats Directive regulations.

6.32 From 1989 all dredging applications werescreened for the need for an EIA as part of theGV process, and since 1993 all applications haverequired EIA. In 1993 the Crown Estate introduceda requirement for all vessels using its productionlicences to install an Electronic MonitoringSystem (EMS) which automatically recordsthe date, time and position of all dredging activity.This enables Government to monitor that dredgingonly occurs within the licensed area. The CrownEstate also audits licensees dredging recordsand wharf sales.

6.33 DTLR, DEFRA and the Crown Estate arefunding a number of research projects to gain abetter understanding of the impacts of aggregate

extraction, and to provide technical guidance onundertaking EIAs. There is much internationalinterest in the findings.

Aggregate extraction: taking thingsforward

6.34 We will shortly replace the non-statutory GVProcedure with a statutory process with theintroduction of the Environmental ImpactAssessment and Habitats (Extraction of Mineralsby Marine Dredging) Regulations. This willtranspose the EIA and Habitats Directives intonational law in so far as they relate to marineaggregate dredging. It will enable the Governmentto impose legally enforceable conditions ondredging permissions. Failure to comply with theconditions will be a criminal offence. Separateregulations will be introduced in Scotland.

6.35 In parallel with preparation of the Regulations,DTLR is developing new policy guidance onmarine minerals extraction in English waters.A draft policy guidance note was published forpublic consultation in February 2001 (MarineMinerals Guidance Note 2 Guidance on theExtraction by Dredging of Sand, Gravel andOther Minerals from the Seabed). In addition,


• the coast and coastal processes• sediment transport pathways• marine ecosystems• commercial fisheries• water quality• navigation• marine conservation areas• archaeological sites• other uses of the sea

The key issues an EIA needs toaddress include:

• the careful location of new dredging areas• considering new applications for Dredging

Permissions in relation to the findings of afull EIA

• minimising the overall impact of dredgingby reducing the risk of cumulative impactsfrom multiple dredging operations and otherhuman activities, minimising the area beingdredged at any one time, and minimisingthe total area permitted for dredging

• controlling dredging operations through theuse of legally enforceable conditionsattached to dredging permissions

• requiring operators to monitor, asappropriate, the environmental impacts oftheir activities during and on completion ofdredging

Good practice in aggregate extraction willprotect the marine environment through:

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the Crown Estate is working closely with thedredging industry to identify opportunities toreduce significantly the area of seabed licensedfor dredging. In the period 1997 to 2000 inclusive,317 square kilometers of seabed have beensurrendered. Important steps have also beentaken to concentrate existing dredging activityinto smaller areas through zoning.

6.36 The Scottish Executive is also undertakingresearch on the need to review NPPG4. TheNational Assembly for Wales is also currentlyexamining responses to its draft policy frameworkon marine aggregate dredging.


6.37 This chapter has looked at a number ofimportant human activities that take place in themarine environment and set out the next steps forsustainable development in these sectors. As withall offshore activities, our management approachis one of responsible stewardship. We recognisethat many different activities take place in themarine environment and there are potentialconflicts between the requirements forconservation and restoration of ecosystems andthe human activities that take place there.

6.38 As agreed at the 5th North Sea Conference,we will work through OSPAR to strengthen co-operation between Contracting Parties to preventand resolve these potential conflicts bydeveloping spatial planning processes related tothe marine environment. Within this context,OSPAR will establish present uses of the marineenvironment and investigate the possibilities forfurther international co-operation in planning andmanaging marine activities through spatialplanning. OSPAR will also look at the possibilitiesfor improving environmental assessment ofhuman activities in the marine environment,taking into account existing legal requirementssuch as SEA.

Chapter 7 Sustainable fisheries

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• The UK’s policy is to help establishresponsible and sustainable fisheries thatensure healthy marine ecosystems,maintaining the quality, diversity andavailability of marine resources and habitats.

• Our ecosystem-based approach entailsbetter science, greater stakeholderinvolvement, adaptive and precautionarymanagement approaches, and working toimplement key fisheries agreements andstrengthen regional fisheries organisations.

• We will promote further integration ofenvironment and fisheries, building oninitiatives such as the drift net ban, stockrecovery plans, the Cardiff IntegrationStrategy, and the Habitats Directive.

• We will focus on tackling unsustainablepractices, notably over-fishing and illegalfishing, which undermine fisheries, sensitivehabitats and species and local communitiesdependent on marine resources.

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

7.1 Fisheries have a major part to play inthe sustainable development of the marineenvironment at the national, European andinternational level.21 At 31 December 2000, therewere some 7,200 UK fishing vessels and about15,000 regular or part time fishermen. In 2000,some 748,000 tonnes of sea fish were landed bythe fleet (in the UK and abroad) with a total valueof £550 million. Details of the contribution andvalue of the UK’s aquaculture industry are givenin the section on aquaculture later in the chapter.

7.2 Global production of marine capturefisheries increased from 17m tonnes in 1950 toabout 80m in the mid-1980s. In its most recentreport, the Food and Agriculture Organisation(FAO) concluded that 75 per cent of fisheries areeither fully or over-exploited, leaving 25 per centwhere there is some scope for increased yields.The FAO considers that over-fishing, includingillegal fishing, is a key factor.

7.3 These pressures, and the changedperspectives following the Rio Earth Summit,have led to an emphasis on improved governanceand regulation of fishing effort through UNCLOS,regional fisheries organisations and the 1995 FAOCode of Conduct on Responsible Fisheries. Thesewelcome changes reflect an increasing awarenessthat fisheries management needs to take a longer-term and more holistic approach, characterisedas moving towards an ecosystem-basedmanagement approach.

THE REGIONAL DIMENSION: THECOMMON FISHERIES POLICY

7.4 Council Regulation (EC) 3760/92 providesthe basic regulatory structure for the CommonFisheries Policy (CFP), setting out thefundamental aim of ensuring the sustainableexploitation of fish stocks through conservationand management policies designed to protect

Sustainable fisheries

The ecosystem-based approach to fisheriesmanagement (EBFM) can be broadly seen asan extension of the conventional principles forsustainable fisheries development to cover theecosystem as a whole. It aims to ensure that,despite variability, uncertainty and likely naturalchanges in the ecosystem, the capacity of theaquatic ecosystems to produce fish food,revenues and employment is maintained for thebenefit of the present and future generations.As the code recognises, key principles aremaintaining the characteristic structure,functioning, productivity and biodiversityof ecosystems; a wide involvement ofstakeholders in knowledge-sharing, decision-making and management; improvingknowledge on ecosystem impacts, andinteractions, including a multi-speciesapproach; adopting adaptive managementstrategies; an effective application of theprecautionary approach; and effectiveenforcement and monitoring mechanisms.

The 1995 FAO Code of Conduct forResponsible Fisheries

21The Fisheries Departments in the United Kingdom are DEFRA, SEERAD, the National Assembly for Wales Agriculture Department,and the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development for Northern Ireland. DEFRA, the FCO and DFID all have responsibilitieswith regard to international fisheries issues.


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resources and reflect the needs of the fishingindustry and consumers. The CFP also entailsa common structural policy (aimed at balancingfleet capacity and available resources) andmarket policy.

7.5 In March 2001, the European Commissionpublished a Green Paper on the review of the CFP.The UK welcomes its fundamental aim to putsustainable development at the core of Communityfisheries policy and sees the review, which isdue to be completed by the end of 2002, as animportant opportunity to address problems with thecurrent arrangements, and to provide a legal andregulatory framework to enable the CFP to meetthe challenges of the next ten years and beyond.

7.6 The Green Paper rightly recognises that thecurrent system is failing to provide an adequateliving for many fishermen through its failure toconserve fish stocks for present and futuregenerations. Central to these problems is thefundamental mismatch that exists in theCommunity between fishing capacity and theavailability of fish stocks, an imbalance madeworse by EU financed subsidies to promote newcapital construction and modernisation.

7.7 At the same time, we support the GreenPaper’s recognition of the importance ofmaintaining certain key aspects of the currentsystem which command wide support, notablythe current access regime, which we wouldlike to see made permanent, the principle ofrelative stability and the Shetland Box.Following consultation with stakeholders, the UKGovernment has therefore put forward to the ECthe following key priorities for change to the CFP.We will work with Member States andstakeholders to promote:

• a CFP which is environmentally andeconomically sustainable through theestablishment of responsible and sustainablefisheries that ensure healthy marine ecosystems,maintaining the quality, diversity and availabilityof marine resources and habitats;

• strengthened regional and stakeholderinvolvement, for example, increased industryinvolvement in decisions on fisheriesmanagement, and better dialogue betweenfishermen, scientists and managers;

• a targeted fleet policy which substantiallyreduces the capacity and effort of the EU’sfishing fleet, including the withdrawal ofcounter-productive subsidies;

• enhanced integration of environmental concernsinto fisheries management, building on the workwhich the UK has already taken forward;

• confirmation of the 6 and 12 mile limits on apermanent basis, retention of the Shetland Boxand access restrictions to the North Sea, andthe continuance of relative stability, includingHague Preference;

• greater effectiveness and consistency in controland enforcement of EU requirements, whileattempting to simplify the burden of control onfishermen; and

• coherence with wider, international sustainabledevelopment objectives, including third countryagreements, as well as promoting the effectiveoperation of Regional Fisheries Organisations,and the implementation of key fishinginstruments – the FAO Code of Conduct, theStraddling Fish Stocks Agreement, and FAO’sInternational Plans of Action.

The conservation and rational exploitationof fish stocks is intended to be achievedprincipally through the system of totalallowable catches (TACs) and nationalquotas, agreement on which was reachedin 1983. TACs are fixed annually by theFisheries Council on the basis of scientificadvice and allocated between MS accordingto fixed percentages of each stock basedon historical records of catches in specificareas of sea (the principle of relativestability). The UK, for example, has around80 separate quotas. This system isaccompanied by technical conservationmeasures which regulate the use of fishinggear and methods, principally by layingdown minimum landing sizes for fish andminimum mesh sizes for nets, but also byestablishing closed areas and seasons fortypes of fishing.

The CFP: Total allowable catches

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Examples of the UK approach to the CFP

Integration of Fisheries and the Environment– UK initiatives

7.8 Environmental integration – placingenvironmental considerations at the heart of othereconomic sectors – has been a key part of theUK’s approach. The 1997 North Sea MinisterialMeeting on Integration of Fisheries andEnvironmental Issues in Bergen, Norway,established a model for the integrative processby bringing together Environment and FisheriesMinisters from the North Sea States and theFisheries and Environment Commissioners fromthe European Commission. Bergen showedhow an integrated approach could work fromgeneral principles, such as the utilisation ofthe ecosystems of the North Sea in a mannerconsistent with sustainable development, downto specific measures and actions such asprecautionary TACs and recovery plans.

7.9 The UK helped give practical realisationto these integrative approaches under the CFPduring its Presidency of the European Unionin 1998. Examples are the sandeel fishery closurein an extensive area off North East Britain, andthe phasing out of the tuna drift net fishery, whichwas completed on 1 January 2002. The CardiffSummit during our Presidency also called on allthe various Councils of the European Communityto establish integration strategies. The integrationstrategy for the Fisheries Council is now beingtaken forward in parallel with the Commission’swork on the CFP Review, and the EU’sBiodiversity Action Plan (BAP) for Fisheries,which we are taking an active role in promoting.

7.10 We are also promoting greater acceptanceof scientific and precautionary advice put forwardby the International Council for the Explorationof the Sea (ICES). Recently, we have promotedthe use of precautionary reference points in orderto set allowable catches for the main stocks, andhave taken a lead in pressing for stock recoveryplans, such as those for hake and cod in theNorth Sea, Irish Sea, and West of Scotland. Wesee the recovery plans as a key means of workingwith stakeholders to build sustainable stocks.

7.11 UK scientists conduct many marineinvestigations, especially in the fisheries areas, toinform the work of the ICES. The ICES’ AdvisoryCommittee on Fishery Management (ACFM)convenes international working groups to collatedata and to undertake the assessment of the sizeand trends in fish and shellfish stocks. ACFMuses these assessments to give advice on thestatus of fish stocks, and on the short and long-term consequences for fisheries and stocks ofvarious catch-options. Similarly, ICES’ AdvisoryCommittee on the Marine Environment (ACME)provides advice on the state of the marineenvironment. A new Advisory Committee onEcosystems was established in 2000. The UKis represented on all Advisory Committees.

Stakeholder involvement and goodgovernance

7.12 The UK has taken a lead in pressing forgreater stakeholder involvement under the CFP.We welcome this recognition in the Green Paper.Close industry involvement, for example,in drawing up recovery plans, has broughtexperience and local knowledge to the framing of


This intergovernmental organisation wasestablished in 1902. Its geographical remit is forthe North Atlantic Ocean and its adjacent Seas.Its role is to promote and co-ordinate researchinto the sea and its living marine resources, andto provide advice on the sea and thoseresources. Its clients include the EC and OSPARand 19 member countries.

ICES

• was introduced at the start of 2001• closed 40,000 square miles from 14

February to 30 April 2001 to protect cod atspawning time

• and, from 1 January 2002, provides newtechnical conservation measures to allowmore juvenile cod to live on to join thespawning stock

The North Sea Cod Recovery Plan

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policies. This and other technical issues havebeen discussed between fisheries managers,fisheries scientists, enforcement experts, geartechnologists, net-makers and members of thefishing industry in the UK Fisheries ConservationGroup. This group, set up in 1998, has provideda further means of communication betweenindustry and Government on conservationand management issues.

7.13 The CFP Review also provides anopportunity to give recognition to the role offishermen using selective and environmentallyfriendly fishing gear, that has low impact on stocks,such as the mackerel hand-liners. Recreationalsea anglers also have a strong interest in thedevelopment of the CFP. They make a majoreconomic contribution to local communities. TheUK wants to build on this progress by developingthe regional dimension of the CFP, bringingfishermen closer to decision-making.

Third country agreements

7.14 The EC has negotiated fisheries agreementswith a number of developing countries. The UK isconcerned that some of these agreements maynot meet the environmental and developmentalneeds of the countries and regions concerned.We are urging the EC to negotiate suchagreements in a more structured and transparentway. This should involve automatic impactassessments of the proposed agreement on thesustainable development of the fishery. Clearobjectives should be set and the Council ofFisheries Ministers should be given the timeand opportunity to check whether they are beingmet. We hope to secure agreement to such anapproach within the framework of the forthcomingreview of the CFP.

NATIONAL DIMENSIONS – FISHERIESAND AQUACULTURE

7.15 The current restrictions on access to theUK’s territorial waters for fishing vessels fromother countries have helped facilitate more localmanagement and stakeholder involvement. InEngland and Wales, local management isexercised by the twelve Sea FisheriesCommittees (SFCs), which regulate local sea

fisheries around virtually the entire coast ofEngland and Wales out to 6 miles and areempowered to make bye-laws for themanagement and conservation of their district’sfisheries. In 1995 their powers were widened toinclude the control of fisheries in their districts forenvironmental reasons.

7.16 In Scotland, in May 2001, the ScottishExecutive launched a Strategic Framework forthe Scottish Sea Fishing Industry. It sets outa number of aims, which the Scottish Executiveintends to pursue to help to deliver the bestpossible conditions for the successful operation

The loch has great economic importance forthe local economy through a variety ofactivities including a Norwegian lobster fisheryand finfish and shellfish farming. However,gear conflict between creelers and trawlerswas a long running problem. Local creelersfelt that creel fishing was the most valuableand sustainable method for the localcommunity and that seasonal closures tomobile gear boats should be extended all-yearround. Trawler fishermen argued that, havingfished the area for a number of years, theyhad a right to continue the practice. Althoughscientific research suggested that fishing bycreel provided benefits in terms of selectivityand quality, it also suggested that stocks werereasonably healthy in the area and that theexisting fishing patterns were sustainable.Creel and trawl interests presented theScottish Executive with an agreed set ofmeasures covering a defined all-year roundtrawl free area, a defined all-year creel-freearea and a mixed gear area with certainrestrictions on mobile gear vessels. This workwould feed into consideration of morepermanent arrangements for fishing in thearea with sustainability the goal. The next stepof the project will involve the establishment ofa loch users’ group which will involve all therelevant stakeholders in the development of asustainable management scheme andsubsequent monitoring of its effectiveness inrelation to stocks and the wider environment.

Integration and local management inpractice: Loch Torridon

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of the Scottish industry. The document wasprepared with a focus on how the Executivecould promote a sustainable fishing industry.The strategic framework places sustainable fishstocks at its centre, supported by further themes ofsupport for fishing communities, an economicallycompetitive industry, a focus on quality and aninclusive approach to fisheries management.

7.17 The Scottish Executive and Scotland’sinshore fishermen have also come together toform the Scottish Inshore Fisheries AdvisoryGroup. It brings together not only Governmentand the fishing industry but also scientists andenvironmental interests. These approaches havealso facilitated the adoption of participatory, localmanagement schemes and control throughoutthe UK, including eco-labelling schemes.

Aquaculture

7.18 The UK’s policy is to encourage thedevelopment of efficient, competitive andsustainable aquaculture industries whilstprotecting the health status of UK farmed andwild fish and shellfish. Central to the policy issustainable use of the marine and ruralenvironment and the prosperity of the economiesand communities in associated areas.

7.19 Aquaculture is an important part of the UK’soverall fisheries sector, with 90 per cent ofproduction taking place in Scotland. There aremore than 1,000 fish and shellfish farmingbusinesses in the UK operating on 1,400 sites anddirectly employing more than 3,000 people (some2,500 in Scotland). First sale value of aquacultureproduction is in excess of £350 million.

Fish health

7.20 The UK is an ‘approved zone’ under theEU Fish Health regime, recognised as free fromcertain serious diseases, which affect salmonidspecies and other fish. This high health statusprovides significant additional protection towild and farmed fish stock. The UK has well-established licensing and health certificationcontrols on direct imports of fish and shellfishfrom third countries to help prevent theintroduction of disease. From 2001, there has

also been the development of a Governmentdatabase to track live fish movements, includingintroductions to inland waters and inland farmtransfers. This is designed to enhance existingcapability to prevent and control the spread offish/shellfish disease and help detect fish theftsand illegal imports.

7.21 Following an outbreak of the seriousdisease Infectious Salmon Anaemia (ISA)in 1998/99 a Joint Scottish Executive/IndustryWorking Group on ISA was established and maderecommendations to change working practices,which might have contributed to the spreadof ISA. The recommendations were includedin an industry Code of Practice. A similar jointapproach was taken with the Containment Codeof Practice, worked up between the ScottishExecutive and farmed and wild fish stakeholdersto prevent escapes of farmed fish.

The main finfish species are salmon andrainbow trout. Almost all salmon productionis concentrated in the west coast and outerisles of Scotland, with production havingincreased steadily from some 40,500 tonnesin 1991 to 130,000 tonnes in 2000. Rainbowtrout is farmed throughout the UK andproduction has increased from 9,300 tonnesin 1991 to 15,000 tonnes in 2000. There isalso limited production of other species suchas carp, brown trout and diversification intonew species such as cod, halibut and turbot.The main shellfish production is mussels(11,000 tonnes) with some farming of oysters,clams and cockles.

Aquaculture in the UK


The industry has taken action to improve thequality of their products through productidentification schemes. Scottish QualitySalmon has developed the Tartan Quality Markfor UK sales and Label Rouge for sales inFrance. For trout, the British Trout Associationbrought together existing schemes under thenew quality mark Quality Trout UK Ltd.

Labelling and quality:

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Stakeholder involvement

7.22 Linking in with fish health and otherconcerns, we have developed policy initiativesin consultation with a wide range of stakeholders,including wild fishery interests, fish farmingindustry, environmental NGOs, scientific advisers,relevant government agencies, local authoritiesand local communities. Leading examples are:

• the Aquaculture Health Joint Working Groupwhich promotes communication betweenGovernment and industry on health anddisease issues, and on research anddevelopment priorities;

• the Tripartite Working Group which promotesdialogue between fish farmers and wild fisheryinterests in Scotland and aims to safeguardand improve the health of wild and farmed fishstocks, in particular, the problem of sea lice;

• the Aquaculture Forum established by theHighlands and Islands Convention in 1999,and drawn from local authorities, wild fisheryinterests and environmental NGOs, the CrownEstate, government and agencies; and

• the Committee for Aquaculture Research andDevelopment made up of UK GovernmentDepartments/agencies, industry stakeholdersand independent funders of research.

Aquaculture: next steps and challenges

7.23 Fish farming in the UK is at an importantstage in its development and its future is thesubject of extensive public debate. In Englandand Wales, proposals are being developed totake forward the recommendations from thereview of salmon and freshwater fisheriesaffecting wild and farmed fish stocks. Also,industry strategies are being looked at fordeveloping finfish and shellfish aquaculture. InScotland consultations are taking place on thedevelopment of a long-term strategic frameworkfor the industry. A review of current aquacultureregulation was completed at the end of 2001.Guidelines for the location of marine fish farms inScotland are also the subject of review.

SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES: THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION

7.24 Working with partners, our policy is to builda regional and international framework whichpromotes long-term conservation of fish stocks,sustainable livelihoods, and the conservation ofmarine biodiversity and habitats.

7.25 Two closely related strands underlie ourapproach:

• the importance of the implementation of the keyfisheries agreements, and action plans; and

• developing the regional fisheries organisations(RFOs), which are pivotal in effectiveimplementation of policies, into cornerstones ofeffective regional fisheries management.

7.26 There are over 30 RFOs covering variousgeographic areas around the world. Existing RFOsare being reformed and their activities expandedto increase effectiveness, as well as movesto establish new RFOs to manage resourcesin currently unregulated areas of the high seas.By setting TACs and quotas for certain stocks RFOsplay an important part in the effort to conservestocks. RFOs establish principles and standardsapplicable to the conservation, managementand development of fisheries under their jurisdiction.Through control and enforcement schemes theyregulate fishing by vessels of Contracting Parties.These measures also make a positive contributiontowards eliminating IUU fishing.

Partnerships in practice: regional fisheriesorganisations:

7.27 UK policy is to develop effective co-operation in regional fisheries organisations,using them to promote implementation of theUN Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFA),the FAO Code of Conduct for ResponsibleFisheries, the Compliance Agreement, and theFAO Action Plans. In so doing, we will:

• use the RFOs to promote coherence betweenfisheries and development policies;


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• support efforts to increase the effectiveness ofexisting RFOs;

• work to identify and establish new RFOs whereneeded;

• take a leading role in discussions in RFOs onimproving the regulation of high seas fisheries;

• seek the use of more effective control andmanagement measures – in all waters, and inports – pressing for greater use of satellitetracking and automatic data transmission tomonitor catches;

• take a lead in the RFOs in addressing illegal,unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing as apriority – entailing action by states, includingthe EU, relevant UN agencies, and focusingon urgent implementation of the FAO ActionPlan; and

• seek agreement that the criteria by whichRFO stocks are allocated should take accountof the position of coastal and developingstates, in accordance with the principles setout in the UNFA.

7.28 We welcome the recently completednegotiations to establish the South East AtlanticFisheries Organisation, which successfullyadopted the principles of the UNFA. The UK willseek to include these principles in the negotiationsof other new RFOs.

Partnerships in practice: the sustainablefisheries livelihood programme

7.29 We also want to demonstrate that effectiveinternational co-operation can help deliver realimprovements to people’s lives. An example,is the Sustainable Fisheries Livelihood Programme(SFLP). Operational in the field since thebeginning of 2000, it is being implementedby the FAO in partnership with 25 West Africancountries. Funded by the UK’s Department forInternational Development (DFID), the programmeseeks to reduce poverty in coastal and inland fishing communities in West Africa. SFLPis pioneering the use of a ‘livelihoods’ approachwhere support is focused on poor people’s

human and social assets as well as their natural,physical and financial ones. SFLP also uses theFAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheriesas a basis for developing improved policy andgovernance of fisheries.

7.30 From practical experiences generated inpartnership with local communities, wider civilsociety and governments (at different levels),SFLP will develop guidelines for addressingpoverty in fisheries. These will be disseminatedboth within the different sub-regions of West Africa

• The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of theSea lays down the comprehensive legalframework for the governance of theworld’s oceans and seas, includingfisheries and the establishment and useof regional fisheries organisations

• The 1995 Agreement for the Implementationof the Provisions of the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea of 10December 1982 relating to the Conservationand Management of Straddling Fish Stocksand Highly Migratory Fish Stocks includesimportant provisions on the application ofthe precautionary approach to internationalfisheries management and develops therole to be played by RFOs

• The 1995 FAO Code of Conduct forResponsible Fisheries sets out principlesand standards on the conservation,management and development of allfisheries

• The FAO Agreement to PromoteCompliance with International Conservationand Management Measures by FishingVessels on the High Seas seeks to deter re-flagging of vessels as a means of avoidingcompliance with applicable conservationand management rules for fishing activitieson the high seas

• A suite of four FAO Action Plans on fleetcapacity, seabirds, sharks, and illegal,unreported and unregulated fishing. Thesehave been established within the umbrellaof the FAO Code of Conduct

International fisheries agreements and machinery

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and more widely through FAO’s internationalnetworks. In this way, it is expected that SFLPwill contribute to improved policy at international,national and local levels. Improvements in policywill be reflected by higher levels of responsibilityboth in terms of the management of the fisheriesresources and in terms of the people whoselivelihoods depend on these resources.


7.31 This chapter has demonstrated that there isalready a substantial commitment by Governmentand other stakeholders to work towards a visionof responsible and sustainable fisheries toensure healthy marine ecosystems and maintainthe quality, diversity and availability of marineresources and habitats. But it has shown thatwe must take our partners and stakeholders withus and develop a coherent, shared approach.The globalisation of the fishing industry underlinesthis, entailing not only supply side issues suchas over-capacity of fleets and the subsidiesthey receive, but also the role of consumersin determining market trends.

7.32 A significant marker of the progress we aremaking towards shared approaches to sustainablefisheries will come later this year during theconclusion of negotiations on the future of theCFP. We will be working assiduously to secure asmany of our objectives as possible. We recognise,of course, that success is not in our hands alone.Whatever the formal outcome, however, ourpast work on integration and use of existingmanagement flexibilities under the present regimehas shown the scope for leading the debate andintroducing practical measures.

7.33 We will continue to take this lead andin so doing link our fisheries policies to ourbroader aim of the sustainable use of the marineenvironment and the prosperity of the ruraleconomies and communities that it supports.We will take an active role at the North SeaMinisterial Meeting on the environmentalconsequences of fishing. It was agreed at the5th North Sea Conference that this will take placeby 2006 in Sweden and will also address theenvironmental impacts of shipping.

7.34 Internationally, 2002 also sees the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). Asthis chapter has illustrated, fisheries are a keypart of the international community’s effortsto build sustainable development at the globallevel. We will seek to tackle global issues such asover-fishing and illegal fishing, and work toensure that national and EU policies on fisheriesare compatible with wider initiatives includingthe EU’s input to WSSD.

IUU fishing is found in all capture fisheries,irrespective of the location, species targeted,fishing gears employed or level and intensityof exploitation. Efforts are under way toassess how serious and widespread IUUfishing is, but no complete and comprehensivepicture of the situation has yet emerged. FAOhas been informed that, in some importantfisheries, IUU fishing accounts for up to 30percent of total catches, and in one instanceit has been indicated that IUU catches couldbe as high as three times the permitted catchlevel. Where IUU fishing is common, it hasmajor consequences for national and regionalscientific assessments, determination of catchlevels and management measures.

Illegal, unreported and unregulated(IUU) fishing

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• The effects of climate change on the marineecosystem and on human activities that themarine environment supports are potentiallyenormous.

• The UK Climate Change Programme setsout how we are rising to the challengeto address the threats. It includes newmeasures to reduce greenhouse gasemissions further and build adaptation to the impacts of climate change intopolicies.

• The UK is playing a leading role in thefight against climate change. We have begunthe process of ratifying the Kyoto Protocol.This will help to deliver our sustainabledevelopment goals and to conservemarine biodiversity.

• The UK fully supports and plays a significantrole in the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change which assessesthe scientific and technical aspects ofclimate change.

HOW WILL CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE FUTURE?

8.1 Climate change is a global problemrequiring a global response. It is well recognisedthat global emissions need to be cut by more than60 per cent from today’s levels to avoid the worsteffects of climate change. It is also recognisedthat some degree of climate change is nowinevitable, which we will need to adapt to,however successful we are at reducing emissions.The UK is playing a leading role in taking actionto reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,and to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

8.2 The Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC), sponsored by the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) and the WorldMeteorological Organisation (WMO), was set upin 1988 to organise the preparation of detailedscientific assessments covering all scientific andtechnical aspects of climate change. The UKsupports the role and conclusions of the IPCC.

Chapter 8 Facing up to climate change

Facing up to climatechange

The formation of North Atlantic Deep Water in the Arctic constitutes one of the deepest branchesof the thermohaline circulation (THC) of the world’s oceans (or Ocean Conveyer). The NorthAtlantic Deep Water (NADW) maintains the direction and intensity of the ocean current by actingas a pulling mechanism. This warms the climate of the UK and North West Europe by about 8°C.Most Global Circulation Models show weakening of the ocean THC due to climate change whichleads to a reduction of the heat transport into high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.However, even in models where the THC weakens, there is still warming over Europe dueto increased greenhouse gases. The current projections using climate models do not exhibita complete shut-down of the THC by 2100. Beyond 2100, the THC could completely, andpossibly irreversibly, shut-down in either hemisphere if the change in radiative forcing islarge enough and applied long enough. Since marked cooling linked to circulation changesare known to have occurred over 10,000 years ago, an active area of research is the potentialfor such occurrences in the future.

Thermohaline Circulation or ‘Ocean Conveyer’

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8.3 In 2001, the IPCC published their ThirdAssessment Report (TAR), comprising majorassessments of the science, impacts and responsesto climate change. The report confirms that there isnew and stronger evidence that over the last centurytemperatures have increased by 0.60C and thatmost of the observed warming over the past fiftyyears is attributable to human activities.

8.4 The IPCC predicts that global averagetemperature is expected to rise by between 1.4 and5.8°C by 2100. The future warming rate is expectedto be without precedent in the last 10,000 years.Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 9 to88cm by 2100, due primarily to thermal expansionand loss of mass from glaciers and ice caps.Changes in average conditions will be accompaniedby changes in the frequency and magnitudeof extreme events, such as droughts, floods,heat waves and storms. Recent regional climatechanges, particularly temperature increases,have already affected some marine ecosystems,including glacial retreat and thawing permafrost.

Climate change in the UK

8.5 The UK’s climate has warmed over the lastcentury. Temperatures in central England haverisen by nearly 10C over this period and the 1990swas the warmest decade in central England sincerecords began in the 1660s. Sea temperatureshave also increased since records began in thelate 19th Century. Average sea-level is rising byabout 1mm a year (after adjusting for natural landmovements). There is also evidence that the

index of the North Atlantic Oscillation has becomemore positive (ie weather is becoming morewesterly) in recent years.

New UK climate change scenarios

8.6 As a result of climate change we expect thatthe UK’s climate will continue to warm. Newclimate change scenarios, published by DEFRA inApril, indicated that:

• Average annual temperatures may increase bybetween 2 and 3.5oC by the 2080s dependingon the future rate of greenhouse gas emissions.Regional differences across the UK will begreater however. Warming is likely to be less inthe north while in parts of the south eastsummer temperatures could rise by up to 5oC;

• The temperature of UK coastal waters will alsoincrease, although not as rapidly as over land;

• We will see generally wetter winters with fewercold spells and significantly hotter, drier summers,particularly in the south east. By the 2080s, inEngland and Wales, summers as hot as the oneexperienced in 1995 may occur 2 out of 3 years,or more, and a very dry summer like 1995 everyother year. Extreme winter precipitation may alsobecome more frequent; and

• By the 2080s sea level will have risen aroundmost of the coast of the UK. For example,in south east England, sea level rise maybe between 26 and 86 cm above current level.Extreme sea levels (combinations of high tides,sea-level rise and changes in winds) may beexperienced more frequently, perhaps 10 to 20times more frequently at some east coastlocations.

IMPACTS ON COASTAL AND MARINEECOSYSTEMS

Global impacts

8.7 Scientific evidence confirms thatgreenhouse gas emissions are having a profoundeffect on the earth’s climate which haveconsequences for the marine environment.Studies are continuing to understand how the

Coral bleaching – coral reefs contain more than one-thirdof the world’s marine species, but are under threat fromclimate change Photographer Charles Sheppard

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oceans deal with this. Global warming willcompound the impact of natural climate-oceans’variations and fishing activity and makemanagement solutions more complex.

8.8 Climate change threatens the marineenvironment in a number of significant ways.Global climate change will affect the physical,biological and biogeochemical characteristics ofthe oceans and coasts, modifying their ecologicalstructure, their functions and the goods andservices they provide. Feedback processes to theclimate system will occur through changes inocean mixing, deep water production and coastalupwelling. Collectively these changes will haveprofound impacts on the status, sustainability,productivity and biodiversity of the coastal zoneand marine ecosystems.

8.9 It is anticipated that the adaptive capacityof marine and coastal ecosystems varies amongspecies, sectors and geographical regions. TheIPCC has indicated that integrated assessments ofcoastal zones and marine ecosystems and betterunderstanding of their interaction with humandevelopment and multi-year climate variabilitycould lead to improvements in sustainabledevelopment and management. It considersthat adaptation options for coastal and marinemanagement are most effective when they areincorporated with policies in other areas, suchas disaster mitigation plans and land-use plans.

8.10 The increase in sea level will have aprofound effect on small low-lying islands andmay in some instances result in some islandsbeing lost to the sea. This is a particular concernto Small Island Developing States (SIDS) which,in addition to a loss in income from tourism donot have sufficient resources to provide effectivecoastal defence.

Marine fisheries

8.11 Global warming will alter the relationshipbetween natural climate-ocean variations and theeffects of fishing activity and make managementissues more complex to resolve. As noted inChapter 8, there is now a cautious acceptancethat climate change will have major impacts onthe abundance and distribution of marine fish.

Fishing impacts may be particularly harmful ifnatural declines in productivity occur withoutcorresponding reductions in exploitation ratesand adoption of bilateral and multilateral fishingagreements.

Aquaculture

8.12 The IPCC has found, in its report Effects ofClimate Change on Marine Activities: Aquaculturethat scope for aquaculture may be limited ifkey fish species used in feed production areadversely affected by climate change. Climatechange could also have dramatic impacts on fishproduction, which would affect the supply offishmeal and fish oils. This could limit futureaquaculture production, unless alternativesources of protein are found.

8.13 Climate change is also expected to havephysical and ecosystem impacts in the freshwaterand marine environments in which aquaculture issited. Water and air temperatures in mid to highlatitudes are expected to rise, with a consequentlengthening of the growing season for culturedfish and shellfish. These changes could havebeneficial impacts on growth rate and feed

Large-scale impacts of Climate Change areexpected to include:

• Increases in sea surface temperature andmean global sea level

• Decrease in sea-ice cover• Changes in salinity, wave conditions and

ocean circulation

These can affect fish abundance andpopulation dynamics. Coastal areas couldexperience:

• Increased flooding• Accelerated erosion• Loss of wetlands and mangroves• Seawater intrusion into freshwater sources• Increase in storm-surge floods and shore

erosion

Conclusions of the IPCC ThirdAssessment Report include:

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conversion efficiency, and could lead to increasedproduction as aquaculture species expand theirgeographical range.

8.14 However, increased water temperature andchanges in dissolved oxygen levels have beenlinked to increases in the intensity and frequencyof disease outbreaks and may result in morefrequent algal blooms in coastal areas. Anyincreases in the frequency and intensity ofextreme events such as storm surges could alsoresult in significant infrastructure damage toaquaculture. Elevated temperatures of coastalwaters could also lead to increased production ofaquaculture species by expanding their range.

Disappearing sea-ice

8.15 In the winter months, the underside andedges of sea-ice provide a surface for marinealgae to grow. When the ice melts in the warmermonths, the algae are released into the waterand fed on by krill. In turn krill are fed on by greatwhales and other marine predators. A seriesof studies has shown that as temperatureshave increased in recent decades, apparentlyin correlation with rising concentrationsof atmospheric greenhouse gases, the sea-iceextent has been diminishing rapidly. It has beenestimated that the sea-ice extent in Antarctica hasdecreased by 25 per cent between the mid-1950sand mid-1970s. While, in the Arctic a 3 per centdecrease in the area of sea-ice is evident fromsatellite images since the late 1970s and the rateof loss has increased in the 1990s.

Marine mammals

8.16 Climate change may have effects on theavailability and access to prey among marinemammals. Several marine mammal and birdspecies, including polar bears, arctic foxes andsome penguins, may be threatened by long-termclimate change. For example, reduced ice coverwould limit hunting success by polar bears andarctic foxes, with resulting reductions in bearand fox populations.

8.17 This dynamic could have negative effectson the lifestyle, food and health standards ofsome indigenous peoples. Because global

climate change is likely to have profoundimpacts on sea-ice extent and duration, it is inthis habitat where the initial impacts on marinemammals may be first evident.

Coral reefs

8.18 As noted in Chapter 2, coral reefs face anumber of stresses and problems from humanimpacts. Their resilience and development canalso be greatly reduced by rising sea levels,increasing sea surface temperatures and otherclimate-ocean-related changes, includingprevailing wind activity and storm waves andsurges.

8.19 Projections suggest that healthy reefs areable to keep pace with projected sea level rise.However, the situation is less clear for the largenumbers of degraded reefs in densely populatedregions of south and south-east Asia, easternAfrica, and the Caribbean, as well as those closeto population centres in the Pacific. Many coralreefs occur at, or close to, temperature tolerancethresholds. Research has discovered that it takesonly a 1oC change in sea-surface temperature tocause severe bleaching effects. The worldwideproliferation of coral bleaching can therefore beexpected to be exacerbated by global warming.

Coastal wetlands

8.20 Sea level rise will compound the existingdecline of global coastal wetlands (ie saltmarshes,mangroves, deltas and intertidal areas) resultingfrom human reclamation, which is reducingglobal stock by about 1 per cent per year.Preliminary work commissioned by DEFRAshows that without action to reduce emissionsof greenhouse gases, global wetland lossesincrease rapidly with time. By the 2080s,estimates suggest that between 13 per cent and25 per cent of the world’s coastal wetlands couldbe lost due to sea level rise alone and we couldexpect substantial additional losses in the22nd century. However, if we can limit emissionsof greenhouse gases and stabilise concentrationsof carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, we canslow the rate of change giving wetlands moretime to adjust, reducing these losses, and aidingtheir long-term survival.

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UK impacts

8.21 Climate change may already be havingan effect on marine ecosystems in the UK.For example the abundance of some speciesof marine plankton may be affected by oceancurrents and sea temperatures. There have beenchanges in the prevalence of certain speciesof fish, such as bass in the North Sea, indicatingthat temperature changes may be impactingon fish populations.

8.22 The threat of rising sea levels, more intenserain and snowfall and the possibility of increasedstorminess, flooding and accelerated erosion islikely to increase as a result of climate change.Sea level rise will have profound effects causingfrequent high tide levels around parts of the UKcoastline, making low lying land in coastal andriver areas more vulnerable to flooding. Changesin relative sea level will vary locally as a resultof other factors such as uplift and subsidence.Higher-latitude coasts will experience impactsfrom higher wave energy and permafrostdegradation.

8.23 Recent research (the MONARCH project)carried out by English Nature and otherconservation agencies indicates that coastalhabitats such as wetlands could be one of theecosystems especially vulnerable to climatechange in the UK because of the threat of coastalsqueeze between hard defences and rising sea-level. The Regis project (sponsored byDEFRA and UKWIR) suggests that even wheresaltmarshes persist their composition couldchange as species migrate to new sites.

Policy responses

United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change and the Kyoto Protocol

8.24 The international community has put inplace a framework for action through agreementto the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) and the KyotoProtocol. Under the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in1997, industrialised countries agreed to reducetheir combined greenhouse gas emissions by anaverage of 5.2 per cent compared to 1990 levels

by the period 2008–2012. Kyoto provides aframework for action to tackle emissions butfurther cuts of more than 60 per cent in globalemissions will be needed if we are to avoid someof the worst effects of climate change. Whateverwe do, some degree of climate change is nowinevitable and we need to assess its likely impactand plan to adapt to its effects.

UK Climate Change and Climate ImpactsProgramme

8.25 The Government also established the UKClimate Impacts Programme (UKCIP), in 1997,to help decision-makers and other stakeholdersassess their vulnerability to climate changeso that they could plan adaptation strategies.UKCIP also facilitates a stakeholder networkfor organisations to share experience and takea partnership approach to assessing theirvulnerability to climate change. The UKCIPwebsite is: www.ukcip.org.uk.

8.26 In November 2000, UKCIP set out theGovernment’s and the devolved administrations’approach to the challenge of climate change.It outlines the progress that the UK has alreadymade in cutting its greenhouse gas emissionsand explains how climate change is expectedto affect the UK and how we might need toadapt. It also provides an initial view of whatthe priorities for adaptation might be, and detailshow we have started to build adaptation intopolicies, for example in coastal and flooddefence, as set out in Chapter 3.

Coastal wetlands and habitats

8.27 The UK Biodiversity Action Plan has set anoverall objective of maintaining the existing extentof saltmarsh habitat of approximately 45,500 ha,and restoring this habitat to 1992 levels. Theintention is to create 140 ha of saltmarsh eachyear to offset current losses and to replace the600 ha lost between 1992 and 1998. This is likelyto involve managed realignment – a techniquewhich can be utilised as an adaptation strategy toclimate change which is able to restore lostcoastal wetlands as well as recreate a natural firstline of defence against the energy of the sea.

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8.28 A recent study by DEFRA on theimplications of climate change for conservationpolicy concluded that policy needs to be flexible.There will be a need to assess forwardconservation status and it may not always bepossible to maintain some species or habitats ata particular location. There may be tensionbetween what we believe is likely under climatechange and the achievement of policy goals thatare site-specific, such as the preservation ofspecial sites such as SACs.


8.29 We are committed to manage and respondto the effects of climate change in thedevelopment of future policies for coastal andmarine environments. We intend to ratify theKyoto Protocol, along with our EU partners,in time to allow it to enter into force before theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development.We aim to go further than the Kyoto commitmentand move towards a domestic goal of a 20 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissionsbelow 1990 levels by 2010.

8.30 Implementation of adaptation strategies onthe ground at a local and regional level will requirehigh resolution climate scenarios. To help meetthis need, UKCIP will be issuing higher resolutionscenarios in 2002, which will be based on theHadley Centre’s22 Regional Climate Model andprovide an improved treatment of extreme events.The scenarios will also include information onfuture changes in sea level. We will be usingpublication to raise awareness of the need fororganisations to build climate change adaptationinto strategic decision-making. In the longer term,DEFRA is funding the Hadley Centre to carry out

further detailed research to improve ourunderstanding of the likely impacts of climatechange on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

8.31 A major new four year study, MarineBiodiversity and Climate Change (MarClim)commenced in early 2001, under the UK ClimateImpacts Programme, managed by MarineBiological Association. The study will cover UKand Irish waters and will assess the influence ofclimate change on marine biodiversity, usingmeasurements and models of intertidal species. Itis funded by a range of organisations includingDEFRA, the Environment Agency, the ScottishExecutive, the JNCC, Scottish Natural Heritage,the Countryside Council for Wales and WWF-UK.

8.32 The results of the study will be used toinform policies concerning the marineenvironment, and will provide contextualinformation to assist in reporting the success orotherwise of marine aspects of SustainableDevelopment Strategies, Biodiversity Action Plans,and the Habitats, Birds and Water FrameworkDirectives. It will also assist those managingand monitoring marine activities and resources,including fisheries.

8.33 We will also continue to assess and monitorthe impacts of climate change on the marineenvironment. Activities such as the ContinuousPlankton Recorder and Global ClimateObservation System, which are discussed furtherin Chapter 9, can make an important contributionto the study of climate change and its effects onthe oceans and seas.

Habitat type Area loss by 2050 (ha) Annual loss (ha)Mudflat/sandflats 11,459 229

Saltmarsh 6,996 140Sand dunes 504 10Shingle bank 238 5

Coastal lagoons 530 11

Estimated Habitat Losses for SAC/SPA and Ramsar sites in England and Wales in thenext 50 years as a result of existing shoreline management policies

Source: Lee, E.M. (1998): The implications of future shoreline management on protected habitats in England and Wales, EnvironmentAgency, R&D Technical Report W150.

22The Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research is part of the Met Office. It provides the UK with an up-to-date expertassessment of natural and man-made changes in global and regional climate.

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Research vessel Cirolana – marine scientific research helps us to betterunderstand our seas and make more informed policy© Crown copyright. Reproduced by permission of CEFAS, Lowestoft

Chapter 9 Making best use of marine science

Making best use ofmarine science • Our stewardship of the marine environment

must be informed by the best availablescientific evidence. We are working toensure that we maximise the value ofGovernment-funded science in deliveringour vision.

• We will develop better integration of marineenvironment monitoring and observation.We will continue to encourage appropriatecollaboration with industry and other non-governmental organisations.

• Integrated management must be informedby improved co-ordination and accessto spatial data and mapping of the marineenvironment. We will move towards ensuringthat publicly-funded marine environmentaldata is made as freely available as possible.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MARINE SCIENCE

9.1 In the previous chapters the fundamentalimportance of scientific evidence in guiding andadvising the development of policy for, andmanagement of, the marine environment hasbeen highlighted. This chapter describes howwe are developing our organisation of marinescience and monitoring, as a key element ofan ecosystem approach. It outlines how UKGovernment Departments and agencies, withthe substantial support of the research councils,deliver a high-quality marine science programmeon the quality, structure and functioning ofthe marine environment. This programmecomplements the science supported byinternational organisations such as the EC’sFramework Research Programmes.

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9.2 Improved scientific evidence is particularlyimportant in areas of uncertainty or where a rangeof scientific opinion exists. Scientific evidencemay help to identify areas of uncertainty wherea precautionary approach should be adopted.We will seek to provide support for both broad-based longer-term science and research toinform specific policy questions.

9.3 Government agencies responsible formarine environment protection provide dedicatedscientific expertise and infrastructure for marineobservation, modelling, monitoring and research,emergency pollution response and proactivepollution control, supporting their responsibilitiesfor regulating deposits in the sea, regulatingaggregate extraction and consenting dischargesto the marine environment. These agenciesinclude the fisheries laboratories, the Centre forEnvironment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science(CEFAS), the Fisheries Research Service, MarineLaboratory in Aberdeen (FRS) and the Departmentof Agriculture and Rural Development in NorthernIreland (DARDNI) in addition to the environmentalprotection agencies: The Environment Agency(EA) (England and Wales), the ScottishEnvironment Protection Agency (SEPA)and Environment and Heritage service(Northern Ireland) (EHS).

9.4 The Country Conservation Agencies JointNature Conservation Committee (JNCC), EnglishNature (EN), Scottish National Heritage (SNH),Countryside Council for Wales (CCW), and EHScarry out research and monitoring to aid thedevelopment of management strategies anddecisions on the coastal zone, particularly inrelation to their responsibilities for designatedareas and the need to respond on the needs ofmanaging Special Areas of Conservation (SACs)under the Habitats Directive.

9.5 The Met Office provides operationalinformation on ocean climate including forecastsof wave height, ocean currents and storm surges.For example, it uses the FOAM (Forecast Ocean-Atmosphere Model) to produce real-time analysesand forecasts of the temperature, salinity andcurrents of the deep ocean up to five daysahead for the Royal Navy.

9.6 As well as establishing an evidence base tosupport the development of policy, outputs fromgovernment marine science programmes feedinto the wider development of marine science.The Government maintains a policy of opennesswith regard to the outputs from publicly fundedscience to ensure that the maximum possiblebenefit accrues from its expenditure on research.Relevant research reports and assessments ofmonitoring data are published and GovernmentDepartments strongly encourage the publicationof scientific papers arising from their programmesin the scientific literature following appropriatepeer review.

Co-ordination of Marine Science

9.7 The Inter Agency Committee on MarineScience and Technology (IACMST), which reportsannually to the Government’s Chief ScientificAdviser, maintains an overview of nationaland international activities in marine science andtechnology. This ensures that the arrangementsfor the co-ordination of national and internationalmarine science and technology activitiesare adequately maintained. IACMST supportstwo action groups, one co-ordinating MarineEnvironmental Data and the other co-ordinatingthe UK contribution to the Global Ocean

Considerable experience and expertise hasbeen built up in FRS and CEFAS to predictthe likely impact of the spills, and to designmonitoring programmes which both allowedeffective control of fishery closure and aidedthe overall assessment of environmentalimpact. Scientists also gave advice on theoperational use of dispersants. For example,during the Sea Empress incident, expertsfrom CEFAS advised on when and whereit would be beneficial to spray dispersants,and on where their use was undesirablebecause of the damage dispersed oilmight cause to fisheries and the marineenvironment. This carefully consideredapproach helped to minimise the overallimpact of the spill on marine life.

Research into oil spill incidents

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Observing System (GOOS) of theIntergovernmental Oceanographic Commission.Each year IACMST runs a number of specialevents and produces reports to facilitate the co-ordination of marine science and technologyacross Government.

9.8 The Marine Pollution Monitoring ManagementGroup (MPMMG) has the responsibility for co-ordinating monitoring of marine environmentalquality in relation to a number of EuropeanDirectives, including the Water FrameworkDirective, and other international commitments,including OSPAR requirements. As a function ofthese responsibilities MPMMG ensures scientificco-ordination of approaches to the monitoring ofmarine environmental quality and related research.

9.9 Co-ordination between industry and theGovernment is being developed by the MarineInformation Council (MIC), a new initiativeimplementing the Marine Foresight strategy forthe development of the UK’s marine informationindustry. This brings together government,institutional, academic and industry bodies, whichcollectively span all components of the UK marineinformation sector. The primary task of MIC is toseek improved funding for marine research and

to foster the application of this research tocustomer needs through the development of theintermediary marine information products andservices industry. Internationally, a major outputof scientific co-operation was the publicationof the OSPAR Quality Status Report in 2000.

9.10 Reflecting the linkages between the globalocean and the local marine environment, the UKactively supports international marine institutionsand actively participates in a wide rangeof international science programmes. A key partof this, reflecting the range of sectors involvedin marine issues, is strengthened co-operationwithin the UN system, which the UK is workingto develop. Along with other countries andUN bodies we are looking at the scope fora more regular and co-ordinated globalassessment of the marine environment.

MARINE ENVIRONMENT MONITORINGAND OBSERVATION

9.11 As part of an ecosystem-based approach tomanagement of the marine environment we arenow seeking to achieve greater integration ofgovernment marine monitoring programmes.

• Report on the Climate of the UK Waters atthe Millennium (2001)

• Review of Current UK Marine Observationsin relation to present and future needs(2000)

• Directory of marine environmental datasetsheld by UK laboratories (2000)

• Workshop on Sensors and platforms(2001)

• Marine sample collections: their value useand future (2001)

• Workshop on Oceanographic Modelling(1999)

• Workshop on Data Access and chargingpolicy (2000)

• Workshop on the Future of OperationalOceanography (2001) (with MIC)

Recent co-ordination initiatives fromIACMST

• Established National Marine MonitoringProgramme (NMMP) to monitor long-termtrends in ecosystem and biological diversity,trophic status and environmental pollution

• Co-ordination of internationally recognisedanalytical quality control schemes forbiology, sediments and chemistry

• Established technical working groups toreview the environmental effects of variousactivities eg discharges of radioactivity,fish farming and disposal to sea.

• First NMMP report The Quality of UKCoastal Waters published in 1998

• Established inter-agency task teams to co-ordinate classification and typology issuesfor coastal and transitional waters underthe Water Framework Directive, includingclose links with Republic of Ireland

Key MPMMG achievements

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Monitoring the quality of the environment

9.12 The UK has one of the best programmes inEurope for monitoring the extent and effects ofpollution in the marine environment, co-ordinatedby the MPMMG. The National Marine MonitoringProgramme (NMMP) ensures co-ordinated qualitystatus monitoring between UK GovernmentDepartments and agencies with environmentalprotection responsibilities. Those agencies withregulatory responsibilities also monitor the marineenvironment to assess compliance with statutoryregulatory regimes eg in relation to EC Directives,Food and Environment Protection Act and COPA.MPMMG also co-ordinates monitoring activities inrelation to marine litter and monitoring of therecovery of sewage sludge dumping sitesfollowing the cessation of dumping in 1998.

9.13 The NMMP was initiated in 1993 with theaim of detecting, with appropriate accuracy,long–term trends in environmental quality atselected coastal and estuarine sites. Under theNMMP a network of estuarine and coastalstations has been sampled annually since 1999.A key element of the network has been thedevelopment and adoption of internationally-recognised quality control schemes for fieldsampling and sample analysis.

9.14 The JNCC is responsible for co-ordinatingthe collection of a variety of information on thebiota found around the UK coast. JNCC’sMarine Environmental Resource Mappingand Information Database (MERMAID) has beendeveloped to provide wider access to informationon marine sites, habitats and species aroundBritain and Ireland. JNCC has co-ordinated theMarine SACs project, as described in Chapter 2,and developed a Marine Monitoring Handbook.This provides guidance by the UK Government’sstatutory nature conservation agencies and theirkey partners in drawing up monitoring schemesfor marine SACs.

Observing variability in ocean climate andcirculation

9.15 Understanding the coupled ocean-atmospheric system is important for ourunderstanding of both climate change and thecontext within which our management of themarine environment takes place. To do so we needto make use of long term observation and newtechnologies. The oceanic inflow from the Atlanticinto UK waters is one of the key drivers of thebackground variability of our marine environment,and the temperature and salinity of this wateraffects the biology and chemical processes.

9.16 The UK is an active participant in thedevelopment of the IntergovernmentalOceanographic Commission’s Global OceanObserving System (GOOS), which is developinga co-ordinated international strategy for marineobservations particularly those related to physicaloceanography. The UK’s contribution to GOOSis co-ordinated by the GOOS Action Group ofIACMST.

9.17 The Natural Environmental ResearchCouncil (NERC), through the SouthamptonOceanography Centre and Plymouth MarineLaboratory, has hosted the project officesfor three globally important programmes thathave supported the development of GOOS:

• World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) todevelop models for predicting climate changeand the collection of relevant data.


Smart buoy – providing real-time monitoring of the marineenvironment© Crown copyright, reproduced by permission of CEFAS,Lowestoft

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• Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR)which is an international research programmeaddressing many issues of natural climatevariability and anthropogenic climate change.As part of the wider World Climate ResearchProgramme (WCRP), CLIVAR is giving insightsinto the working of the climate system andhence answers to important questionsregarding the occurrence of El Nino events andthe extent of sea level rise.

• Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics Project(GLOBEC) which aimed to understand howchanges in the global environment affect theabundance, diversity and production of animalpopulations comprising a major component ofocean ecosystems.

9.18 Key UK contributions to the operationalGOOS will include:

• the Array for Real-time GeotrophicOceanography (ARGO). DEFRA, the Met Officeand Southampton Oceanographic Centre arethe major partners in the UK contribution to theARGO project. This is the planned deploymentof 3000 open-ocean drifting floats, which byrising and sinking over 14 day cycles, will

profile temperature and salinity in the oceansto depths of 2000m depth. The first UK ARGOfloats were put in the water in September 2000.

• The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR).CPRs are survey instruments that are towedvoluntarily from merchant ships and catchplankton on a moving band of silk that iswound onto a storage spool. The survey(figure 9.1) is supported by an internationalconsortium, within which DEFRA and NERCare the largest funders and environmentalNGOs are represented. It provides a valuablerecord of long term change in the UK marinewaters. The distribution of plankton also actsas a strong indicator of water temperature,currents and man-made inputs to the sea.

• The UK participates in a number of globalprogrammes using voluntary observing ships,ships of opportunity, moored buoys and driftingfloats to take observations of ocean climate.

• The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level(PSMSL) is hosted by ProudmanOceanographic Laboratory and is the globaldata bank for long-term sea level changeinformation.

Figure 9.1. The Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey network in the north Atlantic

Reproduced by permission of SAHFOS

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9.19 Marine monitoring and observations maybe enhanced through the latest developmentsin technology (in-situ monitoring, remote sensing,modelling, data management) and maximisedthrough better operational co-ordination. DEFRAhas recently initiated the development of a MarineEnvironmental Change Network. In its first phasethis will aim to maximise the value of existing longterm marine observation data but we will seekto embrace new technology, and the resultsof research such as the MarCLIM study, to builda network for observation and prediction of theeffects of environmental change.

Future development of MarineEnvironment Monitoring

9.20 The marine environment is a complexsystem. An ecosystem-based approach requiresa better understanding of the way ecosystemsas a whole function. Our approach will seek toimprove co-ordination of the interfaces betweenmonitoring and observation for different sectoralinterests, ie to co-ordinate the assessment ofoceanographic climate and fisheries with themonitoring of environmental and ecological qualityand nature conservation status. The aim will be tosupport more integrated and coherent assessmentsof the state of the UK marine environment atregular intervals.

9.21 We will produce a first integratedassessment in the form of a State of Our Seasreport in 2004. Performance indicators forreporting on management of the marineenvironment are currently being developedthrough government research programmeswhich will contribute to this assessment.

9.22 New technological developments, particularlyin oceanographic sensors, data transmissionand management, allow real-time monitoring ofan increasing range of environmental parameters.These provide the potential for the collection ofincreasing quantities of environmental data, which,in connection with remote sensing and physicaland biological modelling, is already invaluable incoastal management and offers great potential forimproving our management of the environmentalimpact of marine activities. We need to explore,and where appropriate exploit, the potential of

these technologies in developing the way wecollect and make use of scientific evidence.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

9.23 In addition to regular marine observationand monitoring, Government departments andagencies support the development of policy and

NERC’s mission is to promote and supporthigh quality basic, strategic and appliedresearch, survey and long-term environmentalmonitoring to advance knowledge andtechnology, and thus contribute to theeconomic competitiveness of the UnitedKingdom, the effectiveness of public servicesand policy and the quality of life;

Major marine research themes currentlysupported by NERC include:• Auto-sub Under Ice – exploring the marine

environment under floating ice shelves.• Marine & Freshwater Microbial Biodiversity

– biodiversity, community interactions andecosystem functions.

• Environmental Genomics – advancingevolutionary and ecological theory throughgenomics and proteomics.

• Marine Productivity – how physical factorsaffect zooplankton population dynamics.

• Rapid Climate Change – the role of theocean’s thermohaline circulation ininfluencing NW European climate.

• Seasense – developing new marinesensors.

• Developmental Ecology of Marine Animals– how environmental changes affect earlydevelopment.

• Coupled Ocean – Atmosphere Processesand European Climate

NERC Research Centres and CollaborativeCentres include Plymouth Marine Laboratory,Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, ProudmanOceanographic Laboratory and SouthamptonOceanography Centre.

Natural Environmental ResearchCouncil (NERC):

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management of the marine environment througha range of varied investigative research, whichextends and enhances the evidence base usedto develop policy. Research programmes arealso undertaken in the NERC Marine Laboratoriesand specialist university departments.

9.24 The development of marine research occursin partnership with the science community.Government Departments and the researchcouncils invite research proposals and holdseminars and workshops to review and discussthe development of science programmes withthe science community at different stages ofthe process. Departmental research into themarine environment is co-ordinated and managedby the widest possible range of consultationamongst relevant research managers and policymakers and where appropriate the use ofexternal specialist advice. The remainder of thischapter looks at a small number of key piecesof research.

Biological effects of pollutants

9.25 A co-ordinated programme of research intothe effects of pollution on marine organisms hasinvestigated genetic, cellular disruption,behaviour and physiology in different groups oforganisms and marine populations. This researchwill help us to judge whether current regulatoryprogrammes and measures are providingsufficient environmental protection.

9.26 A government-industry consortium wasestablished to support the Endocrine Disruptionin the Marine Environment (EDMAR) ResearchProgramme, which aimed to investigate whetherthere is evidence that changes in the reproductivehealth of both marine fish and invertebrates aredue to endocrine disruption. EDMAR has showneffects in five species of estuarine fish. It is not yetclear whether the observed effects are likely tohave consequences for reproductive success orwhether they also occur in other groups ofspecies eg invertebrates. Further research isneeded to identify the substances responsibleand the potential impacts.

Impact of anthropogenically–derivednutrients on the marine environment

9.27 A six year study into the impacts of nutrientsin key UK coastal areas (JoNuS) was led byCEFAS and funded by a consortium ofGovernment departments. This supported thedevelopment of policy decisions on themanagement of flows of nutrient elements fromsociety and understanding of the way the coastalsystem works and contributed to decisionson what level of impact on the ecosystemis acceptable and what is not. Further researchis developing robust approaches to how weclassify and manage marine areas with regardto nutrient impacts.

Environmental effects of sand and gravelextraction

9.28 As noted in Chapter 6, research into theeffects of human activities on the seabedsupports the regulation of the activity, allowingpotential conflicts with other uses of the sea to beidentified. Research into the movement of theplume of sediment resulting from extraction ofaggregates at Race Bank, off north Norfolk,enabled the Government to advise that licenceconditions should be set to minimise the impactof the activity on the local crab fishery. Theseconditions restricted extraction of aggregateto neap tides and thus reduced the dispersionof sediment.

Habitat mapping

9.29 The need to gain a greater understandingof the marine environment and the inaccessibilityof the sea floor has led to the development ofsophisticated acoustic technologies for assessingseabed topography and deep ocean currents.These technologies have made it possible to mapseabed habitats and marine resources. DEFRAand EHS in Northern Ireland are currently fundingresearch by CEFAS and DARD to investigate thecombined use of these techniques and biologicalsampling to map seabed biotopes (habitats andtheir associated biological communities).

76

9.30 This work is directly applicable to thedevelopment of policy on aggregate extractionfrom the seabed whilst ensuring the sustainabilityof the associated ecosystem. These studies havetherefore focused on mapping areas of theseabed that consist predominantly of gravel andsand deposits. However, there are widerapplications and to support integratedmanagement and conservation objectives weneed to work with marine industries to produceaccessible computer based mapping of thedistribution of key environmental feature,biodiversity and human use of the sea.


9.31 The creation of DEFRA in 2001 broughttogether into one Government Departmentinterests in marine science to supportconservation, environmental protection, fisheriesand coastal management objectives. Thisprovides a major opportunity to maximise and co-ordinate the value of government-funded marinescience in informing policy and the managementof the marine environment. Similarly the creationof SEERAD in Scotland has brought togetherinterests in marine science to support Scottishconservation, environment protection, fisheriesand coastal management objectives.

9.32 To support our objectives for integratedmanagement of the marine environment we willuse this opportunity to ensure that we optimisethe development of science programmes to meeta range of needs in policy development,particularly with respect to science infrastructureprojects. We will make sure that marine scientificresearch and monitoring is fully integrated intopolicy making. We will continue to undertakeresearch to provide a better understanding ofthe significance of the effects of hazardoussubstances and endocrine disruptors, particularlypopulation and community level effects.

9.33 We will take forward a number of newinitiatives with stakeholders. We will work throughOSPAR to develop Ecological Quality Objectivesto assess our success in delivering a ecosystem-based approach. We will also develop ourenvironment monitoring and observationframework to deliver integrated assessmentsof state of the marine environment using aframework of environmental indicators. We willproduce a first integrated assessment of theState of Our Seas in 2004.

9.34 We will develop a pilot programme inoperational oceanography harnessing modelling,remote sensing and real time data collectiontechniques to support coastal management,emergency response and management of marineactivities. We will encourage open access tomarine environmental data.

9.35 We will develop a marine environmentalchange network to maximise the value of the UK’slong-term time series in monitoring the effectsof climate change on UK marine ecosystems.We will also work toward providing publiclyaccessible integrated marine mapping, initiallyin the coastal area. This will help to promoteintegrated and ecosystem based approachesto management through a better understandingof the interactions between environmentalfeatures and human activities.


77

2002 – commencement of regional seas pilot scheme in

the Irish Sea as the next step of our Review of Marine

Nature Conservation.

2002 – publication of Government’s strategy for

managing radioactive discharges up to 2020 to show

how UK is working to deliver its OSPAR target.

2002 – designation of Marine Environmental High Risk

Areas (MEHRAS) and consultation on protective

measures proposed for individual MEHRAs.

2002 – International Safety Management (ISM) Code to

apply to most ships that trade internationally to provide

an international standard for the safe management and

operation of ships and pollution prevention.

2002 – hold autumn workshop with key stakeholders on

how best to take forward the initiatives and ideas

contained in this report.

2002 – start process of reviewing the regulatory

framework affecting development in the coastal area with

a view to simplifying the regulatory system and

protecting the marine environment.

2002 – consultation on Regulations to extend the

Habitats and Birds Directives to all waters over which the

UK exercises sovereign rights.

2002 – JNCC to recommend potential sites for SPA and

SAC status in the 12 to 200 nautical mile zone to apply

once the regulations to extend the Habitats and Birds

Directives are in place.

2002 – preparation of the next round of Shoreline

Management Plans (SMPs) to further improve handling

of long–term natural processes affecting coastal defence

planning.

2002 – expected adoption of the EC Recommendation

on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

followed by a joint conference of national coastal fora on

how best to implement the Recommendation.

2002 – ratification of the Kyoto Protocol with our

European partners in time for it to enter into force before

the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

in August 2002.

2002 – WSSD. UK promotes marine issues as a priority,

including sustainable fisheries, marine protected areas

and better oceans governance.

2002 – publication of Government’s Energy White

Paper.

2002 – EC Directive to establish a port waste reception

regime across the EC to come into force.

2002 – publication of the UK’s Small Cetacean By-catch

Response Strategy.

2002 – issue consultation paper by the end of the year

on the scope and content of future marine stewardship

reports and whether a new overarching stakeholder

forum is needed.

2003 – completion of the UK’s initial assessment under

OSPAR of the eutrophication status of UK waters to

complement assessments of estuaries and nearshore

waters which are being done under relevant EC

Directives.

2003 – the International Convention on the Control of

Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on ships bans the

application of organotin from 1 January 2003 and its

use as an anti-foulant on ships from 1 January 2008.

2003 – amount of compensation available for any single

oil spill from a tanker will rise by 50 per cent to

approximately £180 million.

2003 – development of an integrated, comprehensive,

environmental regulatory regime for offshore oil and

gas licensing seamless from pre-licensing through

exploration, development and eventual

decommissioning.

2003 – revised Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) to

come into effect following completion of the current

review of the CFP.

2003 – next OSPAR Ministerial Meeting

2003 – completion of Coastal Habitat Mapping Plans

(CHaMPS) initiative, including seven CHaMPS, best

practice guidance on habitat creation and a framework

for managing habitats on changing coastlines.

Annex ATimeline for key dates and achievements

77

A Annex A Summary of targets and timescales for delivering our vision

78

2004 – findings of the regional seas pilot scheme in the

Irish Sea, which forms part of the Review of Marine

Nature Conservation, available in early 2004.

2004 – latest date for the Strategic Environmental

Assessment (SEA) Directive to be transposed to

complement the Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA) Directive.

2004 – target date for completion of development of a

full set of Ecological Quality Objectives and

development of a first integrated indicator-based

assessment in the form of a State of the Seas report.

2004 – disposal of vessels or aircraft at sea will be

prohibited after the end of 2004 under Annex II of the

OSPAR Convention.

2004 – between 2001 and 2004 funding of over £260

million will have been granted to encourage further

research and development in renewable energy to

support early projects.

2004 – production of our integrated assessment of

our seas.

2005 – by 2005 a further £600 million will have been

invested to drive up bathing water compliance.

2006 – date for meeting the OSPAR target of a

reduction of 15 per cent of current oil inputs from

produced water.

2006 – North Sea Ministerial Meeting on the

environmental impacts of shipping and the

environmental consequences of fishing.

2006 – we will have developed an overarching vision for

the future of the UK’s coastline, underpinned by a fully

integrated set of strategies for England, Wales, Scotland

and Northern Ireland.

2007 – unprotected single hull tankers will not be

allowed to operate anywhere in the world after 2007.

2010 – we are committed to halting the decline of

biodiversity by 2010 as part of the EU’s 6th

Environmental Action Programme.

2010 – by 2010, we will have identified and designated

relevant areas of the UK’s seas as marine protected

areas belonging to a network of well-managed sites.

2010 – we are committed to renewable energy making

up 10 per cent of electricity sales from licensed

suppliers by 2010.

2010 – target date for going further than the Kyoto

commitment and achieve a domestic goal of a 20 per

cent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions below

1990 levels.

2010 – target date for meeting individual ceilings for

four transboundary pollutants: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen

oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia

under the Gothenberg Protocol.

2015 – deadline for meeting demanding water quality

targets under the Water Framework Directive’s strategic

framework for managing inland and coastal waters in an

integrated and sustainable way.

2015 – from 2015 newer tankers with partial hull

protection will not be allowed into the ports of EU

Member States, UK Overseas Territories, Russia and the

Baltic States unless they are double hulled.

2020 – Performance Innovation Unit recommended

target date for electricity generated by renewable

sources to be increased to 20 per cent.

2020 – OSPAR target for reducing or eliminating

discharges, emissions or losses of hazardous

substances into the marine environment as far as

practicable.

2020 – OSPAR target for reducing discharges,

emissions and losses of radioactive substances in the

marine environment to historic levels or close to zero.

A Annex A Summary of targets and timescales for delivering our vision

79

ACAP Agreement on Albatrosses and Petrels

ACFM Advisory Committee on Fishery Management

ACME Advisory Committee on the Marine Environment

ARGO Array for Real-time Geotropic Oceanography Project

ASCOBANS Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North seas

BAP Biodiversity Action PlanBAT Best Available TechniquesBEP Best Environmental PracticeBNFL British Nuclear Fuels Limited

CBD Convention on Biological DiversityCCALMR Commission for the Conservation of

Antarctic Living Marine Resources CCW Countryside Council for WalesCEFAS Centre for Environment Fisheries

and Aquaculture ScienceCFP Common Fisheries PolicyCHaMPS Coastal Habitat Management PlansCITES Convention on International Trade in

Endangered SpecieCLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability

Research ProgrammeCPR Continuous Plankton Recorder

DARDNI Department of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment Northern Ireland

DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

DFID Department for International Development

DoENI Department of Environment Northern Ireland

DTI Department of Trade and IndustryDTLR Department for Transport, Local

Government and the Regions DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

EA Environment AgencyEBFM Ecosystem–Based Approaches to

Fisheries ManagementEC European CommissionEcoQO Ecological Quality ObjectiveEDC Endocrine Disrupting ChemicalEDMAR Endocrine Disruption in the Marine

Environment Research ProgrammeEEC European Economic CommunityEHS Environment and Heritage Service

(Northern Ireland)EIA Environmental Impact AssessmentEMS Electronic Monitoring SystemEN English Nature

ETV Emergency Towing Vessel(s)EU European Union

FAO Food and Agriculture OrganisationFCO Foreign and Commonwealth OfficeFEPA Food and Environment Protection

Act 1985FOAM Forecast Ocean-Atmosphere Model

(Meteorological Office)FRS Fisheries Research Service

GDP Gross Domestic ProductGIS Geographical Information SystemGLOBEC Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics

ProjectGOOS Global Ocean Observing SystemGPA Global Programme of ActionGV Government View (Procedure on

Aggregate Dredging)

HNS Hazardous and Noxious SubstancesConvention 1996

IACMST Inter Agency Committee on Marine Science and Technology

ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management

IMDG International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMO)

IMO International Maritime OrganisationIPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention

Control IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

ChangeISA Infectious Salmon AnaemiaISM International Safety ManagementIUU Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported

FishingIWC International Whaling Commission

JoNuS Joint Nutrients StudyJNCC Joint Nature Conservation

Committee

MADP Marine Aggregate Dredging PolicyMAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and

Food MarClim Marine Biodiversity and Climate

StudyMARPOL International Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution from ShipsMCEU Marine Consents & Environment

UnitMEHRAs Marine Environmental High Risk

AreasMIC Marine Information Council

Annex BGlossary of acronyms and abbreviations

B Annex B Glossary of terms

80

MNR Marine Nature ReservesMPAG Maritime Pollution Advisory GroupMPG6 Minerals Planning Guidance Note

(No.6)MPMMG Marine Pollution Monitoring

Management GroupMPPW Minerals Planning Policy WalesMS Member States (of the European

Union)MSR Marine Stewardship ReportMW Mega Watts (Unit of Measurement)

NADW North Atlantic Deep WaterNASCO North Atlantic Salmon Conservation

OrganisationNAW National Assembly for WalesNERC Natural Environmental Research

CouncilNGO Non Governmental OrganisationsNMMP The National Marine Monitoring

ProgrammeNSC North Sea ConferenceNPPG National Planning Policy Guideline

(Scotland)

OPRC International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co–operation

OSPAR OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic

PAHs Polycyclic Aromatic HydrocarbonsPCBs Polychlorinated BiphenylsPIU Performance and Innovation Unit at

Cabinet OfficePNTL Pacific Nuclear Transport LimitedPOP Persistent Organic Pollutant(s)PPG Planning Policy GuidancePPW Planning Policy Wales

QSR Quality Status Report (OSPAR)

R&D Research and DevelopmentRFO Regional Fisheries Organisation(s)RMNC Review of Marine Nature

Conservation

SAC Special Area of ConservationSCANS Small Cetacean Abundance in the

North SeaSE Scottish ExecutiveSEA Strategic Environmental AssessmentSEEEC Sea Empress Environmental

Evaluation CommitteeSEERAD Scottish Executive Environment and

Rural Affairs DepartmentSEPA Scottish Environment Protection

AgencySFCs Sea Fisheries CommitteesSFLP Sustainable Fisheries Livelihood

ProgrammeSIDS Small Island Developing StatesSMP Shoreline Management Plan(s)

SNH Scottish Natural HeritageSOSREP Secretary of State’s Representative

for Maritime Salvage and Intervention

SPA Special Protection AreaSSSI Sites of Special Scientific InterestSWSFC South Wales Sea Fisheries

Committee

TAC Total Allowable Catch(es)TAN (Aggregates) Technical Advice NoteTAR Third Assessment Report (IPCC)TBT TributyltinTHC Thermohaline Circulation

UK United Kingdom

UKBAP UK Biodiversity Action Plan(s)

UKCC UK Climate Change Programme

UKCIP UK Climate Impacts Programme

UKCS UK Continental Shelf

UKOOA UK Offshore Operators Association

UKWIR UK Water Industry Research

UN United Nations

UNCLOS UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNECE UN Environment Economic

Commission for Europe

UNEP UN Environment Programme

UNFA UN Agreement on Straddling and

Highly Migratory Stocks

UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on

Climate Change

UWWTD Urban Waste Water Treatment

Directive

WCRP World Climate Research Programme

WMO World Meteorological Organisation

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WSSD World Summit on Sustainable

Development

WWF–UK World Wide Fund for Nature –

United Kingdom

B Annex B Glossary of terms

Department for Environment, Food & Rural AffairsNobel House17 Smith SquareLondon SW1P 3JRTelephone 020 7238 6000Website: www.defra.gov.uk

© Crown copyright 2002.

Copyright in the typographical arrangement and design rests with the Crown.

This publication (excluding the logo) may be reproduced free of charge in any format or mediumprovided that it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material mustbe acknowledged as Crown copyright with the title and source of the publication specified.

Further copies of this report are available from:

DEFRA PublicationsAdmail 6000LondonSW1A 2XXTel: 08459 556000

This publication is also available on the DEFRA website.

Published by the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs. Printed in the UK, May 2002on material containing 75% post-consumer waste and 25% ECF pulp (cover) and100% post-consumer waste (text).

Product code PB 6187

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9 780855 210052

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A Strategy for the Conservation and SustainableDevelopment of our Marine Environment

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