a society to match the scenery: personal visions of the future of the american west
TRANSCRIPT
title: ASocietytoMatchtheScenery:PersonalVisionsoftheFutureoftheAmericanWest
author: Holthaus,GaryH.publisher: UniversityPressofColorado
isbn10|asin: 0870813005printisbn13: 9780870813009ebookisbn13: 9780585023823
language: English
subject West(U.S.)--Descriptionandtravel,West(U.S.)--Civilization--20thcentury.
publicationdate: 1991lcc: F595.3.S631991ebddc: 978/.033
subject: West(U.S.)--Descriptionandtravel,West(U.S.)--Civilization--20thcentury.
ASOCIETYTOMATCHTHESCENERYPersonalVisionsoftheFutureoftheAmericanWest
GaryHolthaus,PatriciaNelsonLimerick,CharlesF.Wilkinson,andEveStrykerMunson,
editors
AprojectoftheCenteroftheAmericanWest,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
UNIVERSITYPRESSOFCOLORADO
Copyright©1991bytheUniversityPressofColoradoP.O.Box849Niwot,Colorado80544
Allrightreserved.
1098765432
TheUniversityPressofColoradoisacooperativepublishingenterprisesupported,inpart,byAdamsStateCollege,ColoradoStateUniversity,FortLewisCollege,MesaStateCollege,MetropolitanStateCollegeofDenver,UniversityofColorado,UniversityofNorthernColorado,UniversityofSouthernColorado,andWesternStateCollege.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
ASocietytomatchthescenery:personalvisionsofthefutureoftheAmericanWest/GaryHolthaus[et.al.].p.cm."AprojectoftheCenteroftheAmericanWest,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder."Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN0-87081-241-6;ISBN0-87081-300-5(pbk.)1.West(U.S.)Descriptionandtravel19812.West(U.S.)Civilization20thcentury.I.Holthaus,GaryH.,1932II.UniversityofColorado,Boulder.CenteroftheAmericanWest.F595.3.S631991
978'.033dc20 91-24957
CIP
ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsoftheAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials.ANSIZ39.481984
¥
ADVISORYBOARDMEMBERS
Co-Chairs
PatriciaNelsonLimerick,Professor,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
CharlesR.Wilkinson,MosesLaskyProfessorofLaw,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
SusanClarke,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofPoliticalScience,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
PeterDecker,President,DeckerandAssociates
RogerEcho-Hawk,PawneeTribalHistorian
CharlesForaman,Professor,DepartmentofFineArts,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
EleanorGehres,Manager,WesternHistoryDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary
BillHornby,SeniorEditor,TheDenverPost
EdMarston,Publisher,HighCountryNews
CharlesMiddleton,Dean,CollegeofArtsandSciences,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
DuaneSmith,Professor,DepartmentofHistory,FortLewisCollege,Durango,Colorado
BarbaraSudler,President,ColoradoHistoricalFoundation
WilliamWei,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder
Forfurtherinformationcontact,GaryH.Holthaus,DirectorUniversityofColorado
CampusBox401Boulder,CO80309(303)492-1876
Pagev
CONTENTSListofIllustrations ix
Preface xi
PARTONE:Introduction
SpeakingoftheWest 3
GaryHolthaus,PatriciaNelsonLimerick,andCharlesF.Wilkinson
ThoughtsofMyDesertHome 11
CordeliaCandelaria
SummerRaininAspen 12
CordeliaCandelaria
RoughPassageonI-80 13
EdwardDorn
PARTTWO:Mr.Jeffersonin1803
TheAmericanWest:APersonalDreamFromtheVantagePointofMonticelloin1803
21
ThomasJefferson/ClayStrausJenkinson
PARTTHREE:ThePeople
TheBowl 31
TerryTempestWilliams
ThePoetLetsHisTongueHangDown 34
EdwardDorn
PlainsongatCrowheartButte 37
PeterF.Michelson
MotelSuperbo 42
EdwardDorn
ProgressorDecline?JudgingtheHistoryofWesternExpansion
43
PatriciaNelsonLimerick
Pagevi
ASoftWindBlowingThroughtheAmericanWest 51
TerryTempestWilliams
HealthyEnvironment,HealthyEconomy:AmericanIndianLessons
61
WalterEcho-Hawk
Land,Community,andSurvival:LessonsfortheWestFromAmericanIndians
65
DavidH.Getches
TheAmericanWestFromtheEastandtheSouth 69
EvelynHu-Dehart
DrawingStrengthFromtheDiversityoftheWest 71
RaymondDeanJones
DevelopmentandCulturalSurvival 73
EstevanT.Flores
TheHumanElementintheWest:Contradictions,Contradictions,Contradictions
75
AdrianIlerminioBustamante
NewSettlersintheRuralWest 78
BetsyMarston
TheElusiveQualityoftheWest 81
CharlesR.Middleton
TheLastBestPlace:HowHardshipandLimitsBuildCommunity
83
DanielKemmis
PARTFOUR:TheLimits
WhenDidWeKnow 93
CordeliaCandelaria
TheHistoryofFutures 95
EdwardDorn
FreeMarketChinoiserie 97
EdwardDorn
Agriculture 98
WilliamKittredge
Pagevii
HowWillOurGrandchildrenJudgeUs? 114
BarbaraSudler
DefiningtheCarryingCapacityoftheWest 116
JoClark
RecognizingtheWestasanUrbanPlace 120
WilliamII.Hornby
TheDisposableWest 124
ThomasJ.Noel
MythsofViolenceinOwningItAll 126
DavídL.Carrasco
TheCollisionofWildernessandCulture 131
JamesA.Carrier
ExceedingtheCarryingCapacityoftheWest:AnArtist'sPerspective
135
RichardMisrach
ThePressintheWest:Co-optedIntoaCelebrationofTechnology
153
MarkTrahant
PARTFIVE:TheFuture
Kokopelli'sReturn 159
TerryTempestWilliams
SomethingStartingOver 161
ThomasHornsbyFerril
PublicUseandtheFutureoftheFederalLands 163
BruceBabbitt
Eco-PoliticsandEconomicDevelopment:Wealth,Hope,andChoice
171
PhilipM.Burgess
TheAmericanWest:WhatIdeasShouldDetermineItsFuture? 180
EdwinH.Marston
RegionalismandtheWesternUniversity 190
JamesN.Corbridge,Jr.
FreedomComesFromPeople,NotPlace 194
CamilleGuerin-Gonzalez
Pageviii
TheLands,NaturalResources,andEconomyoftheWest 196
SallyK.Fairfax
AnEthicofPlace:TheIssueattheHeartofAllElse 206
JohnE.Echohawk
PARTSIX:CreatingaGeographyofHope
CentenarySequencefortheDreamers(selectedpassages) 211
PeterF.Michelson
AGeographyofHope 218
WallaceStegner
HomeontheRange 230
CordeliaCandelaria
PARTSEVEN:Mr.Jeffersonin1990
TheAmericanWest:TheDreamFromtheVantagePointofColoradoin1990
235
ThomasJefferson/ClayStrausJenkinson
Contributors 247
Notes 251
Bibliography 255
Index 257
Pageix
LISTOFILLUSTRATIONSDownedSaguaro,Arizona,1983 137
CampersandRestrainingFence,EdwardsAirForceBase,California,1983
139
FloodedMarina(gaspumps),SaltonSea,California,1983 141
DesertFire#17,1983 143
SnowCanyonStatePark,Utah,1987 145
UnexplodedBomb,Bravo20BombingRange,Nevada,1986 147
BoardwalkoftheBombs,illustrationbyRicoSolinas 149
DeadAnimals#86,Nevada,1986 151
Pagexi
PREFACEThisbookisthefirstpublicationoftheCenteroftheAmericanWest,establishedinJanuary1990bytheUniversityofColoradoasaprojectoftheCollegeofArtsandSciences.ThestudyoftheAmericanWestisafascinatingfieldblessedwitharichhistory,avigorousbodyofliterature,andextraordinarilydiversehumanandnaturalresources.Theworkingpremisesofthecenterincludetheideasthateventsintheregionarebestunderstoodasbeingacontinuumofpast,present,andfuture,andthatunderstandingisbestachievedbymeshingobjectivedata,theperspectivesofferedbytheartsandsciences,androbustpolicyanalysisanddebate.Theessayspresentedinthisvolumegrewoutofpresentationsmadeattwomajorsymposiainwhichweattemptedtoapplytheideasjustsummarized.Thesymposia"ASocietytoMatchtheScenery:ShapingtheFutureoftheAmericanWest"(October1988)and"InhabitingtheLastBestPlace:Limits,Opportunities,andtheFutureoftheAmericanWest"(March1990)werebothwellreceived,withatotalofnearlyfifteenhundredpeopleinattendance.Asthetableofcontentstothisvolumeamplydemonstrates,theparticipantsincludedmanyofthemostknowledgeableandcreativemindsintheregion.
Wehavemanythankstooffertothosepeoplewhohelpedbringthisprojecttofruition.Firstandforemost,wewishtoextendourappreciationtoEveMunson.Eveservedastheeditorforthisvolumeandcarriedtheprimaryresponsibilitybothforthegeneralorganizationandforeditingthemanuscripts.Wealsoextendourgratitudetoourauthors,whoundertookthetaskofrewritingtheirsymposiaspeechesintotheseprintedessaysandwhorespondedtoourvariousrequestswithspeedandgoodspirits.AnnFitzSimmons,DodieUdall,andMarieWilwerdingallperformedvaluablestaffwork
onthisbookandonthesymposia.
TheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderhasbeenexceedinglysupportive,bothwiththeCenteroftheAmericanWestingeneralandwiththisbookinparticular.JamesN.Corbridge,chancellor,CharlesR.Middleton,deanoftheCollegeofArtsandSciences,andBruceEkstrand,vicechancellorforacademicaffairs,havebeenmostgenerouswiththeirtime,suggestions,andfinancialcontributions.Thesymposia,andthisvolume,wouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttwosubstantialgrantsfromtheColoradoEndowmentfortheHumanities.WealsoappreciatethefineworkingrelationshipthatwehavehadwiththeUniversityPressofColoradoanditsdirector,LutherWilson.Last,we
Pagexii
wouldliketoextendourheartfeltthankstoRichardHartandAlvinJosephy.Theyweretheheartandsoulofthewonderfulconferencessponsoredeverysummerfromthemid-1970sthroughthemid-1980sinSunValley,Idaho,bytheInstituteoftheAmericanWest.ThosedynamicinterdisciplinarygatheringsweretheinspirationfortheCenteroftheAmericanWestandforthecollectionofpersonalvisionspresentedhere.
GARYHOLTHAUS,DIRECTORCENTEROFTHEAMERICANWEST
PATRICIANELSONLIMERICK,BOARDCO-CHAIRCENTEROFTHEAMERICANWESTASSOCIATEPROFESSOROFHISTORY
CHARLESF.WILKINSON,BOARDCO-CHAIRCENTEROFTHEAMERICANWESTMOSESLASKYPROFESSOROFLAW
PARTONEIntroduction
Page3
SPEAKINGOFTHEWESTGaryHolthaus,PatriciaNelsonLimerick,CharlesF.WilkinsonBoulder,ColoradoFebruary1991
In1929atagethirty-six,JosephWoodKrutchpublishedhisdespairingbook,TheModernTemper.AlthoughhewouldlatermovetoArizona,wherethedesertwouldleadhimtoanewkindofhope,Krutchin1929feltsurethathumanityhadlandeditselfinabigmess.Scienceandrationalityhaderodedfaithinthemodernworld;thoughtfulpeoplehadtolearntolivewithakindofemotionalmalnutrition,gettingbyonskepticismandalienation.
Onalecturetourtopublicizehisgloomybook,KrutchwenttoDetroit,wherehewasmetbythepresidentofawomen'sclub.''Sheapproachedme,"Krutchremembered,"onlyaftereveryotherdescendingpassengerhadlefttheplatform.'AreyouMr.Krutch?''Iam.'Herfacefell.'Butyoudonotlookas,asdepressedasIexpected.'"1
HadshebeenabletoattendtheCenteroftheAmericanWest'ssymposiaattheUniversityofColoradointhe1980s,thepresidentoftheDetroitwomen'sclubwouldhavehadasimilarresponse.InOctoberof1988,atthesymposium"ASocietytoMatchtheScenery:ShapingtheFutureoftheAmericanWest,"andinMarchof1990,atthesymposium"InhabitingtheLastBestPlace:Limits,Opportunities,andtheFutureoftheAmericanWest,"speakerssquarelyconfrontedtheproblemsoftheAmericanWest.Andyetthespiritoftheexchangewasbynomeansoneofdespairanddepression.FortheWesternersassembledinBoulderonthosetwooccasions,theexplorationofcommongroundandcommonconcernsprovidedconsiderable
pleasure.Whiletheideasandconvictionsexpressedatthemicrophone,andnowprintedhere,werefrequentlystimulating,theenergyoftheconversationstakingplaceallaroundthehallwasequallyimpressive.Inbreaksbetweensessions,asparticipantsclusteredforanimateddiscussions,thoseexchangesdemonstratedtheremarkableprocessunderwayinthelatetwentieth-centuryWest:quiteliterally,thereexplorationoftheregionandthereconsiderationofthehabitsandcustomsofWesterners.This
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is,inthebestsense,amatterofsecondthoughts,areconsiderationofwhathumans,inthelastfourcenturies,havedonetothisplaceandtoeachother,andaweighingofchoicesforthecenturiesahead.
TheWest,manyofthespeakersagreed,hasatroublingrecordinresourceuse.Toooften,Westernershaveapproachedtheirremarkableregionwith,asPhilipBurgessputit,anattitudeof"rape,scrape,andrun."Actinginhaste,Westernershaveusedresourcesrecklesslyandapportionedthemunfairly,andthat,despitetheshiftinattitudeembodiedintheconservationmovement,isapatternoffollythatpersistsintoourtimes.
Wecannot,moreover,reversethatpatternwithasuddenandsimplechangeofourintentionsandgoals.Choosingtopreservearesourcebynomeansleadstoaclearpathofaction.JimCarriermakesthispointinhisdiscussionofthefiresatYellowstone.Effortstopreservesceneryandwildlifeoftencollidewiththeneedsofpeopletryingtomakealiving.
Humanrelationswithnatureare,afterall,onlyhalfoftheriddleofWesternAmericanlife;theother,necessaryhalfoftheriddleconcernsrelationsamonghumans.Astheparticipantsofthesesymposiapointedoutrepeatedly,oneoftheWest'smostvaluableresourcesisitspeople,withtheirwonderfuldiversity.Byonehabitofthoughtwithadeephistoricalrootsystem,thatdiversityisseenasaproblemwhichindeeditsometimeshasbeen.ButakeypartofthereexplorationoftheAmericanWestistherepicturingofthatdiversityasanopportunity,achancetomakeeverydaylifeanintellectualadventure,anoccasionforthemostdown-to-earthanddirecteducation.
Whilefallingshortofunanimity,thespeakersconvergedonashareddefinitionoftheWest:Itisaplacedistinctiveforitsaridity,itsopenspaces,itsrichnaturalresources,anditsinstructivemixofcultures,humanskills,andperspectives.Thisregiondoesnotgooutofitsway
tomakethedefiner'sjobeasy.ThenorthernpartsofthePacificCoasthave,attimes,abundantrainfall;citiesareassignificantapartoftheWesternlandscapeaswide,openruralspaces;naturalresourcesare,tosaytheleast,randomintheirdistribution;and,despitethehistoricalfactofhumandiversityandcomplexity,itisperfectlypossibletofindpocketsandenclavesofWesternerslivingsolelywith"theirownkind,"indifferenttothefateofthe"others"withwhomtheysharethisregion.Still,manyplacesandpartsoftheWestshareenoughinthewayofcommoncharacteristicstomakeregionalthinkingpossibleandproductive,evennecessary.
Inthiscollection,SallyFairfaxisaloneindiscountingthedistinctivenessoftheregion,arguingthatallpartsofthecountryhave
Page5
beautifulsceneryofwhichtheinhabitantsareproud.ButintheWest,acombinationofaridityandremotenesshasforcedhumanstoleavegreaterchunksofthesceneryalone;suburbsandcitiescanindeedseemdwarfedbyalandscapewherethehumanimprint,whilesubstantialandsignificant,stillremainssubtle.Thescenerymaynotbe"better"intheWest(dependinguponone'spenchantforgreenvistas,manicuredlandscapes,oroceanviews),butitismoreinsistent.
Despiteabundantopportunitiesforvisualpleasure,theWest,asmostofthesymposiaparticipantsagree,isaregionofsternlimits.Vastexpansesofitremainwithouthumanhabitation.Thislandscape,harshandaridasitis,iswhatmanylovemostdearlyabouttheWest.AsJimCarrierputit,"IstillfeelanexhilarationwhenIgetintothejeepanddriveoutofDenverintothelandscapethat,forme,continuestoholdthemagicandmeaningoftheWest."
Magicnotwithstanding,thislandscapehasgivencertainAmericanambitionsandhabitsaroughride.Reachingthehundredthmeridian,thelinewhererainfalldropsbelowtwentyinchesperyear,thehomesteadidealcollidedwithreality.AsBruceBabbittpointsout,theresultswereofbroadnationalsignificanceasWesternhomesteaders"expectedtoplowthesoilintoacheckerboardextensionoftheMiddleWest.Butforthemostpartitwouldnothappen."Fromthisfailurecame"twoopposingconceptsoflandtenure."Thefirstheldthatpubliclandwastobegivenawayorsoldtopromotedevelopment.Thesecond,Babbittargues,was"anewconcept,thatpubliclandsshouldberetainedinpermanentownershipandmanagedforpublicpurposes."
Theparticipantsinthesesymposiaare,however,farfromagreementonthepropositionthatpublicownershipoflandhasservedapublicgood.Babbittisnotthefirsttopointoutthatineptandevencorruptmanagementhassometimesreduced"thepublicgood"toaveil
concealingflawedpractices.Still,heargues,ifwetake"thenextstepintheevolutionofpublicland-usepolicy,"replacingtheconceptofmultiple-usemanagementwithoneof"dominantpublicuse,"wecanhavecarefulmanagementoflimitedresources.DanielKemmis,however,makesacounterargument:becausesomuchofWesternlandiscontrolledbyWashington,D.C.,weintheWesthaveshruggedoffresponsibilityforit.''TheWestwillnotbereadyforitsownpolitics,"heasserts,"untilitisreadytoclaimitsownland."ButKemmis'spropositiondoesnotquietthefearsofthosewhoseealong-termassociationof"localdecisionmaking"withthepracticeofshort-termextraction.
Theissueofresourcelimitsandpublicpolicydominatesthesymposiadiscussions,asitdoespublicexchangethroughouttheWest.AdrianBustamanteusesthecontroversyoverthefederalgovernment'sWaste
Page6
IsolationPilotProject(WIPP)inNewMexicoasanexampleofthehardchoicestheWestfacesandthebittersocialdivisionsforcedonusbylimits.InNewMexico,henotes,peopleinSantaFeandAlbuquerquehavevoicedstrongoppositiontotheplantostorelow-levelnuclearwasteinthesouthernpartofthestate.Trucksloadedwithdeadlycargoeswilltravelthroughdenselypopulatedurbanareas,andthisprospectunderstandablyalarmscitydwellers.Ontheotherhand,"peopleinCarlsbadwantitbecausethepotashminesgaveoutandnowtheyneedjobs."Withitsappearanceofhavingunused"waste"spaces,theAmericanWestwillalwaysbetheleadingcandidateforwastedisposal;theconflictswirlingaroundWIPPandothernuclear-wastesiteswillremainapartofthepoliticalandsociallandscapefordecadestocome.
EdMarston,inhisdiscussionoflifeinasmalltownonColorado'sWesternSlope,makesacomparablepointonthedifficultyofreconcilingtheneedforjobswiththeneedforasafeenvironment.Residentsofhishometown,Paonia,andtownslikeit,donotdaretolooktoohardattheenvironmentaleffectsofmining,becauseamineoffersthemostlucrativejobsintheregion.Withoutmining,alotofworkerswouldconfronthardtimesindeed,timeshardenoughtoprovokeamoveelsewhere.Similarly,WesternSloperesidentsareambivalentabouteffortstoimproveeducationintheregion;giventheeducationalopportunities,abettereducationfortheirchildrentoooftenleadstothechildrenmovingawayinordertoputthateducationtouse.
JoClarkgivesseveralpoignantexamplesofhardpoliticalchoicesforcedbythelimitsintheWest.Forexample,shespeaksabouttheanguishofGeorgeSinner,whoasgovernorofNorthDakotawasaskedtosignacertificateofneedforahomefortheelderlyfortheTurtleMountainChippewa,agroupthatdoesnotpaystatetaxes.Therequestarrivedonthegovernor'sdeskrightafterstateresidents,
beleagueredbyaneconomicdepressioncausedbyanationalbustinenergyandagriculture(thetwobiggestsourcesofrevenueinthestate),hadvotedtorollbackstatetaxes.AsClarktellsit,Sinnerremarked,"Ican'tapproveanewobligationwhenI'mhavingtocutsomanyprograms,buthowcanIdenyapopulationwhichIknowisprobablytheneediestinthestate?"Ineconomicallydepressedareas,Clarkargues,doingtherightthingapproachesimpossibility.
ThomasNoelplacesthisideaoflimitsintothecontextofanationalconsumerculturebasedonwastefulnesswhathecallsthedisposablesociety.HesuggeststhatthisisparticularlyinappropriateintheWestandmakesaspecificpleaforhistoricpreservationas"partofalarger
Page7
ethic,anideaofpreserving,ofsaving,offixingthingsupratherthanhavingdisposablecities,disposableofficebuildings,disposableshoppingcenters,andadisposablepast."Regrettableinenvironmentalterms,wasteisonecomponentofsocialinjustice.CallingAmericanIndians"thepoorestofthepoor,livingintherichestcountryontheplanet,"WalterEcho-Hawkputsthespotlightonthewaysinwhichsocialinjusticeandenvironmentalinjusticerunonparalleltracks.
Aconfrontationwithlimitsisnot,however,necessarilyaconfrontationwithgloom.DanielKemmis,quotingWendellBerry,suggeststhattheWest's"hardshipisitspossibility.""Hardcountry,"Kemmisargues,"breedscapablepeoplecapable,amongotherthings,ofgenuinedemocracy."Itishere,Kemmissays,that"theWesthasthecapacitytocontributesomethingdeepandimportantandlastingtothehistoryofpoliticsandcivilization.Simplybecausewehaveforsomanygenerationsworkedontheprojectoflivingtogetherinhardcountry,wehave,althoughwedon'trecognizeit,developedamongourselvescertainpatternsofbehavior,whichamounttosharedvalues."
HardyfolklivinginhardcountrytheimagecertainlydoescharacterizesomepartsoftheWest,butitsapplicationtoDenverorAlbuquerqueismorequestionable.AsBillHornby,thesonofaU.S.ForestServicesuperintendent,pointsout,inspiteofourenchantmentwiththebeautyoftheoutdoors,mostofusintheWestliveincities.Hepointstohimselfasanexample.HegrewupinMontana,wenttoStanford,andspenttimeinWyomingandNewMexicobeforesettlinginDenver.Eventhoughhespent"sometimeinthewoods,"learnedtofish,andhas"beenoutinawheatfield,"hehasspentmostofhislifeintownsandcities.Andyet,hesays,thecity"istheplacemostWesternhistoriansdon'twanttothinkabout."Preoccupiedwiththemountains,theresources,thewater,"wereallycan'tworkinthecitieswhenwe're
talkingabouttheWest."IfmostofthepeopleintheWestliveincities,thentokeeptheWestliveable,wehavetoseethatcitiesareliveable.TheurbanWestandtheruralWestmayseemtobeseparateplaces,buttheirdestiniesaretightlyinterwoven.
"Wehavebeenunwillingtoimaginethepossibilityofagoodcity,"Kemmisargues,andtherefore"webelievedwestillbelievethatwecansomehowescapeourselvesbyslippingintothemountains,avoidingthehardtaskoffacinguptoourselvesincities."UsingtheClassicMayacultureasanexample,DavidCarrascoechoesthispoint,arguingthatifasocietyfailstorecognizeanddealwiththeproblemsofcities,theentirelandscapeandculturecancollapse.Ashesays,"citiesarethegreatestforcesofecologicaltransformation...thestylecentersofthe
Page8
world,controllinglifeinthecountryside....EventhoughpeopleintheWestthinktheyliveinruralAmerica,ontheedgeofthewilderness...theyactuallyliveinaworlddeterminedmoreandmorebycities."
ReckonwiththesignificanceofWesterncitiesandyoureckonaswellwithwhatmaybethemostimportantresourceintheWestitsmanypeopleanditsminglingofmanycultures.Thisisnoeasyreckoning,tobesure.ManyofthesymposiaparticipantswriteaboutthehistoricalinjuriesandinjusticesthatcomeinapackagewiththeWest'sculturaldiversity.WalterEcho-Hawksumsupalong,painfullegacywhenhenotes:"Historically,asweallknow,thewhitemanhastakenthingsthatbelongedtotheIndianinaone-waypatternthatmustnowbereversed,iffornootherreasonthanthattheIndiannolongerhasmuchlefttogive."
WithanunflinchinglookatinjusticeintheWesternpast,CamilleGuerin-GonzalezwritesofaWest"wherelargegroupsofpeoplehavebeenandcontinuetobedisenfranchisedonthebasisoftheirrace,theirgender,andtheirlanguage."Anoveremphasisontheappealandmystiqueofnature,shefeels,canprovideindirectsupporttothatinjustice,leavinghumansdwarfedbythepowerofthelandscape.SheagreeswithKemmisthat
theworldspiritisaliveinWesternvalleys,butitisaliveinpeople,andnotaplace;inthewhitesettlers,women,men,children,whocreatedalifeforthemselveswithhardwork;inMexicanomigrantfarm-workersinthebeetfieldsofColorado;inHispanoandEasternEuropeanminers;inCentralAmericansintheLosAngelesgarmentdistrict;inIndianpeoplesthroughouttheirland,strugglingtosurviveEuropeanconceptsofdemocracyandfreedom;inSoutheastAsianimmigrantsandinAfrican-SpanishandAfrican-Americansettlers.Ifhardshipispossibility,thenitisinthesepeopleandtheircontinuinghardship,asHerbertMarcusearguedthirtyyearsago,wherethosepowerfulconceptsoffreedomand
democracymightfinallyberealized.
Eventoday,asJudgeRaymondJonespointsout,manywhohavesettledintheWest"speakofitasfrontier,asthoughitwereempty,asthoughitwerenoone'shome."IfwearetobeseriousabouttheWest,heargues,"Oneofthefactorsthatmustbeconsideredistheextenttowhichwewillincludeallofthepeople."Withdeepaffectionforbothplaceandpeople,Jonesrecountsthehistoryofhisfamilyintheregion."Blacks,"heinsists,"haveaplaceinthisplace."TheveryfactthatheneedstomakethisassertionisapoignantreminderthatAfrican-
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AmericanpeoplehavebeenmuchoverlookedinpopularthinkingabouttheWest.
ThepeopleoftheWestareanenormousresource,apointmanysymposiaspeakersmake.InspiteofongoinglegaltensionsbetweenwhitesandIndiansoverland,water,andfishingrights,observesDavidGetches,"MostWesternerswouldconsideritatragedyifIndianswereswirledintothemeltingpotofAmericansociety";theirdisappearanceintotheAmericanmainstreamwouldrobusallof"thelessonsdrawnfromtheirsuccessfulsurvivalinthisrugged,butfragile,mostlydryplace."AfterlistingdozensofgroupsthatcalltheWesthome,TerryTempestWilliamswrites,"IfthereisamiracleintheWest,itisinthefabricthesesubculturescreate."
ThehumandiversityoftheWestremains,however,aconversationwaitingtohappen.Wehave,heavenknows,enoughtotalkabout;whateverourethnicbackgrounds,weshareasetofenvironmentaldilemmas,economicfrustrations,andsocialtensions.Justasimportant,wehaveatreasuretroveofcompellingstoriestotelleachother,poolingthepiecesandpartsofapowerfulregionalhistory.Wehave,aswell,asharedfuturetoenvisionafutureinwhichbothcollaborationandconflictarelikelyprospects,dependingonthechoiceswemaketogether.
TheparticipantsinthesymposiaofferalotofquestionsthatWesternersneedtodiscussfrankly,directly,andopenly.Howdowelivewiththephysicallimitsoftheland?Whatkindofstewardsofthelandwillwebe?IlowdowedealwiththenuclearwastethatheadsWestasifdrawnbyamagnet?HowcanweliveinharmonywiththelandinawaythatwillallowruralWesternerstosurviveeconomically?lowdowepreservethecharacterofcommunitiesastheyvieforbadlyneeded"developmentbucks"?How,inthefaceofmovementslikethecallforEnglishastheofficiallanguage,dowe
makeapersuasivecaseforthepositivevalueoftheregion'sethnicdiversity?Whatmistakes,intheveryusefulquestionBarbaraSudlerraises,arewemakingthatourgrandchildrenwilljudgeusfor,inthesamewaythatwearejudgingourgrandparents?Canwe,inthelatetwentiethcentury,becomegenuinesettlers,andnotunsettlers,ofthisregion?
MarkTrahantsaysweneedtolearntoaskevenharderquestions.liespeaksasajournalistconcernedthattoomanyofhisprofessionalcolleagueshavebeenco-optedintocelebrating,ratherthancarefullyexamining,whatwecallprogress.Hesuggeststhatwedistanceourselvesfromtheprocesssothatwecancastanappropriatelycriticaleyeuponit.BabbittandHornbysuggestthatweneednewlawsinordertomakepublicservantsmoreaccountableandtomoveourselvesawayfromtheunworkablenotionof"firstcome,firstserved."
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EdMarstoncallsuponuniversitiesintheregiontodevelopexpertiseinregionalissues,givingWesternersaplacetoturnforhelpingatheringandinterpretingdataontheregion'sproblems.UniversityofColoradoChancellorJamesCorbridgejoinsMarstoninthishope:"OurWesternsocietycallsoutforacelebrationofitsdistinctivecontributiontoAmericanculture.Byresponding,theWesternuniversitywillnot,assomefear,diminishitself.Rather,theuniversitycommunitywillseizethemostpromisingchanceofreachingitsfullpotential."
Inavarietyofprojects,theCenteroftheAmericanWestaimstoplayitspartinthereexplorationoftheAmericanWest,underwayattheendofthesecondmillenniumandthebeginningofthethird.ThetoneandspiritofthatreexplorationareprobablybestcapturedintheessaysherebyWilliamKittredgeandWallaceStegner:aclear-eyedassessmentoftheachievements,losses,gains,errors,benefits,andinjuriesoftheWesternpast,andanequallyclear-eyedassessmentoftheprospectsforthefuture.Composedbymasterwriters,thosetwoessaysmakeitclearthattheWestisstillaplaceofpoetryanddrama,akindofpoetryanddramaagreatdealricherthanthetinnystoriesofthestereotyped"OldWest."TheoldstyleofWesternadventurethepursuitofshort-termprofitsinextractiveindustrieshasrunitscourse.Inthemostcrucialpassageinthisentirecollection,WallaceStegnerinvitesWesternerstotaketheopportunitypresentedbythismomentinhistory:theopportunityto"dreamotherdreams,andbetter."
AsStegner'sinvitationremindsus,Westernershavenotrunoutofopportunitiesforcourageandheroism.If,likeJosephWoodKrutch,theparticipantsatthesymposiainBoulderdidnotseemas"depressed"asonemighthaveexpected,thenthissurelyisthereason.ClosingthedoorononevarietyofWesternenterprise,areckoningwiththeregion'slimitsopensthedoortoanew,andbetter,Westernadventure.
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THOUGHTSOFMYDESERTHOMEforyou
IwouldwalkbesideyouonwarmNewMexicodirtsometimesredpackedclaysometimessilkwavesofsand
wherenomossorwillowsbrazenaboutinmoistexcess.
Justwetwoinsunwheredesert'sdryandclearbutfertile.
Overwindshapedmonumentsofstoneacloudmightexplodeandsurpriseustohangfreeininfinitiesofblue.
Noshockinsagebrushinsistent,deeprootedandlingeringlikethelovelywalkremembered.
CordeliaCandelaria
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SUMMERRAININASPENUnexpectedthisdrysummeritsoundslikethedismalroarofanidlingengine
justanotherversionoftherushoftheRoaringForkcuttingthroughtheurgentRockies.
AndjustasthatshowerofmeltedsnowdrownsitselfinwhitewatertherainattacksitsownpuddlesindinningtorrentsthisdustyAugust.
Andjustasyoustarttolisteninsurprise
therainslowstoastunningsilence
Welcomewetnessgreeningthedrought.
CordeliaCandelaria
Page13
ROUGHPASSAGEONI-80Wearetravellingthroughthecountry
where"ThankyouOhLordforthedealI'mabouttoreceive"ischiselledintotheblacktoplikeacrow'sincantation.
It'sminus3degreesontheCountFahrenheitscale.ItwouldbeBoraxocountryexceptthereain'tnoBoraxo.Andnomuleteams.Herethemulesdrive.Thoserollinghillsouttherearefullofcoalandoelandmolyalotamoly,that'slybdenumthekindofdenumthecowboysaroundherewear.Aroundhereeverybody'sacowboywithnocowsandeverycowiswithoutboys.TheboyshaveallgonetoRockSpringstodrillandtogetshot.
LowtrailershunkeredintheWinde,thebigsnau-blower.Scraprock,likedeinosaurfinsstrungalongthesaurianfreeway.Ah,toendeavortogainwhatanotherendeavorstogainatthesametimecompetition!eightbarrelled,sharpclawed!
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Thegraftislongbedstyle,ShottheSherifffurshure,plussomeshottheD.A.types,they'reallhere.TractorhatStranglers,Drive-upDrinkers,MobileSnorters,PassontheRightSidersmegarednek,andforgoodreasonthey'velynchedalltheLavenderNeks.MoredangerousthanBeirut.Theydon'ttakehostages,theydon'ttakeanythingalive.
Whiterocklaces,Four-Wheelers,BigDealers,SlimJimPeelers,TeasedHairSquealers!Yaalloo!bellertheYahoos,it'swheretheymakethespringsrocktheydon'tcallitRockSpringsfornothin'.
RADIO:WhiteChristmasscrap,DerBinglebaritoneinmotheatennight-cap.Weseethroughthelandscape:blackrubbermaidcrowssailpastaturquoisetrailer,coldaluminumhunchedunderthegunsofthewinde.InsidethesleepingresidentturnsonacouchofBudweisercanslipsfrozenturquoise,wrenched,limbsonthepiketogangrene.
RADIOMUSAK:GordonLightleg!dulcimerland,vestsonpennywhistles,Folkak,Blusak,RucksakRock.
OntoRollinsandRiggins.
Steelmosquitoesprobeanoelpoule.Deinosaurblood,blackandcrude,theawful,deviousoleo-olfactorydeathodour,atomicweight32,lowandvolatile,drivenbythepistonsofhell,thetransfusionoftheredroadmap,wherethosestumpingbagsoftheautoperiodwereoncegiventoroam.Outthewindow
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theProntosaurisOilCompanysitsnexttotheHorny-toedBootFactory,OverthrustBeltgettinglooserandloosernowafterthegasthese''BigBoyswithpopcornteeth"suckedoutofthemantle.
Ontheasphaltcinch,rollingalong,kidneybeltstightened,theKenworthTractorsaurusstampedeintoWamsutter,Lusk,Dittleboneandothersuchturquoise-eye-shadowtowns.
TheWamsutterHotelistotallyelectric.Gas,permanentvacancy,Conoco,Amoco,nowheretogo.ThatBigTraileroverthereiswheretheMayorlives,polelightonallnight,prowlingdogs,cringeandslobberforanankletocrushnotthefriendofEveryman.Allthiswouldbeonahillbutthereain'tnone.
GayJohnsoninstallationsonbothsidesoftheStrip.TheHowardJohnsonoftheHighWest.AwomanbuiltlikeastackoftiresfillsuphercoupéSIGN"GayJohnsons,BusesInvited,Tobacco."Onsecondthought,HowardJohnsondoesn'tdeservetobetheGayJohnsonofWyoming.
Roadkillscatteredlikethrowrugsonblacktop.Allthegroundrunnersareeithersmart(locatedelsewhere)
ordeadatthewheelsoftheheavyhitters.
Speedyschoolsofpickuptrucksscatteraheadofhunterpacksoftractorsaurus,Terribledactylbirds,ghostsofoldclavichordplayersswoopwithheavygrecianwingstosnatchupflatrabbitfleeces
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fromthealtarofthetar,Wyomingcrêpesdredgedinpeagravelcrude.
RADIO:GovernorofWyomingSafetyBulletin:Recommendsstrappingskisbottomuponroof-rackincaseofflip-over.WomanheldintracthousebyunidentifiedGilletteKrakDealeracrosstownsixonlookerskilledwhenpolicecheckoutfalsereportandmanrainsleadontheunpavedavenue.
StateTrooperaheadbetweenthestrips,coffeethermosinofficer'sfist.HispoliceshielddoublesasRedBadgeofCourage.Snowfences,likearthritictwigsofprotozoavanishintothevaleofsnowtheworldisgettingcolderasthetransmittedpropagandasaysitisgettingwarmer.
TRANSMISSIONFROMGILLETTE:TheRazorCity.Seriousroadkillthistimethey'rediggingwithbackhoesandthrowingthevictimsin.Gillette:peoplehavebeenknowntogotherejusttohavetheirthroatscutAD:"Trucker'sMistress,"atruckstopitemhookedtocigarettelighterwithconcertinawirestretchingtovitalsforover-the-roadMechanicalHeadavailableintruckstopgiltshopswithChainWalletsandTurquoiseBuckles"Arealherpiesaver."
Laramieexitsflashbylikemarkedcards.UniversityofWyo.Whatdotheyteachemthere?Nothin'workswithranchin'anyhaythesedays.
Theretheygo,canterin'tothesubcafeteriainsearchofteflonheffers.Say!WhatdoyoudowhenaWyomingCowboythrowsyouapin?RunlikeHell!becausethegrenadeinhismouthisabouttogooff!
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Willie'sonagain...allthetruckertopsandlesserheavyhitterssingingalongunderparts-shop,feedstorewebhats,thehouseflieswashedoutinthestrenuousamphetewake."OntheRodeAgain..."ThreeHundredpoundChoirBoyswitheyeslikestrawberry-coconutdonuts.
CrawlingtoLittleAmericainCheyenne.Twenty-sixdegreesbelowCountFahrenheit.ThetransmissionfromGillettefallensilent.Cutoffbytheauthoritiesnodoubt.Somebodyaskshowinterestingcanatownaffordtobe?Thesoft,reasonabletalkofDenversupplantstheairwaves,thejitterycompromiseofthecitycrowdsoutthespontaneousstix.
AyellowivoryballofpollutionhangsaboveCheyenne'sfibreglassair.TheSantaClaus-brightGettysaurusReksRefineryisstrewnalongourapproach,blowingnotsosymbolicmushrooms,MXMissileBurgers,thebiggestmeatinStripTown.
Martyrsareadimeadozenaroundhere.Thebestoneshavebeendeadalongtime.
EdwardDorn
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PARTTWOMr.Jeffersonin1803
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THEAMERICANWEST:APERSONALDREAMFROMTHEVANTAGEPOINTOFMONTICELLOIN1803ClayStrausJenkinson
CitizensoftheTerritoryofLouisiana:ItiswithpleasureandsometrepidationthatIappearbeforeyouthismorning.Trepidation,becauseinmyownlifetimeInevercameWest,althoughIwastheforemostarchitectofourwestwardvisionandthepurchaserin1803oftheTerritoryofLouisiana.Iwasneverablesufficientlytodisengagemyselffromthedisagreeableburdensofpoliticstoexplorethisvastterritorymyself.AlthoughIdreamedofcomingheretoconductaninventoryofacontinentonbehalfoftheEnlightenment,IspentmywholelifehuddledontheEasternseaboardandwaslimitedtoavicariousenjoymentoftheachievementsofmyyoungfriendMr.Lewis.Hisgreatachievementis,Ithink,incapableofhyperbole.Hissuicidein1809wasalosstoscience,tohisfamilyandfriends,andinparticulartome.
IalsocomewithtrepidationbecauseIamunusedtopublicspeaking.IamnotanoratorlikethatevilgenieofAmericanpoliticallife,Mr.Hamilton,orPatrickHenry,whoIsaidspokeasHomermusthavewritten.InmyownlifetimeIgavevirtuallynopublicaddresses.WhenIreluctantlypermittedmyfriendstoforwardmycandidacyforthepresidencyintheyear1800,Imadenospeeches,Isubmittedtonointerviewswiththepress,Ipublishednothing,andofcoursetherewasnophysicallikenessofmeavailabletotheAmericanvoters.Intheyear1880theAmericancitizensvotedfortheirpresidentonthebasisof
ThomasJeffersonwasportrayedduringthesymposium"Inhabitingthe
LastBestPlace"byClayJenkinson.JenkinsonhasgivenhisscholarlyInterpretationsofJeffersontomembersofCongressandfourteenstatelegislatures,tojudicialconferences,toacademicaudiences,includinglawschools,andathundredsofcommunityauditoriumsinaboutfortystates.Jenkinsonspeaksspontaneously,withoutscriptornotes.ThequotationsfromJeffersonaresometimes,therefore,approximate.
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politicalprinciple.Accordingly,Iwasablenarrowlytodefeatmygoodfriendandpredecessor,JohnAdams.Iwasthereforecalledupontomakeaninauguraladdress.Iprepareditcarefully.OnthemorningofMarch4,1801,virtuallyalone,andunembarrassedbyamilitaryescort,IwalkedfromtheboardinghouseinwhichIwasstayingtotheunfinishedcapitolbuildinginourunfinishednationalcapitalonthePotomac.ThereItookoutfrommypocketapaperonwhichIhadarticulatedmyvisionofAmericaandreadtoahushedgatheringofwell-wishersandlegislatorsmyinauguraladdress.UnfortunatelyImumbled,andwassolittleaudiblethatnooneinthatchamberheardmyvisionofAmericaexceptmyVirginiacousin,JohnMarshall,theSupremeCourtchiefjustice,andhedidnotlikewhatheheard.Earlierinthedayhehadwrittenoneofhisarch-federalistfriendsaboutthechangeinpoliticalorderthatIlikedtocalltheSecondAmericanRevolution.liesaid,"Mr.Jefferson'sRepublicanscanbedividedintotwogroups:theoreticalvisionariesandabsoluteterrorists.Amongthelatter,"hesaid,"IamnotdisposedtoclassifyMr.Jefferson."1TherestofthosewhohadgatheredintheSenatechamber,havingheardnothingofmyvision,wereforcedtorushoutafterwardsandconsultprintedcopiesinthestreet.Moreover,asthethirdPresidenttotheUnitedStates,IbrokewiththeemergingtraditionofmypredecessorsandsentmyannualmessagesbycouriertoCongress.Itseemedtobemonarchicalandalsoaninefficientuseoftimetogooverinasplendidhorse-drawncarriagetodeliveranannualaddressinpersonlikesomepotentatefromtheOldWorld.Inviewofsomeofyourmorerecentannualaddresses,perhapsyouwouldliketoreinstatethisadmirableandrestrainedinstitutioninyourtime.
IfurtherfeeltrepidationbecauseIamwarnedongoodauthoritythatmanyofyouarelawyers.Lateinlife,ayoungman,amemberofCongressfromthecommonwealthofVirginia,wrotetomeatMonticelloandsaid,"Whyisit,Mr.Jefferson,thatnothinggetsdone
inCongress?"Isaid,"Sir,wheneveryougatheronehundredfiftylawyersintooneroomatonetime,nothinggoodcancomeofit.Theseare,afterall,menwhoarepaidtotalkbythehour,toyieldnothing,andtoargueabouteverything.Nosir,toexpectgoodsenseandgoodgovernmentfromabodyoflawyersistoexpectsomethingthatneverhasbeenandnevercanbeinthehistoryoftheworld."
Iconsidermyselfprimarilyascientist,anaturalphilosopher,secondlyafarmer,andapoliticianonlyreluctantly.Isaidonce,"Wheneveramancastshiseyelonginglyonpublicoffice,acertainrottennessofcharacterissuretocreepin."2Iwrote,"Mywholelifehasbeenawaragainstmynaturalinclinations.Thecreatorfittedmetobeascientistby
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renderingthatmysupremedelight."3SoitiswithpleasurethatIturnfrompoliticalissuestotheWest.
IsawtheWestastheguarantorofAmericanliberties,abufferofsecurityforafledglingrepublic,agrowingspaceforournationalexpansiontothethousandthgeneration,andazoneforthemaintenanceofahealthypoliticaleconomyintheUnitedStates.WhatIwanttotalkaboutbrieflytodayarethreeissues:Indians,revolution,andagriculture.WhenIpurchasedLouisianasomewhatreluctantlyin1803,Isawitasameansofkeepingatarm'slengthallpotentialenemiestheSpanish,theBritish,andtheFrench.TheWestwouldbeabufferforthisfraillittleexperimentinself-government.Ialsosawitasavirtuallyinfinitelandintowhichwecouldexpandinsimpleagriculture.IsaidtoMr.MadisoninaletterfromParisthataslongastherewasfreelandintheWest,thisexperimentinapproximatedemocracywouldprevail,fortheneverymanwhowishedlandonwhichtosubsistcouldhaveit.ButoncewefilledtheWestIthoughtitwouldtakemanyhundredsofyearsthenwewouldneedtobeginreluctantlytoredistributethewealthofthecountryfromtimetotime.AslongastherewasfreelandintheWest,Isaid,wewouldnotcrowdintocities,whicharesomanyopensoresonthefaceofthelandscape.TheacquisitionofLouisianameantwewouldnotneedtosubmittoHamiltonianempireandindustry.Empireiseasy,republicamoralstruggle.InmyAmerica,mostable-bodiedmenandwomenwouldlivequietlyonland,closetotheircreator,intunewithnature,andthisexperimentinlibertywouldtriumph.
That,inessence,wasmyvisionoftheWest.
BeforeIgoon,however,ImustsaythattheBritishwererightinonerespectaboutthedifficultiesofmovingwestward.Theywerewellawarethattherewerealreadysovereigninhabitantsofthiscontinent:theIndians,theso-calledsavagesoftheWest.Itseemedtomeallof
mylifethatifwecreatedourownutopiaintheWestbysystematicallyviolatingtherightsoftheaboriginalinhabitantsofthecontinent,thenwewouldhavefailedtoliveaccordingtotheprinciplesofjusticeandrespectandfairplaywithoutwhichAmericaisameaninglessconcept.Inmysecondinauguraladdress,Idevotedalongparagraphtoouraboriginalneighbors.Isaid,thesepeopledeservedourcommiseration;theyonlywantedtobeleftundisturbed.MyownpolicywithrespecttoIndianswassimple.Itseemedtomethat,intheshortterm,theyoughtvoluntarilytoyieldtheirlandsintheOhioValleyandmoveoutintothisinfinitudeofLouisiana.Thiswouldgivethembreathingspace,foritwasmyobservationthateverytimewhitepioneersencounteredasovereignIndianvillage,theydestroyedit,sometimespurposefully,moreoftennot,withdiseaseandalcoholandothersystematicexploitations.Most
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tribeswhohadthemisfortunetostandinthewayofwhitepioneerswereextinguishedordiminished.Stone-ageculturesdidnotapparentlymixwellwiththeland-hungryscionsofEurope.Somyhopewasthat,ratherthanremovingthesepeopleentirelyfromtherollsofexistence,wecouldencouragetheminsteadtoremovethemselvesvoluntarilytotheWest,wheretherewouldbetimeforthemtodevelopattheirownpace,unembarrassedbywhitefrontiersmen.Theywould,ofcourse,benefitfromcertainEuropeantechnologiesthewheel,thealphabet,phosphorescentmatches,theplowbuttheywouldbeabletoincorporatetheseblessingsofcultureintotheiradmirablyanarchictribesatapacemorenearlytheirown.Ifsovereignpeoplesdidnotchoosetoyieldtheireasternterritories,wewouldnotforcethemtoremove.
Second,Ihopedthattheywouldputdownthewarhatchetandthehuntandtakeuptheplowlikewhitefarmers.Agricultureisthemostsacredapproachtoeconomiclife.Thoseforwhomthehuntandwarfarearethecoreofexistencewillalwaysremainprimitive.Noraretheytrulycivilized.MyhopewasthatIndianswouldintheshorttermwithdrawandbegintolearnthesuperiorityofsedentaryagriculture,andwhenatlastourwhitecitizensreachedtheMississippiRiver,ournativebrotherswouldbewaitingwiththeirownenlightenedcommunities,asitwere,withtheirownParthenonsandtheirowndistinguishedliterature.ThenwewouldintermingleandintermarrytoproduceanamalgamatedAmericanrace,fullofalustydesirefornaturalrights,andyetwiththosetrappingsofEuropeancivilizationthatwereinkeepingwiththesimplicitiesofourrepublicanvision.Icouldnotconceiveofexpandingacrossthecontinentattheexpenseofournativebrethren.IadmitthatthisprovedtobemoredifficulttoavoidinpracticethanintherationalvisionofMonticello.
Agriculture,itseemstome,istheonlytrulynaturalapproachtolife.I
wroteonlyonebookinmylifetime,NotesonVirginia,asetofresponsestoaseriesofqueriesputtomebythesecretaryoftheFrenchlegationatPhiladelphia.InitIsaid,"ThosewholaborintheeartharethechosenpeopleofGod,ifGodeverhadachosenpeople,whosebreastshehasmadehispeculiardepositforgenuineandsubstantialvirtue."4FarmersarethechosenpeopleofGodfortworeasons.Firstofall,asthephysiocratsteachus,farmersproducethebasicwealthofthenation.Theycooperatewithcreationandbringforthbountyandgiveitfreelytothelargergoodoftheircommunity.Theyaloneproducerealwealth.Mr.Hamilton'sminions,hiscapitalists,hisbankers,hiscreditors,hismanufacturers,andhistradesmendonotproducerealwealth.Theyonlyspintheirownfortunesfromthewealthofthefarmer.Second,farmersarethechosenpeopleofGodbecausetheyarecloserto
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naturethantherestofus.Theyhavetheirhandsinthesoil,theycooperatewithcreation.Theylookuptothesky,totherealmofmeteorology,withdeeprespect,theynurturefrailanimalsandfrailplants,theirhandsaredirtyfromthehumilityofagriculture.Theclassoffarmersgenerally,IsaidtoMr.Madison,haveneverbeencorruptinanysocietywhatsoever.Afarmerismorefree,moreindependent,andmoretrulyhappythananyothercitizen.Andeverystepyoutakeawayfromyourgardenoryourfarmintoabstractionorprofessionalismisastepawayfromgoodsenseintodependency,lossofvirtue,andcertainlyalossofhappiness.
IenvisionedtheAmericanWestasprimarilyaparadiseforsimplefarmers.Myideaofafarmerisofonewhosubsists,whofeedsandclotheshimselfandhisfamily,whoistrulyindependentofMr.Hamilton'smercantilistgrid.If,attheendoftheyear,thisVirginianpastoralistenjoysatinysurplus,itisremovedtothenearestvillageandbarteredifpossibleforsomethingthatthefarmercannotproduceforhimselfaviolin,booksandpaper,apairofshoes.Andthen,havingbeenengagedaslittleaspossibleinthemoneyeconomy,theAmericanAdamreturnstohisfarmandlivesfreeforanotheryear.Duringhisleisurehoursatnight,hereadsHomerintheoriginalGreek.
IsawtheWestalsoasapossiblesolutiontotheuglyproblemofslavery.ItwasclearthatslaverywastheplagueoftheAmericanexperiment,ataintinournationalcrusadeofinnocence.UnfortunatelywewereunableinmylifetimetoemancipateourNegrobrethren.ButifwecouldatleastkeepslaveryoutoftheWest,Ibelieved,thenationwouldeventuallybecomeaslavelesssociety,ifonlybecausetheWesternstatesweredestinedtogrowmorepowerfulinthepoliticalarenathantheoriginalfederation.Tobaccoculturewascorrupt,economicallyinefficient.Itexploitedlandanditexploitedpeople.Itseemedtomeonlyamatteroftimebeforeitsusefulness
wasentirelylost.SoifwecouldkeepslaveryhuddledontheAtlanticsideoftheAppalachianmountains,theoutrageofNegroservitudewouldnotplagueusintothefuture.ThiswasthepointofmyPlanfortheGovernmentoftheWesternTerritories(1784),which,haditpassed,wouldhaveprohibitedslaveryfromcrossingtheAppalachianmountainsanywhereintheUnitedStates.When,attheendofmylife,IsawslaverycrosstheAppalachiansinapurelysectionalfashion,Iwroteindespairthatthissurelywasthedeathknellofthenation.
IsawtheWestasasolutiontotheclassconflictsthathadriddledtheOldWorldforcenturies.SamuelJohnson,thegreatBritishlexographer,saidthatsubordinationandhierarchyinsocietyarenotonlyinevitablebutessentialtoorderandhappiness.Idisagreed.Ifelt
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wemustmoveasquicklyaspossibletoaclasslesssociety.AndaslongastherewasfreelandintheWest,therewouldbenobasisforthosesubordinationsthatcitiesrepresentandpromote.Tome,theWestofferedalmostinfinitepossibilitiesforindividualstopursuetheirownhappiness,unencumberedbygovernmentortaxationorthesortofirreasonthatisinherentincitylife.TheWestpromisedanegalitarianopportunityfortheUnitedStates.IalsothoughtthatouradministrationoftheWestwouldshowtoaskepticalworldthatcolonizationisnottheinevitablepatternofhumanexpansion.IconsideredtheWestnotanempireforHamiltonianeconomics,notaNapoleonicempireforpersonalpowerandthegloriesofwar,butratheran"empireforlibertysuchastheworldhasneverpreviouslyseen."AnditseemedtomethattheWestwouldshowtheworldthatitwaspossibletoexpandwithoutsubjugatingourfrontierneighbors.IwastheprincipleauthorofthePlanfortheGovernmentoftheWesternTerritoriesof1784.Thatbillenvisionedtheincorporationofnewterritoriesonanequalbasiswithexistingstates.Assoonasanewterritorycontainedaminimumnumberofcitizens,itbegantogovernitselfandtakepartinournationalcouncils.MywholelifewasdevotedtothenotionthatourWesternbrethrenmustnotbedependentonNewYork,orBoston,orWashington,butmustpursuetheirowndestiniesinrangeafterrangeofdecentralizedrepublics.Localcontrol,states'rights,anddecentralizationwerethethemesofmypoliticallife.ItseemedtomethatwemustevencheerfullyanticipatethetimewhenWesternstateswouldsecedeandformrivalrepublicsdedicatedtotheirownconceptionsofhappinessandtheirownneeds.Finally,IthoughtoftheWestasa"tabularasa,"inJohnLocke'sterms,ablankslate,onwhichwecouldinscribeutopia.AnditisonthisthemethatIwishtoclose.
IntheOldWorld,inFranceinparticular,thephilosophersbegantheirlivesasreformersbutalmostimmediatelywerefrustratedbytheroot-
boundculturesinwhichtheygrew.Theythereforedescendedintoliteratureandsatire,andtheirreformistmovementswerestillborn.ButintheNewWorld,menofletterscouldbeutopiansandhavesomereasontobelievethattheirutopianvisionswouldbeinscribedonanactuallandscape.IwastheprincipalauthorofthenotionthatournationalcapitalshouldnotbeinBostonorPhiladelphiaorNewYork,butinthewilderness.IfwemaintainedthecapitalinPhiladelphia,ournationalcenterofpowerwouldforeverbearthefragranceofitscolonialpastandofEuropeantyranny.Butifwecarvedoutacapitalinthewilderness,itwouldsymbolizeanewnationdedicatedtoarepudiationofthefailuresoftheOldWorld.TheEasternseaboard,interestinganduniqueasitwas,stillmaintainedtheambienceofpoliticalandcultural
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dependencyonEurope,particularlyBritain.ButtheWestwasunencumberedbythepast.IsawtheWestasablankslate,onwhichforthefirsttimeinhumanhistoryarepublicofreasonandgoodsenseandjusticecouldbeetchedwithoutthebloodyrevolutionsthatattendreformmovementsintheOldWorld.ThomasPainesaidinhisbookCommonSense,''Wehaveitinourpowertobegintheworldoveragain."5Igavemylife(reluctantly)topoliticalstatesmanship,notbecauseIsoughtpowerbutbecauseitseemedtomethatIlivedinauniquetimeinhistorywhenathoughtfulstatesmantrulycouldhelptoshapeanationinawilderness.Thatnation,inmyview,shouldbepeaceful,isolationist,andpastoral,shouldsupplementitsagriculturewiththesmallestpossiblemanufacturingapparatus,shouldpermitlittleornopermanentmilitaryestablishment,shouldeschewthepoliticalstrugglesoftheOldWorld,andshouldexportnothingbutagriculturalproduceandtheideaofAmerica.Ourcitizensshouldsupportthemselvesasmuchaspossibleonagriculture,livequietlyaccordingtothedictatesofreasonandnature,seekharmonywiththeirIndianbrethren,andpreferEnlightenmenttowealthandpower.Eachcitizenshouldparticipateinself-governmentandhastenthetimewhennogovernmentwillberequiredwhatsoever.Myagrarianstatewouldrevolutionizeitselfeverytwentyyears,eitherthroughpeacefulconstitutionalrevisionorarmedrebellion."Ilikealittlerebellionnowandthen,"Iwrote."Itisasimportantinthepoliticalworldasthunderstormsinthenaturalworld."6
Letmesay,finally,thatmymostimportantdoctrinewaswritteninalettertoMr.MadisonfromParisinduringmyfiveyearsastheAmericanministerthere.Tomyclosestfriendandpoliticallieutenant,Iwrote,"Theearthbelongsinusufructtoliving,notthedead."7Thedeadhavenorighttoimposetheirvisiononthefuture.TheUnitedStateswillbeagreatrevolutionarynation,insofarasitbreaksfromtimetotimewiththemisguidedhabitsofthepast,includingitsown
habits.Wemustmakeitpossibleforourchildrentobegintheworldoveragainaccordingtotheirdreamsandneeds.Wefoughtourrevolutionfortherightofconsent.Weinsistedthatweconsenttoanyformofgovernmentthatcoordinatedouractivitiesandtaxedourlabor.Eachgeneration,likeeachnation,hasanaturalrighttogovernitselfaccordingtoitswill.Anythingelseistyranny.IsuggestedtoJimmyMadison,therefore,thatwetearuptheconstitutioneverynineteenyears.IsettledonatermofnineteenyearsastheeffectivelifeofagenerationafterconsultingtheComtedeBuffon'smortalitytables.Ifin1990youimposeuponthefutureyourconstitution,yourpositivelaw,andespeciallyyournationaldebt,youwillbeasguiltyasGeorgeIIIoftyranny,
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andmuchmoreclever.Theworldbelongsinusufructtotheliving.Usufructisafeudallegaltermmeaningthattheoccupantofanestatehasarighttothefruitsofthatestate,buthemustnotdegradethecarryingcapacityofthelandthathasbeenentrustedtohim.Hemustpasshissliveroftheearthwithallofitsfruitfulnesstohischildren.
Ileaveyouwithaquestion:Doyouin1990enjoyLouisianainusufruct,orareyouinfactdegradingitslong-termcarryingcapacityandthereforetyrannizingyourchildrenwithouttheirconsent?Ifyouaredoingthelatter,Isuggestrevolution.
PARTTHREEThePeople
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THEBOWLTerryTempestWilliams
Therewasawomanwholeftthecity,leftherhusband,andherchildren,lefteverythingbehindtoretrievehersoul.Shecametothedesertafterseeinghergauntfaceinthemirror,thepallorthatcomeswheneverythingisgoingoutandnothingiscomingin.Shehadnoticedforthefirsttimethefurrowsunderhereyesthathadbeenerodedbytears.Shedidnotknowthewomaninthemirror.Shetookoffherapron,foldeditneatlyinthedrawer,leftanoteforherfamily,andclosedthedoorbehindher.Sheknewthatherlifeandthelivesofthosesheloveddependedonit.
Thewomanreturnedtotheplaceofherchildhood,whereshelastrememberedhertruenature.Shereturnedtotheintimacyofasmallcanyonthatforyearshadloomedlargeinherimagination,andthereshesetupcamp.Thewallswereasshehadrecalledthem,tallandstreakedfromrimtofloor.Therockappearedasdrapedfabricassheplacedherhandflatagainstitsface.Thewallwascold;thesunhadnotyetreachedthewash.Shebeganwadingtheshallowstreamthatrandownthecenterofthecanyon,andchosenottobeencumberedbyanything.Sheshedherclothing,tookoutherhairpins,andsqueezedthelastlemonshehadoverherbody.Runningherhandsoverherbreastsandthroatandbehindherneck,thewomanshiveredatherownbravery.Thisishowitshouldbe,shethought.Shewasfreeandfrightenedandbeautiful.
Fordays,thewomanwanderedinandoutoftheslickrockmaze.Shedrankfromspringsandatethepurplefruitofpricklypears.Herneedsweremetsimply.Becauseshecouldnotseeherself,shewasunawareofthechangeshowherskinbecametautandtan,thewayinwhichher
hairrelaxedandcurleditself.Sheevenseemedtowalkdifferentlyashertoesspreadandgrippedthesand.
Allalongthewash,clayballshadbeenthrownbyaragingriver.Thewomanpickedoneup,pulledoffthepebblesuntilshehadamound
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ofsuppleclay.Shekneadeditasshewalked,rubbedtheclaybetweenthepalmsofherhands,andwatcheditlengthen.Shefinallysatdownonthemoistsandand,withherfingers,continuedmovingupthestringofclay.Andthenshebegantocoilit,aroundandaround,pinchingshuteachrotation.Shecreatedabowl.
Thewomanfoundotherclayballsandputtheminsidethebowl.Shehadanideaofmakingdollsforherchildren,smallclayfigurinesthatshewouldletdryinthesun.Onceagain,shestoppedwalkingandsatinthesandtowork.Shespliteachclayballintwo,whichmeantshehadsixsmallpiecestomoldoutofthreeballsshehadfound.Onebyone,tinyshapestookform.Agirlwithopenarmsaboveherhead;threeboysonestanding,onesitting,andonelyingdown(hewasgrowing,shemused);andthenamanandawomanfacingeachother.Shehadre-createdherfamily.Withthefewscrapsleftovershemadedesertanimals:alizard,asmallbird,andaminiaturecoyotesittingonhishaunches.Thewomansmiledasshelookedoverhermenagerie.Sheclappedherhandstoremovethedriedclayandhalfexpectedtoseethemdance.Instead,itbegantorain.
Withinminutes,thewashbegantoswell.Thewomanputtheclaycreaturesintothebowlandsoughthighergroundupasidecanyon,whereshefoundshelterunderalargeoverhang.Shewaspreparedtowatchifaflashfloodcame.Anditdid.Theclearwaterturnedmuddyasitbegantorise,carryingwithittheforceofwildhorsesrunningwithathunderstormbehindthem.Thesmallstream,nowariver,rosehigherstill,gougingintothesandybanks,hurlingrocks,roots,andtreesdownstream.Thewomanwonderedabouttheanimalsassheheardstirringsinthegrassesandsurmisedtheymustbeseekingrefugeinthesidecanyonsasshewaswatchingasshewas.Shepulledherlegsinandwrappedherarmsaroundhershins,restinghercheekbonesagainstherknees.Sheclosedhereyesandconcentratedonthesoundofwaterburstingthroughthesilenceofthecanyon.
Theroarofthefloodgraduallysofteneduntilitwasreplacedbybirdsong.Swiftsandswallowspluckedthewaterforinsectsasfrogsannouncedtheirreturn.Thewomanraisedherhead.Withthebowlinbothhands,shetriedtogetup,butslippeddownthehillside,scrapingthebacksofherthighsonrabbitbrushandsage.Shefinallyreachedthewashwiththebowlanditscontentsintact.Andthenshefoundherselfwithanotherproblem:Shesankuptoherkneesinthewet,redclay,onlytofindthatthemoreshetriedtopullherfootfree,thedeepershesankwiththeother.Finally,lettinggoofherstruggle,sheputthebowlandherfamilyaside,andwallowedinit.Shefellsidewaysandrolledontoherstomach,thenoverontoherback.Shewascoveredinslimy,
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wetclay,anditwasdelicious.Shestretchedherhandsaboveherhead,flexedhercalves,andpointedhertoes.Thewomanlaughedhystericallyuntilshebecameawareofherownecho.
Herbodycontracted.
Shemustgetcontrolofherself,shethought;whatwouldherhusbandthink?Whatkindofexamplewasshesettingforherchildren?Andthensherememberedshewasalone.Shesatupandstaredatthecoiledbowlfullofclaypeople.Thewomantookoutthefigurinesandplantedtheminthewash.Sheplacedtheanimalsaroundthem.
"They'reontheirown,"shesaidoutloud.Andshewalkedbacktothespringwhereshehaddrunk,filledupherbowlwithwater,andbathed.
Thenextmorning,whenthewomanawoke,shenoticedthatthecottonwoodbranchesswayingaboveherheadhadsproutedleaves.
Shecouldgohomenow.
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THEPOETLETSHISTONGUEHANGDOWNAone-questioninterviewfromBeanNews
IwouldenquireofyouTheSlingerleaningforwardasktOneofthe4GreatQuestionsLeasttroublingmymindsincemyarrival:
WHOARETHEBARBARIANS?
AsifinaspaceelapsedbetweenoursightingthenhearingajetThePoetgrewpaleandhisblaringtransistorfellfromhisIvoryFingers
fourofwhomjumpedoffattheknucklesandranoffwithallhisringsandstraightwaysentnotestothesixwhostayedexpressingcontemptanddismay
AndthetemperaturefellinhisveinsandhismouthweakenedandgrewslackandhislefteyeleftthetrackandwanderedaboutthelandscapeunlocusedandhistonguefelloutoverhischinandhisnosemigratedevenasGondwanatoogorged
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ontheimmensitiesoftimetobeobservedsothatitsmovementisprovenbythestriationsofitsslippageastheyarethescarsoftheEarthAndhisearsfloatedupwardasifHeliumwasalltheyheardandhisfeetcameoffandspedoverthehorizonleavingeventhewingsofhisankles
andhisshoesfilledwithdustaninstantghosttowncompletewithbangingshuttersandpeelingpostersofthoseofuswanted,deadoralive
Thenhishairflewawayinadustbowlcondition
likeintheGrapesofWrathandthingswhattheywereallthepeopleofhisbarrenscalppackedupandfoundtheirwaytoCaliforniaaroundthecratersofthisoncerichterrain,
Andhisbrainsnappedshutlikeagreasyspoonwhenthelastcustomerhasethischops
thengoneoutthedoorwipinghischinwithonehandwhiletheotherbuys"TheTimes"whichhereadsstandingonthecornertoothpickinhismouth"RamsclobberLions"inhiseyeandturnsthepagestothecomicswhereRexMorganisperformingandcan'tbereachedashishandcomesupfromscratchinghisasstocatchthepagesintheMichiganWinde
Butthepoet'sHeadwasduringthislapsebusywithalterationsandwhenthejobwasdone
thebangofhammersthewhineofbandsawsgoneAndallthebafflingpulledoffhisHeadwasapyramidtheminimumsolid
Andoneofhiseyescamehometryingtolooklikethetriphadbeenabore
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whensignstothecontrarywerealloverthefloorandhesmiledButtheEyeontopofhispyramidwouldsaynomore
EdwardDorn
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PLAINSONGATCROWHEARTBUTTE1
Nearthisplacetheyfought,ShoshoniandBannockagainsttheCrow...thisriver
basinharboredbuffalo...todayblondboysgallopinthespringride
hereonherefordsbeneaththismorning'ssunpalemeninStetsonspeddlehardwarein
DuboisConocoandExxonpromiseantlersforatankfulofsupreme...nearthisplacetheyfought..ShoshoniandBannock
againsttheCrow...thisriverbasinharboredbuffalo.
Andnearthisplacethestrutmacabre...thussupposeamoon...supposeitfullexquisite
absolute...itslight...thecorpses...ShoshoniBannockCrow...WashakieconqueringShoshonichiefcuts
theheartfromonedeadCrowandjabsitonhislance...supposehisrushthethrill
thekiller'sthrilloflifethetastethesaltytasteofsweatlikeblooddampuponhisliphis
eyeshiseyeshisownheartpumpingbreathintothenighthisveins
soflushedthattheydistend...supposebeneaththemoonheraisestoitslighttheskeweredheartandchants,hislucid
songsuffusingnightlikemoonlight...faroffperhapstheCrowaswellbeneathindifferent
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phasesofthefullindifferentmoon,benignandabsolute,perhapstheCrow,faroff,hearingknow...amongsometribesthecustom
istoeattheheartorliverofaworthyfoe...theCrow,faroff,hearperhapsandknow...Washakiehiseyesandbloodaflame,chants
holdinghighhisbloodylanceandleadstheancientdancebeneaththemoonfullandabsolute...therearethoseperhapswho,faroff,hearingknow...thisplacethe
strutmacabre...theycallitCrowheartButte...hereShoshoniandBannockfoughttheCrow
thisriverbasinharboredbuffalo
2
AndnearthisplacewhileWashakie''displayed"adeadCrowheartanddancedJakeAstor'sboyspassedthroughunperturbed...John
JacobAstorneversawAstoriastillwemustsupposehewasamused...atWashakiehisbleedingheartandstrutbeneaththemoon...
Tellmymanhe'snumberoneAstorwinkingtoldhiscrewkeepasharpeyeoutforbeaver
andtheswiveloiledyourgatlinggunwillgetyouthrough...OhyesAstorsaidcrossingsilkenlegsand
savoringanelegantcigarWearemuchamused...spreadtheword...todaythisroadsidepointofinterestself-interestedly
proclaims"Washakieamightywarrior...awisechieffriendlytothewhites..."invitingtouriststo
returnwithustoYesteryearandhisfaithfulIndiancompanionmakinghighwaystothesea
forinthischief'steepeewearetoldhungnowhiteman'sscalp...JakeAstornever
sawAstoriabuttheledgershowshewasastute...thismonument
waseasy...thesignsaysCrowheartButte.
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AndWashakiewemustsupposewasmuchobligedatsomethingsograndioseas"history"
treatinghimsofine...howcouldheknowhegrinnedaStepnfetchitgrinand
dancedasoftshoeshufflesportingthatawesomeheartuponhiseaglefeatheredlanceand
singingbravelyashedanced,IfeedyourhearttodogsCrowthey
shituponyourgrave.Astorplacedhisfinecigarbetweenhisteethandsmiledasheapplauded.Thatboy's
goodIthinkhecanbeused...and"inconsiderationofthelocalchief"wise
andmightychiefsupremearbiterofthisbasin'sbuffaloalmightyshakerofadeadCrow
heartuponastickinconsiderationastheysayofthelocalchieftheycallthisfort
FortWashakie...todaywithAstor'sblessingIpassblandlythroughthislandthatthat
Crow'sheartlikeWashakie'sbeattohave...andunderAstor'smoonamoonsobig
itbathesacontinentinexquisitesilverlightlastnightItookaleakanddumped
wherewillowsmarkboththeirgraves...downtheroadthereisthisplacewhereWashakiewassillywhileAstorwasastute...thismonumentwaseasy...theycallitCrowheartButte.
3
MoonsetflightoftheowlsunrisecicadassingWindRiverinthespring
Ibatheablutioninthehighspringrun
horsesgrazingablutioninthecoldfastwatersthankyouBannockandShoshonithankyouforthisplace
inthemorning'sgoldensunFortWashakiespelledoutinstoneswhitewashedonthehillFort
WashakiesanctuarytowhitemenfugitivefromSiouxwhitemenSacacaweaFort
WashakiehergraveSacajeweahergravethisgrove
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defiledmycleanwhitebodydefilesthisblestindifferentgrovebecauseSacajeweaSacacaweaSacajeweaSacacaweabecause
SealthSeattleSealthbecauseJosephHinmatonYahlatlatJosephbecauseCrazyHorseCrazy
Horsesaidyestheinterpretersaidnobecausethebayonetthecorporal'sbayonetinhis
sidebecauseNapoleonwasacorporalbecauseHitlerwasacorporalbecauseOld
HickorywasacorporalbecausethisgroveisrealestatebecauseSacacaweaJosephSeattle
CaptainJackCrazyHorseWoundedKneeSandCreekSaigonFortWashakiebecausewecouldn'tgetthelingoorwouldn'tevenE.P.thickskinnedandboldlet
notthedaughternonoranyofusburnishwhatistarnishthesinstoo
willteachusbecauseE.P.thedazzleofsweatandcoinfixedrightlyinhisthirdeyewho
learnedninelanguagesancientandmoderneastandwestandknewKingJames
preciselyforwhatitwascollaborationhegemonyoftherichandrighteousbecauseE.P.lamenting
thishalfsavagecountrycouldn'tgetthelingonorthefathersofourcountrynot
JeffersonhisdictionaryawashinChesapeakeBaynotJacksonwhoputtheCreeksintheirgravesand
soldtheplotsinPhiladelphiabecausenotanyofuscouldgetthelingoorwouldbecauseShakespeare
makerofbeautiesevenontheedgesofcivilizationbedazzledusandJohnWilkesBoothwithblankverseand
CiceroinhismouthbedazzledusbecausespelledsixteendifferentwaysShakspeerShakespereShakespeare
ShakespearheWashakieinwhosetipihungnowhiteman'sscalpheWashakie
shookhisspearjabbedonitthefreshheartofadeadCrowhisenemytheCrowanddancedbecauseincelebration
heWashakieenemyofSiouxandCrowandNezPercesuccor(sic)ofwhitemenbecausekillerofnoneheWashakie
namesakeandheroofthisgrovedefiledwiseandmightychiefheWashakielearnedourlingocarved
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theheartofonegoodCrowbecausebecausethankyouBannockandShoshonithankyou
ablutionsinthismorning'sgoldensunthankyouhighspringwatersthankyoucicadasthankyousunrisethankyouflightoftheowlthankyoumoonsetmoonsetmoonsetbecause
PeterF.Michelson
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MOTELSUPERBOAsleepwalkerfromContinentIprintsoutthecontractandhandsmeakeyattachedtoalegiron.Thedrapes,heavywithfireretarder,won'tquiteshut.Theaircondishiscloggedwithbreathofdeadcarpet.KimBasingeriscrazyforsexonHBO,gimmemosaySteamboatSprings.DodgeRamschargeandbuttalongthemaindrag.Theblas6trafficlightscontrolwithcoldindifferencethesnarling,bigpipepacks,sendsthemalongandthenpinsthemtothetarwheretheywhineandgnashattheelectronictether,sendingticsthroughtheignorantsleepers.
EdwardDorn
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PROGRESSORDECLINE?JUDGINGTHEHISTORYOFWESTERNEXPANSIONPatriciaNelsonLimerick
OnaflightfromCody,Wyoming,ImetthepersonforwhomWesternhistoryworkedoutperfectly.Sittingnexttomeontheplanewasaverytannedfellowwithaverynicefringedleatherjacketandahandsomeblackcowboyhat.Whiteonespickupdirttoofast,hetoldme,whichseemstomeheavilysymbolicofsomething.
Thisfellow,theownerofaprosperousrealestatecompanyinFlorida,hadrecentlydecidednottogoalloutintheMiamirealestategame,buttopullbackonhiswaytothetopandinsteadbuyaduderanchonthewaytoYellowstone.SonowhespendshalftheyearoutsideCodyandhalftheyearinMiami.HewasalsoverytakenunderstandablywiththeareaaroundCarmel,andhewasveryclosetobuyingpropertythereandbringingduderanchingtoMontereyBay(which,underthepowerofaconsiderableurgeforaFreudianslip,Iinitiallytypedintothistextas"MonetaryBay").
Ihaveacoupleofreasonsforbringingthisfellowtoyourattention.ThefirstreasonhitmeashewastalkingofhispleasureinridinghorsesthroughthehillsoutsideCarmelandinthemountainsoutsideCody.ThiscarriedechoesofRichardHenryDanaonhorsebackduringshoreleaveinCalifornia,andechoesofTeddyRooseveltrecoveringonhorsebackintheDakotasfromthelossofhismotherandhiswife.AnditsuddenlyseemedtomethatsittingnexttomeontheplanewastheprimarybeneficiaryofthewholeprocessofAnglo-AmericanWesternexpansion.Partlytotestthetheory,andpartlytotesthisego,Isaid,"Youareit,aren'tyou?Theculminationofthe
wholebusiness?JedediahSmith,NarcissaWhitman,JohnC.Fremont,GeorgeArmstrongCustertheymadeyoupossible.You'retheoneitallworkedoutfor."And,withblackhatfirmlyinplace(theetiquetteofwhethercowboysshould
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removetheirhatswhileridingtheopenrangesoftheairhasapparentlynotbeensettled),mytravelingcompanionfullyandheartilyagreedthathewastheculmination,theconsummationoftheWesternenterprise.Itseemsacuriousoutcomeforacauseinwhichsomanyhavedied.
AndthatisthefirstreasonIwantedtodescribethisfellowtoday:becausetherearemomentswhenallofthestrugglesandsorrowsofWesternexpansionseemtohavebornetheirprincipalfruitinthecreationofaneconomicstructurethatgivesmorepackagesofpleasureandprivilegetopeoplewhoarealreadyovertheirheadsinpleasureandprivilege.
Whilenoonechosethedateofthisconference,October19,forstrategic,symbolicpurposes,itistheanniversaryofthe1987stockmarketcrash.Ithinkthatisallforthebest;thereissimplynoreasontomeetalldayinordertobePollyannas,inordertodevoteourselvesto"feelinggood"abouttheAmericanWestanditspastandpresentandfuture.Thisisaprettyfinegroupofpeopleassembledtodaytheaudienceasmuchasthespeakersandtheriskofhavingsuchapleasantgroupassembledisthatitcouldmakeusgiddy,sweptawaybyourowncollectivegoodnatureintounreasonableoptimism.Sothefactthatthenewspapersarefilledtodaywithone-year-after-the-crashstoriesseemstomeallforthebest.Anyonewhobeginstogetgiddyandhopefulcansimplyleavetheroom,getanewspaper,andcomebacktoreality.Or,tostaywithintheairplaneframeofreference,thosewhobegintogetgiddywithhopecanthinkbacktotheirdeparturesfromtheairportsofmostmajorWesterncitiesthinkbacktotheimprobablygrandphysicalsettingforthosecities,thinkbacktothepainful,brownishaerialscumthatblanketsthem,thinkbacktothespreadofsuburbsthatcan,ifyouareinthewrongmood,maketheearthlookexactlyasifithascomedownwithabadskindiseasewithanundiscoveredcure.AyearagoIflewoutofLosAngeles,south,
downthecoast,andlookedatthatstunningsetofbeaches,thatgrandmeetingofcontinentwithPacific,coatedwithwarehousesandoiltanksandmotelsandoveralldensesmog,untilIwasutterlyconvincedthatWesternhistorywastragic,aterribletwistonthemythofEden.InsteadofgettingthrownoutofEden,AdamandEveinthisversionstayed,andruinedparadise.AndwhenGodcamebacktocheckonthem,Hecouldbarelyrecognizetheplace,withabandonedcarsandpilesoftiresonfireandcoal-firedelectricalgeneratingplantsonthesitewherethetreeoftheknowledgeofgoodandeviloncestood,andwithAdamandEvesittingaroundlookingquiteproudofthemselves.
ThatbringsmetothesecondreasonIhavebegunwithmyCody,Wyoming,airplanecompanion.IdothinkthatinmanywaysWestern
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Americanhistoryisthestoryofagroupofpeoplegoingtohellinahandbasket,butoverandoveragain.TheconversationfromCodytoDenverwassimplyanotherreminderofthis:Onehasfrequentoccasionstothinkthatthecompany,inthisill-destinedhandbasket,isgreat.Therearemoments,livingandtravelingintheWesttoday,whenonesimplythinks,"Weare,fromallimpressions,inamess,butonecouldnotaskforbettercompanions."
Regrettably,embarrassingly,IlikedmyCodyairplanecompanionhewas,nodoubt,aninvaderandintruderfromFlorida,buthisbrieftourofdutyintheWesthadchangedhimandgivenhimsomecharacteristicsandcertainlysomeclothesthatarenoteverydaysightsinMiami.Moreimportant,hewasagoodsportinanargument,andhissenseofhumor,puttothetestbyourargument,wasinfineshape.Onecanonlyhope,onbehalfoftheAdamandEveoftheoriginalstory,thatduringtheirtransportationoutofparadisetheywereabletoenjoysuchapleasantandstimulatingconversation;onecanonlyhope,onbehalfoftheancients,thatduringthedeclineandfalloftheRomanEmpire,theartofconversationwasaswelldevelopedandasmuchenjoyedasitwasonthetripfromCody.Thismayseemtosomeofyouasuperficialpointthatinthemidstofatroubledtime,opponentscanstillsitnexttoeachotherfortwohoursandenjoyeachother'scompanyandconversation,buttomethisistheonlybasisforhopewehave.
PeterHassrick,theexpertonWesternart,showsanddescribesapaintingbyFrederickRemingtoncalled"InSearchofGeronimo."Itshowstroopersandtheirhorsesonanarrow,desertmountainpath."ArtistinSearchofGeronimo,"Hassrickmuses,andgoesontonotethatRemingtonhimself,inthewritingthataccompaniedthepainting,remarkedofthesearchforGeronimo,"Thankheavens,wehaven'tfoundeachotheryet."TheelitewhiteEasternpainter,andtheresistantanddeterminedApachewarrioritisprobablyjustaswellthat
theydidnotfindeachotherinthenineteenthcentury,becausetheconditionsforconversationwerenotgoodinthosetimes.Butnow,whetherornotwewantitthatway,wehaveallfoundeachother;Remington'skinhavemetGeronimo'skin,andeveniftheconditionsforcross-culturalconversationarestillnotideal,theyareimmeasurablybetterthantheywereinthenineteenthcentury.
Eachincident,then,inwhichWesternersofthesevariousbackgroundsandconvictionsdefytheoddsandchoosenottoattackeachother,nortoevadeeachother,buttoconverseeachoftheseincidentsseemstomepowerfullyfreightedwithhope.Butthosemomentsofhopestillmustbesetagainstthosemomentsofdespair,whenpartsofWesternAmerica,fromtheair,seemtosay,clearlyanddirectly,thathumanity
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isaninfectionoftheearth,andthisregionhascomedownwithabadcaseofit.
AstothisgloomypictureIampresenting,letmemakealongstoryshort,astoryprobablyfamiliartomanyofyouhere,andsay,thatinterpretationsofWesternAmericanhistoryhavegonethrougharecentrevolution.WesternAmericanhistoryusedtobewhatIwillcall,notaltogetherkindly,HappyFaceHistory,HaveaNiceDayHistory,becauseitwassofirmlycenteredonAnglo-Americans,andbecauseitseemedtoendsowell,withwhitepeopleinchargeofthecontinentandwithalotofnaturalresourcesconvertedintocashinwhitepeople'spockets.ThatisnottheversionofWesternAmericanhistoryweteachnow.TherecognitionoftheimportanceofIndianpeople,ofHispanicpeople,ofAsianpeople,ofblackpeople,andofwhitepeoplewhodidnotnecessarilysucceedintheirenterpriseshasendedthat"triumphofcivilization"schoolofhistoryforalltime.Andjustasimportant,environmentalhistoryhasknockedoverthe"triumphantmasteryofthewilderness"schoolofWesternhistorybyshowingthecomplexandcomplicatedwaysthatwhitepioneers,sometimesoutofinnocentmotives,launchedalandslideofunfortunatephysicalevents:soilerosion,thedepletionofminerals,thepollutionofstreamsandrivers,thescarringoflandscapes,thedestructionofwildlife,thedevastationofforests.IcanconveythisreorientingofWesternAmericanhistory,awayfromhappyendingsandtowardtragedy,mostvividlybyquotingfromafriend,theWesternhistorianDonaldWorster,authorofDustBowlandRiversofEmpire(whois,inthisquotationjusttodemonstratethehappyandproductivelevelofscholarlyexchangeinWesternhistoryactuallydescribingmyownbook,LegacyofConquest,butputtingtheideamorevividlythanIbelieveIdidmyself):"[T]hedreamofconquestitselfhasbeguntogosouramongthewhiteconquerors.Theyarelosingtheverypropertytheywontotheforcesofenvironmental
deterioration,andtheyarelosingtheirculturaldominancetoaresurgenceofminorityself-confidenceandinfluence.TheWestthusbecomestheregionwherethewhitemandestroyshisownworldattheverymomentofvictory."l
Nowthatisratherforcefullyput,moreforcefullythanIputitmyselfinLegacy,butitdoesindicatehowfarWesternhistoryhastraveledfromtheoldcelebrationoftheAnglo-Americantriumphoverthecontinent.Whatisbeyonddisputenowisthis:thatwestward-movingAnglo-Americans,whiletheythoughttheyweremakingprogress,werealsomakingamess:amessintheirrelationswithnature;amessintheirrelationswithnativeIndianpeople,withbothnativeand,later,immigrantHispanicpeople,withimmigrantAsianpeople;and,fromtimeto
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time,inconflictsovertheallocationofresourcesandtheallocationofprofitsfromthoseresources,amessintheirrelationswitheachother,betweengroupsandindividualswetoooftenlumpintothatmonolithiccategory,"whitepeople."
Wecanchoose,sofar,betweentwoclearresponsestothefactthatprogressanddeclinecameinamixedpackage.Oneresponserestsonthispremise:Despiteafewunfortunatesideeffects,thepioneersthoughttheyweremakingprogress,andindeedtheywere,becausethebedrockdefinitionofprogressmeansthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber.ThismayatfirstseemlikearesurgenceofHappyFaceHistory,butIthinkitismorethanthat.ThereissimplynodenyingthefactthattheWesthasmeantandmeansopportunityforanenormousnumberofpeoplenotonlyforemigrantsfromtheeasternUnitedStatesandEuropeanimmigrants,butalsoforAsianandMexicanimmigrantsdowntothisday.Mexicanimmigrants,afterall,haveareasonfortakingontheriskandsacrificeofcrossingintotheAmericanWest.Eventhoughtheconditionstheyfindarefarfromideal,AmericanwagesareindeedfarbetterthanMexicanwages.The"progressasthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber"argumentisnot,then,necessarilyethnocentric,butitisnecessarilyreductivedismissingthehardshipsandinequitiesthatcameinthesamepackagewiththeopportunities,anddismissingtheenvironmentalpricespaidtoprovidethem.
Ifonerejectsthisfirstresponse,then,tothereinterpretationofWesternhistory,thepatternhasbeenthatoneisthencatapultedtoanoppositeresponse,aresponsewheretheoperatingpremiseisthis:ThepioneerswereruthlessexploitersandextractorswhoseJudeo-Christianheritagesupportedthemintheirbeliefintherightnessoftheirownpowerandprivilege,andwhosetabouttearingupnatureandruiningthenativeswithsomethingclosetopurposeandintention.
ThereisnoquestionthatWesternhistoryprovidessomecandidatesforthisticket.Insomeruthlessepisodesofwar,inminingcampswherenaturehadonlytheroleofthepackageinwhichtreasurecame(apackagetobediscardedlikeChristmaswrappingswhenthetreasurewasremoved),intheexploitationoftimberwhereloggersrippedthroughforestsasifforestswereindeedthehomeofSatan,responsenumbertwoseemsliketheaccurateone.TherewereindeedparticipantsinWesternexpansionwholookasiftheytooktheirtrainingcoursesinpioneeringfromurbanstreetgangs,fromthieves,fromarsonists,fromcriminalswhospecializedinthemaliciousdestructionofproperty.
Butthatisnotthewholestory.Neithertheforgiving"greatestgoodforthegreatestnumber"responsenorthecondemning"greedheadsoutonaroundofdestruction"responsecomesanywhereneartogivinga
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fullportraitofthecomplexityofthenineteenth-centuryparticipantsinWesternexpansion.Bothresponses,infact,shareonepremiseincommon:thatinAmerica,moneytalks.Responsenumberone:moneytalks,butinhumanhands,thatmoreorlessworksoutforthebest,andthemajorityofpeopleintheWestendupokay.Responsenumbertwo:moneytalks,andthisviciousforcedrivesanengineofenvironmentalandculturaldestruction.
Well,certainlymoneymatters,andnointerpretationoftheWestcangoanywherewithoutthatrecognition.Butotherthingsmattertoo,andmatteredinthenineteenthcenturyaswell.WhiteAmericanswhoenteredtheWestthenandsetthemselvestoworkdevelopingtheresourceshadaclearideathattheywereagentsofprogress.Ofcourse,thehopeforfinancialgainplayeditsroleinthis,buttherewasalsoastrongcomponentofthemind,aconsiderablefaithinthewordtheyusedfrequently,theword''improvement."Puttingresourcestousewascertainlyaroutetofinancialprofit,butitwasalso,intheirminds,"improvement"andlivingunderthepowerofthatideawasonewayofwearingblinders.Thereareunfortunateconsequences,outcomes,resultsoftheiractionsthatareglaringandvisibletous,butthepoweroftheideaof"improvement"takingwasteplacesandputtingthemtohumanusewassostrongthatthosesideeffectscouldhardlybeseen.Ithink,then,thatmanyofthewhitesettlers(orinvadersorconquerors,accordingtoyourpointofview)wouldhavebeenastonishedbyresponsenumbertwo,thedamningofthepioneersfortheirclear,consciousviolenceanddestruction."Us,destroyers?"theywouldthink."Thisisn'tdestruction,thisisimprovement."
Recognizingthisblindnesstoconsequencedoesnotmeanthatwehavetoadoptblindnessourselves.Recognizingtheirviewpointis,ofcourse,onlyfair,onlyjusticetothedignityofhumansinourpast.ButIshouldsaythatthisisthepartwheresomeoftheWesternhistoriansIrespectmostsaythatIampullingmypunches,turningsoftand
mushy-minded,lettingthesettlers(orinvadersorconquerors)offthehook.
ButthereisanotherpointonwhichIwouldnotbudgethe"improvement"schoolofWesternexpansionwasbynomeansuniversalinthenineteenthcentury.ClearlythisfaithwasnotwinningalotoffansamongIndiansorHispanics,butitwasfarfromuniversalevenamongAnglo-Americans.InabookcalledWitnessestoaVanishingAmerica,LeeMitchellhastracedahistoryofregretofsomewhiteAmericanswhonotedandlamentedthe"priceofprogress"asearlyasthe1830s.Infact,onecangobackbeforethat,backtotheerabeforeAnglo-AmericansreachedtheTrans-MississippiWest,andseesomeofthesamething
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inPuritanleaderslamentingtheinjurytocommunitythatcamefromthegeographicalspreadofcolonistslookingformoreland,inBritishcolonialgovernorswringingtheirhandsoverthedamagedonetoIndianrelationsbyirresponsiblecolonialland-hunters.ContrarytosimplemindedimagesofAmericanhistory,therewasneveruniversalnationalgleeoverWesternexpansiontheeraoftheMexican-AmericanWar,forinstance,hadafullshareofanxious,worriedAmericansconcernedaboutthemoralityoftheconquestofthepresent-daySouthwestandconcernedaboutitseffectonthetroublingquestionofslaveryanditsexpansion.Therewas,inotherwords,alwaysagrouporseveralgroupsinclinedtoseeWesternexpansionmoreasamatterofdeclinethanofprogress,andwearenotimposinglatetwentieth-centuryhindsightinraisingthequestiontoday.
Foranyonewhoistodaya"regretter,"whohasmomentsofthinking,"Whatacontinentitoncewas,"momentsofwonderingwhethertheadditionoftoxicwaste,pesticides,enginesdependentonfossilfuel,andnuclearwastehasbeenaltogetheranimprovement,thenthegoodnewsisthatyouhaveadistinguishedpioneerheritageaswell.Youtoohavealineagereachingbackthroughthedecadesandevencenturies,alineageof''regretters."
Therewas,moreover,somethingaboutWesternexpansionthatmadeitthemostfertilepossiblegroundforregret.Therapid,irreversiblechangeofterritorialexpansionandresourcedevelopmentcarriedapredictablesideeffectinnostalgia;suchaheadlongpaceofchangemadeitinevitablethatbefore-and-aftercontrastswouldhauntpeople'smemories,andalargenumberofpeoplewouldthusfindthemselvesyearningforwhatwas,yearningforwhathadbeen,andoutofthatyearningwouldcomeanalmostirresistibleurgetoromanticizethepast,toimaginelostandimpossiblegoldenagesofharmonyorbraveryornobilityoropportunity.Westernersdevelopedthehabitofplungingforwardintothefuturewiththeireyescastbackward,over
theirshoulders,intoavanishedEden,lostbeforeiteverfullyexisted.
Thereis,inaddition,apatternofthoughtthathasbeengrowinginpoweroverthetwentiethcentury,thepatternofthoughtbywhichonelooksattheFlatironsborderingBoulderandthenlooksattheroadsandthecarsandtheshoppingmalls,andthinks,"Ohdear,thishasn'tworkedoutwellatall."
ThatistheperspectiveimpliedinthetitleofthisbookASocietytoMatchtheScenery,withtheapparentassumptionbeingthat,uptothispoint,thesceneryhasconsiderablyoutscoredthesociety.Thescenery,byandlarge,looksbetterthanthesociety.Butweareonlyabletomakethatobservationweareonlyabletofindthesocietywanting
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becausethewholeeconomicandpoliticalstructurethatWesternexpansionbuiltallowsustobeheretojudgeitsoharshly.Wecanraisethequestionofwhatsortofsocietywould,actually,suitthescenery,becauseweliveinasocietythatasksthosequestions.ItisalmostasiftheparticipantsinWesternexpansionstruggledandworkedandfoughtandextractedandexploited,allsothatwecouldcomealongin1988andpickonthemandpointouttheirflawsandtheirsinsandthemultiplewaysinwhichtheythoughttheyweremakingprogress,butwereinfactmakingamess.
BillHornbyfromTheDenverPostwroteacolumnaboutthisconference,andinthecolumnheexpressedthehopethatwewouldnotenditindespair,thatwewouldinsteadfindgroundsforcontinuingtothinkoftheWestas,inWallaceStegner'sphrase,thegeographyofhope.I'mnotsureifthisisexactlywhathehadinmind,orifhewillsettleforthis,butIwillreturntomyearliernotion,thatwemaybegoingtohellinahandbasket,butthecompanyandtheopportunityforconversationarebothexcellentinthatjourney.And(hereiswherethehopecomesin)itstillseemstomethatifwemakethatconversationfrankanddirectandopen,andifwefaceupfullytothedeclineaswellastheprogressrecordedinWesternhistory,wemaybeabletochangethedirectionofourcollectivevehicle,oratleasttoslowitdownandgiveourselvesmoretimetotalk.
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ASOFTWINDBLOWINGTHROUGHTHEAMERICANWESTTerryTempestWilliams
Pima.Papago.Apache.Navajo.Hopi.Zuni.Cochiti.Zia.SantaDomingo.SanCarlos.Jicarilla.Mescalero.Jemez.Acoma.Comanche.Crow.Blackfoot.Bannock.Sioux.Dakota.Oglala.Teton.Osage.Assinowan.Shoshoni.Ute.Goshute.Paiute.Arapaho.Cheyenne.Shawnee.Pawnee.Kiowa.GrosVentre.NezPerce.Pomo.Klamath.Miwok.Mono.Yakima.Tewa.Tegwa.Mojave.Shivwits.Walapi.Havasupi.Hispanic.Asian.Black.Slavic.Scandinavian.Irish.Italian.Greek.Basque.Mennonite.AndMormon.
Achantofregionaldiversitythatcallsthesepeopleintobeing.AmantraofjustsomeofthesubculturesoftheAmericanWest.
Andwhatisthevalueofsuchdisparatevoices?Imaintainitisinthestorieswetell;thestoriesthatbindustotheland.
IrecallhikingintheJedediahSmithWilderness,onthewesternslopeoftheTetons.Amanjoinedmeonthetrail.WestruckupaconversationandIaskedhimwherehewasfrom.Helookedatmewithatwinkleinhiseyeandbeganwhistlinglikethewind.Ididn'tknowwhattosay.Puzzled,Ishruggedmyshoulders.Hesmiled.
"Laramie,"hesaid.
Thismanknowshisplaceandthewindthatblowsthroughhiscountry.Andhehasastory.
Astorykeepsthingsknown.Itistheumbilicalcordthatconnectsustothepast,present,andfuture.Astoryallowsustoenvisionthepossibilityofthings.Itdrawsonthepowersofmemoryand
imagination.Itawakensustooursurroundings.Itremindsuswhoweareandwherethesourceofourpowerlies.
Nativepeopleshavealwaysknownthisthattheearthisastoriedlandscape.
LutherStandingBear,aLakota,recalls:
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Lakotachildren,likeallothers,askedquestionsandwereansweredtothebestabilityofourelders.Wewonderedasdoallyoung,inquisitiveminds,aboutthestars,moon,sky,rainbows,darkness,andallotherphenomenaofnature.Icanrecalllyingontheearthandwonderingwhatitwasallabout.Thestarswereabeautifulmysteryandsowastheplacewheretheeaglewentwhenhesoaredoutofsight.Manyofthesequestionswereansweredinstoryformbytheolderpeople.Howwegotourpipestone,wherecorncamefrom,andwhylightningflashedintheskywereallansweredinstories.2
MariaChona,aPapagowoman,explainshowachildlearnedamongherpeople:"Myfatherwentontalkingtomeinaverylowvoice.Thisishowourpeoplealwaystalktotheirchildren,solowandquiet,thechildthinksheisdreaming.Butheneverforgets."3
AndthenIrememberaskingRennyShortbull,aSiouxboyoftwelve,wherehewouldtakemeinhiscountry.
"IwouldtakeyoutotheSt.FrancisMissionbecausethatiswherethestorytellersare.Theyknowthewaysofourpeople.Iwouldtakeyoutherefirst."
RennyShortbullknowsthatstoriesgrowoutofcommunity,thattheydefine,elucidate,andinformourworld.Theyteachuswhatispossible,whatwecancounton,whatwecanholdontointhemidstofchange.
Storymaintainsastabilitywithinthatcommunity,providingcommonknowledgeastohowthingsare;howthingsshouldbe.Knowledgebasedinexperience.Astoryhasacompositepersonalitythatbecomestheconscienceofthegroup.Itbelongstoeveryone.
Breathedeeply.ItisthesmellofsageweshareintheWest,themutualityofstoriesthattelluswhoweare.
TheKalahariBushmenhavesaid,"Astoryislikethewind.Itcomes
fromafar-offplaceandwefeelit."
ItwasgoingtobealongridehomeforfifteenNavajochildren.Droppingkidsofffive,ten,andtwentymilesapartisnosmalltask.Wewerecommittedforthenight.ThesunhadjustvanishedbehindGiant'sKnuckles,causingthoseinthebackofthepickuptohuddleclose.
"Itgetscoldinthedesert,"Isaid.
"It'swinter,"oneofthechildrenreplied.Theycoveredtheirmouthswiththeirhands,giggling,aswecontinuedtobumpalongthedirtroadssurroundingMontezumaCreek.WhatdidthedriverandIknow?WewereAnglos.
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Wehadbeendownbytheriverfortheafternoon.Athinveneeroficehadcoalescedalongitsedge.Thechildren,bendingdown,wouldbreakoffpiecesandholdthembetweentheirthumbsandforefingers.Beforetheicewouldmelt,somebroughtthethinsheetstotheireyesasalens,whileothersplacedthemintheirmouthsandsuckedontheriver.Stillotherswingedtheicesheetsacrossthecobbles,watching,listeningtothemshatterlikeglass.
Lifeontheriver'sedgewasseeninwhirligigbeetles,waterskaters,andcaddisflylarvaeunderstones.Canadageeseflewabovethechannel,landingforbriefintervals,thencontinuingontheirway.Thechildrenfollowedtracks,expectingtomeetapackofstraydogshidinginthetamarisks.Ourshadowsgrewlongerwiththelastlightofdayreflectingonriverrapidsandwillows.
Thehoursbytheriverwerewellspent.Now,inthebackofthepickup,thechildrentoldtalesofdayswhenahorsecouldenterahoganandleaveasaman;ofskinwalkersdisguisedascoyoteswhostalkthereservationwithbonesintheirhands,scratchingwhitecrossesonthedoorsofill-fatedhouseholds.Theyspokeofwhiteowls,ghostlyflashesoflightthatcanturnthebloodofmiceintomilk.
Justthen,myfriendhitthebrakes.Thoseinthebackfellforward.
"Didyouseethat?"
"What?"weallasked.
"Amountainlion!Itstreakedacrosstheroad.I'llswearitwasalltail!"
Thechildrenwhisperedamongthemselves,"MountainLion..."
Wefiledoutofthetruck.MyfriendandIwalkedafewfeetahead.Wefoundthetracks.Arosette.Five-toedpads,clawless,imprintedonthesand,inspiteofthecold.
"Noquestion,"Isaid."Lion.Iwonderwheresheisnow?"
Lookingintothedarkness,Icouldonlyimaginethedesertcatstaringbackatus.Ilookedoveratthechildren.Mostofthemwereleaningagainstthetruckasheadlightsapproached.
"What'sgoingon?"alocalNavajomanaskedasherolleddownthewindowofhispickupwithhismotoridling.
Myfriendrecognizedhimastheuncleofoneofthechildren."Wethinkwesawamountainlion,"hesaid.
"Where?Howlongago?"
Theothermaninthecabofthetruckaskedifweweresure.
"Prettysure,"Isaid."Lookatthesetracks."
Themengotoutoftheirvehicleandshinedtheirflashlightsonthegrounduntiltheypickeduptheprints.Oneofthemenkneltdownandtouchedthem.
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"Thisisnotgood,"theNavajounclesaid."Theykilloursheep."
Helookedintothenightandthenbackatus."Whatcolorofeyesdidithave?"
MyfriendandIlookedateachother.TheNavajoelderbeganrecitingthecolorofanimals'eyesatnight.
"Deer'seyesareblue.Coyote'seyesarered."Hisnephewinterruptedhim."Greenthelion'seyesweregreen."
Thetwomensaidtheywouldbebackwiththeirgunsandsonstomorrow.
Wereturnedtothetruck,myfrienddrivingwithahandfulofkidsupfrontandtherestinthebackaroundmeaswenestledtogetherunderblankets.Thechildrenbecameunusuallyquiet,speakinginlow,seriousvoicesaboutwhymountainlionsareconsidereddangerous.
"It'smorethanjustkillingsheep,"onechildexplained."MountainLionisagod,oneofthesupernaturalsthathaspoweroverus."
Eachchildgaveawaylittlebitsofknowledgeconcerningthelion:thatitchirpslikeabirdtofoolyou;thatpartsofitsbodyareusedformedicine;thatintheolddays,huntersusedthesinewoflionfortheirbows.Thechildrengrewmoreandmoreanxiousasfearseizedtheirthroats.Theywerehushed.
Wetraveledthroughthestarlitdesertinsilence,exceptforthehumofthemotorandfourwheelsflyingoverthewashboard.
Intime,fromtherearofthepickup,cameaslow,deliberatechant.Navajowordsgentle,deepmeanderingsofmusicbornoutofhealing.Icouldnottellwhohadinitiatedthesong,butonebyoneeachchildenteredthemelody.Overandovertheysangthesamemonotonousnotes,dreamlikeatfirst,untilgraduallythecadencequickened.The
children'smoodbegantolighten,andtheyswayedbackandforth.Whathadbegunasacautious,fearfultoneemergedasajoyousone.Theireldershadtaughtthemwell.Theyhadsungthemselvesbacktohozho,theplacewithinwheretheworldisbalancedandwhole.
Afterthelastchildhadbeentakenhome,myfriendandIwereleftwitheachother,buttheechoofthechildren'schantremained.Withmanymilestogo,werolleddownthewindowsinthecabofthetruck,lettingthechilledairblowthrough.
MountainLion,whoseeyesIdidnotsee,layonthemesa,herwhiskersretrievingeachnotecarriedbythewind.
Wehavemuchtolearn.Andthereareotherstories.
In1910TsuruandKinjiKurumadaleftJapanandimmigratedtoRichfield,Utah.KinjiKurumadawasafarmer.HelovedtheUtahsoil,
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whichyieldedrobustharvestsofpotatoes,tomatoes,melons,andcorn.Dayafterdayheworkedtheland.ButperhapsMr.Kurumadawasbestknownforhiscanyonlettuceandforhowhesuppliedneighboringcountieseachyearwithhisgreens.Therewerefamilypriorities.Eachspringthelettucewasplantedwayintothenight,asithadtobeharvestedbeforetheFourthofJuly.Themoonwouldshine.Theseedswouldbefoldedintotheearth.Andasritualwouldhaveitformorethanthirtyyears,thecanyonlettucegrewandwasharvestedearly,justasthecommunityhadcometoexpectyearafteryear.
Mr.Kurumadaalsohadanuncannygiftforrecognizingsoils.Itgrewoutofhisintimacywiththeland.Itwasagamewithresidents,bringingtheoldmansamples.Theywouldholdouttheirhands,dirtinbothpalms,andask,"Wherearethesefrom?"
Hewouldlookatthem,mullthemoverinhisownfingers,andthenreply,"ThisisfromMonroeMountainandthissoilbelongstoCapitolReef."
Andthenotherlocalswouldcomeforthwithtwomorehandfuls.Theoldmanwouldmakeaclodfromtheloosedirt."Glacialtill.Draper,Utah.AndthislookslikeBigCottonwoodCanyon."
Hewasusuallyright.KinjiKurumadaknewhisground,establishingafirmsenseofplaceforhimselfandhisfamily.
InthespringMarch15,1942,tobeexactJuneKurumada,sonofKinjiKurumada,wasonabusforCalifornia.HewastravelingwithmembersoftheJapanese-AmericanCitizen'sLeague.Thebuswasstopped.Junewaspulledoff,arrested,andjailed.ItwasthebeginningoftheinternmentcampsforJapanese-Americans.HadKinjiKurumadabeenaroundtocheckthesoils,hewouldhavefoundtwohandfuls;onefromTopaz,Utah;theotherfromHeartMountain,Wyoming.
ThereareproblemsintheAmericanWest.Ithasneverbeeneasy.
IrecalltravelingtonorthernNewMexico,takingthehighroadsfromSantaFetoTaos.IstoppedintheSpanishvillageofChimayoandenteredthesantuario.Backhome,mygrandmotherwasveryill.Isatonthewoodenpewscarvedbyavillagerandprayed.Anelderlywomansittingnexttometookmyhandandsaid,"Vente;come."
Ifollowedherdownthecenteraislepastthealtarofcandlesintoasmallroom.Therewasaholeinthefloorwheretheearthwasexposed.Shekneltbesidethered,sandysoilandtooksomeinhand.Iwatchedhergentlyrubherpalmstogetherwiththeblessedearthandthencrossherself.Shelookedupatme,placedherhandonmyshoulder,rose,andleft.
Alone,Ikneltdownasshehad,tooksomeoftheredearthasshehad,andrubbeditbetweenmyhandswithmygrandmotherinmind.I
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markedmyforeheadandprayedinthemannerIwasaccustomedto.
Outinthecourtyard,theHispanicwomanwaited.
"Latierracura,"shewhispered."TheMotherEarthheals."
"Gracias,"Ireplied,andwepartedways.
Latierracura.Theearthheals.
AwomanfromChimayoknows.Navajochildrenwhosingthemselvesbacktohealthknow.SodoesthesonofaJapanesefarmerwhohasinhistokunoma(thegallerywherebeautyisdisplayed)riverstonesandsoilsamplesfromthecanyonwherehisfatherharvestedlettuce.
Stories.Morestories.Werememberwherethesourceofourpowerlies.
Coulditbe,asFrederickTurnersuggestsinBeyondGeography,thatthetruestoryoftheWesternsettlementisaspiritualone?
Fivegenerationsback,whenMormoncolonizerBrighamYoungstoodonthethresholdoftheSaltLakevalleyandsaid,"Thisistheplace,"myancestorsunderstoodthattheirlivesdependedonthegraceoftheGreatBasintofeedtheirsoulsaswellastheirbodies.
Isharetheirsentiments,andafter141yearsofcontinualsettlement;aresidencyofDixons,Blacketts,Romneys,andTempests,thisismyhome.Ichoosetodigin,knowingeventuallymyboneswilllienexttotheirs.
Iamtalkingaboutaspiritofplace,andthehumannecessitytorealizeitselfthroughcommunity,whichisindirectcorrespondencetotheland.ThesubculturesoftheWesthaveeitheradaptedtoahomelandorareintheprocessofadoptingone,anditisthisrelationshipbetweenlandscapeandcommunitythatisbestarticulatedthrough
story.
ItisamatterofbecomingnativenotNavajo,Hopi,orSioux,butratherrecognizingwithinwhateversubculturewebelongtothatthereisasenseofplace.Wecanarticulateourrelationshiptotheland,honoringourownnaturalautobiographies,realizingwildriversrunthroughourveins.
D.H.Lawrencespeaksofthe"futureprimitive,"themanandwomancourageousenoughtoseeinthelandtheirdestinyandbraveenoughtoengageinit.Hesays:
Theywentlikebirdsdownthegreatelectricdirectionofthewest,liftedlikemigratingbirdsonamagneticcurrent.Theywentinsubtlevibrationofresponsetothenewearth,asanimalstravelfardistancesvibratingtothesalt-licks.
Theywalkedanewearth,wereseizedbyanewelectricity,andlaidinlinedifferently.Theirbones,theirnerves,theirsinewstookonanewmoleculardispositioninthenewvibration.
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Theybreathedasavageairandtheirbloodwassuffusedandburnt.Anewfiercesaltoftheearth,intheirmouthspenetratedandalteredthesubstanceoftheirbones.Meatofwildcreatures,cornoftheaboriginalearth,filledandimpregnatedthemwiththeunknownAmerica.
Inmanyways,theunknownAmerica,thisunknownAmerica,stillexists.AsHermanMelvilletellsus,"Itisnotdowninanymap;trueplacesneverare."5Andso,asLawrencegoesontosay,"nowwewaitforthefulfillmentforthelawinthewest,theinceptionofaneweraofliving....Wewaitforthemiracle,forthenewsoftwind."6
Disparatevoices,speakingonbehalfofthelandweholdthissprigofsageandremember.
IfthereisamiracleintheWest,itisinthefabricthesesubculturescreate;thetensionandstrengthwoventogetherthroughregionaldiversity;thewarpdressedbyindividualcommunitiesandtheweftcreatedbythelandscapethatbindsus.
Itisherewemustidentifyourclout,ourregionality,asaphilosophicalandpoliticalentity.Notoutofprovincialism,butoutoftheJeffersonianmodelthat"unitedwestand,dividedwefall."MonocultureintheWestisaby-productoflazinessandgrief,alackofpassionwithnohomelandtolove.
Latierracura.Theearthheals.
Wespeakofthesethings,tothemutualityofourstoriesandstandourground.
PeterSchragg,inaneditorialfortheOregonian,June7,1988,writes,"ItistimefortheWesttostopplayingtotheEast,justastheEast,stopplayingtoEurope.TheAmericanorientationfromthefifteenthcentury,wellbeforetherewasanAmerica,alwayshasbeenthatofEastfacingWest.Inasense,theEastimaginedtheWestintobeingasmuchasWesternrealityshapedtheEast'simagination.TheEaststill
lookstotheWest,primarilyforcuriositiesandaberrations,ratherthanforcomprehensionandperspective.Unfortunately,theWesthasbeentooreadytooblige."7
Standingground.TheWesthasitsissues:environmental,economic,social,andcultural.Theyarecompoundedbythesubculturesmoreoftenthantheyarereformed.Weneedtofindcommonground,waysofexpressingourselvesandofarticulatingnationalinterestsinourownterms.Weneedageopoliticsofthisregion,anditsseedsmaybefoundinstory.
In1950governmentagentsproposedtogetridofprairiedogsonsomepartsoftheNavajoreservationinordertoprotecttherootsofthe
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sparsedesertgrassandtherebymaintainsomemarginalgrazingforsheep.TheNavajoobjected,insisting,"Ifyoukilloffalltheprairiedogs,therewillbenoonetocryfortherain."TheamusedgovernmentofficialsassuredtheNavajothattherewasnocorrelationbetweenrainandprairiedogs,andtheycarriedouttheirexperiment.
Theoutcomewassurprisingonlytothegovernmentofficials.Today,theareanearChilchinbito,Arizona,hasbecomevirtuallyawastelandwithverylittlegrass.Withouttheground-turningprocessoftheburrowinganimals,thesoilhasbecomesolidlypacked,unabletoacceptrain.Theresult:fiercerunoffwheneveritrains.Whatsparsevegetationwasoncetherehasbeencarriedawaybyfloodingwaters.
"Ifyoutakeawaytheprairiedogs,therewillbenoonetocryfortherain."Earthwisdominherentinstories.
RalphWaldoEmerson115yearsagosaid,"WehavelistenedtothecourtlymusesofEurope.Wedeclaredanintentiontowalkonourownfeet,workwithourownhandsandspeakwithourownmind."8
IfthereisamindoftheWest,perhapsitisthemindoftheland,asdiverseandrichasthecommunitiesthatinhabitit.IfweloseourspiritualtietotheWestor,insomecases,neverfindit,webecomethetumbleweedthatblowsacrosstheinterstate.Nosenseofplace.Nostoriestoevokewhoweareandallweareconnectedto.Nocommunitiestokeepuswhole.Culturaldiversityislostandthelandisgivenaway.Storiesgiveusresidency.Wearejustnowintheprocessofdiggingin,andIbelievewehaveitinustobecomenative.
Afewdaysago,IwasatthePackCreekRanchinMoab,Utah.Afriendofminehadcomewesttoseethecanyoncountry.WehadspentthedayhikingCourthouseWashinArchesNationalParkandwerehavingarelaxeddinner.Utahisasmallplace,especiallyinthedesert.Everyoneknowseveryoneelse.Andso,onebyone,friendsstarted
poppingin.Iintroducedthemtomyfriend,andwebegantalking,tellingstoriesofwherewehadbeenandwherewewantedtogo.Finallymycompanionsaid,"Stop,waitaminute.Doyouhearyourselves?Youpeopleoutheretalkaboutthelandasthoughitwasaperson.Youtalkaboutthelandasthoughithadcharacter."
MayIsuggestthatweareinvolvedinarenaissanceofthoughtandaction,thatweareintheprocessofcreatinganewsubcultureinalandscapeofmany.AndinthelandscapethatIamapartof,wherecanyonwallsriseupwardlikeprayinghands,acountryofredrocksandravens,wehaveamodel:Coyoté.
WhentheNavajosspeakofCoyotétheydosohesitantly,lookingovertheirshoulders,checkingthetimeofyear,sotheywon'tbeheard.Theyknowhisstoriesaretoldonlyafterthefirstfrostandneverafter
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thelastthaw.TheirculturehasbeenformedbyCoyoté.Heisprofaneandheissacred.Abumblerandahero.Hestraddlesthecanyonwallswithwildoatsinhisbelly.Andtheyknowhimbyname,''Ma'ii,"theonenevertobetakenforgranted.Theyunderstandhisficklenature,howheseducesfoolsintobelievingtheirownmythsthattheymattertothelifeofthedesert.
Coyotéknowswedonotmatter.Heknowsrockscarenothingforthosewhowanderthroughthem;andyethealsoknowsthatthosesameindividualswhocarefortherockswillfindopenings,largeopenings,thatbecomepassagewaysintotheunseenworld,wheremusicisseenthroughdove'swingsandwisdomisgleanedfromthetailsoflizards.Coyotéisalwaysnearbybutremainshidden.Heisanallybecausehecaresenoughtostaywary.Heteachesushowtosurvive.
ItisCoyotéwhowandersnakedinthedesertandleaveshisskinonthehighway,allowingustobelieveheisdead.Heknowssunburnedfleshisbetterthanatannedhide,thatdaysspentinthedesertaredayssoakingupstrength.Hecanretrievehiscoatandfluffuphisfurafteradayinthewildernessandmeetanyman,woman,orchildonthestreetsofMoabandseducethemfordinner.Coyotéknowsitistheproportionofdaysspentinwildnessthatcountsinurbanesavvy.
Coyoté'showlabovethecanyonsaysthedesertmaynotdependonhislife,buthislifedependsonthedesert.
Wewoulddowelltolisten.
ThecanyonsofsouthernUtahandelsewherearegivingbirthtoaCoyotéClanhundreds,maybeeventhousandsofindividualswhoarequietlysubversiveonbehalfoftheland.Andtheyareinfiltratingourneighborhoodsinthemostrespectableways,withtheirlong,bushytailstuckeddiscreetlyinsidetheirpantsorbeneaththeirskirts.
Membersoftheclanarenoteasilyidentified,butthereareclues.Youcanseeitintheireyes.Theyarejoyfulandtheyarefierce.Theycancrylouderandlaughharderthananyoneontheplanet.Andtheyhaveenormousrange.TheCoyotéClanisaraucousbunch:Theyhavedrunkfromdesertpotholesandbelchedforthtoads.Theytellstorieswithsuchvirtuositythatyou'llswearyouhavebeeninthepresenceofpreachers.TheCoyotéClanisalsoserene.Itsmemberscanfloatontheirbacksdownthelengthofanyriverorloseentireafternoonsinthecontemplationofstone.Membersoftheclancourtriskandwilldanceonslickrockasflashfloodserodethegroundbeneaththeirfeet.Itdoesn'tmatter.Theyunderstandtheearthrecreatesitselfdayafterday.
Sametribe.TheCoyotéClanharborsmyriadsofstoriesthatevokeasenseofplace,asenseofbelongingtosomethingmuchlargerthanourselves.
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Latierracura.Theearthheals.
Thevalueofregionaldiversityliesinthemutualityofourtales.Disparatevoicesarticulatingtheland,remembering,discoveringwherethesourceofourpowerlies.
AnewsoftwindblowingthroughtheAmericanWestispavingthewayforthe"futureprimitive."Itisaspotentandirresistibleastheritualofburningsage.
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HEALTHYENVIRONMENT,HEALTHYECONOMY:AMERICANINDIANLESSONSWalterEcho-Hawk
IhaveabasicpremisethattherecanbenohealthyeconomyintheAmericanWestwithoutahealthyenvironment.ItisapremisebasedontheexperienceoftheWest'soldestresidentstheAmericanIndians.WhenonecontemplatestheAmericanWest,whetheritbeofthepast,thepresent,orthefuture,itisimpossibletoroundoutthepicturewithouttakingintoaccounttheIndiantribes.WhenwelookintothemoreremotebackyardsofeachoftheWesternstates,wefindalargenumberofself-governingIndiantribesthatarealiveandwell,thatenjoyuniqueculturesfoundnowhereelseintheworld,andthatareinpossessionoflargetractsoflandcalledIndianreservations.Andthoughthetribesarestrickenwithchronicpoverty,theseIndianreservationsholdvastnaturalresources,andthereforeAmericanIndianshavearoletoplayintheAmericaneconomy.
UnderthestewardshipoftheIndiantribes,muchoftheselandsremainsinapristine,undevelopedcondition.Assuch,theseIndianlandsareamongthelastvestigesofthetrueAmericanWestinitsnaturalstate.WethereforebelievethatthetribestrulyinhabitthelastbestplaceinAmerica.
ButwhatdoesthefutureholdforAmericanIndianstheirculture,theirlandsasweadvanceintothenextcentury?WillwecontinuetoexistintheAmericanWestonehundredyearsfromnow,aswedotoday?Thisisaquestionthatisonourminds.
In1492ChristopherColumbusfirstcametotheseshores.
IthasbeenalmostfivehundredyearssincethefirstEuro-Americans
arrived.Maybeitistimetotakestockofwhereweareatthispointinhistory.Inthatrelativelyshorttimespan,ManifestDestinyhasrunitscourse.Thatistosay,youguysnowowneverythingherefromcoasttocoast.Thewhitemanhassubduedthetribes,hastamedthewilderness,hasalteredtheenvironmenttosuithispreferences,andnow
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exercisescompleteandabsolutedominionoverthebeastsandbirdsthatinhabittheAmericanWest.Whatnowislefttobedone,andwhatkindofstewardshipoverthelandwillnowoccur?Theseareissuesthatvitallyconcernallofus,includingtheAmericanIndian.Aswebegintoenterthenextcenturytogether,afterfivehundredyearsofoccupationof,andpresumablyadaptationto,thisland,canwenowhopeforamaturingsocietyandamaturingeconomy?Canwenowhope,forexample,forakinder,gentlereconomicsystemthatislessharshontheenvironment?OnepartofthatmaturingprocessistheneedforsocietytocometotermswiththeAmericanIndian.
Contrarytopopularbelief,the"vanishingredman"theoryofthelastcenturywaserroneous.Weneverdidvanish.ThetribesarestillhereandhavenointentionofleavingtheAmericanWest.Infact,mosttraditionalIndianbeliefsarethatwewillbeherelongafterthewhitemanhasgone.Nevertheless,theredmancontinuestoremainavirtualmysterytohisnon-Indianneighbors.Ourreligion,ourculture,ourhopesandexpectationsallremainamystery.AndwhatwillbetheplaceandtheroleoftheAmericanIndianinourever-maturingsocietyaswegosidebysideintothenextcentury?Certainlyourrolesandourrelationshipsmustchangeinfundamentalways.Historically,asweallknow,thewhitemanhastakenthingsthatbelongedtotheIndianinaone-waypatternthatmustnowbereversed,iffornootherreasonthanthattheIndiannolongerhasmuchlefttogive.TheAmericanIndiancontributiontothisrelationship,asweknow,hasincludedthegivingofIndianlandsandnaturalresources.Evenourreligionsandcultureshavebeendeemedexpendable.EvenourdeadhavebeentakenfromusandtreatedasAmerica'sarchaeologicalresources.Thispatternofexploitationmustceaseasweapproachourfive-hundred-yearanniversary,andanewracialrelationship,apatternofcoexistence,mustbefounded.
Whyisthisso?Foronething,itissimplynotgoodforoneraceto
sociallyoreconomicallyexploitanother.TheAmericanIndianisaminer'scanarywhenitcomestoAmericanliberties,justliketheAmericaneagleistheminer'scanarywhenitcomestotheenvironmentalhealthoftheland.AsFelixS.Cohen,thefatheroffederalIndianlaw,oncewrote,"TheIndianplaysmuchthesameroleinourAmericansocietythattheJewsplayedinGermany.Liketheminer'scanary,theIndianmarkstheshiftsfromfreshairtopoisongasinourpoliticalatmosphere;andourtreatmentofIndians,evenmorethanourtreatmentofotherminorities,reflectstheriseandfallinourdemocraticfaith."9Bearingthatinmind,itismyhopethatthefreedomofAmericanIndianstobethemselvesandtoenjoytheirownreligionand
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culturewillbeprotectedandrespectedthroughouttheAmericanWest,atleasttothesameextentthatthefederallawsprotecttheendangeredsnaildarterortheAmericaneagle,sothatourtribalpeoplesandourirreplaceablewaysoflifewillnotperish.Itisonlythroughagenuineunderstandingandmutualrespectthatourdifferentpeoplescancoexist.
Butwhatdothesethingshavetodowitheconomicdevelopmentin
theAmericanWest?Perhapsnothingatall,for,asImentionedearlier,wearethepoorestofthepoor,livingintherichestcountryontheplanet.Wearestrangerstoeconomicdevelopment.Butperhapsthereissomerelationship,atleastinsofarasahealthyenvironmentandahealthyeconomyareconnectedwithoneanother.ItisherethatAmericanIndians,iftheyareallowedtoexist,canofferatleastsomesmallspiritualguidance.Whetherwelikeitornot,Westernersmustacknowledgethelong-standingspiritualrelationshipoftheAmericanIndiantotheland.AndmaybeinthatregardwehavesomethingtooffertothedominantelementofAmericansociety,which,maybe,hasnotquiteyetadaptedtothelandaswellasitmustifwearetosurviveandflourish.
SiouxChiefLutherStandingBear,notingtherecentarrivalofthewhitemanandtheneedforadaptation,oncesaid:
Thewhiteman...doesnotunderstandAmerica.Heistoofarremovedfromitsformativeprocesses....ThemanfromEuropeisstillaforeignerandanalien.Andhestillhatesthemanwhoquestionedhispathacrossthecontinent.
ButintheIndianthespiritofthelandisstillvested;itwillbeuntilothermenareabletodivineandmeetitsrhythm.Menmustbebornandreborntobelong.Theirbodiesmustbeformedofthedustoftheirforefathers'bones.10
LetmeclosebycitinganexcerptofaspeechofChiefSeattle.Thesecommentsweremademorethanonehundredyearsago,in1854,toAmericangovernmentnegotiatorswhowereaskingtobuyChiefSeattle'slandnearthepresent-daycityofSeattle.
Everypartofthissoilissacredintheestimationofmypeople.Everyhillside,everyvalley,everyplainandgrove,hasbeenhallowedbysomesadorhappyeventindayslongvanished.Eventherocks,whichseemtobedumbanddeadastheyswelterinthesunalongthesilentshore,thrillwithmemoriesofstirringeventsconnectedwiththelivesofmypeople,andtheverydustuponwhichyounowstandrespondsmorelovinglytotheirfootstepsthantoyours,becauseitisrichwiththebloodofourancestorsandourbarefeetareconsciousofthesympathetictouch.Ourdepartedbraves,fondmothers,glad,
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happy-heartedmaidens,andevenourlittlechildrenwholivedhereandrejoicedhereforabriefseason,willlovethesesombersolitudesandateventidetheygreetshadowyreturningspirits.AndwhenthelastRedManshallhaveperished,andthememoryofmytribeshallhavebecomeamythamongtheWhiteMen,theseshoreswillswarmwiththeinvisibledeadofmytribe,andwhenyourchildren'schildrenthinkthemselvesaloneinthefield,thestore,theshop,uponthehighway,orinthesilenceofthepathlesswoods,theywillnotbealone.Inalltheearththereisnoplacededicatedtosolitude.Atnightwhenthestreetsofyourcitiesandvillagesaresilentandyouthinkthemdeserted,theywillthrongwiththereturninghoststhatoncefilledthemandstilllovethisbeautifulland.TheWhiteManwillneverbealone.11
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LAND,COMMUNITY,ANDSURVIVAL:LESSONSFORTHEWESTFROMAMERICANINDIANSDavidH.Getches
WeshouldbegladthatthelawrecognizesspecialrightsforAmericanIndians.IndianlawthatbodyoftreatiesandstatutesdefiningthelegalstatusofNativeAmericansisatoolthathashelpedIndiansholdfasttoatleastsomeoftheirland.BecauselandandresourcesarethefoundationofIndianculture,savingsomevestigesoftheirformerhomelandalsokeptaliveculturesandtraditionsthatdefineIndianness.Weallshouldrejoiceinthat.ThemostbasicIndiantraditionaphilosophyofpermanencecaninspirethesuccessofourownsociety.Letmeexplain.
WesternerssufferakindofschizophreniaaboutIndians.ThereisconsiderablehostilitytowardthepreservationofspecialIndianlegalrights.Non-Indianswhoseimmediateself-interestispinchedresenttheIndians'legalentitlementstowater,ortofish,ortolandcovetedresourcesintheWest.Theseextraordinaryrightsareoftencondemnedas"un-American."OnecourtinWashingtonlikenedthemto"titlesofnobility"thatarecontrarytotheUnitedStatesConstitution.
TheothersideoftheWesternpersonality,however,isgladthattherearestillIndianshere,aromanticreminderofpeoplelivingclosetotheearth,acolorfulculturewithenviabletraditions.MostWesternerswouldconsideritatragedyifIndianswereswirledintothemeltingpotofAmericansociety.
OnlybecauseIndianshavebeenabletoclingtotheirlandsandresourceshavetheyhadtheequipmentneededtosurvive.Withoutthe
shieldofsometimes-resentedlegalrights,thatwouldhavebeenimpossible.
UnderstandingtheroleoflandandresourcesincementingtogetherIndianculturesandcommunities,andinensuringthematerial,cultural,andspiritualsurvivalofIndians,isimportanttoourownsurvivalasa
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societyinthenewWest.TheselessonsarethegreatestgiftsthatIndianshavetoofferus,thelessonsdrawnfromtheirsuccessfulsurvivalinthisrugged,butfragile,mostlydryplace.WecanborrowfromtheexperienceofIndiansocietiestofindwaystogivepermanenceandqualitytoourownexistenceintheWest.
Cultureanditsaccoutrementsgivesocietiestheiridentityandtheircontinuity.Cultureembodiesthewisdomofancestorstellingushowtheylearnedtosurviveandhowtoenjoylife.ManyofushaverootssetshallowintheWest,andperhapsthecontinent,aheritageoflessthantwogenerationsforamajorityofWesterners.ManyofourparentsleftbehindadeeperheritageinEurope.Ourancestors'experiencethereandintheindustrializedEastusedculturalequipmentthatwasnotfullyadequateforlifeintheWest.
AmericanIndiansocietiescanhelpusfindanddefineourcultureintheWest.Theirexperienceteachesushowtounderstandouradoptedhomeandhowtofindpermanencehere,ifwewilllistentotheirstory.Weshouldthinkofthemassurrogateancestors,heretoimpartculturalunderstandingtousimmigrants,wewholackacompletecultureofourown,searchingforidentity,community,andsurvival.
TheculturalcontributionsofIndiansareoftenmentionedbuttheirrealvalueisrarelyunderstood.AschoolchildcantellyouthattheIndiansgaveuscornandtobacco(giftsthatmaycanceloutintheirrespectivevaluestosociety).Indianculturalcontributionsarenotlimitedtothesecommodities.TheyextendtonamesArapahoeRoad,atowncalledNiwot(afterthegreatchiefwhofrequentedthisarea).Indian-stylearchitectureaboundsintheSouthwest,liketheUniversityofNewMexicoSchoolofLaw'skivadesign.AndtheartandjewelryanddressoftheregionaretraceabletoNativeAmericans.JackWeatherford'snewbook,IndianGivers,goesfarther,documentingAmericanIndianbreakthroughsinagriculture,medicine,foodand
fiber,andgovernmentthathavebeenvitallyimportanttotheNewWorldandEurope.
MorevaluablethananyoftheotherculturalgiftsIndiansoffer,though,istheirbasicphilosophy.Thatphilosophyenabledthemtosurviveinanaridenvironment,aplacewhereislandsofrichresourceswereseparatedbylongdistances.WeneedtounderstandtheIndians'philosophyofpermanenceandhowitguidedtheirrelationswithoneanotherandwiththeenvironment.TheWest'sfuturemaydependonhowwellwelearntheselessons.
Indiansforgedtheirgroupstightlyaroundtiesoffamilyandcommunity.Individuallyandintheircommunitiestheyadaptedtheirexistence,theireconomies,andtheirlifestylestothewaysofthelandratherthantryingtotametheland.Westernersneedtoaskwhetherwe
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valueourindependenceandself-sufficiencytoomuch.EveryoneofuswhohaslivedthroughatoughwinterstormintheRockiesorhadacarbreakdownonsomebackroadinthemiddleoftheplainshaslearnedthefrailtyoftheindividualitythatopenspacesmakepossible,haslearnedtheimportanceofbeingabletodependonothersforhelpandsupport.
IndiantribesandsomeHispaniccommunitiesintheSouthwestsuccessfullyirrigatedahostilelandusingcollectivesystems.Theearlysettlersignoredtheirexampleandtriedtoirrigatetheirlandsbygoingitalone.Theyfailedatfirst,withtheexceptionoftheMormonpioneers,whowerededicatedtoworkingtogether.Irrigationfinallysucceededwhensettlersjoinedtheirefforts.
TheWest'sIndiansknew,too,thattheymustlearntolivewithnature'swhims.Thisisaplacealwaysinflux,alwayssubjecttonaturaldisasters,todroughts,tofloods,toearthquakes.Survivalrequiresknowingtheplaceandadaptingtoit.Instead,wenewcomerscompoundednaturalriskswithourowndisastersandboom-and-busteconomies.Ambitiousschemesexploitednaturalresources:Mining,damming,draining,andclear-cuttingchangedthefaceoftheWestinonewayoranother.MuchoftheoldWestislost.Old-growthtimberstandsaremuseumpieces;heapsofminetailingsmarthelandscape;canyonshavebecomelakebottoms;wholespecieshavedisappeared.
Wedidnothavetoindulgetheseexcesses;wecouldhavelistenedtotheIndians.Theyhadtheirownexcesses,too,generationsago.TheAnasazifoundthelimitsofartificialirrigationandtheirsocietydied.Theylearnedthehardway.ManyexperienceslikethesewerelongagoembeddedintheNativeAmericanculturalmessage,theiridealofapermanentrelationshipwiththeland.Whyshouldwerepeatmistakesthatimperiledancientpeoples?Needwereprovethetruthstheyteachabouttheland?
ThetwomostvexingissuesintheWesttoday,survivalofcommunitiesandstewardshipofresources,aretiedtogether.Failureononeissueisfailureonboth.Indianculturesofferwisdomonaddressingboth.
First,peopleintheWestneedtofindtheircommunity,theirtiesoftraditionandceremonyandvalues.Theycanusetheircommunitiestosupportoneanotherand,attimes,toallowoneanotherpreciousindividuality.
Second,Westernersneedtokeepaneyeonthelandscape,thesurroundingsthatbindthemtogetherascommunitiesandcangivethemspiritualandmaterialsustenance.Survivaldependsonunderstandingtheland.Weneedacollectiveunderstandingandanimplicitagreementnottooverexploitanddestroytheresourcesthatsustainuslandand
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water.Thoseresourcesareatrisk.Iftheyareexhausted,ordamaged,orspreadamongtoomanypeople,theWestlosessustenanceandtheculturalnexusforitscommunities.
TodaypeoplethroughouttheWestarecomingtogetheranddefiningtheircommunitiesaroundtheresourcesthatareimportanttothemandthatcangivethempermanencehere.FolksonColorado'sWesternSlopefarmers,skiinstructors,ranchers,andstorekeepersrallytogethertoresistabigcity'sschemetode-watertheirhomeland.AsimilarstoryisunfoldingintheSanLuisValley.
Peoplearebeginningtosensethenaturallimitsoftheregion'secology.Wehavemadesomeprogressasaregionandasanationinsecuringapermanentplacewherewecanliveharmoniouslywithoursurroundingsandourneighbors.
TheinterrelatednessofeverythinginourenvironmentisatruthstrangetoEuropeanculture.ButwearegropingtowardanunderstandingofitandreflectingitinlawsliketheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActthatinsistonlookingatthebigpicturebeforeunleashingdevelopment.Wehavehadthewilltosetasidesomelandsforeveraswilderness,someriversaswild,placesthatonlyhalfacenturyagoweresymbolsofhostilityandenmity.Wearegettingseriousaboutstemmingthelossofanymorespecies,bringingbackotterandbuffaloandmaybeevenwolves.Wehaveasensethatdoingthesethingsisessentialtoourpermanentsurvivalinthisregion.Theessenceofthisplaceisatriskifwedonotdothem.Indiansknewthisallalong.
Fortunatelyfortunatelyforusthelawgavetribessomesecurityforsomeoftheirhomelands,enoughtokeepaliveacultureshapedtotheland.Ifwehopetoliveoutourdayshereandconsideritaplaceforourgrandchildren,too,weshouldlistentoandlearnandteachthewisdomonwhichIndiansocietieswerelongagobuilt.
ThesurvivalofWesternculturemaydependuponadaptingourselvesandadoptingsomeofthelessonsofoursurrogateancestors.TheiradaptabilityandsuccessinsurvivingwithdignityisamodelfortheWest.JustasweacceptandinternalizeandactonthelessonsofourGerman,English,Irish,Scandinavianandotherancestors,weoughttogainstrengthandknowledgefromthelessonsofoursurrogateIndianancestors.Listentotheirdrum,too.Ourstrengthtoembracethefutureandtoseekpermanenceforasocietyinthesepartsdependsonintegratingalltheselessons.
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THEAMERICANWESTFROMTHEEASTANDTHESOUTHEvelynHu-Dehart
Bythetitleoftheseremarks,Idon'tmeantheEastandtheSouththewaysomeofyoumaythinkofit.AsaChinesepersongrowingupinChina,IhadvividimagesoftheAmericanWest.Muchofthatcamefromthemovieswewereallowedtosee.Myparentsallowedustoseeonemovieayear.ThatwasourNewYear'streat,andweinevitablylookedformoviesthatfeaturedcowboysandIndians.So,unfortunately,wewerepartofthatlegacyoftheWest,theWestofcowboysandIndians,andIdon'tthinkIhavetoexplaintoyouwhowerealwaysthegoodguysandthebadguysinthosemovies.
ButtherewasalsoanotherAmericanWestthatwassomuchapartofus.We'dallheardoforhadfamilyandfriendswhowenttotheUnitedStatestowork,andparticularlytoaplacecalledTheGoldenMountain,whichwas,ofcourse,SanFrancisco.ThatwastheotherAmericanWestthatallofushadinthebackofourminds.SowhenmyparentstookustoCaliforniaasimmigrantsand,mindyou,myparentswereextremelywell-educatedChinesetheimagethattheygaveusandtherationalethattheyofferedusforwhyweshouldgotoCaliforniawasthatthestreetsofCaliforniawerepavedwithgold.TheyselectedatowncalledPaloAltobecauseofthegoodpublicschoolsandbecause,theytoldus,weallweregoingtogotoStanfordUniversity.Stanford,ofcourse,wasbuiltwithmoneymadebyLelandStanfordmoneymadefromtherailroadsandfromtheexploitationofChineselabor.SothatwasmyviewoftheAmericanWestasachild.
ThenthereistheviewoftheAmericanWestfromMexico.ThereisasayingthatcapturestherelationshipbetweenMexico(particularly
northernMexico)andtheUnitedStates(particularlythewesternandsouthwesternpartsoftheUnitedStates):''PoorMexico,sofarfromGodandsoclosetotheUnitedStates."Whatthey'rethinkingofisthisambiguous,ambivalent,bittersweetrelationshipthatMexicohasalways
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hadwiththeUnitedStates,especiallythewesternandsouthwesternUnitedStates.Forinstance,itwasonlyveryreluctantlyinthelatenineteenthcenturythattheUnitedStatesallowedtherailroadtycoonstoextendtherailroadfromtheAmericanWestintoMexico.
InmystudiesoftheIndiansofthenorthernpartofMexico,theYaqui,IdiscoveredthatpartofwhatwecalltheAmericanWest,theMexicansthoughtofastheirnorthandtheirnorthwest.SothisideacalledtheAmericanWestisnotsomethingthattheyshareinMexico.TheyviewtheAmericanWestaspartoftheirnationalterritory.Theyhaveextended,ortriedtoextend,MexicointotheAmericanWest.Theyhavelostalotofthatterritory.IfyougototheAmericanWest,therearepeoplesfrombothsidesoftheborderwhosharedacommonheritage,butwithverydifferentperspectives.
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DRAWINGSTRENGTHFROMTHEDIVERSITYOFTHEWESTRaymondDeanJones
IamasonoftheWest.Mygrandfather,theReverendMatthewShadrackJones,who,withhisbride,AmericaJones,cametowesternKansasinacoveredwagoninthenineteenthcentury,homesteaded140acresoutsideofFriend,KansasafarmthatwestillhaveandbegantopreachintheBaptistchurchesuptheArkansasRivervalley,upasfarasColoradoSprings.Evennow,fortyyearsafterhisdeath,inplacessuchasManzaneras,andLaJunta,andTrinidad,andWalsenburg,peoplewhoarenowoldstillspeakinreverenttermsoftheReverendShadrackJonesandoftheblackBaptistchurcheshefoundedthatstillthrivetothisday.Myfather,bornin1903,himselfbecameamanofthisplace,workingontherailroadbetweenChicagoandAlbuquerqueuntil,onastopinPueblo,Colorado,heencounteredthistall,foxywomanfromKentuckywhohadcometoPueblo.Shehadcometotakecareofhergreat-aunt,mygreat-great-aunt,AuntSusie,whohadcometoPuebloafterthedaysofslaverytomakeherway.Findingthiswoman,sothestoryistold,myfathergotofftherailroadandsettledinPuebloandfoundhisplace.
Alotofdifferentthingscanhelpyoufindyourplace.Blacks,too,haveaplaceinthisplace.Itwouldbewellforallofus,asweconsidertheAmericanWest,toreflectonthewayinwhichithasbeenshaped,andthewayithasbeenexclusiveinthepast.Oneofthefactorsthatmustbeconsideredistheextenttowhichwewillincludeallofthepeopleinthisplace.Wehavenotbeengoodatthat.Weare100or150yearstoolateindiscussingthis.Notthatwearetoolateintheabsolutesensenotthatweoughtnottobediscussingthisbutthere
weredulyconstitutedsocietiespresentinthisplace,societiesthathadworkedthroughtherigorsofthisplaceandwerelivinginbalancewithit,peoplewhoknewhowtoliveoffthelandandknewhowtomakethelandprosperwhiletheythemselvesprospered.Yetwhenourforbearerssaw
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thisplace,theysawfrontier.Eventodaywespeakofitasfrontier,asthoughitwereempty,asthoughitwerenoone'shome.Theysawsomething,andstilltodayweseesomethingthatwecallthefrontier,whichisthereforthetaking.Certainlyitwastreatedthatwayassomethingthereforthetakingandsomethingtobegiveninreward.Wedidn'tseeotherpeoples'homes,wedidn'tseeotherpeoples'sacredplaces,wedidn'tseeanimalhabitatsinecologicalbalancewiththewhole.Wedidn'tseeanimalsatallanimalsthatlivedandthrivedandenabledhumaninhabitantsthemselvestothrive.
Wemusttakearegionalviewofthisplace.Wearelong,longtoolateinapproachingtheWestasaregionthatmustbeseenasawholesociallyandeconomically.Certainlywehavebeenbeatenandbludgeonedintolookingatourwaterinthoseterms.Butwedevastatedthelandinmanyotherwaysbeforewehadtheforesighttolookuponitasaninterrelatedregion.Aswelookatthedemocratizationoftheworld,atperestroikaandwhatishappeninginEasternEuropeandChinaandsoontobehappeninginSouthAfrica,itisimportantforustobringthatimperativehometotheWest,toundertakeakindofdemocratizationofthisregionanddevelopasensethatitispopulatedbypeoplewhoareofthisplace,whoknowthisplace,whoarecomfortableandinbalancewiththisplace,andwhohavebeenshapedbythisplace.Itisimportantthatwerecognizethemistakesthatwemadeinnotincludingthosewhosehomeitwasbefore.Itisimportantthatwhenwetalkofsharedvalues,weareverycarefultoincludeallofthosewhohavemadeacontributioninthisplace.
Wehavemademistakes.Wearenowtalkingaboutconceptsthatwemighthaveprofitedfromtalkingabout150yearsago.Letusnow,atthislatedate,actontheseconceptsandactontheseideas.Letususethestrengththatthisplacehasputinusandtrulymakethisplace,thisregion,thisAmericanWest,agreatthingofbeauty.
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DEVELOPMENTANDCULTURALSURVIVALEstevanT.Flores
RecentlythemovieTheMilagroBeanfieldWarmadeitsdebut.Ifyouhaven'tseenit,Isuggestthatyoudo.Evenifyoudon'tseeit,pleasereadthebook.It'sricher,it'sdeeperthanthemovie.Theideaconveyedinthebookisthat"development"meansatleasttwodifferentthings.Itmeans,tocertaingroupsofpeople,power,socialenhancement,profit,success.Toothergroupsofpeople,however,itmeanssomethingtotallydifferent.Itmeansachallengetotheireconomicandculturalsurvival.Andthatiswherewearetoday.We'recaughtinthisconflictbetweendevelopmentand,inmanycases,economic,political,andculturalsurvivalofdifferentgroups.
Thequestiontousis,howdowerespondtothischangingcomplexionoftheWestandSouthwest?DowerespondasCaliforniaandTexasdidinthemid-1970s,when,becauseofthefearofthenewimmigrants,theyenactedlawsthatwouldbarundocumentedtheycalledthemillegalschoolchildrenfromenteringpublicschools?Dowerespondthroughwhathasbeenamovementofthe1980sthatisdirectlylinkedtothatanti-immigranthysteria,withanEnglish-languageamendment,ashasbeendoneinvariousstatesacrosstheSouthwestandWest?
LindaChavez,one-timepresidentofthegroupU.S.English,resignedfromthatgroup'sgoverningboard.Whenyoureadthememothatpromptedherresignation,youunderstandwhy.Inthatmemo,theauthor,JohnTanton,raisedthequestionofwhetherHispanicsareaseducableasAsians.AndheworriedthatthehighbirthrateamongHispanicswouldmakethis"thefirstinstanceinwhichthosewiththeirpantsuparegoingtogetcaughtbythosewiththeirpantsdown!"12
There'sabiasthere,clearly.ButthesearenotbiasesthataresharedsolelybygroupssuchasU.S.EnglishwithitsdriveforanEnglish-languageamendment.
Howdowerespondtosuchmovements?Thisisthe"fourthwave"ofimmigrantstoarriveatourshores,theAsiansandLatinos.Buthow
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dowerespond?IhadtheopportunitytobeonacommitteeinDallas,theGreaterDallasCommunityRelationsCommission,amultiracial,multiethnicgroupofabouttwentyindividuals.OurprimaryobjectivewastheresolutionofconflictbetweenracialandethnicgroupsinDallas.Thisisoneeffortthatwaspositive,aneffortthatlookedtheproblemsquarelyintheface.
Racismisatopicwedon'tliketoaddressbecauseitmakesmanypeoplefeeluncomfortable.IknowthisbecauseIteachacoursecalled"RaceandEthnicRelationsintheUnitedStates"attheUniversityofColorado.OnthefirstdayofclassIaskmystudents,"Doyoufeelthatyouarecompletelynonracist,somewhatnonracist,color-blind,somewhatracist,ortotallyracist?"Only20percentsaidthattheyconsiderthemselvestobesomewhatracist.Idon'tknowwhetherthatisgoodorbad.Abouthalfconsiderthemselvestobecolor-blind.Duringthecoursetheybegintolookwithinthemselves,toexaminetheirownbiases,toexaminehowtheyrelatetootherpeople,toexaminehowtheyrelatetoissuesofpublicpolicy.Cantheymakethoseconnections?
InCalifornia,becauseoftheoverwhelmingchangeindemographicsthatistakingplacenow,thereisaneworganizationcalledCaliforniaTomorrow,justinstituted,thatwillexamineracialandethnicquestions,thechangingcharactersoftheschools,andsolutionstoproblemsthroughoutthestate.Thesearestepsthatareseriousandthatpointusinadirectionofpositivechange.Theseareonlyfirststeps.Again,wecannotchangeunlessweexamineourownbiases,ourownmisgivings,ourownpreconceptions.It'sadifficultthingtodo,butnecessary.
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THEHUMANELEMENTINTHEWEST:CONTRADICTIONS,CONTRADICTIONS,CONTRADICTIONSAdrianHerminioBustamante
Sometimesweforgetpeopleintryingtoprotecttheenvironment.Icomefromaculturethatwastherewhen"there"wasn'teven"theWest"itwasnorthwesternMexico.AndIadmitthattheculturewasmishandlingtheenvironment.Itwasaverypoorsocietyandtheonlywaytheycouldaccruewealth,theonlywaytheycouldmakealivinginmostofthataridland,wastobringinsheep.Ofcourse,therangebecameoverloadedwithsheep.I'llbethefirstonetoadmitthis.Buttherewasaneedthere.Therewasaneed.
I'mgladnowthatdemandsontheenvironmenthavebeenbalancedoff,toadegree.ButwhenIgosometimestolookatsomeofmycousin'scattleupinthemountainmeadows,IgoonhorsebackbecauseI'mapoorhiker.I'vegotabadknee.Igetthesedirtylooksfrompeoplewhoarehikingalongthetrail.I'mintruding.Myhorseisintrudingbydefecatingonthetrail.Ifeelsorryforthembecause,ifIwereahiker,I'dhatetogetoutofthewayforahorse,soIgivethemameeklittlesmile.We'realwaysgoingtohavetheseproblems.Weallhaveouragendas.Everygrouphasitsagenda.Wecanhopethatwewillcontinuedialoguesandtrytomakesomethingoutofthemesswe'rein,becauseweareinamess.
SantaFehasbeenpointedoutasaplacethathasmaintaineditsvaluesinspiteofitsbeingarecreationtown.Ireallyhavetodiffer.SantaFeisoneofthetownsintheWestwhosecentershavedied.Theplaza,forexample.(AndIwavetheflagforthechamberofcommerce.Folks,we'repoorinNewMexico.Weneedyourmoney.Comeand
vacationinNewMexico.)Theproblemisthattheplazaisdeadbecause,asourex-statehistorianputitrecently,"It'sbeenartsy-craftedtodeath."Itisnowfullofgalleries,onegalleryafteranother.Myfavorite
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drinkingplaceisgone.TheoldPlazaBarwhereIusedtogoandshootpoolwithsomeoftheold-timersisnotthereanymore.Theoldguyintheredbaseballcapwhotaughtmehowtoplaynine-ballwithaplombisgone.Idon'tknowwherehedrinksnow.Ihaven'tfoundhim,andSantaFe'sasmalltown.
Thepeoplehavebeenfleeingthecenteroftownbecauseoftourism.ThelocalpeopleareexcludedfromwhatusedtobethecenteroflifeinSantaFe,whichistheplaza.Ifindthesamethinginmany,manyothertowns.YougotoDurango,Colorado,andotherplaces,andyougettheimpressionthatthey'retryingtocreateanartificialenvironmentsothatotherpeoplecanenjoyit.Theattemptistobringbackthatnostalgicera,thateraofthewayitprobablywas.Thatliesheavilyonmany,manylocalpeople.
Thiswasbroughthometomebyafriendofmine,IvanIllich,whowroteDeschoolingSociety.IwasshowinghimaroundSantaFe.IwasshowinghimourfamousCanyonRoadandheaskedme,"Adrian,isitreal?"
"Whatdoyoumean,isitreal?"
"Isyourtownreal?"
Ithitmelikeatonofbricks.WehadcreatedanartificialSantaFetomaintainwhatsomepeoplethoughtSantaFeshouldbe.
We'redoingthisallovertheWest.Why?Commercialism.Weneedthetouristdollars.Buthowdowesolvethisproblem?Idon'thaveanyanswers.I'mtryingnoteventolookintothefuture,becauseI'mahistorian.SoI'mcoppingout.Buthowdowesolvetheseproblems?They'reverybasicproblems.
Onesavinggraceisthatthelittletowns,thevillagesthatweresupposedlydeadinthe1950sinnorthernNewMexico,arestillalive.
Theyarestillaliveandfunctioningwell.IrememberindrivingbetweenLasVegas,NewMexico,andSantaFe,I'dseeoneortwoorthreelightsinatownBernal,forexample.Today,whenIdrivethroughthere,therearemaybefiftylightsinthattown.Thattownhasgrownsincethetimewhentheyhadalreadygiventheeulogyforit.Itbouncedback.
TheproblemisthatmostofthosepeoplearedependingonthenuclearresearchgoingoninLosAlamosforjobs.Soyouseethecontradictionthere.Wehavepeoplemakingaliving.Howaretheymakingaliving?Theyarecarpentersandweldersandeverythingelse,helpingscientistswhoaredoingnuclearresearch.Nuclearresearchneedstobelookedat.WIPPtheWasteIsolationPilotProjectisabigprobleminNewMexico.Alotofpeopledon'twantthegarbagefromLosAlamosandotherareasputintheCarlsbadarea,whichhassomesaltbedsthatsupposedlywouldcontaintheradioactivityofthewaste.
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ThepeopleinCarlsbadwantitbecauseitwillprovidejobs.ThepeopleinSantaFeandAlbuquerquedon'twantitbecausetruckscarryingthatwastehavetopassthroughtheirtowns,andsupposeanaccidentoccurred?PeopleinCarlsbadwantitbecausethepotashminesgaveoutandnowtheyneedjobs.Contradiction,contradiction,contradiction.
SodoesanythingreallychangeintheWest?Idon'tknow.Wehavegottoseewhatwecanreclaimandhowwecanreclaimit,andreclaimitrationally.Notwithsomuchpassionthatwetearthingsupwemustplanrationally.Howdoweplan,howdowedoit?Idon'tknow.I'lltrytorecorditaspastifI'mstillaroundinthefuture.Meanwhile,I'mveryconcerned.
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NEWSETTLERSINTHERURALWESTBetsyMarston
Ibringtoyouanon-the-groundreportfromtheruralWestonegrassroot.
Aradiotalk-showhostfromDenvercalledearlyonemorningtowishHighCountryNewsahappytwentiethbirthday.Iwastoldtostandby,onlytohear:"NowweleavetheglamourandglitzofAspenforhumblePaonia..."
Well,itisn'thardtobehumbleinmytown.
It'sasmalltown,just1,400souls,withtwentychurches.It'sahopefulplacethesedays.EventhelocalRotaryClubisgrowing.Ithasawomanmember.It'sthekindoflaid-backRotarywheremembersaskthegrouptosingtocelebratesomeevent.OnemembernamedWally,whoisclosetoeighty,recentlyaskedtheRotarianstosing"HappyBirthday"tohismother.LookingatWally,whotottersaboutoncowboyboots,afellowRotarianaskedhowoldhismotherwas.She'dbe104,cametheanswer,ifshewerealive.
Idon'tthinkHighCountryNewscouldbebettersituatedthaninthisworkingtownclosetotheWestElkWilderness.Youcanseetheeconomicandculturalflip-flopsupclose.Paoniahaslostsome850miningjobsinthelastdecade,freezeshaveshutoutthepeachcropmoreoftenthannot,andranchershavesoldout.Yet,aftertwoorthreeyearsofholdingon,thetownrenewsitselfandturnsoveritsbusinesses.Greaterfools,perhaps,marchinwithlargefortunesandproceedtospendmostofthemfixinguparanchorhomeandtryingtoestablishabeachhead.
Futurologistsliketotalkaboutparadigms,thoseusefulmodelsfor
perceivinglife.Intheearly1980s,themodelforwesternColoradoandotherenergy-boomareasintheWestwasgrowth.Itwas:"Youluckyrusticpeople!Exxonandothercompaniesarecomingtoyourtown.Thenationneedsenergyandit'spatriotictoripintoyourhillstogetit."Growthmeantjobs,morepeople,abiggertaxbase,asurethingfor
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youngpeople,whowouldnotbeexportedinsuchlargequantities.In1980,inoneofitsscenarios,ExxonpromisedanewtownoffiftythousandintinyParachute.Whocanforgetthatin1982oneSunday,Exxonsummarilyfiredtwenty-onehundredpeopleandshutdownitsoil-shaleworksforever?
FormostoftheWest,asourfreelancersintenWesternstatestellus,thedefinitionofrealityisnolongerthatofacargocult.Nolargeindustrydropsfromtheskyandputspeopletowork.InsmalltownsintheruralWest,wearetoldnowtobeentrepreneurial,serviceoriented.Thesedaysthatmeansflexibleandpoor.Theproblemisthatworkissomewhereelseformanypeoplewithhighschoolskills.WeexportmaidstoSnowmassandAspen,coalminerstoCarbondale.PeopleinCarbondale,inturn,movetoPaoniawheretheycanaffordahouse.What'sinthemiddleisMcClurePass,notafunplaceinawhiteout.
ButbatteredasPaoniaandothersmallWesterntownshavebeen,thenewworldwe'rein,andpresumablythefuture,feelsverydifferentfrom1974,whenmyhusband,Ed,andIarrivedinPaoniawithourtwoyoungchildren.WeweretobedropoutsfromNewYorkforayear.Thosetwelvemonthslastedfifteenyears.Paonia,likemanysmallWesterntownsthen,washostiletonewcomers,labeledthemashippiesandfearedthembecausetheyweretaintedbyurbanvalues.Worse,theyweren'tbornthere.Why,theirparentsweren'tevenbornthere!Theyweren'tlocal.Theywerealien.
Fifteenyearslater,throughboom,bust,andwhatHighCountryNewshascalledareopenedWesternfrontier,hostilityandsuspicionhavebeenreplacedin1990bythewelcomemat.New,schmoo.''Wewantyou"isthemotto.Smalltownsneedkidsinthetoo-largeschools,theywantfamiliesinvacanthomesandbusinessesdowntown.Cottageindustriesareidentifiedandwelcomed.Thechamberofcommerce
canseethatpeoplearegoingwheretheywanttheirjobtobe,notnecessarilywheretheirjobsare.Thereseemstobeanunderstanding,oramovementtowardunderstanding,inplaceslikeMoab,Utah,andthePaoniasoftheWest,thattheenvironmentistheeconomy.ThegreeningoftheWestistheneweconomicdevelopmentengine.
Theoldwaysstillhangon,though,witharushtodamthefewplacesleftintheWesttodam,therushtocuttreesininappropriateplaces.ItseemsHighCountryNewsfreelancersarealwaysreportingonyetanotherlast-ditcheffortbyasmallunderfundedgroupthatsaysonebig-buckeconomicactivityoranotherwantstodestroytheircommunity.AndPaonia,atownthatseesintheswingtowardtourismandrecreationthemajoringredientsofitsfuture,probablystillhasayenforagreatbigcompany.
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Oldparadigmsdiehard,justlikeashot-upbadguyinabarwhoturnsthreetimes,thentwitchesonthefloorintheoldWesternmovies.liejustwon'tliedownanddie.Theyearningforafatcorporatepayrollisn'tsurprising.Forthenewworldthatiscomingintofocusoffersagenerousamountofuncertaintyalongwithhope.Anentrepreneurusuallymeanssomeoneusingfaxmachines,modems,FedEx,doingsomethingforsomeoneinsomecitysomewhere.It'sasketchypresentandasketchyfuture,notfilledinyet.ButifyoucareabouttheWestthatmighthaveluredyoutoturnoneyearhereintofifteen,itisthefuturetoworkforandtobelievein.
Journalistsarenotoriousfordependingonhunches,turningthreestoriesonasubjectintoatrend,andleaningonintuitionratherthanstatistics.ButIseededicatedenvironmentalistswhoseranksaregrowing,andtheyaregettingtougher.TheyarewillingtofightforaWestthatexistsnotjustforhumans,butforitsancientinhabitants:bears,aspen,wildrivers,tundra,hummingbirds,sandstonecliffsyoufillintheblankforthat"bestplace."
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THEELUSIVEQUALITYOFTHEWESTCharlesR.Middleton
MyowninitialcontactwiththeWestcamewhenIwasinaseventh-gradeU.S.historyclassin,ofallplaces,Miami,Florida,aboutthirtyyearsago.IfoundatthattimethattheWestwasreallyastrangeplace,aremoteplace.Westudieditinthecontextofregionalism,becauseweSouthernersthoughtthatWesternershadsomethingakintoourowninterestatthattime,andatothertimesinthepast.
TheWestwaspresentedasaplacethatwaspeopledbyindividualswholivedinabarrenandaridclimate,peoplewhomostlyspenttheirtimeeithershootingateachotherorridingaroundthecountrysidelookingforpeopletoshootat.Itwaspresentedasaplacewhereonecouldlookasfarastheeyecouldseeandnotseeanythingexceptastraycactusandthehappycloudsinthesky.ItsremotenessisthelargestmemorythatIhavefromthatfirstintroduction.Irememberthinking,mygoodness,whatanisolatedplace.Theimagewewerethenreceivingintheschoolswasofwhitecowboys,veryfewIndians,fewerwomen,noblacks,noHispanics.Theimagewasofaplacethatwasrural,whichIknewabout,butaruralplacewithouttreesandwherethelargestcitywasDodge.Inshort,fromthatadolescentperspective,itwasnotaplaceonewouldliketogo,muchlesstolive.
ThemostpowerfulaspectofthatrecollectionwasthattheWestwasaplacethathadbeen,thatitwasn'taplacethatreallywasanymore,thatbythe1950sithadessentiallydisappeared,orwhatweFloridiansreallyknew,ithadturnedintoCalifornia.Myownexperienceremindsme,andIhopeyou,ofthepoweroftheTurnerthesisabouttheAmericanfrontier,atleastaswewerethentaughtaboutit.AlthoughwehavecometounderstandatleastIhaveafterreadingPatty
Limerick'sbookLegacyofConquestthatthisisreallyamisinterpretationandamisunderstandingoftheTurnerthesis,thepowerofthatmisinterpretationstretcheddownevenintotheseventhgradeandevenasfarawayfromtheAmericanWestasMiami.
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Thirtyyearslater,inthefallof1987,IfoundthatIwasaprofessorofhistoryattheprincipaluniversityinthatregion.IwassituatedexactlyinthemidstoftheplacethatIhadthoughtwasbeyondthepale.I'maBritishhistorian,andthirtyyearslaterIalsofoundthatIwaspresidentoftheWesternConferenceonBritishStudies.ThatremindsmeoftheviewoftheWest,orofWestness,thatweBritishhistorianshold.OurWestbeginssometimearoundtheNormanConquest.Ourfirstoutpost,asBritishhistorians,isthecityofWestminster,whichhasagreatabbeychurch,andinthatabbeychurchisburiedthepenultimateSaxonkingandthelastroyalsainttositonthethroneofEngland.
Bethatasitmay,thepresidentoftheWesternConferenceonBritishStudieshastheobligationtonominatehisorhersuccessorandtoselectthesiteofthenextmeeting.Andso,beingawickedpersonlivingintheWest,IdecidedtomakeastatementaboutWestness,andwenominatedandselectedasmysuccessoraspresidentoftheWesternConferenceonBritishStudiesaprofessoratGeorgiaSouthernCollege,whichisaboutthirty-fivemilesinlandfromtheAtlanticOcean.ThisiswestonlyifyouliveinSavannah.UnderhisleadershipweweretomeetinNewOrleans,whichatleasthasthemeritofbeingwestoftheAppalachianwatershed,beyondwhichGeorgeGrenvilletriedtostopthecolonistsfromgoingin1763withoutsuccessthesamelackofsuccessasothergovernmentshavehadintryingtostopwestwardexpansionbothphysicalandintellectualinotherplacesatothertimes.
MypointisthattheconceptoftheWestseemstobeaconstantinEuropeanhistory,andcertainlyintheAnglo-Americanexperience.Butit'sanelusiveone,inthatatvarioustimestheconceptcanbefoundtoapplytodifferentplaces.Bythat,ImeanitcouldbethattheWestisSpringfield,Massachusetts,orSpringfield,Illinois,orDenver,Colorado.Itmayturnoutthatwhereyoustandonwherethe
AmericanWestisasageographicalconcept,dependslargely,ifnotexclusively,uponwhereyousit.
Infact,weallknowthatit'smorethanageographicalconcept.It'smorethanthat,muchmorethanthat.Atthissymposiumwe'regoingtothinkthroughavarietyofthemesandissues,whichwillonlywhetourappetitesformorestudyandinviteusinavarietyofdifferentcontextstofurtherconsiderationandreflectiononthesetopicsandrelatedconcernsthatwillgrowoutofthisconferenceintofutureconferencesintheyearsahead.
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THELASTBESTPLACE:HOWHARDSHIPANDLIMITSBUILDCOMMUNITYDanielKemmis
WhilethespiritofdemocracysweepseastwardacrossEurope,overtheUrals,whistlingthroughthecracksintheGreatWall,Americastandsbemused,withnohintofanyawareness,atleastinofficialpolicy,ofwhatallthismightmean.Schiller'swordsandBeethoven'smusicresoundinBerlinandwillagain,Ibelieve,inBeijing.ButinBostonorBoiseaself-satisfiedsmugnessresemblingahypnoticslumberholdstheworldspiritatbay.
Watchingallofthis,Ican'thelpbutrecallcertainwordsofHegel,whosearticulationoftheideaofaspiritofhistoryseemsindispensabletocapturingwhatishappeningtotheworld.In1820HegelsetouttowritehisPhilosophyofHistory,seekingtoidentifythoseforcesthathadmadeandwouldmakerealhumanhistory.Hegelpausedforamomentatthestartinggatetodisposeofonenaggingquestion,namelywhetherAmericahadanyprospectofcontributinganythingworthwhiletothehistoryofhumancivilization.Hisanswer,deliveredwithouthesitation,was"no."HisreasonspeaksstilltoAmerica,andespeciallytotheAmericanWest.
Inanutshell,HegelpredictedthatAmericawouldnotbegintocontributetocivilizationuntilithadconfronteditsownlimits.Specifically,hearguedthatthesafetyvalveofthefrontierhadpreventedandwouldcontinuetopreventthedevelopmentofatrulycivilsociety.Inmakinghiscase,HegeltookapositiondiametricallytheoppositeofJefferson's.Jeffersonhadarguedthatcivicculturewasessentiallyrootedinagricultureandthreatenedbythegrowthofcities.
HethereforeassignedtotheWesternfrontieracrucialandatthesametimeforedoomedrole,whichherepeatedoverandoverinastandardJeffersonianformulathatwentlikethis:Civicculturewouldremain
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stronginAmericaaslongasagricultureexpandedfasterthancitiesgrew,whichwouldhappenaslongastherewas"vacant"Westernlandintowhichagriculturecouldexpand.Thatthispatterncouldnotrecurindefinitelythattherehadtobeanend,sometime,tothefillinginofwhatwhiteAmericanscalledvacantlandwasarealitythatJeffersonchosetosuppress.Indoingso,hecontributedverysubstantiallytotheMythoftheWestspecifically,tothemyththatitwassomehowaplacewithoutlimits.
Hegel,asIhavesaid,arguedthatcivicculture,farfromdependingontheexistenceofthefrontier,couldonlybeachievedoncethefrontierwasclosed.Morespecifically,heturnedJeffersononhisheadbyassumingthatcivicculturewasanessentiallyurbanphenomenonsomethingthatreallyonlyoccurredwhensignificantnumbersofpeoplewereforcedtostopfarmingandtogatherincities.eagreedwithJeffersonthattheWesternfrontierallowedagriculturetooutpaceurbanization.HisconclusionwassimplytheexactoppositeofJefferson's;hewrotethatuntilAmericansbeganfacingeachotherincities,theywouldnotbecomeatrulycivilsocietyandwouldnotmakeasubstantialcontributiontothehistoryofcivilization.
Now,onehundredyearsafterthe1890census,whichledtheCensusBureauandthenFrederickJacksonTurnertodeclarethefrontierclosed,westand,hereintheWest,atacross-wiringofhistoricalcurrentsthatalmostforcesustoaskwhoweareandwherewearegoing.WemarkthecentennialoftheclosingofthefrontierjustasworldhistoryturnsKarlMarxonhishead,whichpresumablymightmeanthatHegelhasagainlandedonhisfeet.IfHegelwerehereatthisconference,alongwithThomasJefferson,whatwouldhesaynowabouttheWestandaboutthepossibilityofitscontributingtothehistoryofcivilization?
I'mgoingtousethechallengeofthisoccasiontoproposeananswerto
thatquestion.IbelievetheworldspiritisaliveinWesternvalleysandtotheleewardsideofWesterncutbankswherepeopleclaimedbythislandscapehavegatheredtocarryoutthebusinessoflivingwellinhardcountry.Ibelievethatthereis,nativetothissoil,apoliticsoftrulyhumanproportions.Itisapoliticsthatwehavenotyetbeenboldenoughtoproposetoourselves.Butthehourofitsbeingproposedisdrawingnear.WhenthatpropositionisarticulatedinagenuinelyWesternvoice,theWestwillrespond,anditsresponsewillmakeitsmarkonthecourseofhistory.
Now,predictionslikethesedeservetobesubjectedtoavarietyoftests,thechiefonebeing,ofcourse,thetestoftime.Beyondthat,anyonemakingsuchpredictionsmightbeaskedtowarrantinsomewayhisorherstandingtomakepredictions.InAmerica,wecanalways
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makethegrandclaimofcitizenship;wecanremindourlistenersthatitis,afterall,afreecountry,andIcanpredictanythingIwantto.SinceIhopetodealwithamoremeaningfulformofcitizenship,Ihadbetterpassupthatwayofbackingmyclaim.Otherscanwarrantpredictionsbytheirtraininginthedisciplineofhistory,butwhileIdeeplyadmirethediscipline,Iamcertainlynottrainedinit.Itis,rather,asapoliticianthatImakemypredictionsaboutthenearfutureoftheWest.AndIthinkthatisfittingenough,sincemypredictionsareaboutthepoliticalfutureoftheregion.
Ihavelongbelievedthatplacesselectpeople.Portlandselectspeoplewholikerain.HavinggrownupinMontanainapioneerfamilythatsettledfourgenerationsagoineasternMontana,Ihaveobservedovertheyearshowfrequentlyrecurringthepatternofmyownancestorswasinthesettlementofthehighplainsofthestate.Mygreat-grandparentstriedOregonintheearly1880s,buttherainandtheovercrowdingfinallydrovethemaway,andtheymovedeast,backacrosstheRockies,totheopencountrythatcouldbecursedinanalmostinfinitevarietyofwaysbutcouldneverbeaccusedofbeingtoowet.Overtime,theplaceofmyupbringingcametobepeopledbyfolkswhosewordswereassparseasrainandwhosehumorwasasdryasthehillsoutofwhichtheyekedaliving.
Theshapingofapeoplebythelandtheyinhabittakestime,andinAmericaithastakenlonger,simplybecausewehaveneverbeenquitesurethatwewereheretostay.WendellBerrybeginshisbookTheUnsettlingofAmericabyobservingthatAmericanshaveneverquiteintendedtobewheretheywerethattheyhavealwaysthoughtmoreintermsofwheretheywouldgo,ratherthanofwheretheyactuallywere.ButBerryalsoidentifiesasecondstraininthepatternofsettlementwhathecallsatendencytostayput,tosay,"Nofurtherthisistheplace."OnepeculiarityofthesettlementoftheWestisthatitattracteditselectedpeoplewhoweremoregiventhanotherstoescape
settlement.Onlytheywouldbewillingtoputupwiththeharshness,theinhospitalityoftheland,whichgrewmoreinhospitablethenearertheycametoinhabitingthelastofthefrontier.
SotheWestdrewtoitselfmorethanitsshareofunsettlers,ofpeoplewhoseessentialrelationtoplacewasthedenialofplace.Andyettheplacesthattheycameto,beingthelastplacetogo,finallytookholdofthem,drewthemdownintotheirflintysoils,rootedthem,claimedthem,shapedthemthewaytheyshapedsagebrush.Overthegenerations,thesepeopleincreasinglycametorecognizethemselvesandtorecognizetheirneighborsintheformsthelandproduced.Andtheselectionprocessdidnotstopatsomepoint;itgoesonstill.Peoplestill
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aredrawnherenotjustinspiteofbutbecauseofthehardnessoftheland.
Gradually,aculturegrewoutoftheland,agroupofstorytellersandimagemakerscapableofholdingthispeopleuptoitself.InMontanawereliedonpeoplelikeJosephKinseyHowardandK.RossTooletoshowuswhowewere,andineachlocalitythereweresimilarvoices.Buttherehavebeenregionalvoicesaswell,notleastthatofWallaceStegner,andnowanewgenerationincludingvoiceslikeBillKittredge's.BillandAnnickSmithhaveproven,dramatically,howdeepandpowerfulthecommoncultureofplaceisbyproducingforMontana'scentennialanexceptionalandexceptionallypopularcollectionofvoicesentitledTheLastBestPlace.
Letmetouchnowforjustamomentondemocracyaboutwhat,atleastfromtheperspectiveofapracticingpolitician,democracyisormightbe.Thereisanunsettlingpremonition,aswewatchEastBerlinerspouringthroughthebreachedwalltogoshoppinginWestBerlin,thatdemocracymayintheendnotreachveryfarbeyondsomenotionofequalaccesstoallgoodthings,especiallybluejeansandcheeseburgers.Asapolitician,Ihavehadmyfairshareofexposuretothebehavior,andthefundamentalinsatiability,ofthecitizenasconsumer.Iamconvincedthatdemocracyissteadilydiminished,justastheearth'scapitalissteadilydiminished,bythisversionofdemocracy.Itisademocracythatcannotendure,andalltruedemocratsmustwarnagainstitsdangers.
Intheageoffastfoodandpervasivefingertipconvenience,wehavecometobelievethatdemocracyisabirthrightthatisaseasytopracticeasaprecookedmicrowavedinneristoheatandserve.Butithasneverbeenso,anditwillnotbesoforthecominggenerationofworlddemocrats.Here,atleast,FrederickJacksonTurnerstillspeaksinavoiceofJeffersoniandemocracytowhichweneedtoattendifwe
aretounderstandwhatmakesdemocracypossible.Turnerspeaksofhowthefrontiercreateddemocrats;hewritesthattherigorsofthefrontierinstilled(andIwouldargueselectedfor)whatTurnercalleda"competency"acapacitytogetdonewhatneededdoingwhichtranslatedintoatrulydemocraticconfidence.Hardcountrybreedscapablepeoplecapable,amongotherthings,ofgenuinedemocracy.
Butlet'stakealittlecloserlookatthiscompetence.Itis,hasalwaysbeen,andmustnecessarilybethecompetence,notsimplyofindividuals,butofademos,ofapeople.Tohavethiskindofcompetence,apeoplemustbeboundtogetherinwaysthatenablethemtoworktogether.Whattheprojectofinhabitinghardcountrydoes,aboveall,istocreatethesebonds.AndwhenIspeakofbondshere,Idonotmeantoevokeanything
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particularlysoftormushy.Thesearepracticalbonds,althoughtheydooftenleadtoakindofaffectionamongthosesobonded.Buttheyareinthefirstinstancepractical.Theyarethekindsofbondsthatmadeofbarn-buildingandsimilaractsofcooperationsomethingthatmustbeunderstoodasaculture.Itisaculturebredofhardplaces,nurturedbythepracticeofinhabitingthoseplaces.
IwanttodrawattentiontotwowordsIhavejustused.Thefirstis"practice"(anditsderivative"practical").Thesecondis"inhabitation.''Thesewordsarerootedquiteliterallyrootedinthesamequiteliteralsoil.Inhabitationdependsuponhabits;toinhabitistodwellinaplaceinanhabituatedway.Todothisrequirespractice.Thispracticerevolvesaroundcertainpracticalnecessitiesoflivinginhardcountry,necessitieslikeagoodbarn.Buttosaya"goodbarn"isnottospeaklightly,fornotjustanybarnwilldo,andthisistrueofagreatrangeofsuchpracticalnecessities.Whatwasdonemustbedonewelloritwouldnotsurviveitwouldnotenablesurvival.Thus,thepracticesthatlieattherootofalltrueinhabitationespeciallyoftheinhabitationofhardcountryarealwayspracticesthatcarrywithinthemselvesdemandingstandardsofexcellence.
Itisthesestandardsofexcellence,arisingoutofthesoilitself,bodiedforthincertainhabituatedanddeeplysharedpatternsofbehavioritistheselivedstandardsofexcellencethatalonegivemeaningtotheconceptof"value."Overthepastdecadeorso,moreandmorepeoplehaveengagedinavaguerecognitionofthefactthat"values"aresomehowanimportantpoliticalfactor.Thishasbeenaratherastonishingrealizationforliberals,instructedasweallhavebeenintheliberaldogmathatvaluesareprivateconcerns,andnobusinessofthestate.Butaspoliticshasincreasinglybecomeagameof"values,values,who'sgotthevalues?",evenliberalshavehadtopaylipservicetothisnewpoliticalicon.
Butwehavenotyetunderstoodthatvaluesarenotsomethingthatsimplycomeoutofablackboxintheindividualsoul,astheliberaldogmawouldhaveit,orfromadeepvoiceonamountaintop,asthefundamentaliststhink.Whatmakesvaluessharedandwhatmakesthempoliticallypowerfulisthattheyariseoutofthechallengeoflivingwelltogetherinhardcountry.Whenpeopledothatlongenoughtodevelopapatternofsharedvalues,thosevaluesacquireapoliticalpotency.
ItisherethattheWesthasthecapacitytocontributesomethingdeepandimportantandlastingtothehistoryofpoliticsandcivilization.Simplybecausewehaveforsomanygenerationsworkedontheprojectoflivingtogetherinhardcountry,wehave,althoughwedon'trecognizeit,developedamongourselvescertainpatternsofbehavior,which
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amounttosharedvalues.ThequestioniswhetherwewillrecognizethisWesternfactoflife.Thequestioniswhetherthoseofuswhocallourselvesliberalsandthoseofuswhocallourselvesconservatives,allofwhomareinhabitantsoftheWest,canbegintoturntoeachotherandbegintorecognizewhatitiswehavebuilttogetherintermsofsharedpatternsofinhabitationandthereforeofsharedvalues.ThatisthechallengeoftheWest.Ifwecanbegintounderstandhowwehavebeenshapedbythiscountry,shapedinsimilarways,notsothatwethinkalikeallthetime,notsothatwebelievealike,butsothatweinfacthavedevelopedsomesharedvaluesthatgiveusthecapacitytododifficultandimportantworktogether,thenonthisbasiswecanbegintocontributetodemocracyandtothehistoryofcivilization.
Isaythisasapoliticianwhoiswillingtobethiscareeronthefactthatthisisapossibility.Iamabsolutelyconvincedthatpeoplewillrespondtobeingappealedtoasinhabitantsofacommonplace.Theyarewillingtorespondtoanyonewhowillspeaktotheirwearinesswiththekindofdeadlockthatourpoliticsalltoooftencreates.Theywillrespondtoapoliticsthatspeaksdirectlytotheirdeepdesiretoberespectedandtobetreatedaspeoplepeoplewhoarecapableoftreatingotherpeoplewithrespect.Theywillrespondtoapoliticsthatspeakstotheircommonlyshapedpatternsofdoinggoodwork,toapoliticsthatsaystopeopleontherightandontheleft,"Youareonepeople;youunderstandeachotherbetterthanyouthinkyoudoandyouarecapableoftreatingeachotherasifyoudounderstandeachother."Andfinally,theywillrespondtoapoliticsthataddressestheirsenseofwhatagoodcityoragoodcommunitymightbe,andhowwewouldhavetotreateachotherifweweregoingtogoaboutthetaskofcreatingit.
ItissaidofAthensthatinspiteofitsdeepsocialdivisions,itsustaineditsexperimentindemocracyanddevelopedanoutstandingculturebecause,intheend,eachofthecontestantsineachdivisive
issuecaredmoreaboutAthensthattheycaredaboutwinning.IamconvincedthatincommunitiesacrosstheWest,amajorityofthepeoplecaremoreabouttheircommunitiesthantheycareaboutwinning.Buttheyhavenotbeengivenapoliticsthatencouragesthemtobehaveinthatway.Theyhavebeengivenapoliticsthatonlyencouragesthemtocareaboutwinning.
ArewecapableofrealpoliticsintheWest?Ibelieveweareifwearewillingtofaceourselvesandourneighborsinawaythatwehaveneverdone.Weneedtobewillinginthefirstinstancetofacetheimplicationsofourhistoricalunwillingnesstofaceourselves.Jefferson,democratthathewas,believerthathewasintheideathatdemocracycouldonlyexistwhenitwaspracticedonasmallscale,wasyetwilling
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throughtheLouisianaPurchasetoengageinthebuildingofanempire.Hedidthatbecauseinthelongrunhebelievedthatdemocracycouldonlysurviveifitwasrootedonthefarmandthatitcouldberootedonthefarmonlyifagriculturecouldexpandendlessly.Soheboughtintoanempire,andourancestorsboughtintoanempire,andwe,byinheritance,boughtintoanempire.Partofthereasonforthisisbecausewe,likeJefferson,havebeenunwillingtoimagethepossibilityofagoodcity.Jeffersoncouldnotimageacitybeinggood.Alltoooften,Ithink,weareguiltyofthesamewayofthinking.RobinsonJeffers,inhispoem"ShinePerishingRepublic,"talksabouttherepublic"heavilythickeningintoempire,"andheendsthepoembywriting:
Butformychildren,Iwouldhavethemkeeptheirdistancefromthethickeningcenter;corruption
Neverhasbeencompulsory,whenthecitieslieatthemonster'sfeet,thereareleftthemountains.13
ThathasbeentoomuchtheWesternattitude.Webelievedwestillbelievethatwecansomehowescapeourselvesbyslippingintothemountains,avoidingthehardtaskoffacinguptoourselvesincities.Ourmistakehasalwaysbeenthatwehaveletempireshapeourcities,ratherthanlettingcitiesshapethemselvesand,aboveall,demandingofpeoplethattheyshapetheircities.
Butthecomplicitygoesbeyondthat.OnceThomasJeffersonboughttheLouisianaPurchase,wehadnochoicebuttobuyboththemilitaryandthebureaucraticsuperstructurethatwentwithit.WecantaketheattitudeofsayingallofthathasbeenforcedontheWest.Orwecansaythatwehavebeencomplicitinitandthatwehavethecapacitytodosomethingaboutit.Thewaywewilldosomethingaboutitistoclaimourhomelandtosaythisisourhome,andtobeabletosay"our"andmeanit,notonlyofthepeoplethatthinkanddressandbehave
likeus,butoftheotherinhabitantsoftheregionwhoareequallyrootedhere.WhentheWestisreadytodothat,thenitwillbereadyforarealpoliticsofinhabitation.
Iwillmakeonefinalprediction:thatwhenthattimecomes,wewillunderstandthat,likeeveryotherregionofthecountry,wearegoingtohavetobeincontrolofourhomeland.Thatmeansthat90percentofitcan'tbeownedsomeplaceelse.TheimperialpresencewouldhavetoberemovedfromtheownershipofWesternlands.TheWestwillnotbereadyforitsownpoliticsuntilitisreadytoclaimitsownland.TherealtestofthatwillbewhetherweeverunderstandthattheU.S.Senatewascreatedinorderthatland-dominatedregionsliketheWestmightassert
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theirownland-basedwaysoflife.Whenthetimecomes,whenwearereadytodevelopahistoryandpoliticsoftheWest,wewillbegintoelectacadreofU.S.senatorswhowillgotoWashingtontoassertsovereigntyoverthiscountrythatweinhabit.Willwedoit?Areweserious?Orarewejustplayinggames?
In1636JohnWinthrop,soontobecomegovernoroftheMassachusettsBayColony,sailedwithashiploadofPilgrimsfromEnglandtowardthelandtothewest.Astheysailed,hepreparedforhisshipmatesasermononhowtheyshouldexpecttogoaboutthetaskofinhabitingthefiercelyinhospitablelandthattheyhopedtomaketheirhome.Heknewhowharditwouldbe.Andheknewhow,outofthathardship,theymightcreatewhathecalled"thecityonahill."Thisiswhathesaidtothem:"Wemustdelightineachother.Wemustlabortogether,suffertogether,rejoiceandmourntogether,keepingalwaysbeforeoureyesourconditionasmembersofonebody."14
Inourtime,WendellBerry,inapoemcalled"WorkSong,"soughttocaptureonceagaintheessenceoftheenterpriseofwinningagoodlivingfromahardpieceofland."Thisisnoparadisaldream,"hewrote.Butinaland-rootedvoiceofhopethatisthetruevoiceoftheWest,heconcluded,"Itshardshipisitspossibility.''15
PARTFOURTheLimits
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WHENDIDWEKNOWWhendidweknowtherapistcuttingintothetenderfleshofhisshiveringvictimwasadraglineslashingintoElkMountain?
Whendidwe*thebloodychildlyinglimpinarottingheapinthedumpsterwasawastepitofpoisonchemicalsseepingintothewater in that glass?
Whendidthecrackshootingupthatruddynostrilcocainecrackridingintoyourchild'sroomonanArmy
chopperwasajetofnapalmcrashingintoafamilyworkingafieldofrice?
When*thatthe10poundsofcarbondioxideIaimatyour
lungeachdriveoftheweekisacannonofacidrainshotatthecedars
onWolfCreekPass?
thatthetonsofstyrofoamcloggingBigHoleRiverareabombofplutoniumslicingthesoilatRockyFlats?
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themultinationalbribesofrainforestkeepersthosemilitarythugswhobaskonyourtaxesarefederalcontractsforStarWarsresearchinthisstate?
WhendidIknowthatMYshortcuttramplingacrossthebuffalograss
isU.S./S.R.assaultsonthemoon,Mars,andcosmos?Whendidwe
WhendoI
dosomethingaboutit?
CordeliaCandelaria
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THEHISTORYOFFUTURES(formystudentsatKentState,Spring1973)
Thelonghornwasanautomotivepackageofhide&bones,afewhundredpoundsofdopewhichdelivereditselfentirelyfreeofmoralinconvenienceknownotherwiseasfatyetwithamemoryfreshenoughtomarket
TheBloodyRedMeatHabitdatesfromabout1870BeforethatwewereaSowbellyNationfeedingoffthewisestoftheomnivoresBeefistheearliestelementofthecrisis,atypicalTexasimbalance
Importations,trashbeeffromArgentinaaremeanttosatisfytheBloodyRedMeatHabitsofourbestfriends,andinfactaspetloverssecretlyunderstandyouCanfoolfido
WithFoodstampswehavepurescripttheagriculturalsubsidyfarmershaveenjoyedundereverynamebutsocialismosinceWorldWarII
WhichbringsustoatrulygiantdognamedRonaldthemostimmensefriendconceivable
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aFenrircreatedbybeefheatandthereyouhaveyourbullshitapocalysis
Onemorning,inhismythologicalgreedlieswallowstheSunne
EdwardDorn
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FREEMARKETCHINOISERIETherewillneverbeenoughBMWsforthestatedBillion,therewillneverevenbeenoughpapertowelsorgasbarbecuesoreverenoughribsorsauceforthoseshortribs.Therewillneverbeenoughcouponstocliporscissorstoclipthemwithandtherewillneverbeenoughaccountantstocountitallorpapertokeeptheaccountsonordiscstostoretheaccountsforwhichtherewillneverbeentriesenough.Someoneshouldtellthem.
EdwardDorn
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AGRICULTUREWilliamKittredge
1
Waterbirdswereametaphorforabundancebeyondmeasureinmychildhood.OnaNovemberafternoonmyfathersatonawoodencaseforshotgunshellsinthedeeptulesbyPelicanLakelikeacrownprinceofshotgunning,anddropped123ducksforanElksClubfeed.Thebirdswerecomingnorthtowaterfromthegrainfieldsandfightingastiffheadwind.Theyflaredandstartedtosettle,justoverhim,andtheywouldnotstopcomingintothelongredflamefromhisshotgunasdarknesscamedownfromtheeast.Thedeadbirdsfell,collapsedtothewater,andwashedbacktoshoreinthewind.Eventuallyitwastoodarktoshoot,andthedeadbirdswereheapedinthebackofhispickupandhehauledthemtotown;hedumpedthemofftothewomanhehadhiredtodothepickingandwentontoagoodclear-heartednightatthepokertable,havingdischargedacivicduty.
2
In1826aDr.WilliamKittredgetookhimselfandhisnewbridewestfromMassachusettstoMichigan,wherehepracticedmedicineinYpsilantiandGrandRapids.Mygreat-grandfather,BenjaminFranklinKittredge,wasbornin1828,theeldestofeightchildren.In1850,agedtwenty-two,BenjaminFranklintookhisyoungerbrotherHarrisonandheadedwestforthegoldfieldsofCalifornia.Youhavetowonderabouttheintensitythatdrovethoseboys,reallynotmuchmorethanchildren.Imaginethestoriestheyweretellingthemselves.
Somanytravelers,andnotjustyoungmenwithanitch,weredrivenbyasimpledesiretogoout,awaytotheworldwithhopeof
discoveringsomeinterestingfate.FamiliessoldgoodfarmsinOhioand
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rolledwestintheirwagons,andweresooftendestroyedbeforetheyweredone,driventoruinbythethrustofwhatcamedowntonothingmoreprofoundthanapureyearningforexcitement,athingsimpleasonechanceatalifethatwasnotboring,paradiseoverthemountains,somefineblendofallthat.
BenjaminFranklinwasasingleman.Itiseasytoimaginehisleave-takingmighthavebeensimple.Goodbyetoyoursweetheart,andfatherandmother,andakisstotheyoungerchildren.Youandyourbrothercanjustwalkaway.Whatwillyoube?
BenjaminFranklinandHarrisonmadetheirpassagedowntheMississippiandacrosstheGulfofMexicotothenarrowsatPanama,longbeforetherewasanycanal,wheretheysetoffandjustwalkedtothePacific.Thenanotherboatride,thistimetoSanFrancisco.Butgolddidn'tcomeeasy.Therewaswinter,mud,andsnowinthecamps.Harrisonwaskilledinadisputeoveraminingclaim.
Therearenodetails.Iimaginesomeshowdownoverahundredyardsofcreek-bedorashovel.BenFranklinwenthome.BackinMichigan,hemarried,andhecamewestagain,thistimeinawagon,withthegoodsofhismarriage,againtothegoldcamps,wherehehadnomoreluckthanbefore.
Afirstson,Herbert,wasborninasettlementknownasJackassFlatsoutsideRedding,California,onJune8,1863.AftersomeseasonsinthefoothillsaroundMountShasta,panninglittlestreamsfortrace,BenjaminFranklinmovedhisfamilynorth,alwaysmoving,asiftoexaminethepromiseofthings.HeownedacreagesintheWillametteValleyofOregon,literallysomeofthefinestClassAagriculturallandintheworld,butnothingworked(familylorehasoneofthosefarmsintheheartofwhatisnowdowntownPortland;thereisaKittredgeStreet).
Mygrandfatherandnamesake,WilliamKittredge,wasbornin1875(theseventhchildofnine)whileBenjaminFranklinwasschoolteacheratoldFortSimcoe,nearYakimainthestateofWashington.ThenBenjaminFranklinmovedsouthbeyondthegorgeoftheColumbiaRiver,toaranchinthehillslopecountrynearAntelopeinOregon(wheretheRajneeshsetuphisfreeloadingversionofparadiseintheearly1980s),andthentosomefringesofmostlysalt-grassmeadowlandinthefaroutbackaroundSilverLake,Oregon.Thereheendedhislifein1897,flatoutofpossibilities.
Mygrandfatherwastwenty-three,andpoor,andhisfatherwasdead.IwishIknewwhatmygrandfatherthoughtasheliftedhiseyestostudythescrub-brushflatsaroundSilverLake;IwishIknewhowresolvecametohim,andhowhenamedit;IwishIknewwhathesawas
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thegiftslifemightgivehim;IwishIknewwhathethoughttheywereworth.
3
ThenorthernquarteroftheGreatBasin,southeasternOregonandnorthernNevada,isagreatdriftofbarrensagebrushcountrythesizeofFrance.Thelandformsconfrontusincessantlywithnewsofgeologictimeandourownfragility.Therimswerebuiltovereons,wecanseethelayers,lavaflowonlavaflow.Theshadowsofcloudstravellikephantomsacrossthewhiteplayasofthealkalinewet-weatherlakes.
Thatlandlockedcountryisnotalldesert;therearegreatmountainswherethewintersnowsaccumulate:theWarnerRange,BidwellMountain,WinterRim,theOchocos,andfault-blockupliftingsthatrisefromthedistanceslikeislands:theten-thousand-footescarpment,whichisSteensMountain,HartMountain,theRubyMountainsofNevada.
Themostsignificantgeography,sofarassettlementisconcerned,liesbelowthosemountainsinthemeadowlandsofthewaterfowlvalleys,likeWarnerValley,wherewelived.Thesnowsmeltedandranoffingreatfloods,thelandlockedlakesfilledanddriedupandfilled,thesedgesandtulesgrewanddiedandgrewanddiedandrottedawayintopeatsoil.
Beforethewhitemencameinthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcentury,thatcountrywasinhabitedbyascatteringofNorthernPaiuteandtravelingbandsfromthetimberedcountrytothewest,KlamathsandModocswhocametotheswamplandsforthewater-birdhunting.
TheNorthernPaiutedidnothavemuchinthewayofwhatarecalled"culturalitems,"whichareeverythingfromspoonstoideasofmagic.Theylivedsparseandtraveledlight.Thecountrydidnotrewardthem
forowningthings.
TheclanthatlivedinmyhometerritoryaroundWarnerValleywasknownas"TheGroundhogEaters,"anamewonderfulinitsinelegance.Youwonderwhatitmeanttothemastheymanagedlivesthatnodoubtdidnotseemeithersplendidornumbingorevensimple.
Someofusenvywhatwethinkofastheirexistenceinacommunallifeastheymovedthroughtheirso-calledhuntingandgatheringinanendlessswayoftime,inwhichtheworldwasaliveandtheirtruecompanion.Butthecontentoftheirdaysisdifficultforustoimagine.
Itiscountrythatcanbeimaginedasakindofhideoutgeographicalenclave.Sensibleroutesoftravel,wagontrailsandrailroads,wentaroundtothenorth(theOregonTrail)ortothesouth(theCalifornia
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Trail).Settlementbywhitemenwithfamilies,whowereintentonsettingupranches,didnotbeginuntilthe1870s,andthathugedriftofcountry,LakeCountyandHarneyCountyandMalhuerCountyinOregon,WashoeCountyandHumboldtCountyinNevada,eachlargeassomestatesintheEast,isstillpopulatedbynomorethanafewthousandpeople.
AftertheMexican-AmericanWar,in1848,droversbegantrailingherdsfromMissouritothecentralvalleyofCalifornia.OneofthemenwhowasinonthosedrivesfromthebeginningwasDr.HughGlenn,ayoungVirginianwhoseambitionsinfluencedaconsiderablepartofhistoryinsoutheasternOregon.BeforeadecadehadpassedheownedoneofthegreatSpanishranchesintheSacramentoValley.
In1859theminersaroundVirginiaCityinNevadafoundthattheblackrocktheyhadbeendiscardingwassilver,andtheComstockboombegan.Theminersdidn'twantmuchbutaplacetodig;buttheyhadtoeat,andthepeoplewhofedthemfelttheyhadarighttorunlivestockanywherethatwashandy,includingthecreeksidemeadowlandswheretheTruckeeRiveremptiedintoPyramidLake.
TheIndianstraditionallycampedthereinearlyspring.Thebandscameforhundredsofmilestoworkthegreatcutthroattroutfishery.Winterwasover,therewasfoodforall;theleaderstalked;by1859theyweretiredofbeingdrivenfromtheirhuntinggrounds.
TwoPaiutegirlswerekidnappedandabusedbytwobrothersatWilliamsStation,awhiskeystopontheCarsonRiver.Apartyofwarriorskilledthebrothersandburnedthestation.TherebeganaseriesofbattlesacrossnorthernNevada,initiallycalledthePyramidLakeWar,whichneverreallyendeduntilthenativeswereeffectivelybrokenanddriventothereservations.
Sixyearslater,inMarchof1866,theHumboldtRegisterdescribeda
battle:
Athalfpastninetheorderwasgiventocharge.Rightmerrilythemenobeyed.TheIndiansstoodupbravely,fightingsullenlytothelastaskingnoquarter;butthechargewasirresistible.TheboysrodethroughtheIndianranks,scatteringandshootingdowneverythingthatworepaint....80warriors,35squaws.Thelatterweredressedthesameasthebucks,andwerefightingandhadtobekilledtoascertaintheirsex....1
TheU.S.Armywasseriouslyintosubduingthenativesandprotectingsettlers,andestablishingfortsandencampmentsasafoundationforgoverningthewilderness.Inthebestbookonthesubjectofprewhite
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storytellinginOregon,CoyoteWasGoingThere:IndianLiteratureoftheOregonCountry,JaroldRamseywrites:
Thewhiteresponse,organizedduringtheCivilWar,wasbrutallysimple:extermination.Theunpublished''FieldJournals"ofLt.WilliamMcKay(amedicaldoctorwhowashimselfpartIndian)makeitvividlyclearthatArmydetachmentslikeMcKay's,aidedbyIndianscoutsfromWarmSpringsandelsewhere,wentthroughtheupperreachesoftheGreatBasincountryhuntingPaiutesandotherShoshoneansdownlikedeer,killingforthesakeofwhatintheVietNamerabecameknownas"body-count."2
Bythesummerof1868theIndiansinnorthernNevadaandsoutheasternOregonwerebeingroundedontodesolatereservations.AneducatedPaiutewomannamedSaraWinnemucca,employedasaliaisonforthearmy,foundstarvingbandsofherpeoplecollectedatCampC.F.SmithinfarsoutheasternOregon.Shesentfifteenwagonsforthechildren,andsomeeighthundredPaiutesweremovedtotheReserveatFortMcDermit,ontheOregon-Nevadaborder,wheretheywereissueddailydole-foodrations.
SaraWinnemuccahelpedhandoutthefood,andhatedwhatshesaw.ShewrotetoMajorHenryDouglass,IndiansuperintendentofNevada:"IfthisisthekindofcivilizationawaitingusontheReserves,Godgrantthatwemayneverbecompelledtogoonone,asitismuchprefferrable[sic]toliveinthemountainsanddragoutanexistenceinournativemanner."3
TheopenrangewasprettymuchtakenupinCalifornia.StockgrowerswhowantedtoexpandweredrivingherdsovertheSierrasintotheGreatBasin.AmannamedJohnDevinebroughthisbloodedhorsestoCampSmith(alreadyabandonedbythearmy),builtaquarter-mileracetrack,andsettledalongsidetheall-seasoncreek.Devinesetaweathervanewithawhitehorseatopthecupolaonhisbarn,andnamedhisnewempireTheWhiteHorseRanch.
YouwonderwhatdroveJohnDevine.Theranchwasvastlyisolatedinthosedays;itstillis.FarouttothewestthereistheAlvordDesert,agreatplayaintherainshadowontheeasternsideofthelongridgethatisSteensMountain;thereisnotmuchelsetosee;nobodylivesnearby.ButmaybeJohnDevineknewwhathewasdoing;hebecameaprinceofthecountry;thehistoryofsettlementwasstartedinthatpartoftheworldwheremyimaginationstilllives.
In1872Dr.HughGlennputatwenty-three-year-oldmannamedPeterFrenchinchargeofdrivingtwelvehundredheadofhisSacramento
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ValleycowsnorthtothedesertsofOregon.FrenchfoundtheswamplandsintheBlitzenValleyandthehighsummerrangeonSteensMountain,andheclaimedthem,hauledsaw-lumberfiftymilesfromamillinthemountainstothenorth,builtawhitehouse,andbeganassemblingtheenormousPRanch,whichwasarguablythefinestnaturalsetoflivestockpropertiesintheAmericanWest.Simpleasthat:Thisismine.Soonthecountrywasfillingwithsettlers,whitemenandtheirfamilies.
LateinthesameyearthatFrenchdrovehiscowstotheBlitzenValley,1872,theModocWarbrokeoutsouthofTuleLakeontheOregon-Californiaborder.AnativemannamedCaptainJackandaround175ofhisModocfollowersholedupinalabyrinthinefortressofnaturaltunnelsthroughthelavabedsandfoughtofftheU.S.militaryuntilJune1of1873.Itwasalittlewar,butitwasanembarrassmenttothemilitary.CaptainJackwashangedatFortKlamath,andafterwardshisbodywasdugupandembalmedandshownincarnivalsallovertheEastCoast.
Intheearlypartof1873aLt.Col.FrankWheaton,commanderintheDistrictoftheLakesinsoutheasternOregon,reportedthatastockranchinWarnerLakesValleyownedbyD.R.Jones,eighteenmilesfromthepost,wasthenearestresidenceorsettlementtoCampWarner.WhichmakesD.R.JonesthefirstsettlerIknowaboutinthevalleywhereIgrewup.
SaraWinnemuccawasreportedtobelivingwithMisterJones.Connectionsbegintoaccumulate.
In1878variousnativegroupsacrossthenortherndesertcountrylefttheReservesandroseupinanoutbreakcalledtheBannockWar;theykilledCharlieOnLong,aChinesecookwhoworkedforPeterFrench,andafterthattheylostandlost.Bytheendof1878thewarwasover,andaconsiderablenumberofnativeshadbeenherdedtogetheratold
FortHarney,eastofBurns.SaraWinnemuccawasamongthem.
OnJanuary6,1879,thewomenandoldpeopleandchildrenwereloadedintosomefiftywagons,themenfollowingonhorseback,andescortednorththroughtheterriblecoldandthesnows.Awomangavebirthandthechilddied;thewomandiedadaylater.Theirbodieswereleftbythetrail.ThreechildrendiedofexposureastheytraveledovertwomountainrangesandtheColumbiaRivertoFortSimcoe,justsouthofYakimainthestateofWashington,wheremygreat-grandfather,BenjaminFranklinKittredge,wasaschoolteacher.
ItwasaTrailofTears,andyetIneverheardittalkedaboutinsoutheasternOregon;Ilearnedofitfrombooks.Itwasnotpartofour
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commonmythology.Inthatcountrywegrewupwithoutstories;weknewahistoryfilledwithomissions,whichcanbethoughtofaslies.
Iwonderifpeopleimaginedthosestoriesweretooshamefultobetold,oriftheyjustdidn'tcare,iftheywerenotveryinterested,andforgot.IwonderwhatBenjaminFranklinKittredgethoughtasthoseruinedIndianscametoFortSimcoe.Iwonderifhesawthem;Iwonderifthechildrenwhosurvivedeverenteredhisschoolroom;Iwonderwhathedidforthem.
SaraWinnemuccawastheforemostwomanofhertime,amongherpeople.In1880shewasinvitedtovisitSecretaryoftheInteriorCarlSchurtzinWashington,D.C.,andshewent.Sarawroteandpublishedabook,LifeAmongthePaiutes:TheirWrongsandClaims,andshelecturedinNewYorkandBostonandCambridgeandPhiladelphia,allonbehalfofhertribe,butnothingworked,thegovernmentwasfinallynotinterested.SoSarawenthome,andatleastinsomemetaphoricsenseshewentbacktosleepinginblanketsonthegroundwiththetraditionalpeople.InOctoberof1891sheateabigmeal,shetooktobed,shedied.Theofficialcausewastoomuchwine;nothingaboutheartbreak.
Dr.HughGlennranforgovernorofCaliforniaandwasdefeated,andthenhewasshottodeathbyadrunkenbookkeeper.PeterFrenchmarriedGlenn'sdaughter,Ella,whoneverlivedwithhim,accumulatedagreatempire,andwasshotdeadbyanester.GlennandFrenchandSaraWinnemuccawerepeopleofvastenergiesandvividintelligence;theydiedwiththeirpurposesindisarray;theywantedtomovetheworldbutitwouldnotgo.
Mygreat-grandfatherdiedthesameyearasPeterFrench,1897,impoverishedinSilverLake.
Therewasgoldbutheneverfoundit.Andanywaysuchricheswereto
havebeenonlythebeginning.Therealtreasureslaynodoubtinsomevisionofwholenessandeasyfieldsgreeningupinspring,croplandsflowingacrosstherollingplow-groundoutbackofthewhite-paintedhomeplace,andthegleefulcryingofgrandchildrenatplayonthelawnsslopingtothemossyspring-creeksomeparticularlyAmericanversionofperfectpromised-landsolace.Allthiswepromiseyou.
"Americans,"wroteD.H.Lawrence,
willnotstandforthepioneerstuff,exceptinsmall,sentimentalizeddoses.Theyknowtoowellthegrimnessofit,thesavagefightandthesavagefailurewhichbrokethebackofthecountrybutalsobrokesomethinginthehumansoul.Thespiritandthewillsurvived,butsomethinginthesoulperished:thesoftness,thefloweriness,the
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naturaltenderness.HowcoulditsurvivethesheerbrutalityofthefightwiththatAmericanwilderness,whichissobig,vast,andobdurate!
ThesavageAmericawasconqueredandsubduedattheexpenseoftheinstinctiveandintuitivesympathyofthehumansoul.Thefightwastoobrutal.4
Lawrencegoesontotalkof"aninwardindividualretraction,anisolation,anamorphousseparatenesslikegrainsofsand,eachgrainisolateduponitsownwill,"andhelaments"thebreakingoftheheart,thecollapseoftheflowofspontaneouswarmthbetweenamanandhisfellows..."5Hemighthavebeenwritingdirectlyaboutmypeople.
4
In1936mygrandfatherboughttheMCRanchinWarnerValley.Thedealrepresentedanenormouschangeinourfortunes.Hesignedthelegalpapersandtookpossessionofthosefieldsanddistancesashisownwithnomoneydownwhenhewassixty-twoyearsold.liepledgedeverythinghehadworkedforallhislife,unabletoresistsuchakingdom.
WarnerValley,whenIwasprimeinmyreadinesstowitnessparadise,wasinwhatIthinkofasitsprelapsarianstage;itwasclearmypeoplehadstumbledontoamostlyuntouchedplace,andraregoodfortune.
Mygrandparentswereimperiousandheedless;theycamefromhardpovertyonthosehighdesertsaroundSilverLake:Mygrandmotherdriedherwashonabarbed-wirefencearoundanunpaintedhouseuntilherchildrenweremostlygrown.Mygrandfatherhadbroughtthefamilyupfrompoverty.FordecadeshesummeredaloneintheemptycountryeastofSilverLake,isolatedandtendinghiscattle.Hisyearsweredevotedtoabrutalhorsebacknotionoflife;hefelthehadearnedwhathehad,andhewasright.Buttheearninghardenedhim;
hewasabsorbedwithambition.Runninghispropertiesonborrowedmoney,hewantedmore.
Itwashistheorythatwe,inourfamily,shouldputworkaheadofeveryotherthing,includingcompassion,forthecommongood,andforalongtimewetriedtolivebyhistheory.Ifyoupaidthebills,inthephilosophymygrandfathertaught,yougottocalltheshots.
Accumulationwasmygrandfather'sgame.Ifwetookenoughcare,inhisstory,andsacrificedenough(andherethestorygoessideways)we
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wouldeventuallygettoliveintownmostoftheyear,ashedid,inabigrock-walledhouse,withlinensandpaintedchinaandsilvertableware:Correctwaspartofsecure,andattheheartofactual.Itwasastoryhewantedtobelieve,astoryheusedtomanipulateeveryone,andhegotawaywithitformostofhislife.liewasnotsomuchcruelasindifferenttopurposesotherthanhisown,andmainlyinterestedinhiscattleandhowtheyweredoing,beefonthehoof,forsale.
Formygrandfather,inthatbeginning,Warnermusthavebeentheultimateanswertoalifetimeofyearning,thousandsofacresofmeadowonthehighsideofthevalley,cutwithsloughsandwillowsforshelter,wherehecouldwinterhisstockonnativehaystackedwiththebeaverslides.Nevermistakeit:TheMCwasagreatranch.
Thosepeople,solongastheyhadanychoice,werenevergoingbacktothehighdeserts.Theyclearlyknewthattheywerelivinginadreamthathadcometothematleastpartwaythroughluck:RightthentheywerehavinggoodluckintheGreatDepression(cheapland),andlaterontheywouldhavegoodluckduringtheGreatWar(terrificgrainprices).Buttheyalsounderstoodthatmostoftheirluckhadcomeasaresultoftheirowninventionandsharpdealing,andtheywereprettymuchjustifiedinthinkingtheyhadmadetheirownway.Mygrandfatherhadearlyoncometounderstandthatareputationforhardworkandakindofcalculatedrecklessness,alongwithanabsolutewillingnesstopursuelitigation,couldgetyoualongwaywithcertainbankers.
Solongasmypeopletrustedoneanotherinsidethefamily,whichwasn'tevenacoupleofdecades,theirluckrantoacesforallofus.Anancientworldwaschanging,andmypeoplewereontheleadingedgeoftheconversion.Theyknewit;theygloriedinit.Theideathattheywereconnectedtogreatdoingsandimprovementsintheworldinhabitedthemanddrovethem.
Thirty-sixmilesofwashboard-gravelcountyroadtwistedovertheWarnerMountainstoendwithus;beyondtotheeasttherewerewagonroadstraceddownovertherimrocksandacrossthefringesofalkalineflats,butessentiallythewayintoourvalleywasthewayout.TherewasnoelectricitybutthatgeneratedforhouselightsbytheDelcopowerplantwithitsrowsofglassbatteries.Therewasnofunctioningtelephone,althoughtherehadbeensometimeinthepast;upintheAdelStoretherewasanoldhand-crankinstrumentonthewall,andtherewastelephonewirehangingloosefromalineofspindlyhome-cutjack-pinepolesalongtheroadtotown.
InFebruaryandearlyMarchthecreeksdrainingoutoftheWarnerMountainsDeepCreekandTwentyMileCreekwouldfloodandfillthevasttule-bedsuntilatsunsettheswampsonthefareast
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sideofthevalleywouldshimmerwithwaterlikealake.Theunbrokenpeatsoilunderthosemilesofswampwaseightfeetdeepinplaces;expertsestimatemorethanaquartermillionwaterbirdscamethroughthevalleyeachyear.
Thepointhereisabundanceandgreathunting,anoverwhelmingpropertythrongingwithnaturallife,andwhatmyfamilydidwithit.Attheendwehadovertwenty-onethousandirrigatedacresinWarnerValley,somethingbeyondamillionacresofleasedBLMrangeland.Weranmorethansixthousandmothercows.Itcouldhavebeenparadise;probablyitwas,maybeitstillis.
Mygrandfatherwonderedhowsuchaplacecouldbebestused.Myfathertriedtoshowhim.Myfathersawthatvalleyasagreatpossibility;myfatherhadbeentoschoolattheCollegeofAgricultureinCorvallis;hewasanengineer;OscarKittredgewasoneofthenewmen,avisionary.Heboughtacable-drumCaterpillarRD-6track-layerfittedoutwithadozerblade,whichheusedtostartbuildingaseventeen-milediversionleveetocarrythespringfloodwatersofTwentyMileCreeknorthalongtheeastsideofthevalleytodrainourswamplands.Seventeenmiles.Inthosetimessuchaprojectwasconsideredinsanelyambitious,literally.
Myfatherwasthejokeofthecountry,butnotforlong.Hejerry-riggedageneratorandbatterysystemtorunoffthedieselengineofthatRD-6,mounteditwithlights,andranitattheleveebuildingtwenty-fourhoursaday,summerandwinter,exceptforfuelstopsandmaintenance.ThenheboughtanRD-7andusedittobuildhisleveewhilehestartedplowingthetulebedswiththeRD-6,alsotwenty-fourhoursaday.
BytheendofWorldWarIImyfatherwasmakingalotofmoneyfarminggrainoffthoseplow-grounds.Andheproved,asmymothersaid,tobeaheadofhistimeinfindingwaystospendit,moneyhe
didn'thavetosplitwithmygrandfatheroranybody,afactthatcametocauseheavygriefinourfamily.
ForafewyearsduringWorldWarII,asthecatskinnersbroughtmoreandmoreoftheswamplandunderdrainageandtheplow,economicsinmyfamilyswungheavilyonthespectacularprofitsfrommyfather'sfarmingoperations.Andmyfatherwasrunningwithhisluck.Therewasanairplane,moviepeople,evenacoupleofracehorses.Butmostly,evenaheadofthegame,inmyfamily,weworked.
MyfatherboughttwomoreD-7Caterpillartractors;theseventeen-milediversioncanalwasfinished;heboughtfourJohnDeere36combineswithsixteen-footheaders;insidethediversioncanalhebuiltanenormousintricatenetworkofdrainageditchesandredwoodheadgates;
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theshallowlakeswerepumpeddry,hugefieldswereditchedoff,750acresinHustonSwamp,800acresinDodsonLake.Theheadgateswereopenedwhenthespringrunoffwaterscame.Thosefieldswereflooded,andpumpeddry.Wewerereinventingthelandandthewater-flowpatternsofthevalleyonamodelcopiedfromindustry,andirrevocablyalteringtheecologyofeverything,includingourownlives,movingintothatmoniedtechnology,whichisagribusiness.
Inthespringof1946,withthewarended,cameasimpleandenormouschange.Westartedputtinguptheloosehayonourfifteenthousandorsoacresofwildmeadowwithtractors.Ourworkteamsweresoldforchickenfeed.Agreatsplendorandattachmenttosevenoreightthousandyearsofhumanexperimentationandtraditionwentfromourliveswiththosehorses.IrecallthedustandtheslowdrumlikeclompingoftheirhoovesonthedrysodofthelateJulyfieldsastheysnortedandtrottedamiablytowardthehaycampcorralsbeforesunup;theirharnesshungonpegsinthebarnsandrotted.
Inthehayingwehadtraditionallyworkedcrewsofnearlyahundredmenthroughthemonthsofsummer,thirtymowingmachinesandtwentydumprakes,whichtranslatesintoalotmorethanfiftymen,someworking,somecoming,somegoing,andmaybetwohundredheadofworkhorses.Twostackingcrewsfollowedthemowingafteraweekorsooflettingthehaycure,aone-hundred-tonstackeveryhalfadaythroughJulyandsomeofAugustwhentheywereuptospeed.
Fromhaycamptohaycamp,thevalleywasaplacefilledwithhumanlife.YoucouldlookoutoverWarnervalleyinthemorningandseethestringsofdustrisingtocleanskyoverthosehaycamps'corrals,stirredupbythecirclinghorsesasthosecrewscaughttheirteams.Youcouldthinkthiswastherightdreamofourselvesasweweresupposedtobebeforeeverythingwenttotractors.
Wethoughtwewereworkingtowardaperfectionoffields,andfora
longtimeIlovedit.Wethoughtwedoingthegreatgoodwork,remakingtheworldonanimageborrowedfromefficiencyexperts.Wehadpavedroadsandelectricityandtelevision,andtheoldanimal-centeredagriculturalworldIhadgrownupinwasmostlygone,thatquickly.Icongratulatemyselfonhavinglivedinitforalittlewhile.Theranchwasbeingturnedintoamachineforfeedinglivestock.Theswampsweredrained,andthethrongingflocksofwaterbirdswerediminishing,clearly,yearbyyear;thehuntingwasstillfineifyouhadneverseenanythingelse,butweknew.
Ourirrigationsystemwasamasterpieceofcomplexitywithoverfivethousandwater-controldevices,headgates,valves,eighteen-inchpumps.Wecouldrunthewateraroundandaroundinadryyear,
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pumpingitbackuptoirrigatewithagainuntilitworeout,wasthejoke.Themainpartofmyworkinthespringoftheyearwasthatsystem,atwenty-four-hour-a-dayjobcalled"balancingwater."
Wehadleveledacoupleofthousandacresforalfalfa,andkeptlevelingmore.ForeightyearsafterthedeathofmygrandfatherIwasthefarmingbossattheMC,inmyfather'sfootsteps,runninganoperationwehadalways,sincemyfather'searlydays,called"TheGrainCamp."Thosecropsandthatirrigationsystemwerethefinestplaythingsofmylife.Weweremakingsomethingperfectasitcouldbeinournotionoftheworld,inscribingourvisionontheearthlikeartists,andthemakingwasanart.
Donotmistakeit,theimpulsethatdroveustoworkwasavisionofartistry.WeweredoingGod'swork,andthoughtweweremakingasacredplaceontheearth.
Butitdidn'twork.Wecutouralfalfaandtamehaywithswathers,followedbyfive-wirebalers,andHarrow-Bedstopickupthebalesfromthefieldandstackthemmechanically.Wesprayed2-4-DEthylandMalathion,andtheWorldWarIIGermannervegascalledParathion,forclovermiteinthebarley,andweshortenedourownlives.Webailedthecoyoteswith1080,andfieldmicedestroyedouralfalfa.Weirrigatedandreirrigated,pumpedanddrained,andourrichpeatsoilstartedtogosaline.
Wecouldn'thireanybodywhocaredenoughaboutourmechanicalworktodoitright.Theoldmenweredying,andnotmanyyoungmenwerecomingtotheworkwithmuchbeyonddisdain.Menwhohiredoutforranchworkinthe1960sweremissingtheboat,andtheyknewit.Theydespisedthemselvesforit.Andtheydespisedthework.
Uponthehillabovetheoldbuckaroocampwebuiltanindustrialplantcalled"TheFeedMill,"acollectionofsteelbuildingswith
rollersandgrindersandblowersandchaindrivesandaugersandhundred-horsepowerelectricmotors,ahugegrain-storagebunker,andanendlessnessoflotsforfatteningcattle.Bytheendwehadbuiltlotsenoughtoholdmostofourcowherd;everyyearweshippedtowardfivethousandfatanimalstoslaughter.
Themillwasdesignedtochophayandrollgrainsandmixinadditivesfrommolassestogrowth-inducingchemicalslikestilbestrol.Itwasahowling,stinkingplacewheretheworkproceededatthepaceofthemachinery.
Thosethousandsofanimals,pennedintothoselots,waitingforthefeedtruck,wereregardedastheultimatestepinamechanicalprogression.Weraisedbarley,wegrounditupandmixeditwithchemicals,theyateit,theyfattened,theywerebutchered,theywerefood.Inspring
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wecleanedthemanurefromthelotswithD-7Catsandscrapers.Ourdreamhadledustotheseprocesses.Theworkseemeddistancedandunnatural,andthusdemonicandhatefulaswedidit,andIthinkthathatefulnessfueledourinabilitytocherishourselvesandeachother;itfueledthefamilytroublethatwasalreadystarted,troubleIdidn'treallyunderstand.
IhadbeenbossattheGrainCampforfourorfiveyears,andIhadcometounderstandmyselfasayoungmandoinggoodwork.Wewerefarmingtwenty-fourhoursadaythroughearlyMaywhiletheCanadahonkershatchedtheirdownyyoungandthetulipspushedupthroughthecrustedflowerbedsandtheLombardypoplarbroketheirbudsandtheforsythiabloomedluridyellowagainstthecookhousewall.ButIdon'tthinkofsuchglorieswhenIrememberthosespringmornings.IremembertheodorofdankpeatturningupbehindthosediscCatsaswewentonfarmingtwenty-fourhoursaday,andhowmuchIlovedbreakingground.
BeforesunriseonthosemorningsIwouldcomeawakeandgopiss,thenstandinmyundershortsonthescreened-inverandaporchattachedtothehousewhereIlivedwithmywifeandyoungchildren.IwouldshiverwithchillandhappinessasIsmelledtheworldcomingawake.FaroutacrossourvalleythelightsonourD-7discCatswouldflickeraslightsdowhenseenthroughascreen,movingalmostimperceptibly.IwouldtakemybinocularsandopenthescreendoorandgazeouttothoselightsasifImightcatchoneofmynight-shiftcatskinnersatsomedog-fuckery,butreallyallIwantedtoseewasthemachinerymoving.Thosetrack-layerswouldclankalongallthroughthehoursofdarknessattwoorthreemilesanhour,turningathirty-six-footswath,ahundredacreseverynightandanotherhundredacresonthedayshift.Theupturnedsoilwouldmellowintheairforaday,andthenwewouldharrowandsealitwithdust,anddrillittobarley.Intendaysorsotheseedlingswouldbreakearth,andthoseorderly
drill-rowsundulatingoverthetilledgroundtowardthesundownlightweresoftlyyellow-greenandsomethingaliveIhadseentocompletion.
Itcametoacouplehundredacresofbarleyeverydayforfifteendays,threethousand-some-oddacresinall.BytheendofharvestinlateSeptember,atroughlyatonperacre,thatcametothreethousandtonsofbarleyat$50aton,or$150,000intheearly1960s.Whichwassomerealmoneyinourendoftheworld.
Wedrainedthewetlandsandthoughtthatmadethemours.Webelievedtheworldwasmadetobeuseful;weditchedandnamedtheintersectionsofourditches:FourCorners,theBigPump,Center
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Bridge,BeattyBridge.Wethoughtsuchnamingmadethevalleyours;wethoughtthemenwhoworkedforuswereours.
5
Everysooften,whenIwasachild,oneofthewomeninmyfamilywouldorganizeget-togethers,usuallyatoneofthecookhouses.Atpreciselysixo'clock,summerorwinter,thecookwouldclangthedinnerbellandwewouldtroopinandseatourselvesdownbothsidesofalongtablewiththeworkingmen.Mygrandfatherwasalwaysattheheadofthetable,withmygrandmotherbesidehim,unlesswewereattheGrainCamp,wheremyfatherwastheboss(wedidn'tgotherebutacoupleoftimes).Andtherewasmeandmymotherandmybrotherandmysister,andamixofauntsandunclesandcousins.
Itrytoimaginewhatwelookedlike,theownersofthepropertyandtheirwivesandchildren,thereinthelate1930s,attheheartoftheGreatDepression,laughingandconfidentaswepassedtheplattersofboiledbeefandthebowlsofmashedpotatoesandgraymilkgravy.
Someoftheworkingmenwouldbetooshytotalk,eyeingthewomenliketheywerecreatureswhohadjustcomefromanotherplanet.Iwonderhowmanyofthosemendespisedus,andiftheyunderstoodthattheydid,orwhy.Therewasakindofcomplaintyouwouldhearatthattableinthedaysafterwards,somethinglikethis:"Goddamnawoman.Allthatgoddamnedtalk.Yougottositthereandlisten.Youmightsayshitsoyoucan'tsayagoddamnedthing."
Blameitonwomen.Butitwasnotwomen,theyweren'ttherealcomplaint.Itwaswhatthosewomenrepresentedtothosemen,powerandcivilityandthepossibilityoflove,oratleastaffectionandfamily.Thosewerethethingsweweresupposedtobesharingwhenwewenttoeatinthecookhouses.
Someofthosemenmusthavesensedthatthosemealswereafraud.
Nobodywasactuallysharinganything.Timeswerepoor,themeninmyfamilywerecapableofsupportingwomenandchildren,theyownedagreatranch;thosewerethetrappingsofpower,andtheywereonexhibition.
Itmusthavebeenmygrandfather'sideathatweshouldsitdownwiththemenwhoworkedforus,andeatwhattheyate,offtinplates.Nodoubthepasseditoffasawayofstayingintouchwithourbeginnings,anotherwayoftakingcare.
JakeO'Rourkediedinthebunkhouse.Jakedidn'tshowfor
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breakfast,andIsentamantowakehim,butJakewasdeadinhisbed.IwanttosayhiseyeswerelikemirrorsinwhichIcouldseemyself.Itwasmyfirstconfrontationwiththenotionthatmajorpromiseswerebeingbroken.Jake'seyesweredryasriverstones.
VanceBeebecametocripplingemphysemafromalifetimeofsmokingandrunningthehaybalerinthedeepsummertimechaffanddust.Whenhecouldn'tworkinthefieldshewouldidleoffhistimedoingthingslikebuildingchairsforthebunkhousebullpenonadesignfromupstateNewYork-rich-manresorts.Vancetookhisemphysematotownanddiedaloneinamotel,andIthoughtmaybehehadkilledhimself.Istilldo.Vancebelievedstronglyindoingyourowndirtywork.
Inretrospectthosefamilymealsinthecookhouseslooklikeself-servingpoliticalbullshitdesignedtorevealmypeopleascommonanddecent,designedtobreedloyaltyamongtheworkingmen.Andtofeedthefamilyego:Wewerepoorpeoplewhohadrisen;wewerenamingourselves.
Itisanoldstory:Therulingclassobservescertaindecencies;iftheydo,everythingmightlastforever.Insomewaymypeoplemayhavebelievedsuchthings.Maybetheybelievedinmagic.Welivedinadreamofmachinelike,industrialperfectionwehadbeengiven,aCorpsofEngineers/AgSchoolmirageofremakingtheworldinourownimage,anditdidn'twork,notatall,forbothpracticalandspiritualreasons.
6
Theecologyofourvalleywascomplexbeyondourunderstanding,anditbegantodieaswewentonmanipulatingitinevermorefranticways.Asitwentdeadandemptyoftheoldnaturallifeitbecameaplacewherenoonewantedtolive;wefoundourselvesdistancedfrom
everythingwemighthaveloved,likeeachother,andtheplacewherewelived.Nowondersomanyofus(likemyself)thoughtitwouldbeeasytoleave.Ifindmyselfscabbinghistoryoutofbooks,andtryingtofitittogetherinstringsthatreachfromgenerationtogeneration,tryingtoloopmyselfandthepeopleIcareforintolinesofsignificance.
Inafamilyasunchurchedasourstherewasonlyonesacredstory,andthatwastheoneaboutworkandpropertyandownership,whichissad.Itseemstomeanwehadlosttrackofstoriesliketheonethattellsustheworldistobecherishedasifitexistsinsideourownskin.Wewerenewpeopleinanewcountry;wecameandwentinacoupleofgenerations.BythetimeIwasgrownmyfatherhadstoppedspeakingtohisfather,andmymotherhadleftthembothbehind.
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ThepoetC.K.WilliamscametoMissoulaandtalkedabout''narrativedysfunction"asaprimepartofmentalillness.Manyofus,heseemedtobesaying,losetrackofthestoryofthemselves,thestoryofwhowearesupposedtobe,andhowwearesupposedtoact.Storiesareplacestolive,heseemedtobesaying.Insidetheimaginationweknowalotofthem,andwe'reinbigtroublewhenwedon'tknowwhichoneisours.
Wewanttheworldtobeasacredpartofthatlonginventionthatisthestoryofourlife,themostimportantcharacterafterourselves.Weyearntoliveinacoherentplacewecanname,wherewecanfeelsafeinsideourinvention,andwewantthatplacetoexistlikeafriend,somebodywecanknow.
Whatwemustunderstandisthatwealreadyinhabitsuchaplace;itisalive.Wemustunderstandthattheworldcannottakecareofitselfanymore.Thespecificdangerisus;thisearthisouronlyfriend,andwearedestroyingitincrementbyincrementatahorrificrate.
Weneedtodefineanewandliveablestory;itwillbeastoryaboutstayingputandtakingcareofwhatwe'vegot,inwhichourhomeisnamedassacred,astorythatencouragesustotakeseriouscare,astoryaboutmakinguseoftheplacewherewelivewithoutkillingit.
Itwillbeastoryinwhichwecometounderstandthatthecomplexityofthelivingworldcannotbereplicatednomatterhowmuchsciencefictionwehearaboutcitiesinspace.Wewillunderstandthattherewillneverbeanothersetupliketheonewehaveevolvedtolivein;ruinitandwewillhavelostourselves,whichiscraziness.
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HOWWILLOURGRANDCHILDRENJUDGEUS?BarbaraSudler
BillKittredgeandIhavesomethingincommon:Webothwereshapedbyourgrandfathers.
Irememberhow,asmygrandfather'soldestgrandchild,Iwastakeneverywherehewent.Mygrandfatherwas,forsometwentyyears,presidentandchairmanoftheboardoftheGreatWesternSugarCompany.
IgrewuptounderstandmoreaboutthesugarcompanyandsubsequentlycametoknowthatmygrandfatherIdidn'tjustlovehim,Iadoredhimwasoneoftheauthorsofthewetbacksystem.Iwasashamedandembarrassedforsoterriblylong.Then,withgreatermaturity,IgottoapointwhereIrealizedthatyouhavetotakeitincontext.Ourgrandparentsweredoingthebesttheyknewhow,andyouhavetorespectthat.TheyproducedBill,whocaresagreatdeal,andme.Icareagreatdeal.Theyhousedus,theyfedus,andtheyeducatedus,andthat'snotsuchabadjobtohavedone.Ihopethatwhenmygranddaughterssitaroundandtalkaboutwhatgrandmawaslike,theywon'tjudgemeforthethingsthatIdidn'tknowIshouldhavebeentryingtoconquer.
Ourfamiliesdiffered,Bill'sandmine;minecametothecity.MyPennsylvaniagrandfatherhadcomeoutheretotheUnionColonyandstartedinthefieldsinEaton,Colorado.ThenhemadeitbigandhecametoDenver,andasaresultIcomefromaveryurbanebackground.Iamverymuchacitifiedperson,andasstatehistoricpreservationofficer,Idealnotonlywiththeculturallandscape,whichisagreatdealofwhatBillhasbroughtus,butalsowiththecitylandscape.Talkaboutrapeandpillageinthenineteenthcenturywe
haveitrightnow.Notonlyourlandscapebutourcitiesarebeingrapedandpillaged,andthat
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isadamageaboutwhichourgrandchildrenaregoingtosay,"Whydidn'tgrandmadosomethingaboutthat?"
IntheWesternvernacular,itistimetosaytoourselves:Don'tlookforanothertree.Thisisnotthelastbestplace,thisistheonlyplace.
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DEFININGTHECARRYINGCAPACITYOFTHEWESTJoClark
Ifweask,"ArcweexceedingthecarryingcapacityoftheWest?"inphysicalterms,theanswer,withpossiblyoneortwoexceptions,isclearlyno.Butthephysicallimitsareonlyonemeasureoftheperceivedcarryingcapacityandprobablyaren'twhatwilldeterminewhenwefeelwe'vereachedthelimit.
ToillustratewhatI'mtalkingabout,letmeuseapersonalexample.Twenty-fiveyearsago,shortlyaftermyfamilyandIhadmovedtotheWest,wetookourfirstvacationinthenewlycreatedCanyonlandsNationalPark.Wespenttendayswithouteverseeinganyoneelseonlyoneortwosetsofdistantcarlightshighonthemesaacrosstheriver.Wefellinlovewiththecanyoncountryandwentbackeveryyearfortwentyyears.Wewentforavarietyofreasonsthefun,thebeauty,theadventure.Butmostlywewentforthesolitudeandforthespiritualrechargingwereceivedfromrealizingthatwewerenomoresignificantinthatcountrythanthelizards,orthedeerthatroamedthecanyons.Ifounditsomehowcomfortingtoknowthatifmankindeverblewit,thismagnificentcountrywouldcontinueitsevolution.
Twentyyearslaterweenteredthepark,stoppedalongsidetheroad,andhadarangerpullupnexttousandtellusthatwehadtoputourdogonaleash.Ifeltlikewehadseentheendofanera.Mysenseoflosswasacute.Atthatmoment,ifsomeonehadaskedmewhetherwehadexceededourcarryingcapacity,myanswerwouldhavebeenaresoundingyes.Theregulationsputinplacetoprotecttheparkforotherssymbolizedtheruinofitforme.Irecognizethatenvironmentallymydogdiddodamage.Asheranaround,hebroke
upfragilecryptogamicsoil.Whenheranontherocks,heknockedofflayersoflichen.AndI'msurethateverytimehetookaleapintoawaterhole,heshortenedthelivesofthestartledtoads.
IalsoknowthatsoutheasternUtahwasindeepeconomictrouble.
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Grazingwasprohibitedinthepark,theenergybusthit,andlocalpeoplewerehopingforalargeinfluxoftourists.WhatIwanttoshowbythisexampleisthatdecisionsregardingcarryingcapacityareverycomplexandusuallysubjectivecalls.Fordecisionmakers,thepressurescanbepainful.InBoulderwe'reasupposedlyenlightenedlotwhoputgrowthcontrolsinplaceyearsago.Wealsohaveawholeraftofregulationstoprotectqualityoflife.Butinlesseconomicallyfortunateareas,doingtherightthingmaybealmostimpossible.
LetmegiveyouacoupleofexamplesfromGeorgeSinner,thegovernorofNorthDakota.NorthDakota,since1980,hasexperiencedabustinbothenergyproductionandagriculture,itstwobiggestrevenuegenerators.Whenagpricesfinallystartedbackup,thestatehadback-to-backyearsofthemostseveredroughtinthenation.AsNorthDakota'srevenueswentdown,thebudgetwasslashedandtaxeswentup.In1989taxpayersrevoltedandinaDecemberreferendumdefeatedseveraltaxesthatprovidedabout10percentofthestate'salreadymeagergeneralfund.Thedayafterthereferendum,GovernorSinnertookpartinlightingthestateChristmastree.Hewasexhaustedfromcampaigningtosavethetaxesanddeeplydistressedatwhatheknewthedropinrevenueswouldmean.Hetellsaboutwatchingaclassofsecond-graderswearingmatchingblueT-shirtssingingChristmascarols,thinkinghowbeautifultheywere,andrealizingthatNorthDakotaprobablywouldhavetodroptolastinitssupportofpubliceducation.Heburstoutcrying,infrontofeveryone.
Aboutsixweekslaterhecalledagain,againinrealanguish.Hisdilemma:hehadreceivedacallfromthechairmanoftheTurtleMountainChippewasaskingthestatetosignacertificateofneedforahomefortheelderlyonthereservation.SigningthecertificatewouldobligatethestatetopaytheMedicareshareofthecostsforapopulationthatdoesn'tpaystatetaxes.NorthDakotahasadisproportionatelyelderlypopulationandalreadysupportsmany
nursing-homebeds.Hiscommenttome:"Ican'tapproveanewobligationwhenI'mhavingtocutsomanyprograms,buthowcanIdenyapopulationwhichIknowisprobablytheneediestinthestate?"Mostofficials,electedorappointed,whohavefoundthemselvesinthosepositionsarereluctanttotakeactionsthatcouldhamstringtheeconomy,lockupresources,orimposeunnecessaryregulatoryorfinancialburdens.
Discussionsaboutcarryingcapacityquicklybecomeaclashinvalueseconomicvalues,environmentalvalues,spiritualandemotionalvalues.It'salsoaboutgovernmentalvalues,oratleastaboutgovernmentalresponsestoconflictingvalues.Toreturntomydog-on-a-leashstory,thoseofyouwhohavehikedsandycanyonbottomsor
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clamberedoverslickrockformationsknowthattellingsomeonetheyhavetoattachthemselvestoaone-hundred-poundGermanshepherdonasix-footleashisbothridiculousanddangerous.Inthiscase,governmentactiondoesn'tappropriatelyprotectanyofthevaluesatissue,andbecauseitdoesn't,itinvitesscornforgovernmentalsolutions.
Andthat'sreallymypoint.Whetherwecanavoidexceedingthecarryingcapacitywhetherthatcapacityisrealoronlyperceiveddependsonhoweffectivelygovernmentandourpoliticalsystemcanaccommodatethevaluescomingintoplay.Physically,theWesthasagreatdealofland,butweneedtorespectitsintegrityavoidurbansprawl,desertification,exploitationwithoutreclamation,andpollution.Economically,thepotentialishereforalmostunendinggrowthifwewantit.Butweneedtoaskourselvesatwhatcost,andweneedtohelpensurethatit'sfair.Socially,wehaveclearchallengesbecauseofthewidevarietyofculturesintheWest.AsPatriciaLimericksaidearlier,weneedtolearnhowtotalktoeachotherbetter.Environmentally,we'repushingourluck.We'remakingprogress,butit'snotenoughandit'safterthefact.Technologically,wemaybeabletofindanswerstomostoftheproblems,butcanwedoitsoonenough?Canwelivewiththeresults?
Andthatbringsmetothespiritualcarryingcapacity.MostWesternersbelievetheyliveinaveryspecialplace.Wefeelnurturedbymanyfactorsthataremorethaneconomic.Ifpublic-andprivate-sectorpoliciesdisregardthem,wemayhitcapacitythresholdsbeforeweneedto,simplybecausecantankerousWesternersdigintheirheels.
Toreturntogovernmentalcarryingcapacities:HereI'mperhapsleastsanguine.Fragmentedentities,lackofvisionaryleadership,unendinglitigation,unresponsiveagencies,inflexibleregulations,outdatedlawswhatCharlesWilkinsoncallsthe"lordsofyesterday"allforcea
depressinganddebilitatinggridlock.Moregovernmentisnottheanswer.Bettergovernmentis.Thereareencouragingexperimentsgoingon.Hawaiihasalegislativemandatetodefineitscarryingcapacity.Theneedandthelimitsmaybeclearerinanislandeconomy,butmuchthatisrelevanttoothersshouldcomeout.Theconceptofsustainabledevelopmentshowspromiseofmovingfromanemotionallyusefulconcepttoanoperationallyusefulone.
Finally,moreandmoregovernmentagenciesarestartingtorealizethepotentialreturnfromdispute-resolutionandconsensus-buildingprocesses.Themorewecangetawayfromwinnersandlosers,adversarialprocesses,andcripplingprescriptiveregulations,thebetterourchancesofnotjustrealizing,butacting,asthoughwe'reinthistogetherandthatwhat'sgoodforonealsobenefitsothers.
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Weneedtodomore.StewartUdall,intheintroductorychaptertoBeyondtheMythicWest,abooktheWesternGovernors'Associationisproducingforitsannualmeeting,quotesgeographerDennisBrownridge,whopointsoutthatfewpartsoftheworldhaveexperiencedsuchexplosivegrowth.TheWesthasgrownfrom250,000peopleto50millionin150yearsor20,000percentgrowth.Iftherestoftheworldhaddonethesame,we'dhave200billionpeople.Udallgoesontostate,quotingformerEPAadministratorWilliamRuckelshaus:"Developingasustainableeconomywillbe'amodificationofsocietycomparableinscaletotheIndustrialRevolution.Theundertakingwillbeabsolutelyuniqueinhumanity'sstayonearth.'"6
Weneedtogetonwithit.
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RECOGNIZINGTHEWESTASANURBANPLACEWilliamH.Hornby
IwasborninKalispell,inthenorthwestcornerofMontana,in1923,toalumberfamily.Theywerenotthenknownasextractors.Justgoodcitizensandlumberpeople.However,myfatherwasthesuperintendentofthelocalnationalforest.SoIwasraisedamidconsiderableargumentbetweenthefederallandmanagersandtheprivate-enterpriseresourcedevelopers.
IwenttohighschoolintheMontanacollegetownofMissoula,andthentoStanford.Then,afterseveralnewspaperventuresonthePacificCoastandafewchaptersoutsideoftheWest,IwentbacktoMontana,whereIwasinthelumberbusinessmyselfinasmalltownforafewyears.AfterthatIworkedontheGreatFallspaper,andcametoTheDenverPostthirtyyearsago.Inthecourseofthis,inadditiontotheMontanamountains,IspenttimeonthePlains,upinWyoming,and,ofcourse,inColoradoandNewMexico.
SoIconsidermyselfaWesterner.Andyet,asIreflectonthatexperience,itwasallwhatIcallurban.Thisdoesn'tmeanthatIdidn'tlearnhowtofish.itdoesn'tmeanIdidn'tspendtimeinthewoodsformyfamily'slumbercompany.Itdoesn'tmeanthatIhaven'tbeenoutinawheatfield,orIhaven'tdoneanumberofotherthingsthatyoudoasyougrowupandspendyourbusinesslifeinthemountainWest.Butpracticallythewholelime,mynaturalhabitatwasintownsandcities;thatis,itwasurban.
MostWesternersareurbanpeople.AmuchhigherpercentageofourpopulationlivesinunitsthattheCensusBureaudescribesasurbanthananyotherregionoftheUnitedStates.Andyet,inourdiscussionsabouttheWest,sooftenourhistoricalapproachthewayweshapeour
ideasaboutthefutureistohandlethecityorthetownasifitweretheexception.ThecityistheplacemostWesternhistoriansdon't
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wanttothinkabout.Let'stalkaboutthemountains,theresources,thewater.Wereallycan'tworkinthecitieswhenwe'retalkingabouttheWest.YettheWesthastobeshaped,hastobepreserved,hastobeprotectedinsuchawaythatitservestheplacesmostofitspeoplelive,thetownsandcities,aswellasthebeautifulemptyplaceswheretheydon't.
ItisaconvenientwaytothinkaboutwhatwewanttodowiththeWesttopretendtoourselvesthatwehaveawayofmakingagreatnumberofpeoplegoaway.Inoticethatinhislatestwork,WallaceStegnerIreverenomanmorethatheconcludesthatoneofthegreathopesoftheWestisthatitsoverpopulationwillrecede.Icannotfindanywhereinanyseriousdiscussionofdemographyanybasisforthishope.PeoplewillkeepcomingtotheWest.Theywillcomeatvaryingrates.Theywillcomeinvaryingplacesanddifferenttimes.Buttheywillcome.OnefiguretheAmericanPlanningAssociationoffers,andIguessitisasgoodasanyother,isthatbytheyear2000thepopulationoftheWestwillhavegrown20percent.Youcangetanykindoffigure,butallthefiguresseemtoagreethatwearegoingtohavetothinkaboutmorepeople.
Whydopeoplecomewest?Peoplecomewestbecauseoftheirdreams.Theydreamthattheywilldobetterfinancially.Theydreamthattheycanfindmorespace.Theydreamthattheycanfindabetterqualityoflife.Andthefactofthematteristhatoneofthereasonstheycomewestisthatitisbetterthaneast:italwayshasbeen,intermsofpeopledreamingthatiftheywentwesttheycouldmakeanewstart.Thedreamisn'tjustofpeoplecomingwest.ThedreamisstillaliveforthepeopleinMexicowhoarecomingnorth.ThedreamisstillaliveforthepeoplealongthePacificRimwhoarecomingeast.TheydreamoftheAmericanWest,althoughtheircompassdirection,theirlabelofdirection,isdifferent.
Whenyoudreamaboutgoingsomewhere,byandlargeyoudon'tstoptoanalyzewhetherthereareenoughschoolsorenoughroadsorenoughwaterorwhattheeconomicsituationis.Peopledonotthinkaboutinfrastructurefirst.Theycomeon.That'sthelessonofhowpeoplehavecomeintotheAmericanWestinthepast.Theminersthatcameintheminingrushdidn'tstoptothinkaboutwhatwashere.Theyheardtherewasgoldandtheycame.Theimmigrantswhocameandfilleduptownsandcitiesaroundtheturnofthecenturydidn'tthinkaboutwhattheconditionswere.Whattheyweregoingtofind,theyfelt,couldbynostretchoftheimaginationbeworsethanwhattheywereleaving.Sotheycame.Theveteranswhofloodedinhereattheendof
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WorldWarIIcamebecausethey'dbeenouthereandtheylikedit.Theyfiguredthatthey'dtaketheirchancesontheschoolsandtheroads,andtheywouldbuildschoolsandroadsiftheyweren'there.Andtheycame.
Mypointisthatpeoplearegoingtocomewestregardlessofwhatwedo.Ifwearegoingtoprotectourwestifwearegoingtoprotectourlandscapeproperly,protectourcommunitieswehavetoseetoitthattheinvestmentismadeintheinfrastructureweneedtotakecareofthis.Ifwedon'tdothat,allofthesepeoplewillbecompetingfortoofewsupportfacilities.Thatcompetitioncanleadtogreatexpense,togreatinefficiency,andeventoviolence.
Oneoftheideasthathastoshapeourfutureisculturalpluralism.WemustfinallylearnhowtheracesandtheethnicgroupsandthesubgroupsoftheWestcanlivetogetherinpeace,harmony,andproductivity.Themeltingpotisadeadthought.ThatwillgivenocomforttothepeoplewhowanttomakeEnglishourofficiallanguage.(IhappentothinkthatEnglishwillalwaysbeourdominantlanguage,justasitisnowinworldcommerce.)Theideathatoneculture,onerace,onegroupintheWest,inthisnewerathatwe'reentering,isevergoingtobeabletolabelitselfas"superior"ispasse.
TheotherpointI'dliketoaddressisthissenseIhavethatwethinkthatifwecouldplanbetter,ifwecouldmanagebetter,somehowwecouldsolvealloftheseproblemsinaclean,efficientfashion.Idon'tthinkthatistrue.Weareapoliticallyfreeandmobilepeople.ThewholehistoryoftheWestgivesnocomforttothosewhobelievetheyaregoingtosolvetheproblemsoftheWestbysomesuperiorformofplanning.Ourproblemsinthepasthavebeensolvedbypoliticalactionthroughlegislationasadjudicatedbythecourts.Wearegoingtohavetocontinuetoworkoutproblemsthroughthatmechanism,becausethatmechanismisnotgoingtochange.
CharlesWilkinson,anexpertonlawintheWest,hasobservedthatalotofourproblemsofbalancingresourcesaresettledusingthebasisofnineteenth-centurylawsbasedontheprincipleoffirstcome,firstserved.Hearguesthatgradually,throughtheworkingsofourpoliticalprocessandthroughourcourts,we'regoingtodevelopanew"ethicofplace."Anethicofplacewouldholdthattheneedsofpeopleextractingresourcesaregoingtohavetobebalancedwiththeneedsofcommunity.AnethicofplacewouldsaythatPeoplearehereandhaverights,butPlacealsoishereandhasrights,andthelawmustbalancethetwo.
That,afterall,iswhatwe'retalkingaboutwhenwetalkaboutshapingthefutureoftheWest.Wearetalkingabouttryingtofindabettersenseofbalancebetweenpeopleandresources.Atthemoment
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ourlegalsystemisteetering.Ourpoliticalsystemisteetering.Butplace,andprotectionofresources,arecomingintofullerbalancewithpeople.
Thosewhoarearguingforprotectionofplacethesedaysarepolarizedtothepointwhere,ingeneral,theyareexcludingthepartoftheequationthatlooksoutforpeople.Butinourpoliticalsystem,youcannotexcludethemajorityofthepeopleinthelongrun.Itdoesnotwork.Youjustcan'tdrawlinesthatkeepthemout.Youcan'tdrawlinesthatkeepthemaway.Youhavetohopeyoucaninstillinthemajorityattitudesthatwillprotectplace.Thenthoseattitudeswillleadtoappropriatelaw.
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THEDISPOSABLEWESTThomasJ.Noel
Envisioning''ASocietytoMatchtheScenery,"oneissuewemightthinkaboutispreservation.WehavealongtraditionintheWestof"getandgetout,"ofdevastatingaplaceandthenmovingon,ofmovingawaywhentimesgettough.
ButIthinktherehasbeenaturnaroundinthelastdecade,exemplifiedbytherenewalofcorecities.ThePearlStreetMallinBoulderisanexample,asisthesixteenthStreetMallinDenverandMainStreetMallinDurango.Weareseeingatrendtowardhistoricpreservationandaninterestinnotjusttrashingaplaceandmovingonbutinreturningtothecitiesandbeautifyingthem.
Anotherkeyissueisaffluence.IfyouareinterestedineconomichistoryorMarxistinterpretationofWesternhistory,thisisgoingtobeakeyissue.TheUnitedStates,particularlytheWest,cannotcontinuetoproduceaverysmallfractionoftheworld'swealthwhileconsumingamuchgreaterfractionofthatwealth.Wearenotgoingtohavesingle-family,detachedhousestheranchhouseson1.2acresinthefuture.Thereisgoingtobeasevereeconomiccrisishererecyclingresourceswillbecomemuchmoreimportant.
Anotherkeyissuethat'ssoobviousthatwemayoverlookit,exceptwhenwe'reremindedbywonderfulbookssuchasBeyondtheHundredthMeridian,isthegeographyoftheWest,thearidity.Thishastremendousandverysubtleimplications,suchasColorado'sunbelievablylowtaxonfirewaters.Bothliquorcontainersandwaterarenowtreatedasdisposablesnotworthrecapturing.
TheghosttownsareagreatpopularphenomenoninWesternhistory,
andhereitseemstomeisaplaceforhistorianstodosomeseriouswork.ThereareplentyofhistoriesofplacessuchasAspenandTelluride.Onecomesouteveryyear.ButwhatabouttheLeadvillesandtheCrippleCreeksthereallytragicandsadanddyingtowns?ThefocusshouldnotbeontheHoraceTaborsandtheBabyDoesandthe
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millionairesbutonthetwentieth-centuryherosthepeoplewhohungoninthosetownsandcontinuedtopaytaxes,whotriedtokeepschoolsandlibrariesopen,thepeoplewhowaileduntilthe1950s,forinstance,toputsewersinLeadville,atownwheremillions'worthofmineralshadbeentakenoutandmovedontoNewYork(intheformofGuggenheim'sandothers'fortunes).Theextractedmillionsthatwerenotspent,obviously,inLeadville.
KennethJacksonofColumbiaUniversityspenttenyearsproducingabookthatIthinkiswonderfulforWesternhistorianscalledCrabgrassFrontier:TheSuburbanizationoftheUnitedStates.HeintroducesthatbookbysayingthatthegreatestsinglephysicalachievementoftheUnitedStatesinthetwentiethcenturyissuburbia.SuburbanizationisthefutureoftheWest.Weshouldn'tbetalkingaboutranches,butaboutranchhouses.Thesuburbisconsideredanenclave,anescapefromracialtension,fromcrime,fromproblemsthatmanypeopleprefertoleavebehindintheinnercity.
Anothernegativefactoriswastefulnesstheideaofadisposablesociety,thatwholetownsaredisposable,thatyougoinandmineatownandthenleaveit.InDenverevenabillion-dollarairportStapletonisdisposable.Youdon'tputanymoneyintopermanentimprovementsorupkeep.Youdon'tcareaboutthenextgeneration.HereI'dliketomakeaspecialpleaforhistoricpreservation,whichIthinkhistoriansoftenregardasanelitistmovementorsomethingthat'sjustcosmetic.ButIsubmittoyouthathistoricpreservationispartofalargerethic,anideaofpreserving,ofsaving,offixingthingsupratherthathavingdisposablecities,disposableofficebuildings,disposableshoppingcenters,andadisposablepast.
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MYTHSOFVIOLENCEINOWNINGITALLDavídL.Carrasco
InpreparationforworkingwithWilliamKittredgeinthissymposium,Ireadthechapter"OwningItAll"fromthebookbythesametitle,andselectionsinMontanaSpaces.Intheformerhewritesabouthavinghad"thelucktogrowupatthetailendofawayofexistinginwhichpeoplelivedineverydayproximitytoanimalsonterritorytheyknewmorepreciselythanthepatternsinthepalmsoftheirhands."7InMontanaSpaceshewritesaboutthestorytellingadventurerswhoweredrawntotheWest,peoplelikeOsbourneRussell,SamuelClemens,andespeciallyCharlieRussell,thecowboypainter"whogotitrightandtradedhisfamouspaintingsfordrinksandtolditlikeitwas."KittredgetellsaboutacelebrationinGreatFalls,Montana,whereboostercitizenswerecelebratingthemselvesuntilCharlieRussellspokeup.Hesaid:"Inmybookapioneerisamanwhoturnedallthegrassupsidedown,strungbob-wireoverthedustthatwasleft,poisonedthewaterandcutdownthetrees,killedtheIndianwhoownedtheland,andcalleditprogress.IfIhadmyway,thelandherewouldbeherelikeGodmadeit,andnoneofyousonsofbitcheswouldbehereatall.''8
IbeginwiththisstorytointroducetheideathatWilliamKittredgeisasdeeplyconcernedaboutstoriesandmythsasheisaboutliterature.Heisasconcernedaboutinhabitinganewstoryandanewmythasheisconcernedaboutinhabiting"thelastbestplace."Iwanttorespondtotwothemesinhiswritingsrelevanttothisconference:1)themythofownershipand2)theritualsofviolenceagainsttheland.
Kittredgegivesuscluesaboutwhatthe"mythofownership"meanswhenhewritesaboutthedreamofpowerovernatureorofmaking,in
hiswords,"aperfectagriculturalplace,"akindofsacredplaceforhumanstodwellin.Asyoureadoninhispowerfulprose,youseethatthismythofownershipisreallyamaskforanothermyth,amythofwaragainstnature.Thiswariscarriedoutthroughthesecondtheme,the
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themeofritualor"participatinginouragriculture,"wherehumansturna"homeplace"intoa''machineforagriculture."Thisritualisreallyanactofterribleviolence,consciousandunconsciousviolenceagainstnature.Theresultofthisstrategyofsacralizingnaturesoitcouldbeownedandviolatedwasthecreationofa"howling,stinkingplace."Attheendofthisessay,Iwanttotakeustoafarawayplace,acityofhisancestors,wheremythsandritualsofviolencewerecreated.
InOwningItAlandthroughouthiswork,weseeadoubleconsciousnessinKittredge.Ontheonehandhegrowsupenclosedinatopographyofspirit,alandscapeofneighborhoodsthatweresacredanddemonic,somehabitable,somenot.Thenhewenttoschoolanddiscoveredthatthislandscapewasonlyafertileoasisinavastfeaturelesssagebrushdesert.Hestruggleswiththesetwoimagesandwithwhathelearnsinthefieldsandinschool.Heisdrawnthroughouthislifetoimagesofenclosures.HefeelstheirpowerinOregonandGuamwherehelivesincompounds,Quonsethuts,enclaves.Later,storiesbecomeenclosuresthathestrivestolivewithin.InhisstorieshetellsusthathecamebacktoOregontoparticipateinagricultureinorderto"constructagreatgoodplace,"aperfectagriculturalplacethatwassacred.Hedescribestheplacethisway:"Themajorityofagriculturalpeople,ifyoupressthemhardenough,eventhoughmostofthemdespisesentimentalabstractions,willadmitthattheyaretryingtocreateagoodplace,andtoliveaspartofthatgoodness,inthekindofconnection,whichwithfinereasonwecallrootedness."9
ButasyoureadoninKittredgeyoufindthatthegoodagriculturalplacewasrootedintwotremendousforces,oneobviousandonemoreobscure;namely,violenceandcities.Weseethepresenceofviolencewhenhetellsusthathegrewupinaplacewherepeoplewerescaredandtheonesuredefenseagainsttheoutsideworldwasproperty.The
yeomandream,thepastoralimage,wasnotonlyafortificationagainstthreateninghumans,itwasalsoadreamofpowerovernature,awarwhosecentralinstrumentwasthemachine.
ThisdimensionofKittredge'sworkledmetoreflectuponReneGirard'sViolenceandtheSacred,wheretheauthorarguesthat"violenceistheheartandsecretsoulofthesacred."10Hearguesthatviolenceisendemicinhumansociety,ingrainedinourrelationships.Violenceisnottobedenied,thoughitcanbedivertedontootherobjects.Girardarguesthathumanshavenobrakingmechanismforviolencebuttheycansteeritontoconvenientenemies,scapegoats,sothatviolencewillnotdestroythe"homeplace."TheimportantinsightofKittredgeisthatviolenceisnotonlydivertedontootherpeoplesbutontothelanditself.Therelationshipbetweenhumansandlandscapeis
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aviolentone.Thispatternwon'tbechangedbyafewnewlawsorabluelineortwo,butbyashiftinthenatureofthehuman,the"sonofabitch"CharlieRussellroaredagainst.
Further,KittredgeshowsthatthemythsofAmericansagainstthelandareenormouslyviolent.Infact,hesometimesstatesthatthemythofviolencehasbeenproddingusonforsolongthatitistoolate,theviolencehasaccomplisheditswork"itallwentdead,overtheyears,butswiftly.Youcanimagineoursurpriseanddespair,oursenseofhavingbeenprofoundlycheated."ll
PerhapswearemeetinginBoulderafterthefact,disguisingthefuneralasasymposium.Maybewehave"owned"ourownviolenceanditisnowfilteringbackthroughouratmosphereandbodies.
HispointmademethinkaboutaNativeAmericancase,thecaseofthecollapseoftheClassicMayainthetenthcenturyA.D.Archaeologistsshowusafrighteningrecordofamagnificentculturefallingtotheground,destroyingitsfields,killingitsinhabitantsatanastonishingratebetweenA.D.830and930.Itappearsthatthesenativepeoplesforgottheirsenseoflimitsinfarming,celebrating,building,controlling,andexpressingviolencetosuchadegreethatthewhirlwindofdeteriorationtheysetinmotioncouldnotbestopped.ThekeyhereisthattheMayabuiltearlyformsofcities,andcitiesownanddestroythelandscape.ThisisthesecondforceinKittredge'svision,thoughitisinfrequentlydrawninhisprose.liewritesthatwhenhereturnedtoWarnerValleyandsawpavedroadsandpowerlinesandaTVtranslatorbeaming"flutteringpicturesfromNewYorkandLosAngelesdirecttous,"heknewsomethingterriblehadcomeupontheland.12
Citiesarethegreatestforcesofecologicaltransformationinthehistoryofculture.Asonescholarhaswritten,"Citiesarethestylecentersoftheworld,controllinglifeinthecountrysideand
disseminatingpolitical,social,economic,aestheticandsacredvaluestoallwhocomeundertheirsway"13EventhoughpeopleintheWestthinktheyliveinruralAmerica,ontheedgeofthewildernessorinMontanaspaces,theyactuallyliveinaworlddeterminedmoreandmorebycities.Aterriblefeatureofcitiesintermsofthelandscapeistheircontrolbyelites.Fromtheoriginofcitiesuntiltheriseofnewexperimentalcities,socialorderhasbeencontrolledbysocialprivilege.Theneedsoftheelitessaturatespaceandmakeextraordinarydemandsonalltheplacesoftheglobe.ThisiswhatCharlieRussellsensed,andwecanrephrasehimbyasking,"Whoturnedthegrassupsidedown?Whoprovidedthebarbedwiretomarkofftheslicesoflandthatbecametownsandeventuallycityblocks?Whocutdownthetreesandpoisonedthewater
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andkilledtheIndiansandcalleditprogress?"Thebusinessinandofthecity!
Asameansofcapturingtheferociouspowerandinfluenceofcitiesonthelandscape,letmereadaboutafarawayplace,aplacefarfromKittredge'sMontana,butaplacewhere,ironically,hisancestorscamefrom.Considerthisimageryoftheviolenceofthecity,themachineincarnate,aplacethatknowsnolimitsandhasallthepossibilitiesofownershipofourfuture.ThomasWolfeinOfTimeandtheRiverwrote:
Andtheimageofthecity,writteninhisheart,wassounbelievablethatitseemedtobeafiction,afable,somehugedreamofhisowndreaming,sounbelievablethathedidnotthinkthatheshouldfinditwhenhereturned;yetitwasjustthesameashehadrememberedit.Hefoundit,theinstanthecameoutofthestation:thetidalswarmoffaces,thebrutalstupefactionofthestreet,theimmenseandarrogantblazeandsweepofthegreatbuildings.
Itwasfabulousandincredible,butthereitwas.liesawagainthemillionfacesthefacesdark,dingy,driven,harried,andcorrupt,thefacesstampedwithallthefamiliarmarkingsofsuspicionandmistrust,cunning,contriving,andahardandstupidcynicism....thefacescunning,sly,andfurtive,thehardtwistedmouthsandraspingvoices,theeyesglitteringandtoxicwithunnaturalfires...menacesofprivilegeandpower...movingintunetothatvastcentralenergy,filledwiththecity'slife,aswithageneralanddynamicfluid....
Andashesawthem,asheheardthem,ashelistenedtotheirwordsagain,...itseemedthatspeechhadbeengiventothembysomedemonofeverlastinghatredonlyinorderthattheymightexpresstheinfamyandvilenessofmen,orthefalsenessofwomen...itseemedincredible...thattheycouldlive,breathe,moveatallamongthehugeencrustedtaint,thepoisonouscongestionoftheirlives.
Andyetlive,breathe,movetheydidwithasavageandindubitableviolence,anunfathomedenergy....likeasingleanimal,withthesinuous
andbalefulconvolutionsofanenormousreptile.Andthemagicalandshiningairthestrange,subtleandenchantedweather,wasabovethem,andtheburiedmenwerestrewnthroughtheearthonwhichtheytrod,andabraceletofgreattideswasflashingroundthem,andtheenfabledrockonwhichtheyswarmedswungeastwardinthemarchesofthesunintoeternity,andwasmastedlikeashipwithitsterrifictowers,andwasflungwithalion'sportbetweenitstidesintotheverymawoftheinfinite,all-takingocean.Andexultancyandjoyrosewithacryoftriumphinhisthroat,becausehefounditwonderful.l4
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Thisisofthemythofthe"all-takingocean"ofcitiesthatKittredgewarnsusabout.Thisisthestorywemusthearandevictourselvesfrombeforethelastbestplaceforourselvesandourchildrenbecomessaturatedwithindubitableviolence.
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THECOLLISIONOFWILDERNESSANDCULTUREJamesA.Carrier
ForthefirstthreeyearsinmyjobasregionalreporterforTheDenverPost,Ihadawhitejeepwithmynameonthedoorincursive.(ThankGoditwasn'tropescript.)Belowthat,thankstothemarketinggeniusesofthePost,werethewords"RockyMountainRanger,"writtenlargeenoughtobeseenthroughthewindowofa7-ElevenwhenI'dstopinforcoffee.JustwhenIwasafraidshe'drecognizethenameCarrier,theclerkwouldsay,"DidyoubringourSundaypapers?"WhenIarrivedatnationalparks,I'dhavetoidleinlineandpaytheentrancefeesjustlikeanybodyelse.Therealrangerinsidethewindowwouldslowlycountthechangeintomyhand,allthewhilereadingmydoorandwondering,''Whoisthisyahoo?"
ButIstillfeelanexhilarationwhenIgetintothejeepanddriveoutofDenverintothelandscapethat,forme,continuestoholdthemagicandmeaningoftheWest.MaybeitisbecauseIspendsomuchtimegettingtherethatIfindthevistassoimportant.Whetherit'sdescendingtheSanJuans,kickingupdustontheswitchbacksoftheSunlightBasin,orracingatwhatseemsasnail'spaceacrossthefloorofMonumentValley,Icanstillfeelwhatthepioneersdid,whatWilliamKittredgecalls"owningitall."Ironically,itisprivateownershipbytheWest'sgrowingleisureclass,theRalphLaurensandtheRobertRedfords,thatispreservingsomeofthelookoftheWest.Butitisstilllargelythepublicagenciesthatholdopenlandswithvistasthatpreservethosefeelingsoffreedomandfrontier.
Asyoumayknow,nationalparksintheWestwerepreservedforthosevistas,orforcurioslikeOldFaithful.Theywereourfirstcathedrals.Congressapprovedtheparkswhentheywereconvincedthelandhad
nootherusefulpurpose.AndonlyrecentlyhasYellowstonecometostandforwilderness.ThebattlebetweennaturalregulationandtheleisureclassoftheRVsislessthantwentyyearsold.
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Now,beforeIgoon,letmesaythatIhugasmanytreesasanybody.Thegreenrevolutionismine.Ihavecometoacceptintellectuallythatnaturalisgood.Thegrizzlyneedsmorespace.Thewolvesaremissing.Naturalisgood.Weevenhearitinourcerealads.
ButthefiresofYellowstoneconfusedme.AndifyouweretovisitYellowstoneasIdidandIwasthereallsummerunderthebeautifulblueskiesofIndiansummer,you'dwonderwhatallthefusswasabout.Theparkisstillthere,theanimalsarestillthere.Butthereisanewattraction,afirescape,widespreadandblack.
Itisonething,however,tostandinColoradoandbravelyasserttherightsofnaturalregulation,andquiteanothertospendthesummerwatchingYellowstoneburn;toeatandworkandsleepthere,inthesmoke,andtowatchonecrisisevacuationafteranother;tostandbehindtheOldFaithfulInnonSeptember7(GeorgeBushwasright,thatdaywillliveininfamy)andwatchboilinggobsofflamerollatyou;towatchthroughsquinched,wateredeyes,airthecolorofsootswirlaroundyou;toflinchwhenredembersthesizeofyourfistbangagainstyourhelmet;towatchflamesfromburningbuildingsroarparalleltothegroundinafifty-mile-an-hourwindandthewateraimedatitblowingaway,too.Atthatmoment,naturalregulationsoundedashollowasthefireextinguishersatthecabinsthatexplodedintheheat.Iwassad.Iwasangry.Iwassicktomystomach.Myemotionswerespeaking,andIthinkalotofpeoplewatchingtelevisionfeltthesameway.
Intheweekssincethen,I'vesearchedforanintellectualanswerforthosefeelings.ThebestI'veheardsofarcomesfromStevenPine,whoisafirehistorianatArizonaStateinTempe.WhathappenedatYellowstone,hethinks,isacollisionoftwohybridswilderness,whichisaconcept,anidea,ahybridofnatureandculture;andfire,whichisanotherhybridofnatureandculture.Itisnaive,heargues,tothink
thatwecanviewfireasawhollynaturalprocessorwildernessasacompletelynaturalenvironment.Itisnaivetothinkthatwhenyoucombinethemyouwon'tgetthekindofanguishedexercisewewentthoughthatsummer.
Yellowstoneisaliveandwellasalandscape,butI'mnotsureitisasanideal.Ithinkthatthesefireshaveforcedus,perhapsforthefirsttimesincethe1960s,toquestionthingsnaturalandthosewhopreachit.IhavewritteninthePostthatthetragedyofthatsummermaybethatYellowstone,thelastbestplaceinthelowerforty-eightforthingswild,cannotbewithoutthehumanhand.
Theparkisbeginningapublicrelationscampaigntoconvincetheworldthat"blackisbeautiful."Itisacampaignaimedlargelyatmendingtheeconomicfences.ButtheparkneedsphilosophicPRas
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well.Thewolfissueisdeadfornowasaresultofthefires.ThedebateoverwhethertoopencampgroundsintheFishingBridgegrizzlyhabitatmayberenewed.TheForestServicewantstologtheburnedareas.Andahayliftfordyingelkisnotoutofthequestion.
Isee,asIdrivearoundtheRockies,agrowingleisureclass,interestedlessinbackpackingthaningolfing.Themountainsarebeingcarvedintoenclaveswithsecuritygatesandlawns.Peopletaketheirlivingroomswiththemwhentheytravelnow.AwomanIknowwhotookoneofthoseguidedtripsthroughtheGrandCanyonforthefirsttimesaiditbest:"It'slikesomethingoutofDisneyland."Control.Ourdominion.ThatiswhatisgoingonatYellowstone.
ThetimeIspentinYellowstoneconvincedmethattheparkislessabiospherethananenvironmentalprovingground.It'saverydemocraticplace,subjecttoallthepressuresofapublicinstitution,includinggreed.I'moptimistic,asIthinkIhavetobeinademocracy.Yellowstoneisaplacenotjustforwildlifebutforpeople,too.It'saplacetolearnabouttheenvironment.Mostimportant,itisaplacewheretheuseofthatparkmirrorsourcountry'sattitudetowardthewild.Likethemiraculousserotinouslodgepolepineconesthatopenunderheat,thepollsareopenagaininYellowstone,Ithink.AndIalsothinkyoushouldbeaskingyourselveshowyouwillvote.
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EXCEEDINGTHECARRYINGCAPACITYOFTHEWEST:ANARTIST'SPERSPECTIVERichardMisrach
ThebrilliantFrenchthinkerJeanBaudrillardhasintroducedaconceptthathashadapowerfulimpactontheworldofhighculture.Theconceptis"simulacra."Inshort,hesuggeststhattheexperiencesoflifehavebeensothoroughlymediatedbyphotography,advertising,andfilmthatwenolongerhaveagenuineprimaryexperience.
OurunderstandingoftheWestisnodifferent.WeknowtheWestfromHollywoodfilms,TVWesterns,andAnselAdams'sphotographs.Ourvisionsareofwhite,ruggedcowboysroamingvastopenplacesortheuninhabitedlandscapespectaclesofMonumentValley,DeathValley,ortheGrandCanyon.WhenonethinksoftheAmericanWest,onedoesnotusuallythinkofirrigationprojectsgoneamuck,plutonium-contaminatedlandscapes,chemical-weaponsstoragedumps,fortyacresofgrapefruittreesonfire,tensofthousandsofswimmingpools,andmillionsofpeople.
ForthelasttenyearsIhavebeenworkingonaprojectcalled"DesertCantos."Thetermcantoissimplyanoldwordthatindicatesthesubsectionofalongsong.Itfunctionslikeachapterinanovel.ThesecantosareindependentgroupingsindependentchaptersaboutmydiscoveriesintheAmericanlandscape,particularlytheAmericandesert.Eachofthesegroupsisindependent,butonceyouputthemtogether,yougetamuchgreaterwhole.
RichardMisrachbroughtanartist'sperspectivetotheconceptoflimitswithahalf-hourslideshowandcommentaryofhiswork.Theflowofimagesduringthecommentarywascontinuous.Presentedherearerepresentativeimagesillustratingeachofthesectionsofhistalk.
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Thefirstcantoiscalled"TheTerrain."Mostoftheworkinthiscantoisbasedonamovementinphotographyinthe1970scalledthe"newtopographies."Theattemptwastoredefinethelandscape.AnselAdamshadbecomefamousforhisbeautifullandscapes,andbuiltuponthenineteenth-centuryidealofpurewilderness,unsulliedwilderness.Thefactofthematteristhatinthetwentiethcenturyyoujustdonothavethatkindoflandanymore.Anumberofpractitionersinthe1970smadearemarkablegroupofphotographswhiletryingtolookattheWestinamorehonestlight.Theywerelookingatwhatwecalltheculturallandscape.Thismovementwasmydeparturepoint.
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DownedSaguaro,Arizona,1983RichardMisrach,RichardMisrach:Photographs1985-1987(Tokyo:Gallery
MIN,1988).
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Thesecondcantoiscalled"TheEvent."IthastodowiththespaceshuttlelandingatEdwardsAirForceBaseintheMojavedesert.ThisiswhereabouttwohundredthousandpeoplearrivedintheirWinnebagosandcamperstowitnessthespaceshuttlefallfromtheskylikeastone.Theyweresupposedtoparkontheoutsideofthefence.Iaskedpeoplewhatthesnowfencewassupposedtodo,andtheysaid,"Well,it'stokeepthepeoplefromrunningontothefieldtowardthespaceshuttle."AndIthoughtthatwassortofabsurdfortwohundredthousandpeople,itdidn'tseemlikeitwoulddothejob.Andthensomebodyelsesaid,"No,no,no,that'snotitatall,it'stokeepthespaceshuttlefromrunningintoallthepeople."
Afterthefirstshuttlelandingtherewassuchatrafficjamaftertheshuttlefinallylandedthat,accordingtoonejournalist,ittookthetwohundredthousandpeopleandtheircamperstwiceaslongtogetoutoftheparkinglotasitdidfortheshuttletogoaroundtheEarthtwice.Sothisnexttimearound,themilitarydecidedtolaydowntarlinessothateverybodycouldlineup.
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CampersandRestrainingFence,EdwardsAirForceBase,California,1983RichardMisrach,DesertCantos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico
Press,1987),p.18.
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Thenextcantoiscalled"TheFlood."ThisinvolvestheSaltonSea.ItisinthesouthernCaliforniadesert,afactthatiswroughtwithirony.ItactuallywasSaltonSinkintheearly1900s.ButanirrigationprojectalongtheColoradoRiverwentawry,andthisareaflooded.Eventuallytheydecidedtokeepthewaterandbuildawholeeconomyaroundit.Sohotels,motels,andrecreationalareaswereintroduced.Waterskiingwaspromoted.Theystockedfish.Lateron,theyworkedoutasystemwherebywaterwastakenfromtheColoradotosupportagricultureintheCoachellaandImperialvalleys.That'swhereCaliforniagetsallitsgreatgrapefruitsanddates.ThewaterwouldgothroughthesefarmsandthenleachintotheSaltonSink.
Inthe1970stheirrigationdistrictsnegligentlypumpedalotofwaterintothesink,andallthebusinesses,ranches,andhomesthathadbuiltupalongtheshoreovertheyearswerefloodedout.Sowhatwehavenowisafloodmuseum.It'sbeeninastateofpermanentfloodnowfortenyears.It'sstartingtogetbetter.Afewyearsagotheresidentsfinallywonaclass-actionsuitformillionsofdollarsagainsttheirrigationcompanies.Theironyhereisthatyouhavethisexquisitebodyofwaterandlight,unlikeanythingI'veseen,andyetitisanenvironmentalhorror.
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FloodedMarina(gaspumps),SaltonSea,California,1983RichardMisrach,DesertCantos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico
Press,1987),p.33.
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Thenextcantoiscalled''TheFires."ThiscantohasananecdotethatIthinkisanimportantparable.ForthetwoyearsIwasphotographingbetween1983and1985therewasanengineerfromthefiredepartmentwhosetmorethantwohundredfires.Inhisbriefcasehehadacoupleofhundredmatchbooks,withcigarettesamongthem,tiedaroundarock.Whathewoulddoislightthecigarettesandthrowtherockoutofamovingcar,andthushaveadelayedfuse.He'dsetuptosixfiresinaday.Finallyhewascaughtandhe'sinprison.
Allthefireswerehumancausedtheywereeitheraccidents,arson,agriculturalcontrolled-burns,oragriculturalcontrolled-burnsthatgotoutofcontrol.
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DesertFire#17,1983RichardMisrach,DesertCantos(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico
Press,1987),p.50.
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ThisisfromaseriesaboutnuclearfalloutinAmerica:
SnowCanyonispartoftheareaaroundSt.George,Utah,whichwasexposedtofalloutfromearlyatomictesting.Italsowasthesiteofthe1954HollywoodproductionTheConqueror,directedbyDickPowell.DespiteconcernsexpressedbyPowellandtheRKOscouts,governmentexpertsreassuredthefilmmakersoftheirsafety.DickPowelldiedoflungcancerin1963,AgnesMooreheaddiedofuterinecancerin1974,SusanHaywarddiedofskin,breast,anduterinecancerin1975,andJohnWaynediedoflungcancerin1979.AtthetimeofWayne'sdeath,91ofthe220remainingcastandcrewmembershaddevelopedcancer.
TodaySnowCanyonisabreathtakinglybeautifulstateparkenjoyedbythousandsofcampersandvisitorseachyear.Therearemanywhobelievethatthedunesarestillcontaminatedbyplutonium(half-life,235,000years).15
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SnowCanyonStatePark,Utah,1987RichardMisrach,RichardMisrach:Photographs1985-1987(Tokyo:Gallery
MIN,1988).
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ThisisfromaprojectcalledBravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest.It'sabookthatmywife,Myriam,andIworkedontogether.ThebookisdividedintothreepartsanditopenswiththemilitaryabuseoftheWest.
Bravo20isabombingrange.ItispubliclandusedbytheUnitedStatesNavyforthirty-threeyearswithoutauthorization.Thenavyliterallybombedthisplaceeveryday.ItwasthelocationofanimportantNorthernPaiutepuberty-ritualsitecalledLoneRock.TherecenthistoryofLoneRock,intheCarsonSink,isanincrediblestory.ItinvolvestwomenwholivedinNevadawhotookthenavytotask.Thesemenwentontothebombingrangewhenitwasactiveandannouncedtothepressandthemilitarythattheyweregoingoutonthislandbecausethenavywasbombingitillegally.
Thefirstpartofthebookisthehistoricalbackgroundofthisbombingrange.Parttwocomprisesthephotographsdocumentingthepost-apocalypticlandscapethelandscapethathasbeenshoweredwithbombsandcratersandshrapnel.
In1986,whenthenavywascaughtbythesetwocivilians,DocBarginandRichardHolmes,theyhadtostopbombing,sotheywentbeforeCongressandsaid,"Look,therearethousandsofunexplodedlivebombsthathavebeenburiedbeneaththesandsovertheyearsandwecan'tdecontaminatethem.Itwouldcostmillionsofdollarsandwouldbeonly95percenteffective."Andso,giventhatthenavycouldnotcleanitup,CongresspassedtheMilitaryLandsWithdrawalActof1986,whichgavethenavyauthorizationtoresumebombingforfifteenyears,untiltheyear2001.Parttwoofthebookisaphotographicdocumentationofwhatthatbombinghasdonetotheland.
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UnexplodedBomb,Bravo20BombingRange,Nevada,1986RichardMisrach,Bravo20TheBombingoftheAmericanWest(Baltimore:
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990),p.53.
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PartthreeofthebookisaformalproposalIdesignedtoconvertthisbombingrangeintoanationalpark,thefirstenvironmentalmemorial.Ithinkitwouldbeausefulmemorial.Youwouldhave"DevastationDrive"adrivingtouraroundthebombingrange.Youwouldhaveawalkingtourofthecratersandthebombscalled"BoardwalkoftheBombs."Theboardwalkwouldleadtoanumberofdifferentsiteexhibits.Therewouldbecratersandactiveeagles'nestsandthesand-dunebiotaand,asinanyconventionalnationalpark,therewouldbesiteplaquesanddisplaystoeducatethepublic.Apicturewindowwouldcontinuedowntoasubterraneanfloor,givingparkvisitorsthechancetoviewthebombsthatwereburiedbeneaththesurface.Ifoundoutintalkingtoamilitarydetonationexpertthattheplacecanbedecontaminatedandcleanedupandthatthenavyhastheabilitytocleanupthesite.Sowecouldjustreplacelivebombswithdummybombssoitwouldbesafe.Andofcourseyou'vegottohaveawalk-incrater.It'stheonlywaypeoplecangettherealsenseofthenatureofthedevastation.
Theprojectwouldcostaboutsevenoreightmilliondollarsaboutone-fourththepriceofoneF-A-18jetbomber.Wefigurethat,ascompensationforfortyyearsofillegaluseandcontamination,themoneyshouldcomeoutofthenavy'sbudget.
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BoardwalkoftheBombs,illustrationbyRicoSolinasRichardMisrach,Bravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest(Baltimore:
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990),p.107.
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Thelastcantoismoresomber.It'scalled"ThePit."ThisisinNevada.Itisoneofthreedead-animalpitsthatareliketrashdumps.ItisabouteightmilesfromNavalAirStationFallon,whichisaboutanhoureastofReno.Fallonwasthesiteofoneatomictestin1963OperationShoal.Somepeoplestillbelievetheareaishotwithplutoniumandthattheleukemiaratesarehigherthanthestateandnationalaverages.Allofthisisspeculationthatneedstoberesearched.InourresearchfortheBravo20book,MyriamandIdiscoveredaninternalnavydocumentthatisnowcomingtolightdocumentingthenavy'sownresearchintotwentytoxic-pitsites.Everymilitarystationinthecountryprobablyhasterribletoxicsites.Chemicalssuchasnapalm,AgentOrange,jetfuel,andsoonarebeingleakedintothegroundwater,possibly(accordingtothenavy)affectingtheagriculturenearby,inthiscaseFallon.
Ishouldsaybecausethere'salwaysconfusionaboutthisthatifyourpetdied,youwouldbringittothisdump.Ifananimalofyoursdiedofoldage,iftherewasaroadkill,ifanimalsforwhateverreasondied,theywouldbebroughttooneofthesepitsites.
OnMarch24,1953,theBullckbrothersweretrailing2,000headofsheepacrosstheSandSpringsValleywhentheywereexposedtoextensivefalloutfromadirtyatomictest.Withinaweekthefirstewesbegandroppingtheirlambsprematurely.Thelambswerestunted,woolless,legless,andpot-bellied.Soon,full-grownsheepstarteddyinginlargenumbers.Theyhadrunningsores,largepustules,andhardenedhooves.Horsesandcattlewerefounddeadwithbetaburns.Atfinalcount,4,390animalswerekilled.Initialinvestigationsbygovernmentexpertsindicatedthatradiationwasthecause.However,whentheAtomicEnergyCommissionrecognizedthepotentialeconomicandpoliticalliability,allreportsandfindingswereimmediatelyclassified.TheAECdidprovideapublicexplanation.Adryyearandmalnutritionwereblamed.Todaydesignateddead-animalpitscanbefoundthroughouttheWest.Theyfunctionmuchliketrashdumps.Localsareencouragedtodepositanimals
thatdiesuddenly.Thecausesoftheanimals'deathsareoftenunknown.16
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DeadAnimals#86,Nevada,1986RichardMisrach(forthcoming).
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Thisworkisnotmeanttobealiteraljournalisticexposé.Itisaprotest,ifyouwill,ascreamagainstthispracticeofthemilitaryandthegovernment,ofconductingincredibleexperimentsinthedesert,ofscrewingupconstantlyandthencoveringitup.YouhaveitinDenverwithRockyFlats.YouhaveitwiththeNevadaNuclearTestSite.YouhaveitwiththeYuccaMountainnuclear-wastedump,wherethenation'shigh-levelnuclearwastewillbeburied.TheystillaregoingtotrytoshoveitinNevadaontopofanearthquakefault,whichisanunsoundplacetoputit.Itistotallydangerous,butnobodyelsewilltakeit.Contaminantsfromthesedumpsgetintothegroundwater.Afterthetestsfromtheearly1950s,thestuffwouldgetintheairanditwouldendupinBuffalo,NewYork.Itendedupallovertheworld.It'snotsomethingthatyoucanputinthedesertandbedonewith.
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THEPRESSINTHEWEST:CO-OPTEDINTOACELEBRATIONOFTECHNOLOGYMarkTrahant
Iwouldliketoaddathirdthemetothethemesthat,first,thegovernmentandthemilitaryarealwaysscrewingupand,second,alwayscoveringup.Iwanttoaddathirdtheme,becauseIamsomewhatguilty:thatwhenthegovernmentscrewsup,andthenthereisacover-up,oftenthepressignoresit.
I,too,havebeentothelandofthemotorhomes,thelandingofthespaceshuttleDiscoverySTS26.Iwasstrucknotonlybytheimageofthemotorhomesandthewaytheyarelinedup,alltopayhomagetotechnology,butalsobytherowsbehindthemotorhomes.Therearerowsandrowsofcottoncandy,hotdogsanythingyouneedtobuyisavailable,includinginsigniasfromsoldiersoffortune.Youcangetthelatestbadgethatwasworninwhateverwaryouarelookingfor.OneAustralianmanwhomIinterviewedtoldmethatcomingtothelandingofthespaceshuttlewasanear-religiousexperience,andhehadbeentotheMeccatwice.
Whenthespaceshuttleactuallyhitstheground,theNASAfolksincreasethecelebrationbyplaying''TheStarSpangledBanner."And,ofcourse,alotofpeoplehavetearsintheireyes.Thewayjournalistsfitintothisisinteresting.
WebegintheprocessofcoveringanSTSlandingafewdaysearlierinadesertmotel,wherewegetourpresscredentials.Thisishowtheyputyouinthesystem.Firstofall,theygiveyouthesefancybadges.Theygiveyouagiantvehiclepassthatsays"STS26"andhasalittle
shuttleonthebottom.Itisgreattogivetoanykidsinyourfamily.Second,theygiveyouanIDbadgelabeled"STS26"inbrightredletters,whichyougettoweararoundyourneck.Third,theygiveyou
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stacksandstacksofmodelsandtechnicaldiagramsthataresotechnicalyouwillneverunderstandthem,butthatallowyoutobecomepartofthesystemandbecomeaninsider.Youarethenco-optedintothecelebrationoftechnology.Duringthecoverageofashuttle,mostofthejournaliststheredon'tquestionwhetherthetechnologyisvalid,onlywhetheritworks.
Anotherofthewaysthatjournalistsgetco-optedisperhapsmoreseriousthantheshuttle,andthatisbythemilitarytechnologyintheWest.IfyouarecoveringanythingfortheDepartmentofEnergy,theprocessisessentiallythesameasitwouldbeforNASA.Yougetcredentials,yougetafancybadge,yougetaccesstoplacesthatotherpeopledon't,andyougetco-opted.Ihavebeentothe"nationalnuclearbombpark."ItisopenonlytothepressatthispointtheNevadaTestSite.Notonlydoyougetthefancybadges,youalsogetafancydevicethattellsyouifyougettoohot.Younevergettokeepthat,though,theyalwaystakethatback.Soyounevergettoknowhowcloseyoureallywere.
IntheWest,westillarelivingwithtwoplacesatwhichtheUnitedStateshasdecidedwecanburyourmostdeadlyinventions.Thethingswehaveengineeredasahumanracethathavelastedthelongestarethepyramids,whichareaboutfourthousandyearsold.YetournuclearhighprieststellustheyarefairlycertainthattheycanburyourwasteinNewMexicoandNevadaincontainersthatwilllasttenthousandyears.
IamremindedofanimagethatstickswithmefromYuccaMountain,Nevada.YuccaMountainisfarawayfromthetestsite.Thereisnothingmucharoundthereotherthanbeautifulcountry.Oneofthefirstthingsthescientistsdidtherewhentheydecidedthatthisiswherewecanburythehigh-levelwastesthewastethatwillbeaproblemfortenthousandyearswastoputintwopipesthatgodownabout250
feet.Therockissupposedtobesosolidthattherewon'tbeanyproblemwithleakingofwater,leakingofanythingelse.Yetwhentheyputthesetwopipesintotheground,theyfoundaninterestingphenomenon.Inthewintertime,warmairflowsoutofthepipes.Inthesummertime,warmairissuckedintothepipes,thereverseprocess.Inshort,theearthbreathes.Theystilldon'tknowwhythishappens,andthegeologiststendtosaythattheydon'tthinkitwouldaffecttheradionuclidesthatwouldbeburiedunderneathit.Butnonetheless,theearthbreathes.
AfinalpointIwouldliketomakeisthattheseareplaceswethinkofassomewhere"outthere."WhenyouthinkoftheWestasanuclearplace,youshouldrememberthatitisallrighthere.
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RecentlyIhadachancetotakealookatthetransportationofnuclearitemsonourpublichighways.Andtheinterstatehighwaysystemisaboutthebusiestplacethereisforthingsnuclear.Ifyouwanttoseeanuclearbomb,forexample,youarealmostguaranteedtoseeoneifyousitalongI-40betweenAlbuquerqueandtheTexasborder.Bombsrollthroughthereroughlytwotimesaday,sometimesjustonceaday.Rightnowwearetransportingonpublichighways2.8milliontonsofradioactivematerial,includingH-bombs,high-levelwaste,transuranicwaste,low-levelwaste,andotherthingsnuclear.IwasgoingthroughsomecourtrecordsforthistransportationstoryandIwasamazedtofindthatlastyearneartheColorado-Nebraskaborder,atrucktrailerwashaulingCobalt60fromCanadatoDenver,anditwasstoppedatastatetruck-inspectionstationsimplybecauseithadabrokenaxle.TheCobalt60insidewasjustasideproblem.
WhenIwasresearchingthisstory,Ithoughtalotaboutthisproblemofjournalistsbecomingco-optedandbecomingpartofthecelebrationoftechnology.IdecidedthatforthisstoryIdidnotwanttobecomepartofthesystem.Sowedecidedtoseewhatwecouldfollow,aphotographerandI,withouttellingtheDepartmentofEnergy,andtobeoutsiderslikeeveryoneelse.Thisputusinawholedifferentcamp.WewenttoPantex,Texas,whichisthefinalassemblypointfornuclearbombs,andwesetupinacaroutside.Wethoughtwewouldbesomewhatobvious.Weputourbiglonglensesontopofthecarandputnotepadsouttotrytomakeitlooklikewewerereporterssotheywouldn'tshootus.Wesatthereallthatdayandnotrucksrolledout.Weknewthattheyhadashipmentscheduled,sowebegantowonder.Wedecided,well,weworkforalargenewspaper,wehavelotsofresources,let'srentanothercarandparkitontheothersideofthebaseincasetheyaregoingoutthebackdoor.Wedidthatandwedecidedtheywerestillsneakingout,soweboughtportableradiostokeeptrackofwheretheyweremovingthebombs.Afterwedidthat,
welookedintotheskyandsawahelicopterflyingbackandforthkeepingtrackofwherewewere.AtthatpointwerealizedthattheDepartmentofEnergyhadmoreresourcesthanwedid.Fortunatelywewereabletogetpicturesofthebombs.Theamazingthingisthattheytravelatspeedsyouwouldn'tbelieve.WewerechasingonebetweenAlbuquerqueandAmarilloandwewereaveraging75milesanhourandwecouldn'tkeepupwithit.Butifyouwanttoseeit,allyouhavetodoissitalonganinterstate.AnotheronewouldbeI-70,orI-15inIdaho.Mostoftheroadsarealreadynuclear.
WiththeWestbecomingsonuclear,andthemilitaryconstantly
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coveringup,findingthesethingsoutisbecomingmoreandmoredifficult,becausethewholesystemissetuptokeepthesethingssecret.Wecanhopethatweinthepresswillstartreactingmoreandfindingthesethingsout.
PARTFIVETheFuture
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KOKOPELLI'SRETURNTerryTempestWilliams
Onenight,beneaththeruinsofKeetSeel,weheardflutemusicmusicsosweetitcouldhavesplittheseedsofcorn.EarlierwehadwanderedthroughtheroomsofKeetSeel,admiringtheredrockconstructiondabbedintothesandstonealcovelikeswallows'nests,buttherehadbeennomusicthenonlythesilencepressingagainstusinthecoolAnasaziair.
Abovetheruins,cloudscoveredthefullfaceofthemoonlikegauze.Thelandseemedtobowwiththemelodyoftheflute.Ireachedformyhusband'sarmandhereachedforourfriend.Wekeptholdofoneanotherlikechildren,andwelistened,holdingourbreathsbetweentheintervalsofourownheartbeats.Theflutemusicflowedoutfromthecliffdwellinglikeanancientbreath.
Thenextmorningwesataroundcamp,drinkingrosehiptea.Weweretiredandstifffromthecold,stillhalfstunnedfromthenightbefore.Ourfriend,whowasHopi,lookeddownatthecupheheldinbothhands,andtoldastory.
Amantraveledthiscountrywithabagofcornseedoveroneshoulder.Hisshadowagainstthedesertlookedlikeadeformity.liewouldstopateveryvillageandteachthepeoplehowtoplantcorn.Andthenwhenthesunslippedbehindthemesaandthevillagewasasleep,hewouldwalkthroughthecornfieldsplayinghisflute.Theseedswouldflower,pushingthemselvesupthroughthered,sandysoilandfollowthehigh-pitchednotesupward.Thesunwouldriseandthemanwouldbegone,withcornstalkstheheightofayounggirlshimmeringinthemorninglight.Manyoftheyoungwomenwouldcomplainofafullnessintheirbellies.Theelderswouldsmile,knowingtheywerepregnant.Theywouldlooktothesouthwestandcallhim"Kokopelli."
Wefinishedourtea,brokeupourcamp,andorganizedourpacks
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forthetrail.Beforeleaving,IwalkedbacktothebaseofKeetSeel.Theruinsappeareddarkerthanusual,fullofshadowsthatmovedfromroomtoroom.MyeyesfollowedthetalltimbersfromfloortoceilingasIimaginedmacawsperchedontop.Kivashelddarknessbelow,andIwonderedifoldmen'sbonesmightbeburiedthere.Justthen,inastreamoflight,apictographontheceilingofthealcovejumpedout.Itwasabuglikecreature,butasIfocusedmoreclearlyIrecognizeditasthehumpbackedfluteplayer.
"Kokopelli,"Iwhisperedtomyself."ItmustbeKokopelli."
Thelightshiftedandheseemedtoberockingonhisback.Ihadmissedhimthedaybefore,noticingonlythepictographsofbighornsheepandspirals.Atthatmoment,Irecalledtheflutemusicthatfloodedthecanyonthenightbeforeandthecloudslikegossamerhandswithlong,longfingersthatpulledmeintoanabyssofsleep.Iplacedmyhandovermystomach,turnedawayfromtheruins,andwalkedbacktowardmyfellowcampers.Halfwaydownthecanyon,Ifeltstirringsinmybelly.Sweetcornwassproutingallalongtheriver.
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SOMETHINGSTARTINGOVERYoudon'tseebuffaloskullsverymuchanymoreOntheChugwaterbuttesordowntheCheyenneplains,Andwhenyourollattwilightoveradraw,Withagesinyourheartandhillsinyoureyes,YoucangetaboutasmuchfromaModel-T,Strippedandforgotteninasagearroyo,Asyoucanfromaskingthebluepeaksoverandover:
"Willsomethingoldcomebackagaintonight?SendsomethingbacktotellmewhatIwant."
Idonotknowhowlongforeveris,Buttodayisgoingtobelonglongago,Therewillbeflinttofind,andchariotwheels,Andsilversaxophonestheangelsplayed,SoIaskmyselfifIcanstillrememberHowamythbeganthismorningandhowthepeopleSeemedhardlytoknowthatsomethingwasstartingover.
Oh,Igetalongallrightwiththeoldoldtimes,I'veseenthemsiftingtheagesinNebraskaOnSignalButteattheheadofKiowaCreek.
(YoucandrinkfromthespringwhereoldmanRoubadeau
HadhisforgeandanvilupinCedarValley,YoucanlookbackdownthevalleytowardScotts
BluffAndstillseedustcloudsontheOregonTrail.)
IenteredthetrenchtheycutthroughSignalButte,
CopyrightYaleUniversityPress.Reprintedwithpermission.
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AndIpulledabuffalobonefromtheeight-footlayer,AndIwatchedthejaspershardsandarrowheadsBounceinthejiggingscreenthroughwhichfelldustOfantelopeandpiecesoftheworldToosmalltohaveameaningtothesifters.
Oneofthemsaid,whenIheldtheboneinmyhand:"Thismayturnouttobetheoldestbison
InNorthAmerica,"andIcouldhaveadded:"Howstrange,forthisisoneoftheyoungesthands
ThateversqueezedarubberbulbtoshowHowheliumparticlesshootthroughwatervapor."AndthedrywindoutofWyomingmighthave
whispered:''Todayisgoingtobelonglongago."
Iknowhowitsmellsandfeelstosifttheages,ButsomethingstartingoverandIsayIt'sjustasbeautifultoseetheyuccaAndcactusblossomsrisingoutofaFordInasagearroyoontheChugwaterflats,AndpretendyouseethecarbondioxideslippingIntothepovertyweed,andpretendyouseeTheroothairsofthebuffalograssbeginningTosuckthevanadiumsteelofanaxletopieces,Anaxlethattooksomebodysomewhere,Tomovingpicturetheatersandbanks,Overtheranges,overthecattle-guards,Tookpeopletodance-hallsandcemeteriesIliketothinkofthemthatwaytogether:Dance-hallsandcemeteries,bodiesbeginningTocometogetherindance-hallswherethepeopleSeemhardlytoknowthathymnsarebeginningtoo;
ThenbodiesseparatingandgoingaloneIntothetiltinguphillcemeteries,Underthemesas,undertherimrockshadows.
Icanlookatanaxleinsagearroyo,Andhearthemwhispering,thebackseatlovers,Theoldmyth-makers,starlingsomethingover.
ThomasHornsbyFerril
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PUBLICUSEANDTHEFUTUREOFTHEFEDERALLANDSBruceBabbitt
ThepubliclandsoftheAmericanWestarebothahistoricalanomalyandacontinuingpoliticalparadox.Givenourindividualisticculture,preferenceforprivateproperty,antipathytowardgovernment,andrecurrentmovementstoprivatizeanythingpublic,onecouldreasonablyassumethatthepubliclandshadlongsincebeensold,auctionedofforgivenawaysimplytogetgovernmentoutofthelandbusiness.Yetinthetwentiethcenturythepubliclandshaveremainedlargelyintact,andtheconsensusforpublicownershipseemstogrowwitheachgeneration.
Ifthereisasolidconsensusforpublicownership,thereisasyetnosuchagreementabouthowourWesternlandsshouldbeusedandadministered.Thecentury-olddebatebetweenthedisciplesofJohnMuir,preachingwildernessforitsownsake,andthefollowersofGiffordPinchot,advocatingutilitariandoctrinesofresourceuse,ragesonunresolvedandgrowingevermoreintenseastheonce-emptyspacesoftheWestbegintofillup.Likewise,thereisstillnosettledconsensusonwhereland-usedecisionsshouldbemadeatthefederal,state,orlocallevelorbywhomthepublic,electedofficials,judges,orprofessionaladministrators.Giventheuniquehistoryofpubliclands,proposalsforreformrequiresomediscussionofwhathashappenedinthepast.
AstheAmericanfrontieradvancedfromAtlanticshoresacrosstheMississippiandontotheGreatPlains,landswereroutinelytransferredintoprivateownershipthroughlandsalesandtheoperationofthevariouspreemptionandhomesteadlaws.Asaresult,publiclandseast
oftheMississippiRiverhavealmostdisappeared;theyarenowlimitedtoafewsmallforestsandparksandsomelargertractsinNewEnglandandtheAppalachians.
Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,asthelineofsettlementmovedofftheGreatPlainsintothefrontrangesoftheRockyMountainsandbeyond,thehistoricalprocessofprivatizationbeganto
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slow,eventuallycomingtoahalt.Ashomesteaders,conditionedbytheirexperienceontherichagriculturalfrontiersofIowaandNebraska,begantrekkingintotheemptyspacesoftheWest,theyexpectedtoplowthesoilintoacheckerboardextensionoftheMiddleWest.Butforthemostpartitwouldnothappen,fortheclimatewastoocoldinthehighmountainsandtoohotinthedesertbottoms,soilswereoftenunproductive,andalmosteverywheretherewastoolittlerainfall.
Outofthefailureofthehomesteadexperience,twoopposingconceptsoflandtenuregraduallyemerged.One,rootedinthetraditionalurgetoprivatize,advocatedthatthepubliclandbesoldorgivenawayinwhateverquantitiesnecessarytostimulatedevelopment.Ifsmallhomesteadgrantswerenotasufficientinducementtosettlement,thenlargegrantssurelywouldbe.InthenineteenthcenturyCongressgave58millionacresoflandtoNorthernPacificRailroad,justthefirstofmanyhugegrantstorailroadcompanies.AsCongressenactedlawsauthorizingexpandedmineral,timberandgrazinggrants,landmonopoliesbegantodevelopasindividualsandcorporationsmanipulatedandsteppedovertheedgeofnewlandlaws.
EvenasWesternlandsweresold,granted,andotherwiseconcentratedintohugeprivatelandholdings,anewconceptthatpubliclandsshouldberetainedinpermanentownershipandmanagedforpublicpurposesgraduallyemerged.Itbeganwithatraditionalconceptpublicparksimplementedonagrandscale.In1872Congresssetaside2millionacresinYellowstone"asapublicparkorpleasuringgroundforthebenefitandenjoymentofthepeople."1YosemiteNationalParkfollowedin1890afteralongandacrimoniousfightledbyJohnMuir.
Afterparkscamealessfamiliarconceptpublicforestreserves.In1891theCongress,inresponsetoacceleratingdestructionofWesternforests,authorizedthePresidentto"setapartandreserve,inanyState
orTerritoryhavingpubliclandbearingforests,...anypartofthepubliclandswhollyorinpartcoveredwithtimberorundergrowth,whetherofcommercialvalueornot,aspublicreservations."2AsPresidentsHarrison,Cleveland,andthenTheodoreRooseveltinvokedthislawtocreateanationalforestsystem,Congressbeganbacktracking,butbythetimetheexecutiveauthoritywasrescindedin1907,themodernforestsystemwaslargelyinplace.
Ifonepresidentgaveshapetothepublic-landsystemthatweenjoytoday,itwasTheodoreRoosevelt.InsevenyearsintheWhiteHouse,heexpandedthenationalforestsfourfoldto172millionacres,establishedseventy-twowildliferefugesandeighteennationalmonuments,anewcategoryofpublicreservationsintendedtopreserveareasofscenic,
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scientific,andarchaeologicalinterest.Heinitiatedthefirstmineralandreclamationwithdrawals.Mostimportantlyforthefutureofthepubliclands,itwasT.R.'senthusiasticevangelizingandinstinctiveloveoftheoutdoorsthatonceandforallestablishedtheconceptofpubliclandsasapermanentpartoftheAmericanheritage.
AfterTheodoreRooseveltleftoffice,thedebateoverpublic-landpolicydriftedofftotheshadowycornersofAmericanpolitics.Timber,oil,andminingcompanies,aidedbytheconnivanceorplainindifferenceofpublicofficials,discoveredtheycouldexploitlandswithoutbotheringtoownthem.TheTeapotDomescandalcameandwent,yetintheeasyatmosphereofthe1920s,thepublicseemeduninterestedindemandingmeaningfulreforms.
TheconservationmovementrevivedwiththecomingofFranklinRooseveltandtheNewDeal.Still,atheart,theNewDealersweresocialplannersratherthanenvironmentalists.Tothem,conservationmeantbuildingdamsforfloodcontrol,publicpower,andreclamation;replantingforeststoincreasethetimberharvest;andconservingsoiltoincreaseagriculturalproduction.
TheTennesseeValleyAuthoritybecamethemodelforWesternlands;F.D.R.toldthenationthatTVA"leadslogicallytonationalplanningforacompleteriverwatershedinvolvingmany[States]andthefuturelivesandwelfareofmillions."3TheBureauofReclamationwastheWesternTVA,andduringtheNewDealitgearedupdevelopmentprogramsthatwouldeventuallyrunamok,causingmoreenvironmentaldestructionthananyotherpublic-landsprogram.
IftheNewDealemphasizedtheutilitarianaspectsofconservation,implicitlyexaltinghumansovernatureeverywhereintheWest,itnonethelessclinchedtheideaofnationalownershipofWesternlandsasapermanentpartofthenationalheritage.TheTaylorGrazingActeffectivelyclosedthepublicdomaintohomesteadingandestablished
federalmanagementresponsibilityforthenonforestlandsadministeredbytheBureauofLandManagement.PublicpowerlegislationfurtherstrengthenedtheconceptofpublicownershipofWesternnaturalresources,evenasitcompromisedenvironmentalvalues.
Theconceptofpublicownershipisnowsofirmlyestablishedthatitisnolongerseriouslyinquestion,notwithstandinganoccasionalhorseoperaliketheSagebrushRebellion.AndinseveralWesternstatestheForestServiceand,notably,theBureauofLandManagementhaveundertakeninnovativeland-exchangeprogramstoconsolidateinholdingsandprotectcriticalenvironmentalareas.Fromthispointforward,however,thepublic-landdebatewillshifttothetaskofreconcilingthegrowingconflictsovertheuseofpubliclands.
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JustasthestruggleforpublicownershipbeganonWesternforestlandsinthelastcentury,itwasexcessivetimbercuttinginthiscenturythatignitedthepresentusecontroversy.Congressreactedin1960byenactingtheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldAct,whichformallyintroducedtheconceptof"multipleuse,"stating,"ItisthepolicyofCongressthatthenationalforestsareestablishedandshallbeadministeredforoutdoorrecreation,range,timber,watershed,andwildlifeandfishpurposes."4
Foritstime,multipleusewasaforward-looking,progressiveconceptthatatlastawardedrecreation,wildlifeandwatershedusesofficialparitywithtimbercutting.Theactreflectedtheviewsofmany,includingtheleadershipoftheForestService,thattheagencywasindangerofbecominglittlemorethanagovernment-ownedtimbercompany.
Whateveritsoriginalpromise,multipleuseisaconceptthathasprovenunworkableinpractice.PoliticalpressuretoincreasetimbercutshascausedtheForestServicetocommittodoublingtimberproductionfrompubliclands.Theservicehasacceleratedroad-buildingprograms,increasedclear-cutting,andputvirginold-growthforesttothesaw.Thefederalcourtshavebeenlargelyunwillingtocontrolforestabusebecausethephrase"multipleuse"issovaguethatjudgesseempowerlesstosetprioritiesorotherwiselimitthediscretionoftheForestServiceofficials.Meanwhile,inOregon,theheirsofJohnMuiraretakingprotestandcivildisobediencedirectlyintotheold-growthforests.
Thecontroversypersists;Congress,respondinghalfheartedlytopublicpressure,hasenactedstillmoreplanningstatutes,notablytheNationalForestManagementActof1976(NFMA).Yetwithoutcongressionallysetpriorities,expandedmultiple-useplanninghasresultedinlittlemorethaninterminablehearingsandadministrative
reviews,whichdolittletorestrainanagencydeterminedtoelevatetimbercuttingaboveallothervalues.
Asimilarmultiple-usecontroversyisunfoldingonlandsadministeredbytheBureauofLandManagement.JustastheOrganicActof1960broughtmultipleusetotheForestService,sotheFederalLandPolicyandManagementActof1976(FLPMA)establishedasimilarmandatefortheBureauofLandManagement.however,thebureau,lackingtheprofessionalespritoftheForestService,taintedbypoliticsandincompetenceinuppermanagementandheavilyinfluencedbyminingandlivestockconstituencies,hasbeenevenslowertochange.
Nopublic-landpolicycanbecompletewithoutaccountingforthewatersthatoriginateonandflowthroughthepubliclands,nourishingdiversecommunitiesofplantsandwildlife.Unlikethelandoverwhichitflows,Westernwaterhasnotremainedunderpublicstewardship.
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BeginningwiththeDesertActof1871,CongresscededcontroloverWesternwatertothestates,whichinturnallocatedpublicwaterstosettlersonafirst-come,first-servedbasis.
Giventhescarcityofwateranditsessentialroleindevelopment,itwasperhapsinevitablethatalargeshareofWesternwaterwouldquicklybedivertedintoprivateuseandownership.ButafteryieldingcontrolofWesternwaterinthenineteenthcentury,thefederalgovernmentreenteredthefieldinthetwentiethcenturybymeansofa1902congressionalenactment,theNewlandsAct,whichcreatedtheBureauofReclamation,anda1908courtdecision,Wintersv.UnitedStates,whichestablishedthedoctrineoffederalreservedwaterrights.
Induecourse,theBureauofReclamationbecamethemostformidableofallthefederalagenciesoperatingintheWest.Withamandatetoopendesertlandstosmallfarmersandwithhugebudgetsfinancedbyhydropowerfromfederaldams,thebureauchangedthecourseofwesterndevelopment.Itspracticeshavebeenthemostenvironmentallydestructiveofallthepubliclandagencies,andtothisdaythebureauhasbeenscarcelytouchedbythereformmovementsthathavebegun,howeverslowly,tochangetheForestServiceandtheBureauofLandManagement.
Thereformagendaforwesternlandandwatermuststartbyrecognizingthatmultiple-useplanninghas,forthemostpart,beenafailure.MultipleuseskirtsthecentralrealitythatinthenewurbanizingWest,thereisnolongerenoughspacetoaccommodateeverycompetinguseoneverysectionofthepublicdomain.Commodityproduction,whetheroftimber,minerals,orlivestock,isincreasinglyinfringingonthebroaderpublicvaluesofopenspace,wildlife,wildernessandrecreation.Choiceswillhavetobemade,andthosechoicesaretooimportanttobelefttodistrictlandmanagersimposingtheirownpreferencescamouflagedinthejargonofland-use
planning.
Tosomedegree,theenvironmentallegislationofthelastthirtyyears,notablytheWildernessAct,theEndangeredSpeciesAct,theNationalEnvironmentalProtectionAct,andthevariousclean-airandclean-waterlaws,hasnudgedthefederalagenciestowardadministeringtheirlandsforpublicvalues.Wildernessclassificationrepresentsadecisionforwildernessandwaterandagainstminingandtimbercutting,yetitappliestolessthan5percentofthepubliclands.Andthelistingofathreatenedorendangeredspeciescantriggerstrongmeasuresagainsthabitatdestruction.Yet,aswearelearningintheold-growthcontroversyinthePacificNorthwest,thepresenceofathreatenedorendangeredspeciessuchasthespottedowlisnotanadequatesubstituteforanoutrightpolicyagainstcuttingtheremainingold-growthforests.
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Andthefactremainsthatthevastmajorityofpubliclandsarestilladministeredfreeoftherestraintsimposedbygenericenvironmentallegislation.
Thenextstepintheevolutionofpublicland-usepolicyistoreplacemultiple-usemanagementwithanewconceptdominantpublicusethatgivesprioritytorecreation,wildlifeandwatersheduses.Dominantpublicusewouldbeamandatetoreconsiderdestructiveresourceexploitationthatisofmarginaleconomicimportance.
ManyareasoftheWest,especiallyinthesouthernRockyMountains,producesmallamountsoftimberwhoseharvestwouldnotbeeconomicallyjustifiedwithoutfederalsubsidies.IntheTongassandinOregonandWashingtonthevaluesofold-growthforestfaroutweightheprofitsfromexportingrawlogstoJapan.ThecanyonlandsofsouthernUtah,uniqueintheworld,shouldbeoff-limitstoprospectors.Theintroductionofheap-leachgoldmining,atechniquethatallowson-sitegoldrecoverybyleachingwithsulfuricacid,permitsrecoveryofthemicroscopicamountsofgoldpresentinthelandscapeallovertheWest.Asonemountainledgeafteranotherisblastedapart,crushedupanddrenchedinsulfuricacid,itisnonetoosoontoaskwhytheminingofgoldformonetaryspeculation,ringsandnecklaces,shouldbeallowedeverywhereonthepublicdomain.
ThebattleforWesternwaterreformwillrequirechangesinboththebiglandagenciesandtheBureauofReclamation.TheForestServiceandtheBureauofLandManagementstillretainpowerstoprotectstreamsandotherriparianareasbyassertingfederalrightstoinstreamflows.Federalagenciescanalsoprotectfederalwatersbypetitioningforinstreamflowrightsunderstatelaws;yetwithjustanoccasionalexceptiontheyhavefailedtodoso.
CourtdecisionsandthehostilityoftheReaganandBushadministrationstowaterprotectionhavemadethetaskallthemore
difficult.Conceivably,theCongresscouldstepintothevoidbybothassertingandcreatingreservedrightsforwildernessandotherpubliclands.HamstrungbyoppositionfromWesternsenatorsandrepresentativesandtheindifferenceofmostothers,ithassofarrefusedtodoso.
Nowthatstreamsandriversarevirtuallyexhausted,thirstywaterusersareflockingtothelastwaterholesintheWest,thehugegroundwaterreserveshiddenbeneathremotedesertbasins.Whilegroundwatermaybeoutofsightandoflittledirectusetohumansorbeasts,itdoessupportthemarshes,springs,andintermittentstreamsthatmaintainlifeinariddesertlands.Oncethehydrologicconnectionisbrokenbypumping,thesurfacewaterswilldisappear,alteringdesertecosystemsonanunprecedentedscale.
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ThebigtestoffederalresolvetoprotecttheinterconnectedgroundwaterandsurfacewatersonpubliclandswillprobablyoccurinNevada,wherethecityofLasVegas,assertingrightsunderstatelaw,ispreparingtopumpgroundwaterfromtwentythousandsquaremilesoffederallandintheremotedesertbasinsofeasternNevada.TheprojectthreatensthePahranagatWildlifeRefugeineasternNevada,theAshMeadowsWildlifeRefugeandDevil'sHoleNationalMonumentinwesternNevada,andevenspringwatersemergingacrossthestatelineinDeathValleyNationalMonument.
TheFishandWildlifeService,theNationalParkService,andtheBureauofLandManagementhavefiledprotestsbeforetheNevadaStateWaterEngineer.TheSecretaryoftheInteriorandtheCongresshaveremainedsilent.Ultimately,afederalgroundwater-protectionlawmaybetheonlywaytoavoidarepetitionoftheenvironmentaltragedyofOwensValleyandMonoLakefromrecurringinNevadaandthroughouttheWest.
TheBureauofReclamationpresentsaspecialchallengetopublicwaterreform.Withitscultivatedimageaschampionofthesmallfarmer(althoughitisalongtimeallyofcorporateagriculture)andalongrecordofdeliveringwaterprojectsandpublicpowertoeagerWesternmembersofCongress,thebureauhasneverattractedthepublicscrutinyroutinelyaccordedmostotherfederalagencies.EventhegreatcontroversiesofthepastGlenCanyon,EchoPark,BridgeCanyon,andMarbleCanyonandpresentGlenCanyonagaindonotseemtoslowdownthebureaujuggernaut.
Remarkably,nomemberofCongresshas,atleastinmoderntimes,evercomeupwithacomprehensiveplantoreformthebureau.Fornon-Westerners,pickingaquarrelwithsuchagargantuanbureaucracyisanall-consumingtaskofnointeresttoconstituents.ForaWesterner,takingonthebureauwouldamounttoanassaultonmany
venerableWesterninstitutions,includingthepoliticalpowercentersthathavegrownandintertwinedaroundlocalreclamationprojects.
Inenvironmentalterms,thecasefortakingonandreformingthebureauissimple.GrowingWesterncitiesmusthavemorewater,andtheywilleithergetthatwaterfromagriculture(whichconsumesmorethan80percentofthewaterusedintheWest)ortheywillcontinuetoraidanddestroytheremainingwaterslocatedonthepubliclands.
Meanwhile,thebureauremainslockedinatightembracewiththeapparatchiksofWesternagriculture,whoarededicatedtoprotectingthepoliticalpoweroftheirorganizationsbyblockingwatertransfers,evenwhenindividualfarmersmaywanttheoptionofsellingtheirwater.Thereformtaskistobreakthelinkbetweenthebureauandthe
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agriculturalbureaucraciesandredirectthebureautowardapolicyoffacilitatingmarketwater-transfers.DoingsowillbeaboutaseasyastransitioningtheKremlintoamarketeconomy.
Onereformalternativeistoabolishthebureauandtransferitsriver-managementfunctionstointerstateriver-basincouncilsmodeledontheNorthwestPowerPlanningCouncil.Alessdrasticalternativeistoabolishthebureau'sconstructionbudgetandauthorityfornewprojectstarts,takehydropowerrevenuesfromthebasinaccountsthatfeedbureauprojects,transferthemtothegeneralfund,andenactanewreclamationlawthateliminatesallfederalbarrierstovoluntarymarketwatertransfers.
Evenadecadeago,talkoffundamentalreclamationreformwouldhaveseemedutopian.Nowafour-yeardroughtinCaliforniaisbeginningtoexposetheinstitutionalinadequaciesofthepresentsystem.AsCaliforniamoveseverclosertocrisis,therewillbepressuretorelaxenvironmentalstandardsintheSacramentoRiverdelta,todammorewildriversintheSierraNevada,andtoincreasegroundwaterpumpingintheOwensValleyandMonoLakebasins.NoneofthesealternativeswillbenecessaryinCaliforniaorelsewhereifCongresswillusethedroughtcrisisasaspringboardtoredesignthebureaufromthegroundup.
OnehundredyearsagoCongressauthorizedthefirstforestreserves,puttinganewconceptofperpetualownershipofpubliclandsonthepathtowardpublicacceptanceandsupport.Now,atthestartofthecomingcentury,theAmericanpublicanditsleadersmustaccelerateandcompletethestepofdedicatingpubliclandandpublicwatersunequivocallytothehighestandbestpublicuse.
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ECO-POLITICSANDECONOMICDEVELOPMENT:WEALTH,HOPE,ANDCHOICEArecurringthemeinsciencefictionistheearthlinglostinspaceinhisclunkerspacecraft.AllofasuddenhelandsonthelostplanetofOmega.ItturnsoutthatOmegaisinhabitedbytheseincrediblyintelligentpeopledidyouevernoticehowinsciencefictiontheotherpeoplearealwaysmoreintelligentthanweare?TheearthlingtravelsaroundOmegaforseveralmonthslookingatthings,butfinallyhedecideshewantstogobacktoEarth.SohetellshisOmeganfriend,"Itistimeformetogohome.Itwilltakememanyyearstogetthere,socanwegetstarted?"TheOmegansays,"Oh,itisnotgoingtotakeverylongatall.Itisonly17.5minutestoEarth."Theearthlingsays,"Nowwaitaminute,ourtheoriestellusthatnothingintheuniversecanexceedthespeedoflight."AndtheOmeganlooksattheearthlingandsays,somewhatpatronizingly,"Iknow.Butwehavedifferenttheories."
ThatisthepointofviewIwouldliketoexpress.AttheCenterfortheNewWestwehavedifferenttheoriesaboutthefuturefortheWest,theUnitedStates,andtheworld,andforthecourseofeventsonaglobalscale;eventsthataredrivenbyincreasingwealth,expandingchoicesforpeopleandcommunities,andexpandingchoicesinpolitics.Expandingchoicesinpoliticsiswhatdemocracyisallabout,andexpandingchoicesineconomicsiswhatcapitalismisallabout.Capitalismanddemocracyhavebeenexpressingthemselvesdramaticallyoverthelasttwenty-fiveyearsandinarevolutionarywayinthelastfifteenmonths.Infact,theotherdaywhenIpulledoffmybookshelfRobertHeilbroner'sbookTheFutureAsHistory,writtenaboutthirtyyearsago,IwasstruckbyHeilbroner'sdiscussionofhowcollectivistideologieshadfinallywonout.Itwasinthewake
oftheCubanRevolution,andHeilbronersaidthatcommunalwaysoforganizingsocieties,economies,
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andpoliticalsystemswerethewaveofthefuture.Itisamazinghowwronghewas.
Theotherchange,onaglobalscale,isthehigherstandardofstewardshipthatwearefindingeveryplace:increasingconcernforthefamilyanditsroleinnurturingchildren,andincreasingconcernforcommunitiesnotnation-states,butcommunitiesandtherolestheyplay.Infact,oneofthemostremarkabledevelopmentsofourtimeisthedecentralizationofpowerandauthorityinnation-states,includingFrance,whereCharlemagnewouldturnoverinhisgraveifhecouldseetheextenttowhichcentralpowerhasdecayedinthesocietythatinventedmoderncentralizedgovernment.
AnincreasingsenseofstewardshipalsoexistsabouttheenvironmentnotonlyamongthosewhoclassifythemselvesasGreens.MaybeanotherwaytosayitisthatmoreandmorepeopleconsiderthemselvesGreens.ThreeoutoffourAmericanscallthemselvesenvironmentalists,andfouroutoffivesaytheywouldpayhigherpricestopreserveenvironmentalvalues.
Letmebeginwiththebigpicture.Contrarytopopularview,wethinkthattheworldisontheedgeofamajorglobaleconomicexpansion.WealsobelievetheUnitedStatesiswellpositionedtobenefitfromthisexpansion.Thisisaminoritypointofview,butithasanincreasingnumberofadherents.ThefirstexpressionofthisperspectiveinapopularmediumwasanOctober1989articleinTheAtlanticcalled''TheComingGlobalBoom."ThisarticleexpressedtheviewpointwehaveattheCenterfortheNewWest.Itisalsoaviewpointexpressedbyothers,includingEdGuay,thechiefeconomistatCigna,EdYardine,thechiefeconomistatPruBach,andanumberofothereconomistsandobservers.
Whyisthisgoingtohappen?
Oneofthereasonsisnewtechnology.Theexplosioninnewtechnologiesisincredible.Innovationandeconomicexpansioninthelastdecadewasdrivenbythecomputerandnotjustinthissociety.However,theUnitedStatesisnumberoneincomputers.In1989theUnitedStateshad50percentoftheworld'sinstalledcomputercapacity.Thenext-highestcountrywasJapan,with10percent.Theimpactofcomputershasbeenunprecedented,andaswelookintothenextdecadewewillseeanevengreaterexpansionofpowerinsmallerpackages,andnewlevelsofcapability.
Biotechnologyisanotherareathatwilldriveneweconomicactivity,anareawhereColoradohasagreatinvestmentandagreatdealtooffer.Weareseeingmajornewchangesintransportationtechnology.TheJapanesenowhaveaprototypeofaseagoingcargovesselthatcanreach
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fiftyknots60milesanhourwhichmakesthePacificthesamesizeastheAtlanticmeasuredbytransittime.Thechangesthiswillmakeinhowindustriesrelatetoeachotherwillbeenormous.AboutayearagoIwasinNebraska,andIvisitedtheKawasakiplant.Theyuseajust-in-timeinventorysystemthere,inwhichpartscomeinfromJapanalmostninethousandmilesaway.Theyhaveathree-daywarehousingperiod.Thinkwhatwillhappenasthesehigh-speedshipscomeintoplay.AndthinkwhatthatwillmeanforthewesternpartoftheUnitedStatesasweareabletobemorecloselyintegratedwiththeexpandingmarketsandmodernsocietiesemerginginAsia.
Anotherexampleistelecommunications,whereback-officeoperationstodayarecreatingtremendousopportunities,aswellassomechallenges,forremoteareaslikewefindinmuchoftheWest.Today17percentofCiticorp'sprofitscomesfromSiouxFalls,SouthDakota,whereitlocateditscreditcard-processingandserviceactivities."Telework"andothercommunications-basedactivitieswillmakeitpossibleformorepeopletoworkathomeandontheirowntimeandundertheirownconditions.Wewillhavemorejob-sharingandflextimeonceagain,morechoicesforpeopleandforfamiliesonhowtointegratetheirworklifewiththeirfamilylife,andgreaterpossibilitiesfortechnicalprojectsthataretelecommunication-based,suchastrafficmanagement.Highwayengineerswanttolaymoreconcrete.Theywanttobuildmorelightrail,theywanttodomoreofthethingstheyhavedoneinthepast.Butnewtechnologiesoffernewapproaches.LookatLosAngeles.DuringtheOlympicsin1984,everyonepredictedthecitywouldcometoagrindinghalt.Itdidn't.OntheSanDiegoFreeway,theaveragespeedactuallyincreasedabout25percentduringtheOlympics.Why?Becausetherewasaconcertedefforttousemoderntelecommunicationsandinformationtechnologytomakefulluseofthetremendoussurfacecapacitythatexistsinthatcitytomovepeoplearoundincars.Thiswasaprimitiveapplicationofwhat
wenowcall"smartcars"and"smarthighways,''andwearegoingtoseechallengesfromthesenewtechnologiestothosewhowanttolaymoreconcreteonourcitiesandteardownneighborhoodsanddividecommunitieswithrailroadtracks.
Wehaveamajorglobalexpansioncomingbecauseofnewmarkets.InEurope,wehavetwelvenationswithagrossnationalproductof$4.3trillionandapopulationof325million.Theelevenfree-marketnationsoftheAsia-PacificregionincludingtheUnitedStatesandCanada(remember,theUnitedStatesisalsoaPacificnation,notjustanAtlanticnation),Japan,SouthKorea,thePhilippines,Thailand,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Australia,andNewZealandrepresent800millionpeople,asopposedto325millioninEurope.TheseAsian-
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Pacificcountrieshaveagrossnationalproductof$3.4trillion(notcountingtheUnitedStates),asopposedto$4.3trillioninEurope.ButtheAsian-Pacificeconomiesaregrowingattherateof$3billionaweeknotamonthorayear,butaweek.Thegrowthinthatareaisenormous,andthatisanotherreasontherewillbeamajorglobalexpansion.
Thentherearethechangesindemography.Everybodytalksabouttheaging"boomer"generationinthiscountrythatbaby-boompigmovingthroughthedemographicsnake.Itisahugebulge,anunprecedenteddiscontinuityinpopulation.Inthiscountryitrepresentsmorethan78millionpeoplemorethanone-thirdoftheU.S.population.Thebaby-boomphenomenonalsoexistsinalmosteveryotherindustrializedcountry.Butthebaby-boomersinthiscountryarefromtwenty-fourtoforty-fiveyearsold,whileinJapantheyareabouttenyearsolder,becausethebabyboomstartedthereinthemid-1930s.Furthermore,theJapanesehavemandatoryretirementatfifty-five.Sobaby-boomersinJapanarenowretiring,whileinthiscountrymostofourbaby-boomersarebetweentwenty-eightandthirty-five.Thereinisanoteworthypoint.MostoftheUnitedStales'boomersareintheirhigh-consumptionandlowwage-earningyears.Thosearetheyearswhenyoubuyyourfirsthouse,yourFirstcar,yourfirsttelevision,yourfirstradio,andyourfirstbassinet.SoitisnowonderthatwehavealowsavingsrateintheUnitedStates.Butthoseofuswhoseethatweareontheedgeofamajorglobalboomwillargue,asEdYardineargues,thatwearegoingtoseeahugeincreaseintheUnitedStates'savingsrateoverthenextsixyearsashighas8to10percentby1996.Savingsratesatthislevelwouldgeneratesavingssurplusesashighas$500billionperyear.IfwecangetthebudgetdeficitundercontrolsothatmoneyisnotsuckedupbyaprofligateCongressandafederalgovernmentthatisoutoftouchwithgrassrootsconcernsandpriorities,thenwearegoingtoseeinterestratesgodownandthe
UnitedStates'emergenceasthemajorexporterofcapitalforacapital-hungryworld.
Afourthfactordrivingglobalexpansionistheworldwideenvironmentalcleanup.Wehaveseriousenvironmentalproblemsinthiscountryair,water,nuclear-wastedisposalofwhichweareallaware.ButnobodycanspendanytimeinEasternEuropeorinAsia,asIhaveduringthelastyear,andnotbestunnedbythescopeandmagnitudeandinsomecasesthetragedyofenvironmentalpollutionthatexistsinthosecountries.InTaiwan,SouthKorea,Thailand,andeveninJapantheproblemsinthosecountriesaremuchworsethantheyarehere,yettheyarenothingcomparedtotheenvironmentaltragediesthatareimminentinEasternEurope,notinthenextcentury,butinthenext
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severalyears,ifdrasticactionisnottaken.IntheEasternEuropeancountriesinPoland,Czechoslovakia,EastGermany,andBulgariawearefindingoneseriousproblemafteranother.Notonlydocommunist-commandeconomiesfailtoincreasewealthandexpandchoicesforpeople,commandeconomiesalsodestroytheenvironmentinwaysthatcapitalismneverhas.Forexample,Polandmaynothavepotablewaterbytheendofthisdecadeunlessextremeremedialactionsaretakeninthenextthreetofiveyears.
Soaswelookoutoverthenextdecade,weseeamajorexpansioninglobaleconomicactivityalongwithamajorshiftinpoliticalandsocialactivityfromcentralizedforumstoincreasinglydecentralizedforums.TheUnitedStatesisinthecatbird'sseattobenefitfromthesechangesandtoprovideleadership.Butwecan'tmakemistakes.Wehavegottobeattentivetohowwedevelopourresponses.
Now,let'sbringthisbacktoColorado.Forthelast140orsoyears,developmentsinColoradohavebeendrivenbymanydifferenteconomicforces,asdetailedinareportlastyearbyDeanCoddington.From1859toabout1900miningwasthedrivingforce.From1901to1940agriculturewasthedrivingforce.From1941to1963theColoradoeconomywasshapedbythegrowthofthefederalgovernmentandespeciallybythedefenseindustry.Then,contrarytoconventionalwisdom,from1964to1973(theyearthefirstenergyboombegan)Coloradoachievedaverydiversifiedeconomy.IBMmovedin,alongwithHewlett-Packard,Kodak,Manville,WesternElectricmanyofwhatnowconstitutethehigh-technologyindustriesontheFrontRangeoftheRockiescameduringthatperiod.Sowhentheenergyboomcamein1973,itreallymaskedalotofsolid,diversifiedandlargelyhealthyeconomicactivitythathadalreadytakenrootinthisarea.Buteventheenergyboomitself,from1974to1983,wasamisnomer,becausetherewerefourorfiveotherthingsgoingonsimultaneously.Inadditiontoanenergyboom,therewasa
miningboomincoalandmolybdenum.Therewasarealestateboominducedbymisguidedfederaltaxpolicies.Therewasatourismboom;forexample,theskierdaysdoubledduringthatperiod.Therewasaregionalair-transportationboomasDenverbecameamajornationalhubinthewakeofairlinederegulationin1978.Therewasabusiness-servicesboomaslegal,accounting,andotherprofessionalfirmssettledinDenverandthemetropolitanareatoprovideservicesthroughouttheRockyMountainregion.Since1984wehaveexperiencedanimportanteconomicrestructuring.Foremost,theminingindustryistransformingfromacaterpillartoabutterflyrightbeforeoureyes.Todaytheminingindustryisoneofthemostimportantindustriesinthestate,notbecauseitisdiggingthingsoutoftheground
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ontheWesternSlope,butbecauseofthebrainpowerandknow-howthatexistontheFrontRange.ThefutureoftheminingindustryinthisstateisnotprimarilyinwesternColorado;itisonSeventeenthStreet,andattheColoradoSchoolofMines.Anditisnotjustinmining;itisalsointunnelingandotherapplicationsofgeotechnologythatareinincreasingdemandtoday.
EnvironmentalmanagementisanothermanifestationofeconomicrestructuringinColoradotoday.ColoradoandtheUnitedStateshavebeenleadersinthreeimportantareasinenvironmentalmanagement.Thefirstisinnovativelegislation,especiallyinthelastseveralyears,tohelpachieveacleanerandgreenerenvironment.Thesecondisnewtechnologiesofenvironmentalcleanupandenvironmentalpreservationforexample,newwaystogetwateroutofthegroundandpreservewhatisthereinamoreeffectiveway.Andthird,thiscountryandthisstatehavebeenleadersinthepolicysciencesindevelopingmarket-orientedsolutionstoenvironmentalproblems.
InColoradowefaceoneofthebiggestchallengesofthenextdecade,andthatisbalancedgrowthandeconomicdevelopmentoftheColoradoPlateau.TheColoradoPlateauisa132,000-square-milearea.Itisnotanissueonthefrontpages.Itneverhasbeen.Butitisoneofthemostimportantareasonthefaceoftheglobe.This132,000-square-mileareahasninenationalparks,twonationalrecreationareas,twelvenationalmonuments,twenty-sixnationalwildernessareas,eighteennationalforests,andfivenationallandmarks.Itcoverstwo-thirdsofColorado,almostone-halfofUtah,thenorthernportionsofNewMexicodowntoSantaFe,andnorthernArizona,includingtheGrandCanyon.
IfyouaskedforeignerswheretheymostwanttocomeintheUnitedStates,Disneylandisalmostalwaysfirst.Butofthenextnineontheirtoptenlist,sixorseven,dependingonwhetheryouaretalkingto
AsiansorEuropeans,willbeintheColoradoPlateau.TheywillbetheGrandCanyon,CanyonlandsNationalPark,Aspen,DinosaurNationalMonument,andothermajortouristdestinationsintheColoradoPlateau.ButthatColoradoPlateaucanbedestroyedbypiecemealdevelopment.Itisbeingdestroyedtodaybypiecemealdevelopment.Intheminingindustryitisverywellknownthatyoucandestroyanorebodybythewayyoumineit.Thatwhichistrueofanaturalresourceistrueofatourismresource.Atourismresourcecanbedestroyedbythewayitisdeveloped.Forthisreasonweneedtomovewithdispatchtoputinplaceacomprehensive,multijurisdictional,public-privatebusinessplantodevelopthisarea.Itneedstobeaprocessthatinvolvesenvironmentalists,politicalleaders,communityandcivicorganizations,includingNative
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Americansalongwiththefederalgovernment.Weneedtoavoidaprocessdominatedbybigbusinessandbiggovernmentmakingallthedecisionsinwaysthathaven'tworkedverywell.
Ifweexaminethepostwarperiod,wecanidentifythreeimportantwavesofeconomicdevelopment.InthefirstwaveafterWorldWarII,therewasanurgetodevelopatanycost.Therewasarape,scrape,andrunmentality.Communitiescompetedtoattractoutsideindustry.That'swhatwecalla"hunting"strategy.
Butinthe1980sthatbegantochange.Webegantomovetoa"gardening"strategytobuildonourstrengths,sticktoourknitting,addingvaluetoexistingactivities.Webegantorealizethatinboththeprivateandpublicsectorswehadtonurtureandcultivatewhatwehad;wecouldn'tdestroywhatweweregiven.Wecouldn'tfoulthenestintheprocessofdevelopingnewchoicesforpeopleandcommunities.
Ifincreasingwealthandexpandingchoices,notsimplygrowth,arethegoalsthatdriveeconomicdevelopment,andarethemajorpurposesofapoliticalculture,theyhavetobeachievedinawaythatpreservesenvironmentalandothervalues,becauseamenitiesareanincreasinglyimportantpartofwhatpeopleareseeking.Inthe1980sthegardeningthatwasdonewasmonopolygardening.Usually,largegovernmentalinstitutionsbutsometimesprivateinstitutionsbecamemonopolysuppliersofwhatmadethegardenwork:monopolysuppliersofeducation,monopolysuppliersoftechnology,andmonopolysuppliersofjobtraining,capitalandotherresources.Peopleareincreasinglyturningtheirbacksonthatkindofapproach.
Itisinterestingtolookateducation.NoonewouldarguethatpostsecondaryeducationintheUnitedStates,evenwithallofitsproblems,istheworld'sbest,mostproductive,andmosteffectivesystemofhighereducation.Nearlyeveryoneagreeswiththat.
WhetheryoutalktotheJapaneseortheBritishortheFrench,almostanyoneitisprettyeasytogetaconsensusonthatpointofview.Butourkindergartenthroughtwelfthgradesystemranksverylowbyalmosteveryone'sestimateandbyalmostanymeasureofperformance.ThinkofthedifferencebetweenhighereducationandK-12intheUnitedStates.InK-12youhavetogototheschooltowhichyouareassigned.Thereisnochoice.Inhighereducationyoushopthreeorfourschools.InK-12youtaketheteacherwhohasbeencertifiedbythecertificationprocess.Inhighereducationyouareexposedtoallkindsofpeople.SomehavePh.D.'s.Somedon't.Somehavebeenineducationalltheirlives.Otherspopinandout.AvarietyofpeoplewithavarietyofexperiencesandbackgroundsareclassroomteachersinU.S.highereducation.Consumersaredeeplyinvolvedinhighereducation,thepeoplewhopaythe
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tuition:theparentsandthestudents.InK-12theconsumerisalmostneverinvolved.LookatFortunemagazine'seducationreformmeetingsthathavebeengoingonforthepastthreeyears.Irecentlyreviewedthelistofparticipantsinthelatestmeeting.Therearealargenumberofbusinesspeopleandschooladministrators,buttherearefewteachers,parents,orstudents.Theschoolboardsaren'tevenonthemap.HowcanwereformU.S.educationiftheprimaryconsumersarenotatthetableandifthemainpubliclyaccountableinstitutionformakingschoolpolicyisleftoutoftheloop?
Monopolygardeningasawayoftryingtomakethenestabetterandmoreprosperousplacewithmorechoicesforeveryoneisslowlygivingwaytoincentivegardening.Wearenowmovingtoanewphaseinwhichwearetryingtoprovidecompetitionandincentivesinfieldssuchaseducationandtechnologyandcapitalandenvironment.
Todaywehavenewclean-airlegislation.Inthe"olddays"in1977,theCleanAirActmandatedthe"bestavailablecontroltechnology"forutilities.Todaywearetalkingabouthavingemission-reductioncredits,wherebyareaswillbeallocatedacertainlevelofemissionsandpolluterstherecandecideamongthemselveshowthosecreditswillbeapportioned.If,forexample,thepeopleorutilitiesundertakecertainkindsofemission-reductionsteps,theycanearncreditsandsellthosecreditstosomeoneelsewhodoesn'twanttoorfeelsitisinefficienttotakethosekindsofsteps.
Inthiscountry,rightafterWorldWarIIandintheearly1950s,webuiltalotofutilities.Theyhavetwenty-fivetothirty-five-yearlifespans.Manywillbedecommissionedinthemid-1990s.Weshouldhavechoicesaboutwhetherweinstallveryexpensiveemissioncontrolsorletthosemanagingagingpowerplantsbuyemissioncredits.Thatisthesmartwaytoregulatetheenvironment.Thatisthesmartwaytogetthekindofperformanceandimprovementsthatwe
need.
Thenthereisnuclear-wastemanagement.InRockyFlats,rightoutsideDenver,wehaveaprimeexampleofwhathappenswhenyouhavemonopolygardening.RockyFlatsshowswhatamonopolysupplier,thefederalgovernment,willdowhenitisbothabrokerandadoer,whenitisbothinthebusinessoftakingcareofnuclearwasteontheonehand,andofenforcingstandardsontheother.AtRockyFlatsthefederalgovernment"enforced"standardsbyexemptingitselffromnearlyeverysingleimportantsafetyandhealthmeasure.
Thelessonsofthepastseveralyearsandthenewdirectionsthatwearetakingsuggestthatenvironmentalpolicycanandshouldworkthroughmarketforces,thatthemarketcanfunctionveryeffectivelytoallocateenvironmentalvalues,thatthemarketcanreconcilethe
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IndustrialRevolutionwiththeGreenRevolution,andthatleadersofbusinessandgovernmentcanbringgrassrootsorganizationstothetablebecauseitisatthegrassrootslevelthattheimpactisthegreatest.
Aswegoforward,wecan'tletthedinosaurinstitutionscalltheshots.Thefederalgovernment,thepoliticalactioncommittees,biglabor,bigbusinessthesearetheinstitutionsthathavegotuswherewearetoday.Wehavetobroadenthebase.Wehavetochangethewayweinterveneintheenvironment.Wemustdoawaywiththemonopolysuppliersandtheregulationandmicro-managementofactivitiesbyfar-offcentralauthorities.Wemustmovetowardusinggovernmenttospecifystandardsandresultsandleaveittoinnovativeindividualsandinstitutionstoachievethoseresults.Wheretheyfail,weneedtochangeourapproachandtheincentivesweuseinordertogettheresultsthatareneeded.
Inaddition,wemustassignmoreresponsibilitytoindividuals.Todayindividualsdon'thavemuchresponsibilitytoreduceenvironmentalpollutionnotforautopollution,notfordisposablediapers,notforthewastetheyputoutinfrontoftheirhomes.Weneedtochargepeoplefortheirwastebythevolumetheyputinfrontoftheirhomes.WeneedtochargepeoplewhowanttodriveaMercedesdiesel.Weneedtolookhardathowwebringtheindividualandtheindividual'sresponsibilitiesintothesematters.Ourfutureisonethatpromisestremendouseconomicexpansionandnewprosperitythatismorewidelyshared.Itisafuturethatneedstobeandwillbeconstrainedbyenvironmentalconsiderations.Thoseconstraintsshouldbemarket-driven.Wehavetheknowledgetodothat.Weneedtohavethecouragetoreject"politicallycorrect"regulatoryapproachesandsubstitutemarketapproaches.Why?Becausetheywork.
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THEAMERICANWEST:WHATIDEASSHOULDDETERMINEITSFUTURE?EdwinH.Marston
WhatideasshoulddeterminethefutureoftheAmericanWest?Beforeattemptingananswer,Ihaveconfessionstomake.First,myideaswillbenotbethekindonecanenumerateandlistinorderofimportance.TheyareobservationsonthenatureofruralWesternsocietyandconclusionsdrawnfromthoseobservations.Second,theseideascomefromanewcomerintheruralWest.Ihavelivedhereonlysince1974apartofawinter,tousewriterGeorgeSibley'sphrase.
Inaddition,IdonotengageinworkusuallyassociatedwiththeWest.Ihadonlybeeninwhatisnowmyhometownforaweekortwobackin1974whenarancherknockedatmydoor.Hehadcometoloaduplogsleftforhimbymynext-doorneighbor,alogger,andheneededahand.Iwaspleasedtobethehand,pleasedtobehelpingarealrancherandrealloggersosoonafterarrivingintheWest.WeworkedforthirtyminutesputtingthenewlycutlogsIdidn'tknowwhatkindoftreestheycamefrom,andwouldn'tknowtodayintoalongstocktrailer.Bythetimetheheavygreenlogswereloaded,Iwasbarelywalking.Therancher,whowasaboutmyageandsize,lookedasifhehadspentthelastthirtyminutesdrinkingcoffee.Icouldn'tclaimaltitudeorlackofcondition.Ihadspentthesummeratourmountaincabin,thestructurethathaddrawnuswest,choppingwoodandclimbingmountains.Iwasinthebestshapeofmylife.Inadditiontopayingmetendollars,thatranchertaughtmethatIcouldn'tearnalivingintheWestasahand.
Iwas,ofcourse,statisticallysafefromsuchafate.TheWestisassociatedwithcattleroundupsandthefellingoftrees,butmost
Westernersworkasrealestateandinsurancesalesmen,teachersandhardware-storeclerks.Weturn"Western"onlyonweekends,whenwe
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climbinto,notonto,ourBroncosandcreatenewroadsandnewverbsbyfour-wheelingintothebackcountry.
WeBetsyMarstonandmyselfobeyedthestatistics.Insteadoffellingorloadingtrees,wechoseatypicallyWesternwaytoearnaliving:wesoldadvertising.Toputitmoreromantically,wefoundedandthenranforsixyearsahometownweeklyservingthe2,600householdsinandaroundthetownsofPaonia,Hotchkiss,andCrawford.BetsyandIaformertelevisionproducerandaformercollegeprofessorfromNewYorkwereprovokedtostartanewspaperbyamischievous$4,000loanfromaboredcountrybanker,andbyourvisceralreactiontotheexistingnewspaper,whichdeclaredfromeverypage:"StopGunControl!It'salmosttoolate!!"Whenithadanewshole,whichwaseveryweek,itpluggeditwiththeJohnBirchSocietyLibertyLogandotherfar-righthandouts.Thinkinggloballyandactinglocally,thepublisheralsoinveighedagainstthe"hippies"formerurbaniteslikeourselveswhoweresettlingandunsettlingthesociallyconservativeNorthForkValley.Thevalley'sownchildrenroutinelyleftafterhighschool,andthetownfolksweren'tkeenontheyoungnewcomerswhowerereplacingtheirchildren.
Inretrospect,Icanseethatwemusthavebeenafigmentofthatpublisher'sworstnightmare:left-wingNewYorkerscometoinvadehissurvivalistretreat.Heandhisgun-nutfriendswerealsoex-urbanites,butfromadifferentbackgroundthanus"hippies."ThesurvivalistshadretreatedtosmallWesterntownstoawaitwhattheysawastheinevitablecollapseofurbansociety.Whenthestarvingurbanhordescamefleeingfromtheburningcities,thesurvivalistsweregoingtoloadtheirrifles,climbintotheirBroncosandheadtherefugeesoffatthepasses.(Thetrendcontinuestodaywiththefar-rightgroupssettlinginnorthernIdaho.)
Thepublisherwasreadyforthepanickedurbanexodusbuthehadn't
expectedaneconomicinvasionusingthetoolsoffreeenterprise.Worstofall,fromhisperspective,wasthefactthattheresidentsoftheNorthForkValleyweremoreinterestedinsubscribingtoanewspaperthatprovidednewsthantheywereinhisviewsonguncontrol.We,Icanseenow,werealmostasdoctrinaireashewas,butwewrotebetterandwedidreporting.
Sowethrived,andhefoundanewwaytoearnaliving.ForsixyearsIlearnedaboutthelightlypopulatedwesternhalfofColoradofromthegroundup:towncouncilmeetings,schoolboardmeetings,ditchcompanymeetings,countyfairs,JeeppokerrunsandslideshowsattheJehovah'sWitnesses'KingdomHall.'heslideshow,especially,wasa
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revelation.ItrevealedamovementIthoughthaddiedwiththeScopestrial.Theargumentagainstevolutionwasonehundredcolorslidesofbirds,flowers,loverswalkinghandinhand.Eachslidewasfollowedbythequestion:Couldthisbeautyhavecomeaboutbyaccident?NooneinthatKingdomHall,includingmyself,suggestedthatitcouldhave.
SosomeofmyWesterneducationcamefromcoveringnewseventsandsellingadvertising.Butmorecamethroughourchildren.Iwasamazedatandgratifiedbythecloseattentiontheschoolsandcommunitypaidtokids.AtypicaleventhappenedattheheightoftheHuntbrotherssilverboom,whenarollofsilverquarterswasworth$70.Igotacallatthenewspaperofficefromthewomanwhoranthegameroomdownthestreet.(Inatownof1,400,everythingisdownthestreet.)Myeight-yearoldwastherewitharollofsilverquartersI'daccumulated.Hewasusingthemtoplayvideogames.Ididn'tknowthiswomanIstillhavenotlearnedtorecognizeeveryoneIshouldortoengageintheruralpastimeofwavingatpeoplewhodrivepastmeonthehighway.Butthewomanknewmykidandme,andIwentdownandrecoveredthequarters.
Theattentionhaditsdrawbacks.Someparentsfeltfreetorebukeusformissingaschoolevent."Oh,youshouldhaveseenhowwellyourdaughterdidatthebandcompetition.Butwegaveherabighand."The"we"werethegoodparentstakinguptheslackleftbypeoplewhowouldn'tdropworktowatchtheirkidplayaSouzamarchwithfiftyotherkids.NotthatIacceptedthe"badparent"statusIsimplyhadotherstandards.Iwasamazedatthelackofemphasisoneducation.Startingwiththefourthgrade,ourchildrenwouldaskwhytheyshouldtrytodowellontheIowaBasicstest.Oursontoldus:"Theotherkidssaythetestdoesn'tmatter.Theysaythey'regoingintothemineswhenthey'reeighteenandmakemoremoneythantheprincipal.''Whentheyreachedhighschool,ourboytoldushisbiology
classhadputevolutiontoavote.Byalargemajority,theclassvotedforcreationism;themajorityincludedthebiologyteacher.
Eventslikethissentmanyurbanparentsintoflightfromtraditionalsmalltowns.Wedidn'tmove.Webelievedwecouldsupplementourchildren'seducationatthesuppertable.Butwhatcouldwedoabouttheotherchildren,andthereforeaboutthefutureofthevalley?Onedoesn'tpublishacommunityweeklyforthemoneyortheprestige.Weweredoingitforideologicalreasons,justasourcompetitorhad.Thepaperwasourinstrumentofchange,awaytopushsocial,economic,andphysicalevolution.TheNorthForkValleywasawonderfulplace.Wewantedtomakeitmorewonderfulmorelikethecitywehadleft,butwithoutthebadaspectsofurbanlife.IunderstandnowthatIsaw
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theplaceinone-dimensionalterms,stillwithinmyNewYorkexperience.Theschoolswereproducingyoungsterswhowereledtoseehighschoolasanendratherthanaspreparationforalargerfuture.Highschoolwasoftenseenasthehighpointoflife,aplacewhereherostatuscouldbeearnedonthefootballfieldorwrestlingmat.IwantedtoseetheruralschoolsimbuedwithurbanvaluesbothforthesakeofmychildrenandforwhatIassumedwerethebestinterestsofthetown.
Theschoolsreflectedtheprioritiesofthecommunitiesasawhole.IwasstruckbythequicknesswithwhichtraditionalsmallWesterntowns,includingmyown,wouldputtheircommunityandlandscapeandclearairatriskinordertohostamine,mill,orpowerplant.Theissueofeducationwasanundercurrentinournewspaper.Wepushedourvaluesbypublicizingacademicachievers,thelocalschools'rankingsonnationaltests,andalumniwhohadsucceededintheoutsideworld.Bycomparison,theissueofcoaldevelopmentwasapitchedbattle,withusnewcomersgenerallyliningupinoppositiontonewmines.OnlygraduallydidIcometoseetherelationshipbetweeneducationandthehungerformineormilljobs.Thosemineandmilljobspaywell,arelocal,andrequirelittleformaltraining.ThekidswhohadignoredtheIowaBasictestscouldindeedcomeoutofhighschool,withorwithoutadiploma,andstartearning$30,000ayear.Thestatementmadesooftenatpublichearings"Weneedtheminingjobsforourchildren"wasunanswerablesolongastheschoolsremainedwhattheywere.
Ishouldsayoneotherthingaspartoflayingmyoutsidercardsonthetable.WhenIrealizedafewyearsagothatIhadlivedinthesamesmalltownforadecadeandhadnothoughtofleaving,Ibegantoworryaboutwhowouldburymeinacommunityoftwentyfundamentalistchurches.NowIonlyworrythatnothingwillhappentoforcemetoleavetheruralWest.
Theconcludingserviceisstillaconcern,butitisaconcernsubmergedbymyinabilitytoimaginebeingafreepersonanywhereelseinAmerica.TheruralWestallowsmetobefreebothphysically,becauseofthevastspaceandthescarcityofpeople,andmentally.Thesenseofphysicalfreedomiseasytoexplain.Thesenseofmentalfreedomismoredifficult.Itismadeup,forme,offreedomfromthesocial,economicandintellectuallockstepIassociatewithurbanareas:theirhighdegreeoforganization,theirintenseeconomicdemands,andthelargeamountoftimegivenovertosuchchoresascommutingandshopping.
IbelievethelatestwaveofimmigrantstosettleintheWest'ssmalltownsareinsearchofthesamefreedomearliersettlerssought.IhaveatheoryaboutwesternColorado,basedonnothingmorethanmyreadingofobituariesofold-timers.MyguessisthatwesternColoradowassettled
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bypeoplefleeingtheearlytwentieth-centuryindustrializationoftheAppalachianhillcountry,andthattheancestorsofthosepeoplehad,intheirturn,fledAdamSmith'sEurope.WesternColorado,Iamconvinced,ispopulatedinpartbypeoplewhohaveneverbeensubjecttothetimeclockortothatotheryoke,thenecktie.Acityperson'sattractiontotheRockyMountainWestismuchlikeamale'sattractiontothewomanheeventuallymarries.Iwascapturedbysnowcappedmountainsandhigh,coldlakes.Butafterseveralyearshadpassed,Iwasheldbythesenseofcommunity,despitemyoutsiderstatus,andbythemoresubtlebeautyofthearidlandbelowthemountains.
Inthesameway,aftersixyearsofpublishingthehometownweekly,andnowfiveyearsofpublishingtheregionalHighCountryNews,IamonlybeginningtogetsomefeelforthelargerWest.InthefirstfewyearsofdoingHighCountryNews,themapIcarriedinmyheadwasofnationalforestsandBureauofLandManagementdomains.Laidoverthesepoliticalboundarieswereissuesstripmining,wilderness,endangeredspeciesandthecourts,agencies,andlocalandnationalenvironmentalgroupsthatconcernedthemselveswiththoseissues.Thencameasenseofthevast,emptynatureoftheWest.Thelandthepaperpretendstocoverincludestheruralpartsoftenstates.IfyouexcludethethreecitiesSaltLake,Denver,andPhoenix-TucsononlyafewmillionpeopleliveontheonemillionsquaremilesthatstretchfromtheIdaho-Montana-NorthDakotaborderwithCanadatotheArizona-NewMexico-TexasborderwithMexico.
Foronehundredyears,thefoundationofthisregion'seconomyhasbeenfarmingandranching,mining,milling,anddrilling,andaspecial,lucrativerelationshipwiththefederalgovernment,whichhasbuiltdams,nuclear-bombfactories,militaryinstallations,powerplants,andthelike.Itistruethattheregionhasmoresalesmenandhardwareclerksthanranchersorminers,butitisthelatterwhoshapetheplace.AwayoflifeIcallitanextractiveculturehasgrownupin
stepwiththeextractiveandagriculturaleconomies.WecollidedwiththatwayoflifewhenwetriedtosettleintheruralWest.Thatextractivecultureis,amongotherthings,familycentered,religiousinafundamentalistsense,andanchoredintheregion'ssmalltowns.Itischaracterizedbyitsrecreationhunting,snowmobiling,jeeping;byitsdisinterestinorxenophobiatowardtheoutsideworld;byitsfriendliness;andbyitsprideinthebeautyoftheplace.
Toareligious,family-centeredcommunity,formaleducationcanappearathreat.Thechildwhobecomesinterestedinmathematicsorliteraturewillinevitablyleavethecommunityandprobablytheregion.Thegeographicseparationwillbeaggravatedbythedifferentvalues
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thataccompanyhighereducation,ahomeinanurbanarea,andaspousewhoprobablygrewupinasuburb.ItisnotonlyHispanicsandNativeAmericanswhoworryaboutlosingchildrentothelargerAmerica.Manysmall-townAnglofamilieshavethesamefear.Theschoolsthatseemedtometoforeclosealargerfuturecanalsobeseenasensuringthatthetown'schildrenwillwanttoremainathomeandadheretothefamily'sandcommunity'sways.
Theschoolsillustratetheworkingsofaremarkablystablewayoflife,onebasedeconomicallyontheextractionofnaturalresourcesandculturallyonthereligious,recreationalandsocialarrangementsI'vedescribed.Icouldhavemadethesamepointsusingpoliticsratherthaneducation.TheWest'sarmyoftwentyU.S.senatorshasmaintainedthenineteenth-centurylawsthatguaranteecheap,freeorsubsidizedaccesstopubliclandandwaterforminers,loggersandranchers.
Thattremendouspoliticalpower6percentofthenation'spopulationcontrolling20percentoftheSenatecouldhavebeenusedinmanyways.Instead,ithasbeenusedalmostexclusivelytodefendtheextractiveculturebypreservingtheextractiveeconomy,justastheSouth'ssenatorsforsolongdefendedthatregion'sracialarrangements,andtherebyforeclosedotheropportunities.TheWesternsenatorsaretheprimarydefendersofwhatCharlesWilkinsoncallstheLordsofYesterday.
InadditiontostealingfromCharles,IhavealsoappropriatedhistorianFrederickJacksonTurner'smetaphorontheclosingoftheWesternfrontier.Turner,followingtheU.S.BureauoftheCensus,saidtheWesternfrontierclosedin1890.Turner'sfrontierwasphysical;Isaythatthefrontierthatclosedwasasocialandeconomicone.Itakethe1890sasthedecade,moreorless,inwhichthesmall-townWesternwayoflifebasedonextractionwasestablished.Itlimitedwhocould
liveintheruralWest,itdeterminedtheaspirationsoftheschoolsandothercommunitybodies,itselectedthekindsofchurchesthatcouldattractparishioners,anditdeterminedthecandidateswhocouldsuccessfullyrunforpublicoffice.
Thecontinuedexistenceofthisstrongculture,onehundredyearslater,isdemonstratedbytheexistenceofitsalteregotownssuchasAspen,Telluride,SantaFe,Jackson,etal.WhywouldpeoplesettleintheseveryexpensiveplacesiftheycouldliveinhundredsofequallyscenicruralWesterntowns,mostofthemwithhigherphysicalqualitiesoflife.Why,totakeaColoradoexample,isrealestateintheskitownofCrestedButteahotsellerwhilelandandhomesinthenearbycollegetownofGunnisonlanguish?
Theanswerisculture.Urbanpeopleinstinctivelyshyawayfrom
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thetraditionalcommunitiesandtowardtheskiandresorttowns.ItiseasiesttoseeinUtah,whereaParkCityisagentileislandinaMormonsea.Butitistrueeverywhere.Duringtheenergyandmineralsboomofthe1970sandearly1980s,thewivesofcorporateexecutivesnewtotheregioncomplainedofthe"lackofshopping."Iamsuretheymissedlargeshoppingmalls.But"lackofshopping"wasalsoacodefortheirdissatisfactionwithtraditionalcommunities'schools,thelackofplanningandzoning(whichmeantalackofprotectionforinvestedmoney),andthelackofsuchsocialmechanismsascountryclubs.ItistheselacksperhapsaccompaniedbytheveryhighrateofviolentdeaththatafflictsyoungAnglomalesintheWest'ssmalltownsthatcreatedabarrierbetweentheruralWestandthelargerAmerica.Itwasasifthesmalltownsexudedaninvisiblechemicalthatkepturbanitesoutdespitethebeauty,thefriendliness,thelowrealestateprices,andthehighqualityoflife.
Thedominanceofextractionandtheextractivewayoflifeperseveredintotheearly1980s.Thenahuge,pervasivebustoccurred.Minesclosed,power-plantprojectswerecanceled,millsshutdown,andthepricesoflandandwaterplummeted.Therewasanoutflowofpeoplefromtheregion.Wholesectionsofsmalltownsemptied,schoolslostone-thirdoftheirstudents,churcheslostchunksoftheircongregations,ambitiouspublicadministratorsschoolsuperintendents,hospitaldirectors,townmanagerswentlookingforyeastierplaces.Thebustisinterestingforthehavocandlossesitcaused,andforitsrevelationofjusthowwrongtheExxonsandAmaxesoftheworldcanbe.Butmostinterestingisthisquestion:Whydidapoliticallystrongregion(rememberthetwentyU.S.senators)openitselfuptotheinevitabledevastationofthebust?Onedidn'thavetobeaseerinthe1970storecognizethatbustwouldfollowboom.FormerColoradoGovernorRichardLammisbestknownforhispropheticwarnings,butalmostalloftheWest'sgovernorssawthatabustwasinevitable.
Thereareexamplesofcommunitiesandstatesthatprotectedthemselvesagainsttheboom.Meeker,Colorado,didwhatitcouldtodampdowntheeffectsoftheoil-shaleboom.Utah,despitetheneedforjobscreatedbyanastronomicalbirthrate,saidnotothefederalracetrack-missileproject,thenestimatedasa$100billionconstructionjob.Butforthemostpart,theregionwentalongwiththeboom.
Itdidso,Ithink,becausetheruralWestlacksthreeimportantinstitutions.Thelackoftheseinstitutionslefttheregionopentotheboom,becausetheWesthadnowaytoexplore,analyze,andcommunicatewhatwashappeningtoit.Ilistthosemissingelementsinnoparticularorder;theyareintertwinedandofequalimportance.
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Education.Totheweaknessesofprimaryandhighschooleducationmustbeaddedthelackofastrongregionaluniversity.SomeoftheWest'suniversities,suchastheUniversityofColorado,havedepartmentsorschoolsconcernedwithWesternquestions.Butforthemostpart,theWest'suniversitiesarenational-orinternational-lookinginstitutionsdoingsuchthingsasseekingSuperconductingSuperColliders.WhentheWestfacesseriousproblems,suchastheforestfiresof1988orquestionsongrazingandpubliclands,thereisnoregionaluniversity,noWesternHarvardorStanfordorBerkeley,toturnto.MostnewideasconcerningWesternquestionscomefromnonuniversitysources:AllanSavory'sHolisticResourceManagementInstituteongrazing,AmoryLovins'RockyMountainInstituteonenergyandeconomicdevelopment,andtheGreaterYellowstoneCoalitiononanewwayoflookingattheYellowstoneregion.Sowhentheboomhit,therewasnouniversitytohelptheregionunderstandandcopewithit.
Communications.Thesecondmissingelementisaregionwidecommunicationsmedium.TheWestlacksanewspaperortelevisionstationormagazinethatcantalktotheruralWestasawhole,thewayTheNewYorkTimestalkstoitsregion,theAtlantaConstitutiontalkstotheSouth,andtheLosAngelesTimestalkstotheSouthwest.
Reformers.Alsomissingisacitizens'reformmovement.TheWestlacksthekindofdo-gooderswhofoughtagainstchildlaborandslumsinthenation'scitiesattheturnofthecenturyandagainstsegregationintheSouthinthe1960s.TheclosesttheWesthastoreformersarethoseintheenvironmentalmovement,andthatmovementuntilnowhasbeenmoreconcernedwiththepreservationoflandthanwiththewell-beingofpeopleandcommunities.
Whatwehave,then,isaregionrootedinnineteenth-centuryeconomies,waysoflife,andlaws.Theeconomiesandcultureare
bothindecline.SotheWestapproachesthetwenty-firstcenturyuprootedfromitstraditionaleconomiesandwayoflife,andlackingthethreeinstitutionsthatcouldhelpitmeetthenewcentury.Thecollapse,symbolizedbyextremelylowpricesforhomes,landandwater,andbyanoutflowofpopulation,hasresultedinareopeningoftheWesternfrontierintheWestbeingupforgrabs.
Whatislikelytocomeofthisreopening?WilltheWestbuildthethreemissinginstitutionsinresponsetothiscrisis?Willitbetakenoverbyurbanitesenamoredofitslandscapeandlowrealestateprices?Orwilltheregionbothfailtoreformfromwithinandberejectedbythelarger,wealthierAmerica,andthushavenochoicebuttodeclineintoanAppalachia-likedarknight?TheWestissothinintermsofeconomicsandpopulationthatconventionalextrapolationsoftrendsareuseless.
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Nothingcouldhaveseemedstrongerthantheland-energy-mineralsboomofthe1970s,andyetaslackeningoftheglobaleconomy'sappetiteforcommoditiesblewawaythattrend.TheWest'scurrenttrendtorecreation-andlifestyle-basedeconomiesandculturescouldbedecimatedevenmoreeasily.
Nevertheless,Ihaveaprediction,oratleastaguess,basedonthestayingpowerofsmallWesterncommunities.Ibelievetheywillchangeinordertopreservetheircohesiveness,theirextendedfamilies,andtheirtraditional,conservativevalues.Thesurvivalofthosehundred-year-oldvalueswillrequirealmosttheoppositeofwhatwasrequiredinthepast.Nowthosevaluescallforanemphasisoneducationandclosecontactswiththeoutsideworld.Thenewconcernwithmarketingamongfarmersandranchersrecognizestheimportanceoflinkstotheoutsideworld.Ofcourse,noteveryoneinagriculturehasrecognizedtheimportanceofmarketingonlythesurvivorshave.
Inthesameway,thesurvivingtownswillturntoeducationandtolinkstothelargerworld.Thosetownswon'tgiveupthepleasuresofFridaynightbasketballandfootballgames,butinsteadofbeingendsinthemselves,astheyarenow,theywillbeseenasadjunctstoacademicachievement.RuralWesternerswillrecognizethattelecommunications,facsimilemachines,satellitedishes,FederalExpress,andcomputershaveopenedruralareastothekindsofworkthatformerlycouldbedoneonlyinmetropolitanareas.Educationandtechnicalskills,onceapassportoutofsmalltowns,willnowbeseenasawayforasmallcommunitytokeepsomeofitsyoungstersathome.
Itis,ofcourse,almostaclichétopredictaneconomicfutureforruralareasbasedonmoderncommunications.ButiftheWestistosurviveasaruralregionwitharuralculture,theremustbemorethan
subdivisionsofelectroniccottages,touristresorts,andretirementvillages.Someextractionhopefullylessdestructiveextractionwillcontinue.Butmyhopeandexpectationisthatthenewruraleconomywillbebasedonreclamationandrestoration.Thedamageorneglectofthepastcenturywillbehealedbycommunitiesthatsitamongtheruinscreatedbythelastcenturyofmining,milling,logging,andagriculture.Myexpectation,andprayer,isthatoverthenextcentury,forestswillbederoaded,damswillbedismantledoroperatedsoastopreservestreamsandriversratherthatdestroythem,minesiteswillbereclaimed,andacidicstreamswillberestoredtohealth.SuchworkwilldoagreatdealfortheWesternlandscape.ButitwilldomoreforWesterncommunities.Anyonecantakeawatchapart,asthehistoryoftheWestshows.Ittakesverydifferentindividualsandaverydifferentsocietytoputawatch
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together.Thelatterrequirespatience,understanding,respectfortheoriginalwatchmaker,andhumility.
ToaccomplishreclamationandrestorationwillrequiredeepchangesintheWest:differentschools,differentsocialinstitutions,differentmedia.Thosechangeswillnotcomeautomaticallyoutofawishlist.Buttheywilldevelopastheregionchangesandadaptstonewtimes.Iseethesignsofchangenotinlargeevents,butinthesamekindsofsmalleventsIdiscussedinthefirstpartofmytalk.Themajordangeristhatthecommodities(coal,uranium,oilshale,etal.)willboombeforetheWesthassetitselffirmlyonthepathtoreclamationandrestoration.Ifthathappens,theWestwillagainsacrificeitslandscapeandskytoprovidejobsfortheyoungpeoplewhosebasicattitudestowardeducationwereshapedduringtheboom.Buteachyearthatpasseswithlowcommodityprices,andwithaneconomicallystraitenedfederalgovernmentunabletosprinkledamsandsubsidizedloggingontheWest,encourageschange.
Foritsfirstcentury,EuropeansettlementintheruralWesthastransformedthescenerytomatchasocietythathaditsstrengths,butthatwasalsoweakanddestructiveinmanyways.Now,thankstoglobaleconomiceventsoverwhichtheWesthasnocontrol,theregionisbeingencouragedtotransformitselfandcreateasocietythatwillwanttorestorewhathasbeendamaged.
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REGIONALISMANDTHEWESTERNUNIVERSITYJamesN.Corbridge,Jr.
Iwanttospeakbrieflyaboutregionalismandthewesternuniversitynotinanyparochialsense,butbecauseIbelievethatweavingastrongregionalthreadintothecurricularandresearchfabricofouruniversitiesisbothintellectuallyappropriateandnecessarytofulfilltheuniversity'sroleinsociety.IintendtofocusontheWest,butIthinktheprinciplesIwilladdressareapplicabletohighereducationinotherregionsofthecountryaswell.
Thisisafascinatingtopictome.IconfesstobeingawaterlawyeraColoradowaterlawyer,themostferventofthespecies,atthatandIhavespentthelasttwentyyearsofmyacademiclifestudyingtheallocationanduseofthewaterresource.Arguably,therehasbeennogreaterinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheWestthanwater,ortheabsenceofit.WalterPrescottWebb,indefininghisWest,emphasizedtheculturalandinstitutionalimpactofcrossingthegeographicbarrierfromthehumidtothesemiarid,intotheregionwhereonefeels,inWallaceStegner'swords,"[a]drynessinthenostrils,acrackingofthelips,atransparentcrystallinequalityofthelight..."5
Myownexperienceinthestudyofwater-resourceallocation,andthelawingeneral,hasledmetotheconclusionthatthelawcurriculumisoneobviousareawhereemphasisonWesternlegalproblemsandprinciplesisentirelyappropriate.ThissubjecthasbeencapablydiscussedelsewhereandIdon'twanttodwellonittoday.MycolleagueCharlesWilkinsonhasbeguntoexploreindepththelawoftheAmericanWest,andDavidGetchesgaveanexcellentpapertotheMid-ContinentAssociationofLawSchoolsin1988entitled"PuttingaWesternBrandonLegalEducation."Davidsuggestedthatcourses
dealingwithdistinctivelyWesternissueswaterlaw,federalpubliclandlaw,Indianlaw,andmininglawarenotableexamplesareappropriatetothecurriculumandthatcasesdealingwithWesternissuescanbeusedin
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moretraditionalcourses.HenotedthatWesternlaw"hasanessentialingredientthatlendsitcurricularlegitimacy.Theingredientisarichnessinitsissuesthatcallsforrigorousanalysisandwhichdemonstratesthesynthesisandinteractionofavarietyofbasicsubjects."HealsomadethecrucialpointthatemphasizingWesternlaw"doesnotmeanconsciouslyleavingweaknessesinotherareasbutitdoesmeanspecialconcentrationandinstitutionalcommitmentthatcanspawnexcellence,reputationandnotablescholarshipinachosenfield."6
IwanttoexpandonthatpointtodaybyobservingthatthefertilityofWesternregionalsubjectmatterdoesnotceasewiththelaw.Itencompassesmanysubjectsthatcrosstheentirespectrumoftheuniversitycurriculum.
Letmeturn,asanexample,tothatmuch-malignedsubject,historicallysufferingfromtheslightsofregionalism,WesternliteraturetheliteraturefocusingontheWestanditsdistinctivehumancharacteristics:individualism,self-reliance,grit,thesenseofonenesswiththeland.Infact,therehavebeennumerousmajorWesternwriters,amongthemA.B.GuthrieJr.,WillaCather,JohnSteinbeck,FrankWaters,andWallaceStegner.Further,thereisawholenewgenerationofWesternwritershardatworktoday.Thisvigorous,multifacetedbodyofliteraturehasbeenbuiltbynovelistssuchasLeslieMarmonSilko,EdwardAbbey,JohnNichols,JamesWelch,andRudolphoAnaya,andbyessayistssuchasJohnMcPhee,GretelEhrlich,andBruceBrown.
ProfessorPaulBryantofColoradoStateUniversity,whohimselfhastaughtacourseinWesternliterature,hasobservedthat"thestudyoftheWestinAmericanliteratureofferssignificantinsightsintothewholeofAmericanculture,"andnotedthatWesternideascanbeusedtoexaminetheviewpointsofsocietyatlarge,asintheuseofTheOx-
BowIncidenttodiscusstheroleplayedbythetestsofmasculinityincontemporarysociety.7TheentireeffectofWesternideasonmodernAmericancultureisanimportantareaofinquiry.
InWesternliterature,atleastintheSouthwest,wehaveabiculturalliterarytraditionAngloandHispanic.Universitiesneedtocelebratethatfactorwewill,inthewordsofProfessorPhillipOrtego,"deprivenotonlymillionsofMexicanAmericansoftheirliterarybirthrightbutdeprivemillionsofAnglo-Americansofaliterarybirthrightthatisnaturallytheirstoo."8
WecanalsonotethestrongbondbetweenWesternwritingandthephysicalenvironmentperhapstheWest'smoststrikingqualityandacommonthreadthroughoutvirtuallyallofWesternwriting.HowofteninWesternliteratureweseethecharactersofthestoryadaptingto,orsuccumbingto,thephysicalchallenges,betheymountains,deserts,or
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thegreatdistancesandtheircorrespondingsolitudes.ThishasledWesternwritingtobeaparticularlyaptvehiclefortheembodimentofenvironmentalissues,asAbbey'sTheMonkeyWrenchGangwellillustrates.Thispoint,incidentally,hasbeensensitivelyexploredbyProfessorFredErismanofTexasChristianUniversityina1979paperbeforetheannualmeetingoftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish.9
Surelytheaccommodationofnewwaysofthinkingbyoldculturepatterns,characteristicofthedevelopmentoftheWest,hasapplicationformuchofwhathumankindfacestodayaroundtheglobe.IfmyfriendsintheliteraryworldarecorrectinbelievingthatthemodernWestisproducingsomeoftheworld'sbestwriting,thenweoughttocapitalizeonitandinfuseitintoourcurriculum.
ThesamecommentscouldbemadeofWesternart.OfparticularinterestisnotonlythewayWesternartistsviewotherpartsofthecountry,butthewaytheseartistshavetakenforwardhistoricalforms,especiallypottery,inamannerthatcelebratestraditionalculturesyetis,initsveryessence,contemporary.RickDillingham,thehistorian,collector,artist,andpotterfromSantaFe,andthegreatcontemporaryHopipotterAlQöyawaymaofPhoenix,exemplifythistradition.Itisnotnarrowparochialthinkingtofocusonthesedevelopmentsintheworldofart.Rather,agreatWesternuniversityoughttocelebratethedistinctiveartisticachievementsofWesternartistsbymakingthestudyofthemacentralpartoftheuniversity'svision.
Letmealsomakereferencetohistory.ThehistoryoftheWesthaslongbeenseenasastepchildofAmericanhistory.Thatiswrong.ThehistoryoftheAmericanWestisrifewithfascinatingeventsandpersonalitiesandisjam-packedwithintellectualcontent.ThisappliesbothtothehistoricalandcontemporaryWest,apointdemonstratedbythescholarshipoftwoofthenation'sfirst-ratehistorians,thelate
RobertAthearnandPatriciaNelsonlimerick.TheUniversityofColoradohasbeenproudtohavebothofthemonitsfaculty,andouruniversityhaslongbeenaleaderinthestudyofthisregion'shistory.Nevertheless,wecandostillbetteratthetaskofexploringthemanyaspectsofthischallengingbodyofthought.
Finally,wehavethemostdominantyetoverlookedcontributortotheAmericanWesttheIndian.OnemightcommentnotonlyontheIndians'contributions,butalsoonthedistinctiverelationshipovertimeofthetribalculturestothecultureoftheAmericanWest.Universitiesmustplayaspecialrolenotonlyincelebratingasweshouldwithallculturesintheregionbutinilluminatingfornon-IndiansthesovereigngovernmentalstatusofIndiantribes,andtherichnessofthe
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history,language,customs,andphilosophyoftheIndian.Theuniversity'sroleinexploringandarticulatingthewealthofAmericanIndianculture,especiallyasitisseenbyIndianpeoplethemselves,hasgoneunrealizedforfartoolong.
InarecentissueoftheUniversityofColoradoLawReview,youcanfindapoeticandexcitingarticlebyCharlesWilkinson,''LawandtheAmericanWest:TheSearchforanEthicofPlace"anethicCharlesdescribesas"foundedontheworthofthesubculturesoftheWestand[which]therebypromotesthediversitythatisthelifebloodoftheregion."10Surelythepublicuniversitiesshouldbemajorplayersinthissearch,andnotjustinthosesubjectsthatIhavetouchedupon,butinalloftheareasoftheacademiclandscapewherethehumanspirit,character,andexperiencearebeingexaminedhistory,philosophy,sociology,art,psychology,law,journalism,geography.Thelistcouldgoonandon;allofthesetopicsarepartandparceloftheuniversitymissionofresearchandteaching.Ithasalwaysstruckmeassomewhatpeculiarthat"servicetothecommunity"islisted,alongwithteachingandscholarship,asadistinctcategoryofinstitutionalactivity.Inmyview,thesearenotseparatethings.lather,creativeinquiryandteachingthediscoveryanddisseminationoftheknowledgethatguidesthehumanconditionrepresentthefundamental"service"thatuniversitiesprovide:theenrichmentofthesocietiesthatsupportthem.
OurWesternsocietycallsoutforacelebrationofitsdistinctivecontributiontoAmericanculture.Byresponding,theWesternuniversitywillnot,assomefear,diminishitself.Rather,theuniversitycommunitywillseizethemostpromisingchanceofreachingitsfullestpotential.
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FREEDOMCOMESFROMPEOPLE,NOTPLACECamilleGuerin-Gonzalez
Inhisessay,MayorKemmishassetouttofindthesourceofAmerica'smoralandphysicalstrength,andhelocatesitintheWest.Hisargumentisbasedontwoassumptionsanddrawsonthemostpowerfulofournation'smyths.ThefirstassumptionisthatAmericaisdemocraticandservesasabeaconofdemocracyandfreedomtotherestoftheworld.ThesecondisthatAmericanssharevaluesandinterests.Tosupporttheseassumptions,MayorKemmisdrawsonavarietyofnationalmyths.HeuseswordswithdeepsymbolicmeaningtoAmericans.
First,thereisthemythoftheruggedindividualgoingintothewilderness,thefrontieranemptywastelandwaitingtobetrainedandmakingaplaceforoneself.Theimageisessentiallyamaleimage.Sothemythisofaruggedindividualgoingintothefrontierandintheprocessrecreatingdemocracyandbecomingtougherandbeingmadephysicallystrongerbytheenvironment.SecondthereisthemyththatAmericanshaveadivinemissiontocreateaperfectsociety,acityonthehill.Phrasesfullofsymbolismgivepowertothesemyths,phraseslike"ruggedindividualism,""democracy,""freedom,"and"liberty."
TheWestofMayorKemmisisnottheWestIknow.NorisittheWestofmypeopleHispanos,thatis,mulattos,mestizos,Africanslaves,andEuropeanSpaniards,whosettledinwhatisnowNewMexicoin1598,beforethePilgrimslandedatPlymouth.NorisittheWestofIndianpeopleswhowereintheregiontwenty-fivetofiftythousandyearsago.Instead,itisaWestunformedbythemythofacityonahill,Anglo-Saxon,Protestant,andfreethatis,freefromgovernmentandchurchmeddlinginthepursuitofeconomicgain.TheWestIknow,
theUnitedStatesIknow,iswherelargegroupsofpeoplehavebeenandcontinuetobedisenfranchisedonthebasisoftheirrace,theirgender,andtheirlanguage.Ifademocracyisagovernmentinwhichultimatepoliticalauthorityisinvestedinthepeople,andwhichincludesthe
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conceptsofindividualism,liberty,equality,andfraternity,thenwehavesomeworktodobeforewecanholdourselvesupasabeacontoanyone.
ThechangestakingplaceinEasternEurope,namelythecreationofamarketeconomyundersocialism,havemoretodowiththedisruptivepowerofcapitalismthantheydowithdemocracyasitisexpressedintheUnitedStates.ThemomentouschangestakingplaceinEasternEuropealsoincludeariseinanti-Semitismandarestrictionoftherightsofwomenandofminorities.WhilesomeEasternEuropeancountriesareextendinggreaterfreedomstosomegroups,theU.S.governmentcontinuestosupporttherepressivegovernmentsinElSalvadorandGuatemala,andU.S.troopshavekilledcivilians,mostofwhomarewomenandchildren,butalsocivilianmen.IntheUnitedStates,ourconceptsofdemocracy,freedom,andsharedvaluesofmembersofsmallcommunitiestiedtothelandfromwhichtheyrecreatethemselvesobscure,hide,erasethosewhodon'tfitintothismodel,whodon'tfitintothismyth.Athens,afterall,wasademocracybasedonslavery.Iarguethatthedangertodemocracyisnotconsumerismbutthecontinueduseandlegitimationofnationalmythsthatobscureandredescribeoppressionofwomen,peopleofcolor,gays,anddissenters,sothatthiskindofoppressionwillfitintothemythicalviewsandgoalsofthoseearlyEnglishcolonists.JohnWinthropsaid"weshallbeasaCityuponaHill,theeyesofallpeopleareuponus."11Buthealsosaidthatheknewawomanwhohadbecomementallyillfromreadingtoomanybooks.For,headded,ifshehadattendedtoherhouseholdaffairsandsuchthingsasbelongedtowomen,andnotgoneoutofherwaytomeddleinsuchthingsasareproperformen,shewouldhavekeptherwits.ApparentlyWinthropbelievedthatthelast,bestplaceforwomenwasthekitchen.
IagreewithMayorKemmisthattheworldspiritisaliveinWestern
valleys,butitisaliveinpeople,andnotaplace;inthewhitesettlers,women,men,children,whocreatedalifeforthemselveswithhardwork;inMexicano,migrantfarm-workersinthebeetfieldsofColorado;inHispanoandEasternEuropeanminers;inCentralAmericansintheLosAngelesgarmentdistrict;inIndianpeoplesthroughouttheirland,strugglingtosurviveEuropeanconceptsofdemocracyandfreedom;inSoutheastAsianimmigrantsandinAfrican-SpanishandAfrican-Americansettlers.Ifhardshipispossibility,thenitisinthesepeopleandtheircontinuinghardship,asHerbertMarcusearguedthirtyyearsago,wherethosepowerfulconceptsoffreedomanddemocracymightfinallyberealized.
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THELANDS,NATURALRESOURCES,ANDECONOMYOFTHEWESTSallyK.Fairfax
Thisisaboutpubliclands.IdonotbelieveintheassignedtopictheWestasadiscretepoliticalorculturalentity.PubliclandsmaybetheonlythingthatmakestheWestcoherentordistinctive.I'mgoingtomakeafewrathersparseargumentsaboutprocessandparticipantsinpublic-landpolicydecisionmaking.Botharechanginginwaysthatareinterestingand,inmyopinion,likelytoendure.
Iwillpaintabroadpictureratherthantrytoproveapiddlinglittleone.IalsowillnotrefusetosaysomethinginterestingandperhapstruejustbecauseIcannotfindafootnoteforit.
Myfirstpointisthatpublic-landsmanagementissuesarelikelytocontinuetobelessandlessimportantasnationalissuesandasthefocusofnationalattentionanddebate.Second,Iwillarguethatthischangewillleavethefieldclearforincreasinglyeffectiveparticipationandcontrolbystateandlocalofficials.Finally,Iarguethatthiswillbeespeciallyimportanttowatchwhenrelatedtomythirdpointaboutchangeinlocalparticipants:Keygroupsarechangingintheirprioritiesandimportanceintheprocess.
Iwillconcludewithtwothoughts,oneaboutissuesthatwillbecaughtinthischangingmawandoneabouttheimportanceforallthisofcontinuingadvocacyaboutpublic-landsdecisionmaking.
BeforeIstartonthat,however,Iwishtoexpresssomegeneralreservationsabouttheassignedtask.IamnotsurethatIbelieveintheAmericanWest.Surelyitexistsasadirectionfortravel.Andclearlywelearnsomethingaboutourselvesthatisimportantoratleast
remarkable(inthesenseof"worthremarkingabout")whenwesay"outWest"asopposedto"backEast."Itisfunandeducationaltoexplorewhatthatmightmean.However,itdoesnotestablishthelegitimacyoftheconstruct"West"asasourceofvisionstoguideasharedfuture.Inthebrochurethatdescribedthissymposium,wefindthatthedisparate
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subgroupsthatmakeuptheAmericanWestwerechallengedto"putasidetheirdifferencesandpulltogethersothattheregioncanbuildasocietytomatchitsscenery."Thissuggeststhatourscenerysomehowtranslatesintoacommonpoliticalagenda.Thatmakesmeverycranky.
Asapoliticalscientist,Iamgenuinelyannoyedbypeopleurgingsubgroupstogiveuptheirprioritiestoembracesomebodyelse's.Atbest,theexhortationisunrealistic.Atworst,itmakesmewanttowarnallsubgroupmemberstokeeptheirhandsontheirwallets.Differencesaretheessenceofdiversity.WecannottalkabouttheAmericanWestwithoutrecognizingthelegitimacyofboth.Period.
Ialsogetgrumpyaboutthe"pulltogether"motifbecauseIhavespentalongtimetryingtoferretoutorimagineacommonagendafortheregion.Idonotfindone.EvenduringtheSagebrushRebellion,whichwasaperiodinwhichpublicassertionofanintegratedWesternstrategywasatapeculiarlyhighpitch,itwasnotpossibletofindanyissuethatconsistentlyorevensuggestivelyunitedtheWestasaregionand/or(bothareimportant)consistentlyorevensuggestivelydistinguishedthisallegedregionfromanyother.
Iamnotgoingtothrowawholebunchoffootnotesatyou,butyoumightbeinterestedintheliteratureofpoliticalregionalism.ThedataarefullofanecdotesaboutlocalcolorbutpreciousfewindicationsthatregionmatterstopolicyexceptforsomeslighthintinthedeepSouth.BoththeruleandtheslightexceptionoughttointerestusintellectuallyandmorallyifthatistherootofAmericanregionalism,dowewanttobeefitup?
Finally,IshouldconfessthatIamnotaWesterner.IhavelivedforextendedperiodsofmylifeinNewYorkCityandenvirons,upperNewYorkstate,Boston,NorthCarolina,Michigan,andmostrecentlyBerkeley,California.EvenifCaliforniaisacceptableasapartofthe
WesternregionandtherehasbeenconsiderabledoubtexpressedonthattopiconewillprobablynotwanttoincludeBerkeley.
Givenmyquestionableheritage,itisperhapsunderstandablethatIdonotfindWesternscenerytobeauniquespiritualorpoliticalforce.WiththearguableexceptionofNewYorkCity,everyplaceIhavelivedissurroundedbyscenery.Characteristicscenery,wonderfulscenery,whichmaybedifferentfromWesternscenery,butwhichischerishedbythenatives,includingasignificantnumberwhodefinethemselvesandtheirlives,inpartatleast,inrelationtotheirgeo-emotional(orwhatever)setting.IhavejustspentaweekinVermontandtheweekbeforethatontheroadbetweenSocorroandSantaFe,NewMexico.Inmanydimensions,thereislessdifferencebetweenthetworegionsthanyoumightthink.IdonotdenythattheconceptoftheAmericanWestis
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animportantmarketingdevicethatcanbeused,interalia,tosellhigh-heeled,pointy-toedshoes,nottowomenbuttomalesfromLosAngeles.Thatisnotallbad.DeWittJohn,featuredinthefirstofHighCountryNews'srecentseriesonthisgeneralissue,hasbeenconvincingforaslongasIhaveknownhimthatsellingcowboynessandsceneryisaviableeconomicoption.Butitisnotclearlyaculture,itdoesnotdefineordistinguishasociety,and,mostcentrally,itdoesnotdefineabasisforpoliticalunityoracommonpoliticalaction.
Iamlookingforthebasisofasharedand/ordistinctivepoliticalagendaandIdonotseeit.Hence,Iamnotsurethatthisconversationhasarealsubject.However,otherequallyinsightfulfolksdonotsharemyqualms,soletmespeakmypiece.
Mypointthatpublic-landsmanagementissuesarelikelytocontinuetobelessandlessimportantastopicsofnationalattention,andthatstateofficialsandevolvinglocalgroupswillplayalargerandmoredecisiveroleindecisionmakingis,youmayreadilyobserve,actuallythreepoints:oneregardingthescopeandintensityofattentiontopublic-landsissues;oneregardingthelevelofdecisionmaking;andoneregardinglocaladvocacy.
Regardingthefirst,Inotethatpubliclandshavebeenrecedingfromthecenterofthenationalstageformostofacentury.Letmepointatafewcarefullyselectedgeneralizationsfromhistorytosupportthatobservation.
Publiclandswere,formuchofourfirstcenturyasanation,thedominant,ifnottheonly,nationalpublicissue.ThosewhohaveattendedevenbrieflytotheperiodinwhichtheArticlesofConfederation,theGeneralLandOrdnance,andthenthefederalConstitutionweredraftedandaccededtoknowthattitletoandauthorityovertheWesternpubliclandswhichatthattimewerebasicallyconfinedtotheareabetweentheAppalachiansandthe
Mississippiwerethemajorissuesofnationhoodandgovernance.Itisprobablyonlyaslightoverstatementtoarguethatvirtuallyeveryissueoftrade,fiscalpolicy,andindustry,amongothers,wasdiscussedinthecontextofthepubliclands.Thepubliclandswereeverything,thecauldroninwhichallthemajorissuesweremanifestandfoughtout.
Theyarenotanymore.
Thisistrueinspiteofwhatmayappeartohavebeentwodecadesinwhichthepubliclandsweremajorpoliticalissues.Thereisnodoubtthattheywereissues.Butweare,Iamarguing,inthewinding-downphaseofaslightburstofnationalconcernwiththeenvironmentand,byaclearextension,thepubliclands.Thatburstwasrealandimportant.Indeed,Ithinkthatitisfairtosaythatthewilderness/aesthetic-preservation
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movement,whichisdirectlyrelatedtothepubliclands,wasakeywedgeinopeningtheAmericanconsciousnesstotheenvironmentaldecadeofthe1970s.Further,wildernesswasandwilllikelycontinuetobeanidealentry-levelissueofimmensepedagogicalvalueinarousinguppermiddle-classwhitekidstoconcernfor"theenvironment."Allofthatistrue.Further,itistoalargeextentwhatwehavedonewithourlives.Butitcostsusinperspectiveonthehistoryofthepubliclands.
Wewhohavelivedthroughorcomeofageduringthelasttwentyyearsareinaremarkablypoorplaceforrealizingthatweareinfactexperiencingthetailendofapeculiarblip,orforunderstandingthatourblipisarareandmuch-diminishedperiodofnationwideattentiontopubliclands.
TodemonstratetheargumentthatnationalattentiontotheWesternpubliclandsmanifestinthelastseveralyearshasbeenablipinwhatisclearlyalong-termremovalofthepubliclandsfromthecenterofthenation'spolitical,economic,andpsychicstage,Iwillpointtotheevolutionoftherevenueprogramsassociatedwiththoselands.Ibelievethatinthoseprogramsyoucanclearlyseeapatternevolveandthendissolve.Atfirst,oldstateswerewillingtobribenewstatestogoalongwithmeetingoldstales'prioritiesonpubliclands.Asnewstatesbecamemorenumerous,thebribesgotbigger.Butthen,asthenewstatesbegantobecomeoldstates,theconfigurationshiftedtoEastversusWestorpublicdomainversusnon-publicdomainstates.Easterndemandsclarifiedintheformoflandreservationsandthebribesbecamebiggerstill.Witnessthe90percentofgrossrevenuesthatwerededicatedtotheWesternstatesintheMineralLandsLeasingActof1920.
WhatIamleadinguptohereisthatinthelastseveraldecades,EasternstateshavebeenincreasinglyunwillingtobribeWesternstates
withreceipt-sharingprograms.The1976PILTs(paymentsinlieuoftaxes)Actisnationalinscope.Allthestatesaredefinedashavingpubliclands,whichallowsallthestatestobenefit.Currenteffortstoundoolddecisionstoshiftthebasisofreceipt-sharingpaymentstonetratherthangrossrevenues,forexamplecanbeunderstood,ifIamcorrect,asasignthattheEasternstatesarelessinterestedthanintimespastinachievingtheirowngoalsonthepubliclandsandwantsomeofthemoneybacktoreconstructtheirowndeterioratinginfrastructure.Hence,asmalldatapointtosupporttheargumentthattheEasternstatesarenolongersointerestedinEasternprioritiesforWesternpubliclandsthattheyarewillingtopaytoachievethem.Indeed,justtheopposite.Forallthesereasons,Iamarguing,thefederalgovernmentwillrecede.ItwillnotdisappearovernightoreverfromthemanagementofWesternfederallands.Butitwillleavegreaterand
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greaterroomforstateandlocaldecisionmakingandprioritiestobeexpressedontheland.
Mypointisthatifandwhenthelandscomeupfordiscussion,theycomeupaslandsandresources,notasthelinchpinofAmericanlife.Thus,Iamarguing,weasanationcarelessandlesseveninthatverydiminishedandconstrainedcontext.Having"proved"thatpoint,letmemakemysecondpoint,aboutthelevelofdecisionmakingregardingpubliclands.
Curiously,duringmostoftheperiodwhentheinterestinthelandswasnationalinscope,muchofwhatwenowconsiderthekeydecisions,thatis,thedecisionsaboutaccesstoand"managementof"thelands,weremadeatthestateandlocallevelsorbycoalitionsofstatesactinginCongress.Formuchofthenineteenthcenturyandforasurprisingextentinthetwentiethcentury,itwasnotconsistentlyclearthatthefederalgovernmenthadauthoritytodomuchabouttheWesternlands.Evenifithadauthority,itwasperfectlyclearthatthecentralgovernmenthadneitherthewillnorthewherewithaltoactonit.Manymajorresourcemanagementandallocationprogramsweredevelopedbyandcontinuetobestateundertakings(forexample,oilandgasconservation,wildlifemanagement,waterallocation).
ThatpositionofstateprimacyhasbeenconcealedfromcurrentviewbyanothertrendthatIamarguingisnowending:thecentralizationanddominationofthedecisionmakingbyfederalagencies,instrumentalities,andpriorities.ThattrendwhichweusuallyrelatetotheNewDealbutwhich,likeeverythingthatgrows,hasrootsthataredeepisalsoending,atleastasregardsthepubliclands.ThereasonsforwhatIampresentingasadeclineinfederalcontroloverpubliclandsarenumerous,complex,andobviouslyrelatedtodeclineinthenation'sinterestinthelands.Theyalsoarerelatedtoadeclineindiscretionaryfederalfundsandastaggeringgrowthintheefficacyof
stateandlocalgovernment,intheWestandelsewhere.Thesearegenericpointsapplicabletomanyfamiliardiscussions.Iwillnotboreyouwiththedetails.Iwillbelabortwootherpointsthatmaybemoreinterestinginthissetting.
First,iftheWestisnotamyth,Iwanttotrytoconvinceyouthat"thefederallands"are.Thiswill,Iargue,contributetoincreasingstatecontrol.Myargumenthastwoprongs.Thefirstisaphysicalreality,whatIhaverecentlybeencalling"themythofthegreenblob."Lotsofpeopleseemtohavetheideathatthefederalpubliclandsexistoutthereascontiguousentitiesaboutwhichthefederalmanagerscanmakedecisions.Whileoccasionallythatistrue,thedominantandmoreproblematicrealityisthatfederallandsarechoppedup,interspersed
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amongadiversemixtureofstate,privateandotherfederallands.Frequently,choppingisverticalthatis,thegovernmentmayownonlythesurfaceorthesubsurfacevalues,whileanotherownerownstheother.Thefederalgovernmentcannotmakedecisionsaboutitslittlefiefdomwithoutregardforwhattheotherownersaredoing.Itisalmostalwaystrue,forexample,thatanoil,gas,orcoallesseemustlaboriouslyassemblehundredsofpropertyrights,includingdiversefederalleases,inordertooperate.Themyriadaccessproblemsareonlythecurrentlymostapparentmanifestationofthisimportantbuteasy-to-overlookfact.
Thisgreen-blobmythalsohasalegaldimension.Itisfrequentlyassumedthatthefederalgovernmenthasauthoritytomanageabsolutelywhereitownstheland.Thefactsareotherwise.Ihavealreadyreferredtowater,oil,andgasconservation,andwildlifeprogramsthatareandalwayshavebeenessentiallystateoperations.Theenvironmentalprogramsofthe1970saddanotherdimensiontothisdivisionofauthority.TheForestService,forexample,isnotauthorized,funded,staffed,orsufficientlyskilledtomanageair,water,toxicclean-upandotherenvironmentalprotectionprograms.
DiscountmywordsifyoumustinlightofthefactthatIamaknownGraniteRockfetishistandoneoftheparticularlydangerousCaliforniabrandatthat.Nevertheless,mypositionisthatevenifSupremeCourtJusticeAntoninScaliaandhismerrybandpreemptthestateenvironmentalprograms,theywillnotpreventtheduplicationinprogramswhichsoanguishedJusticeLewisPowell;rather,theywillcreatevacuumsthatthefederalgovernmentwillnotbeabletofillonthefederallands.Thisisbecausetheyhavenospecificauthoritytodoso,and,understandably,nomotivationtoaddstafftoundertaketheprogramsinthesetryingbudgetarytimes.
PerhapsyoubelieveinboththeWestandthegreenblob.Mysecond
pointconcerningtheprobableriseinstaleauthorityoverpubliclandsisonewecanhopefullyallagreeon.Thefederalgovernment'sabilitytodominateinland-managementdecisionsisthreatenedbythefactthatitdoesnotknowwhatitisdoing.Thisdoesnotdistinguishitfromanybodyelsenobodyhasasoundtechnicalbasisforthekindofland-managementdecisionsthatthefederalagenciesgliblyassureustheyarequalifiedtomake.Butasthatfactbecomesmoreandmoreobviousintheplanningprocess,thelocalinterestswillprevailinamoreandmoreexplicitlypoliticalarena.ThatistheargumentIammakingatanyrate.
Bysayingthefederalgovernmentdoesnotknowwhatitisdoing,Idonotmeanthattheagenciesaredumborhavesoldouttothecattle,mineralsortimberindustry.Iseenothingthatsinister.Mypointis
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simplythatwedonothavetheknowledgetodomultiple-uselandmanagement.LetmeillustratebyreferringtotheBelowCostTimberSaleissue.ThecontentionwasthattheForestServicespendsmoretoputtogethertimbersalesthanitgetsinreceiptsfromthosesales.ThatultimatelyturnedouttobeadudintellectuallyasfarasIamconcerned.Atbottomitwasanargumentbetweentwostandardapproachestoaccounting,witheachsidedistortingdifferentinadequaciesinthedatatomakeitspoints.
Whatlingersinmymindasinterestingaboutthatdustupisthatwecannotexpressrelationshipsbetweenandamongdifferentlandusesinthelanguagethatissimplest,leastexacting,andeasiesttomeasure,tradeoff,andexpress:money.Wecannotevendotheeasiest,idiotpartofthemultiple-useanalysis.Wesurelydonotnowandlikelyneverwillunderstandcomplex,diverseecologicalinteractionswithsufficientacuitytopredictandmanipulatethoseecosystemsandtheirresponsestodifferentmanagementregimesanduses.Wecannot,infact,evenmonitorthediverseimpactsofwhatwealreadydid.Nottoputtoofineapointonit,butwecannotevenagreeposthocontheconsequencesofclear-cutting.
Itisnotcleartomewhatkindofpolicytilt,ifany,willresultfromtheshiftfromfederaltostateandlocalprimacy.However,itisimportantthatwethinkabouttheshiftfornumerousreasons,nottheleastofwhichisthatthestateandlocalsceneasregardsfederallandsandlandmanagementischangingrapidly.HereImovetomythirdpointaboutchanginglocalgroups.
TomakethispointIamnotgoingtoboreyouherewithanyvariantontheurbanizingWesternscene.Ithinkitisinterestingtowonderwhat"theWest"meansif,ashasbeensuggested,itdoesnotincludethecities.CitiesinfactcontainmostWesternersandmostoftheeconomicandpoliticalvaluesthatdrivetherurallandsinterspersed.
Nevertheless,Iwillletthatargumentdrift,brieflyIhope,andmakefourotherobservations.
First,Ithinkthatthestateandlocalpoliticalscenewillbealteredbyaradicalshiftintherangelivestockindustryanditspoliticalpriorities.Therangelivestockindustryasweknowandloveitorknowandhateitisdeadasaresultofchangesintasteandeconomics.Iamnotoneofthosewhobelievesthatrangechickensloomlargeinthefutureeconomyofthenation,butrangetourismandput-and-takewildlifedo.Ihavelongbelievedthattherangelivestockindustry,ratherthanthetimberindustryhasbeenbyfarthemostcontrollingpoliticalforceinpublic-landsmanagement.Thatgroupisintheprocessofalteringradically,andIthinkitmattersandbearswatching.
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Asecondchangedparticipantisthewatercrowd.OneofthestrangethingsaboutBureauofLandManagementandForestServicepoliticsisthatsinceJohnWesleyPowellgotshotdownonhisdam-sitereservationsinthelate1800s,thewaterfolkshavebeennoncentralplayersanddecreasinglyimportantplayersinthefederalland-managementagencies.Thatischangingdramatically.Ahintofwhatistocomeisfoundintherecentconjunctionofreservedwaterrightsandwildernessdesignations.Ithinkwecanallconcedethatthisisabitflukyandconfinedinitsimpact.However,whenwestartincludingwater-relatedfactors(suchaswaterproductionandwaterdrop)inthecalculationofthevalueofalternateuses,andexpressingthepriceofatreeintermsofthewateritconsumeswhilegrowing,theplotthickens.Wecansafelypredictthatwatervaluationpromisessomeinterestingalterationsinmanagementpriorities.
Third,theeconomistsarecoming.Thisdoesnotmeanthateconomicorcommodityusesarecoming.Itmeansthatthenotionsandmethodsofeconomicanalysisarefindingunprecedentedlegitimacyinthepublic-landsfield.Amenityadvocatesmayprotest,allegingthateconomicshavealwaysdominated.Perhapsso,butnoteconomicanalysis.Thefactisthattheeconomistisanewkidontheblockandwillalterthenatureofthedebateconsiderably.
Finally,IwouldliketopointtochangingdemographicsintheWest.Thisleadsinturntochangingdefinitionsofefficiencyandproductivity.Myperspectiveisnarrowbutperhapsuseful.YoucangetyourhistoryonthispointfromtheworkofPatWestorBillDubuisorotherswhodescribetheForestService'spreferenceforlarge,''efficient"producersofrangelivestockasopposedtotheinefficient,communalproductionthatcharacterizestheHispaniccommunity'suseofthesouthwesternnationalforests.JohnNichols'sTheMilagroBeanfieldWarisalessacademicbutequallyvaluableintroductiontoearlyyearsonthisissue.
ThecurrentimportanceofthealteringdemographicsforfederallandmanagementmaybeapparentnowinlitigationinvolvingUniversityofCaliforniaagricultureprograms.TheUniversityrecentlylostasuittoCaliforniaRuralLegalAssistance(CIRA).Thesuitwaspremisedontheassertionthattheland-grantuniversityhasviolateditsauthorizingstatutebyservingonlyonepartofitspotentialconstituency,totheexclusionanddetrimentofotherCaliforniacitizens.White,large-scalegrowershavebeentheexclusivetargetandbeneficiaryofExtension,AgExperiment,andkindredprograms.Theyare"efficientproducers."Ostensiblyless-efficientorless-importantgrowers,farmworkers,andahostofothersarenotpartofthepicture.
Thiswholestructureisnowsubjecttoseriousquestioningand
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challenge.TheCRLAsuithassuggestedthatitislegallyvulnerable.Thewholemovementaroundhereisanotherdisgustingbuzzword,thisyear'sintellectualequivalentofthepastamachine"sustainableagriculture"stronglysuggeststhatitistechnicallyvulnerableaswell.Indeed,thewholenotionofefficiencyinproductionevenwhatconstitutesproductivityisupforgrabs.Mypointisthatotherpeople,othervalues,andotherprioritieshavelongexistedatthemarginsofpublic-landmanagementwhichhasbeenundeniablyafestivalofrefreshmentandupwardmobilityforwhiles,primarilyofthemalevariety.ThiswillchangeandmayhaveprofoundeffectsinthedirectionIhavetriedtosuggest.
Thus,wecanreadilysee(aswesayinacademe)thatmybasicargumentiscorrect:Publiclandswillbeincreasinglylessimportantasanationalissue,leavingthefieldtomoreeffectivestateparticipantsandalteredinterestgroups.
LetmeclosewithtwoonlyapparentlyunrelatedpointsthatIthinkoughttogiveyoufuelforthinkingaboutthepolicytiltoftheseprognosticatedchanges.
First,whataretheissuesthatwillemergeinthisnewregime?Iwillpointtothree.First,totheextentthatCongresspaysattentiontothesequestionsatall,itwillresultinsingle-issuelegislation.The1990s,Iamsuggesting,willbemorelikethe1960sthanthe1970s.Therewillbenomega-statuteslikeFLPMAandNFMAthatseektochartthefutureforthelandsintheirentirety.Rather,wewillhave,ifanything,single-focus,onemightsayzoning,statutes.TheWildernessAct,theTrailsAct,andtheWildandScenicRiversActareappropriatereferencepoints.
Second,Ithinkthattherewillbeintensifiedinterestgiventolandconsolidationandaccess.Thestatelandmanagers'interestinthisisobvious,critical,andlongignored.Itwillbecomedispositive,inmy
opinion.Finally,andthisismoreofanadvocacystatementthanapredictionofwhatwillcomebasedonwhatIhavesaid,IhopethattheForestServicewillfinallygainauthoritytomanagethemineralsonNationalForests.Thattheydonotnowhavethatauthorityisanhistoricalanomalythatoughttobecorrected.
MysecondclosingobservationisthatIthinkadvocacyregardingpublic-landsmanagementwillbeandoughttobelesscentralindecisionmaking.Itoughttobelessimportantbecausetheissuesarebasicallyresolved.IhavealongpaeanthatIoccasionallydeliveraboutthediminishingreturnstoadvocacy.Iwillnotboreyouwiththewholenineyardsnow.Basically,theargumentisthatwehaveaccomplishedsomuchofwhatneedslobedoneregardingbalancedmanagementof
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federallandsthatIbelieveitistimetoturnourattentiontootherissuesthatarelesswelldefinedandlessadequatelyaddressed.
Ithinkthiswillhappenwhetherweaccedetotheinevitableornot.Advocacywillbelessimportant,inmyopinion,becausewhatwillbecentraltooutcomesisincreasinglylesslikelytobesubjecttointerestgroupinfluenceorpreference.
Iseemyselffocusingonmajornationalandinternationaltrendsratherthanthespecificpreferencesofgroupsorinterestsdemographics,institutionalevolutionatstateandlocallevels,tasteforbeef,andsoon.Themostobviousonewhichhasnotbeenreferredto,soIwillmentionithereistheweather.WeallocatedtheColoradoRiver,aseveryschoolgirlknows,duringtheyearofhighestwaterflowsincethebirthofChrist.Similarly,Ibelievethatweallocatedwaterresourcesthroughoutthenation,anddevelopedindustrial,domestic,andagriculturalconsumptionpatterns,duringaperiodofuncharacteristicallymild,hospitableweather.Withorwithoutthegreenhouseeffect,anydeviationsbacktowardthemeteorologicalmeanwilldrivepublicresourcemanagementtoafargreaterdegreethanhumanwillorpurposefulactivity.Ithinkthatisfine.Perhapsanotherblipofpreoccupationwillbenecessaryorappropriateinanotherlifetime.Fornow,wehavemoreimportantthingstodothanbleataboutthemarginsofpublic-landspolicyandmanagement.Wehavegottenquitegoodatthat,butweareneededelsewhere.
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ANETHICOFPLACE:THEISSUEAT'THEHEARTOFALLELSEJohnE.Echohawk
Ithinktherewouldbeacertainamountofskepticismamongtribesaboutthenotionofdisparatesubculturescomingtogetherandtalkingaboutourcommonfuture.It'sbeenalessonofAmericanhistoryandWesternhistorythatIndiantribeshavebeenleftoutofthatprocess.Butinthelasttwentyyears,particularlythroughthecourtsandthroughCongress,tribeshavemadetremendousstridesinregainingtheirsovereigntyandtheirresourcesandtheircultures.
Whetherpeoplelikeitornot,triballeadersandtribalissueshavetobedealtwithandhavetobeputonWesternagendas.Triballeaders,Ithink,enjoythisnewstatusthatthey'vefound.Butatthesametime,theyapproachthatstillwithagreatamountofskepticism,realizingthatitwasbarelythirtyyearsagothatofficialpolicyinthiscountrycalledfortheterminationofIndiantribes,eliminationofIndianculturesandtheassimilationofIndianpeopleintothemeltingpot.Thatmemoryisvery,veryfreshinthemindsofNativeAmericanpeople.Ithinkthateventhoughwemaybeatthetable,wecometherewithagreatdealofskepticism.Atthesametime,ifwecansurvivethatprocess,Ihaveagreatamountofoptimismaboutwhatmaybeaheadofus.IthinkthattheenlightenedWesternleaders,bothIndianandnon-Indian,foreseeafutureintheWestthatincludesIndianpeople,thatincludesIndiantribes.Again,thisissomethingthatisfairlynew.Itwasn'tverylongagothatIndianpeoplewereseenasvanishingAmericans,andtherewerenoplansforusbecausewewerenotvisibleonthepoliticallandscapeatall.
Thetribesdocometothetablewith,Ithink,alottooffer.We're
talkingaboutland,naturalresources,andeconomies.Tribescontrol3percentofthelandinthiscountrystill.Theyhavesubstantialtreatyrightstolargeamountsoffish,timber,andenergyresources,amongotherthings.Triballeaders,nowthattheirsovereigntyhasbeenrecognizedandfortifiedmoreandmore,aretakingontheresponsibilities
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thatpoliticalleadershavetoshoulderintermsofdevelopingtribaleconomies.Everybodyknowsthatourpeople,aspeoplewhosociallyandeconomicallyareatthebottomoftheheap,needthatdesperately.
Astriballeadersapproachthatchallenge,theissueofpubliclandsintheWestisgoingtobecomeincreasinglyimportantbecauseitraisesthesamekindsofquestionsthattriballeadersfacewhentheygoaboutusingtheirnewlyfortifiedgovernmentalauthorityoverresourcesthatarenowfirmlyintheircontrol.What'stobedonewiththeseresources?What'stobedoneabouttheneedforeconomicdevelopment,theneedforjobsforpeople?''hekindsofquestionsthattriballeadersfacearethesamekindsofquestionsthatotherWesterngovernmentalleadersaregoingtoface.Thebasicquestionaboutpubliclandsandthebroaderquestionforallofusthatisepitomizedbytheenvironmentalmovementis:Howmuchdowedevelop?Howmuchofourresourcesdoweusenow,forus,forthisgeneration,andhowmuchdowesave,andhowdowepreserveitforfuturegenerations?Thisbattleisfought,forbetterorforworse,largelythroughthediscussionandresolutionofissuesinvolvingpubliclands.
Theseissuesareverydeartotribalpeoplebecausetheygorighttothequestionsofourveryexistence.Therearereligionsthatwehave.SomethingthatiscentraltoallIndianreligionsisthebasicrelationshipbetweenmanandtheland,theenvironment.Thesearethesamekindsofissuesthat,whenwecomedowntoit,encompassabigpartofthedialoguethatwearehavinginthissymposium,becausetheWest,morethananyotherplace,isconcernedwiththeethicofplacetheissuethatisattheheartofeverything.
PARTSIXCreatingaGeographyofHope
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CENTENARYSEQUENCEFORTHEDREAMERS(selectedpassages)
KnowingdepravityfromCalvinoldMarcWhitmanmusthave
diedsmiling,asajaggedCayusehatchetjelliedhisrelentlessbrain...One
hundredyearsprovehedidn'tsmile
invain.ThishappyvalleyreekswithGod'sinexorableplan,his
grace:hereWhitmancamewithCalvin'sgodandsmallpoxmalignantlyin
hand;withAugustine'sheartburntcorkhesmeared
alienstoneagesouls,he
dippedtheirwellpockedbodiesinthisvalley'smanywatersatWallaWallavestigialun-electedsavagesatonedgrimsouledSwissorrareBabylonian
sins...
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Waiilatpu,placeofryegrass,oncegroundforthis
valley'snativecouncils,nowithonorsWhitman,hismissionandhiskin.Hishilltop
monumenttaperstotheskyafingergesturing
abuse,enshrined,officiouslyfencedin.Downthehill,acrossaroad,beyondthemission'sold
foundations,aruttedcreekbedcommendstheNezPerce,
WallaWallaandCayuse,drainedlongsinceanddead...
Itisthesoulofthingsthething'ssoulwhateveritmaybethesoulofwemustdiscover.Andcan.Thereareargumentsinhistoryworthhearing.Wedowhatwecan,thoughsomesaymustandotherswill.Nonetheless,wedo.Andpoetryamongthemisnotmuch.Wemayagreeonthat.Yet,astheDr.said,everydaywedieforlackofwhatisfoundthere.True,thestateofgodsisnotwhat
itwas...Likewiseauthority,andmagiciansamongusnowareentertainers.Stillonequitelatelysays,"Iamnotanentertainer,"puttingusonourmettle.Itishardworkforus,thistalking...likeheavyliftingitbuzzesinourheads...tooheavyliftingeveryday,saidYellowWolf...
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[SmohollatheDreamers'Song]
MyyoungmenshallneverworkFormenwhoworkcanneverdreamMyyoungmenshallneverworkFormenwhoworkcanneverdreamAndwisdomcomestousindreamsAndwisdomcomestousindreams
Amongusthosewhochoose.Aswestepuptothebar,thebarkeep,resplendentinhishandlebarmustache,hissleevesblousedbyredsilkgarters,orsometimessportingblackrobesandjudicialairs,thebarkeep,alwaysaffableandadroit,smilingsays,Allright,Gents,nameyourpoison.Andsmilingback,wechoose.Graciouslywetossthemanatip.Buyyourselfadrink,wesay.Hedeftlyscoopsthespinningcoinfrommidairandtestsitspurityagainsthisteeth.Histeethindentthesoftrichgold.Smiling,hepocketsthecoin.Thetruthisthis:hedoesn'tdrink,heonlypours...Asif,saidJoseph,amanshouldcometomeandsay,Ilikeyourhorses,Iwanttobuythem.IsayNo,myhorsessuitme,Iwillnotsell.Hegoestomyneighborandsays,Josephhasgoodhorses...Iwanttobuythembuthewillnotsell.Myneighboranswers,Paymethemoney,andIwillsellyouJoseph'shorses.Affableandadroitthebarkeepchanges
guise...but,inwhateverguisehegoeshissleevesareblousedforbusiness.So,wechoose.Andyet,wedrinkpreciselywhathepours.CleverLawyer,changesguise,andlearnstomixadrink....Hewasaman,asonemightsay,ofexquisiteunderstanding,onewhowasaChristian,onewholearnedthelaws...
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Isthestory,then,toosimpleforourownexquisitetastes?Wespeaknothereofnoblesavagesnoroftheirromance.Thisstory,thoughoftentold,hasbeenprojectedsotranspicuousitsplotmustthickenintomush.Anditisafterallthelucidsoulofthingsthething'ssoulwhateveritmaybethesoulofwemustdiscover.Andcan.Formattersofart,likelife,aremattersofexecution,andifwewouldhavethecausewemustgoback.Thereareargumentsinhistoryworthhearing...
Ifaftersufferingwewouldnotbepurgedwemustgoback,decliningancientdraughtsandbromideswevulgarianswhocametoconquerandstayedtolearn,rememberit?asweweretaughtthecriticsofit,Gibboneven,smugandsecurely...Mediterranean,wemustgoback
to?OBraveNewWorld!ElizabethandIsabellapickingupthepieces
ofempire...
·
handingthemtothefathers...Adams,rememberit?
praisingAthensandRome,powershecalledthem,forhaving"honoredourspeciesmorethanalltherest..."MeanwhileGeorgeWashington,throwingasilverdollarwestacrossthePotomac,winkedandsaid,shrewdly,"Stayoutofforeignwars...""Bywhichhemeant,"saidQuincy,achipofftheoldblockanywayyouchisel,"ItseemstheverywillofProvidencethatthisentirecontinentbeinhabitedbyonepeople,but,sinceProvidence(Godwouldn't
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meltinhisempiricalmouth)helpsthosewhohelpthemselves,byallmeansstayoutofforeignwars...let'skeepoureyeontheball...''
Ihavedonenothingfortheirteaching,thesesavages,theywillnotlistenandprateofthelandourmissiontithesfromthem...andofthepox...TheyarediseasedandthehandofProvidenceremovesthemtogiveplacetoapeoplemoreworthyofthisfertilecountry...
SoSpaulding,Whitman...which?thebarkeepeverywhereadroitconductstheHallelujahchorus,makingtheworldsafeforProvidence&Enterprise,Ltd.,biggerthantheHanseaticLeagueRothschildsKrupporCaesarhimselfGrandaddytoGeneralMotorsthegreatneo-PlatonicsynthesisofGodandmaninaRubeGoldbergWhirlygigraisingCommercefromthemuckofitsownjackbootstositwithHimhipbyhaunchblowingtheveryWillofProvidencebloodrushingtoHisobeliskstonehardwithDestinyandDeterminationmosttremendoustoolopposablethumbandmathematicsnotwithstandinginthepornographichistory
ofthewest."Andsaywhatyouwill,"saidBuffaloBilladjustingJoseph'sbonnetintheHippodrome,"theBigBoysureknowshowtouseit..."
"There,"saystheVoiceofAmerica,"thatoughttoholdthelittlebastards,"anditdoesitholdsusweloveitabsolutelyloveit...
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(thisdiatribeinfactbroughttoyoubyagrantfromExxonsimulcastwith"RevelooshunaireyRevels"rockoperastarringMarxLeninTrotskyMaoCastroandSunYat-sen,theCastratiChorale,broughttoyouuninterruptedbecause
thereisnothingabsolutelynothingtofear)
InDakotahtheStandingBearstheKickingBirdstheYoung-Men-Afraid-of-their-Horsesliedown,alone,wherethegreatplainsslopetoriversBigHorn,Musselshell,Missouri.Andallaroundthemsky,skyandearthandthecreaturesthereof.theyareonewiththeeagleandthemouseamongthehip-highgrasses,herewherethegreatplainsslopetoriverstheyliedown,alone,atduskbeneaththeMoon-of-the-Geese-Gathering...
Inthedreamstheydreamgreatflightsofgeesewheelinthemorninglight..theirbreastsgleam,flashingblackandsilversignalsfromabovetherisingautumnsun...Witheachtremendousarcingturn,likeimmensearrowheadsinthesky,fromnorthandeastandwest,theycome...ghostlysilentapparitionsdrawninexorably
tothelivingwheel,intheMonthoftheGatheringoftheGeese...
WhenatlasttheywaketheyoungmenwaketolightmoresplendidstillthanaureolesofAugustmoons,theirveryactofwaking,mediation,sostunningisthiscanopyofarcticlights...
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Theyliestill,wide-eyedbeneathbasilicamorebrilliantthanthegalaxies...Aroundthemneitherowlnorcoyotemove,caughtbyincandescenceinthearchingribsofrareDakotahnights...Here,wheregreatplainsslopetorivers,areyoungmenmoregracedthanintheirbirth...andwakeasiftosilvergeeseauroralineffulgentflight...herewherewatersoftheriverstop,givingbackuponitselfthesightyoungmenpurifythemselvestosee,lightandlightandlightclimbingtheholyarchofnight...
PeterF.Michelson
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AGEOGRAPHYOFHOPEWallaceStegner
IoncesaidinprintthattheWestandImeantheinteriorWestofplains,mountains,anddesertsisthegeographyofhope,thenativehomeofoptimism,theyoungestandfreshestofAmerica'sregions,magnificentlyendowedandwiththechancetobecomesomethingunprecedentedandunmatchedintheworld.
IwasprobablydemonstratingmythesiswhileIexpressedit.IwasshapedbytheWestandhavelivedmostofmylifeinit,andnothingwouldgratifymemorethantoseeit,inallitssubregionsandsubcultures,bothprosperousandenvironmentallyhealthy,withacivilizationtomatchitsscenery.WheneverIreturntotheRockyMountainstateswhereIammostathome,mynativeenthusiasmovercomesme,andIrespondasunthinkinglyasasalmonthatswimspastarivermouthandtastesthewatersofitsbirthandfeelsanirresistibleimpulse,bornIamsureoflove,toturninlandinsearchofthestreamwhereitwashatched.
ButwhenIamthinkinginsteadofthrobbing,IrememberwhathistoryandexperiencehavetaughtmeabouttheWest'spast,andwhatmyeyesandnoseandearstellmeabouttheWest'spresent,andIbecomemorecautiousabouttheWest'sfuture.Toooften,whenithasbeenprosperous,ithasbeenprosperousattheexpenseofitsfragileenvironment,anditsprosperityhasbeenmostunequallydistributedamongitscitizens.Itscivilization,stillnascent,hastoooftendegradedthenaturalhabitatwhileexploitingitanddrawingmostofitscharacterfromit.SoIcurbmyenthusiasm,Ibegintoquibbleandqualify;Isayyes,theWestisthenativehomeofhope,buttherearevarietiesanddegreesofhope,andthewrongkind,inexcessive
amounts,goeswithhumandisappointmentandenvironmentaldamageasbustgoeswithboom.
Historically,visionaryexpectationwasagreatenergizerofthewestwardmovementasgreat,probably,asthesenseofbeingpartofavastmythicadventure.Butexaggerated,uninformed,unrealistic,
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greedyexpectationhasbeenaprescriptionfordisasterthattheWesthascarriedtothecornerdrugstoretoomanytimes.Ghosttownsanddustbowls,likemotels,areWesterninventions.Allinstitutionalizetransience,andtransiencehas,outsideUtah,inhibitedthedevelopmentofstable,rooted,Westerncommunitiesandasharedhistorythattakesineverythingfromthekindergartentothegraveyard,andinvolvesallkindsandgradesofpeopleinthepromiseofcontinuance.Ibelieveintheprofoundinfluenceofplacesonpeople,andnobodycouldmisstheeffectofpeopleonplaces.Butthereremainsadoubt:Maybeacontinuingcross-fertilizationbetweenpeopleandplacesisnotfeasibleintheWest,orisfeasibleonlybetweenadamagedenvironmentandalimitedpopulation.MaybeanystablesocietyintheWestisdestinedtobenotmerelymobile,butsparse.
TheWesternstatesdocontainsomedeeplylived-inplaces,buttheyarescarcerintheWestthanelsewhere.Westernplacesarenewer,foronething;foranother,manyofthepeoplewhoestablishedthemcametopillage,ortoworkforpillagers,nottosettleforlife.Whenthepillagingwasdone,theymovedon.Thepeoplewhohavereplacedthemareunrelatedtothefounders,andmaybegonewiththenextbust.Theyarewithouthistory,inthesensethathistoryandplacearelinked,andtheyoftenleavebecausethecountrycannotsupplythemwithjobsorbecausetheyarethemselvestoorestlesstostay.Theyhavenosenseofcommunitywiththeirtemporaryabode;theyhaven'ttheshadowofalandethic.Bothofthosetaketimetodevelop.Andasanotherreasonformobilityweshouldnotforgetthat,howeverattractivethecountrysurroundingthetowns,Westerntownsthemselvesarenotbeautyspotsusually,maynotbeworthlivinginonanythinglessthanhardshippay.
WhatmakestheWestadifficultplacetostayputinisaridity.Pastandfuture,theWestisadrysubject,andallsortsofsocial,economic,
political,andpsychologicalconsequencesflowfromthefactoftoolittlewater.
Environmentally,otherregionshavebeenabletorecoverbetterthantheWestfromtheimpactofourhigh-energycivilization.Vermont,forinstance,isaruggedcountrywitharuggedclimate,butitheals.Itwantstobetrees.Clear-cutit,anditgoespatientlyandinevitablybacktoraspberrybushesandotherbrowse,thentolittleChristmastreesandcrowdingstandsoflittlemaple,ash,beech,andbirchsaplings,andthen,beforeyouhavequitenoticed,towoods.TheWest,vastandmagnificent,greatlyvariousbutwiththeabidingunityoftoolittlewaterexceptinitsnorthwestcorner,hasprovedfarmorefragileandunforgiving.Damagedbyhumanassaultsonitsresources,itismorelikelytogotodesertificationthantorestoreitself.
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AridityhasbeenadifficultfactforAmericanstoaccept,andanevenmoredifficultonetoadaptto.FornearlythefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyweavoidedthedrycountrythatPikeandLonghadcalledtheGreatAmericanDesert;butbythe1840sand1850swewerepushingouragricultureontothedryplainsandtryingtomythologizearidityoutofexistencebysuchhopefuldelusionsasthatrainfollowstheplow,thatsettlementimprovestheclimate.Whenthatmythbroughtonmuchhumanmiseryandfailureaswellasmuchenvironmentaldamage,wetriedtoengineeraridityoutofexistencebydammingandredirectingtherivers.(Mostoftheresultsofthatplumbingjobarestilltocome,buttheyarecoming.)Or,asaplumbingvariation,werobbedPetertopayPaul:WestoletheOwensValley'swatertomakethesubdivisionoftheSanFernandoValleyrichlyprofitable;weconductedwaterthroughtheRockiesfromtheWesternSlopetopermittheurbansprawlofDenver.
HumaningenuityhasbeenmanipulatingWesternwaterfornearlyacentury,butallouringenuityhasnotincreasedtheamountofwaterorsolvedanyofthesecondaryproblemsthatlackofwatercreates.In1878,ahundredandtwelveyearsago,JohnWesleyPowellinhisReportontheLandsoftheAridRegionwarnedthattherewaswaterenoughintheWesttosupplyonlyaboutafifthoftheland.Beingamanofhistime,thoughconsiderablyaheadofitinmanyways,hewasthinkinginagriculturalterms,andthenewsurveyandhomesteadlawsthatheproposedwouldhaveeasedthedifficultyofWesternsettlement.Congress,dominatedbyboostersandlocalpatriots,ignoredhisproposals,andsettlementwentaheadbytradition,habit,mythologyandgreedinsteadofbyobservationandforethought.
Notevenyethasitsunkintosomeheadsthatthesupplyofwaterisfinite.Wehavewateronlyfromthetimewhenitfallsasrainorsnowuntilithasflowedpastus,abovegroundorbelow,toitsfinaloceanorundergroundreservoir.Wecanholditbackandredirectit,butwe
cannotaddonedroptoitstotalsupply.Infact,theevaporationrateinreallydrycountrybeingasmuchastenfeetayear,wemaylosealmostasmuchofitbypondingitaswesavebyslowingitdown.
Moreover,intheWest,"using"generallymeans"usingup."Whatweputtomunicipalorindustrialuseisnotcomingbackintotheriverstobeavailableforirrigationorifitdoes,itcomesbackpoisoned.Whatisusedinirrigationlargelyevaporates,andanypercentagethatfindsitswaybackintotheriversisincreasinglyladenwithsalts,fertilizers,andpesticidesfromthefields.Andnomatterwhatuseyoufindforthewaterfromariver,everyacre-footyoutakeoutleavesalessenedinstreamflowtosustaintrout,salmon,herons,ducks,rafters,picnickers,skinny-dippers,orwhoeverelsemightfindituseful.In
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Colorado,asinsomeotherWesternstates,youcanliterallydryupastreamifyouhavepriorrightsforsomeso-called"beneficial"purpose.
Ariditymeansmorethaninadequaterainfall.Itmeansinadequatestreams,lakes,andsprings.Itmeansundergroundwaterthatreplenishesitselfmoreslowlythanelsewhere.Insomeplacestheundergroundwaterisfossilwater,irreplaceablewithinanyhumantimeframe.Andsurfaceandsubsurfacewaterarenottwoproblems,butone.
Confrontedbythefactsofchronicshortage,thedecreasingfeasibilityofmoredams,andtheoversubscriptionofriverssuchastheColorado,theboosterssometimesspeakof"augmentation"andsuggestever-greaterengineeringprojects,roughlycomparabletothecanalsofMars,tobringwaterdowntothedrycountryfromtheColumbiaortheYukon,ortowitdownasicebergsfromGlacierBaytoletSanDiegansflushtheirdrivewaysandkeeptheirlawnsverdant.
Pipedreams,arrogantpipedreams.Whyshouldweexpectadeserttoblossom?Ithas,orhaduntilwebegantotinkerwithit,itsownintricatelyinterdependentplantandanimalspecies,includingthecreosote-ringclonesthataretheoldestlivingthingsonearth.TheideaofmakingdesertsblossomissomethingweinheritedfromIsaiah.ItisanideaespeciallydeartotheMormons,andithashadremarkableshort-termsuccesses.Butitisopentoallsortsofquestionswhenwelookveryfarintothefuture.Forfinancialandpoliticalreasons,morethanfortechnicalones,therearelimitstohowfreelywecanmovewaterfromonewatershedtoanother.Thereareecologicaland(Iwouldsay)moralreasonswhyweshouldn't.AsaCrowIndianfriendofminesaidaboutthecoalinhiscountry,"Godputitthere;that'sagoodplaceforit."LotsofthingshavelearnedtodependontheWest'swaterintheplaceswhereitnaturallyoccurs.Itwouldbecomeusto
leavethemtheirlivingspace,becauseifwedon't,wearetakingchanceswithourown.
Soonerorlaterwemustacceptthelimitationsimposedbyaridity,oneoftheprincipalsofwhichisarestrictedhumanpopulation.Westerngrowthhasalowerceilingthantheboostersarewillingtoadmit,andpeopleingeneral,boththosenativetotheWestandthoseluredtoitbyhopeoradvertising,havesofarnotwelcomedlimitationanymoreeagerlythantheboostershave.Fromveryearlyon,theWesthasbeenalandofCockaigne,anIndianValleylinewhereeverydayispayday,aBigRockCandyMountainwherethebluebirdsingstothelemonadespringsandthelittlestreamsofalcoholcometricklingdowntherocks.Ordinarypeople,makingitbyguessandbyGod,ornotquitemakingit,havealwaysunderstoodWesternhardship,buttheyhavebeenatleastassusceptibletodreamsastheambitiousandthegreedy.ThedreamoftheWestisthedreamoftheNewWorldextendedintothepresent.
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EverythingthatbloodyandcongestedEuropeeverhopedforseemedrealizableinAmerica,wheretherewasfreelandforthestealing,whereideasasdifferentastheNobleSavageandtheSocialContractcouldblendwiththeJeffersoniannotionofthefreeholdyeomanfarmerandbegalvanizedbytheManifestDestinypreachedbySenatorThomasHartBentonofMissouri,amongothers.Expectationflowered,hopebecameavestedright.OnlyinWesternAmerica,asWalterWebbpointedout,didtheword"claim"acquirethemeaningofalandentitlement.
Andofcourse,justifyingthehopeandatfirstobscuringtheconsequences,therewastheapparentlyinfiniteplenitudeofthebuffaloherds.TherewastheCaliforniaGoldHush,plusallthesubsequentrushes,toconsolidateourfaithinsomethingfornothingandhardenourhabitofmasstrespassonthepublicdomain.Therewasthelureofwildnessthatdrewthemountainmenandtheirmodernavatars;therewastheromanticmythoftheself-reliant,chivalriccowboy,homemadebyFredericRemingtonandOwenWister;therewastheiconofthestalwartcovered-wagonpioneer.TheWestwillneverlivedownallthatmythology.AthousandyearsfromnowboyswillprobablyberunningawayfromtheEastandMidwesttopursueadreamthattheVirginian,orLouisL'Amour,orJohnWayne,orRonaldReaganimplantedinthem.
Gaudyorhumble,fixedonquickfabulousrichesorfreedomorsecurity,thedreamhashadbothitsboostersanditssuckers.PromotionofdreamshasalwaysbeenathrivingWesternindustryandbeenafoolprooffallbackpositionforWesternpoliticians.FormorethanahundredyearstheWesthasbeenoversoldastheGardenoftheWorld.
WilliamGilpinwastootingthemanifestlydestinarianhornonthebankofCherryCreekasearlyas1858,allbutfoamingatthemouth
overtheopportunitiesavailableforthepluckinginwhathecalledtheCentralGoldRegion.WilliamSmythe,theJohntheBaptistofirrigation,sangavariantofthesamesonginthe1890s,andhelpedbringontheNewlandsActof1902thatstartedtheremaking(andundoing)oftheWest.Inthe1920sLosAngelesrealestatesharksluredthesusceptiblewiththesametuneofunlimitedopportunityandindefinitecapitalappreciation.Duringtheenergyboomofthe1960sIheardBillingsbusinessmenasserting,withawedconviction,thatBillingscouldbecomeasbigasDenver.Andin1988supportersofthesince-repudiatedTwoForksdamwerepredictingapopulationoffourhundredthousandforthetownofAurora,Colorado.GrowthissomethingthathasalwaysputagleamintheeyesofWesternboosters;butgrowthisexactlywhattheWestdoesnotneedandcannotstand.
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Sometimesitishardtotelltheboostersfromthesuckers.Theymaybethesamepeople.TherehavebeenplentyofWesternbuccaneersoftheMarcusDaley-GeorgeHearststamp,butmanyboostershavebeendeludeddeluders,truebelievers,wishfulthinkers,blindfoldprophets,atoncetheagents,thebeneficiaries,andthevictimsofthevastspeculativerealestatedealthatisWesternAmericanhistory.
Wearealltosomeextentguilty,andwehavebeennarrowlyculture-boundinournotionsofpropertyandprogress.Wehavebeenindifferentorhostiletothe"lesserbreeds"thatgotinourway.WehavebeenlargelyignorantofthespecialconditionsandlimitationsthatanyWesternenterprisefromahomesteadtoastripminemustface.Wehavebeencarelessofwhatwedidtotheland,whetherwediditwithasodbusterploworadragline.Likeotherformsofcommunalguilt,ourcrimesagainstthelandwerenotintentional,buttheywerejustasrealasiftheyhadbeen.Weplowedupbuffalograssthatshouldneverhavebeenplowed,toreupmountainsandleftthempittedwithshaftsdangeroustowalkers,leakingmineralpoisons.Weclear-cutthemostandbestofourforests,pumpedouttheundergroundwater.Withenormousfederalsubsidiesdesignedtoprotectlocaljobswithsweetheartleasesandpermits,wehavemadesemi-desertsoutofsomewonderfulrangeandforestcountry,tryingtoassistacattleindustrythatonitsownhasamostdubiousfuture.Wehavecreatedanagribusinessthatisprofitable,undemocratic,andlikelytobeshort-lived,abusinessbuiltoncheapsubsidizedwaterandapoolofdispossessedmigrantlabor.Theminingindustrythatoncerapedthelandhasnow,throughthenewcyanideheapprocessofextractinggold,becomeitspoisoner.Ironically,whatremainstousoftherelativelyundamagedWesthasbeensavedforusbythesamefedswhohelpedushalfspoiltherest.WhichdoesnotpreventonekindofWesterner,generallythekindwhohasprofitedmostfromfederalsubsidies,fromdamningthefedswheneveranythinggoeswrong.
Iknowthathistoricalhope,energy,carelessness,andself-deception.IknewitbeforeIcouldtalk.Myfatherpracticallyinventedit,thoughhequalifiedmoreassuckerthanasbooster,andprofitedaccordingly.
Hewasaboomerfromtheageoffourteen,alwaysonthelookoutforthebigchance,thegroundfloor,theinsidetrack.AsayouthhetriedtheWisconsinandMinnesotawoodsbutfoundonlythemigratorywage-slaverythathasalwaysbeenonepayoffoftheAmericandream.lietriedprofessionalbaseballbutwasn'tquitegoodenough.Inthe
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1890shefloatedouttoNorthDakotaonthetailendofthelandrush,butfoundhimselfinthemidstofaten-yeardroughtandendedupspeculatingingrainandrunningablindpig.Ifyoubelievethattheworldowesyounotmerelyalivingbutabonanza,thenrestrictivelawsaremoreachallengethananinhibition.
WhenitbegantobeclearthatDakota'spromiseswereindistinguishablefromSiberianexile,myfatherdraggedus,bythenafamilyoffour,outthemigrationroutetotheNorthwest.HisgoalwasAlaska,butagainhewasfartoolate:TheKlondikerushwaslongover,mostofthesurvivorshadstraggledback.ForawhileweranalunchroomintheWashingtonwoodswherenowistheSeattlesuburbofRedmond.Theloggersfinishedcuttingdownthetreesandleftusamongthestumps.By1914wewereupinSaskatchewan,partofanotherlandrushwhereforachangewewouldbeinonthegroundfloor,andmakeakillingraisingwheat.
In1915weplowedupahundredacresorsoofbuffalograss,andforawhilewewereawheatfarm.Then,becauseSaskatchewanispartofthearidWestandwewereinwhatwecalledPalliser'sTriangle,thedriestpartofit,webecameatumbleweedpatchandadustbowl.Thenwewereontheroadagain,firsttoMontana,thentoUtah,ultimatelytoCaliforniaandNevada.Rainbowsfloweredformyfatherineveryskyhelookedat;hewasledbypillarsoffireandcloud.InSaltLakeCityhemetsomemenwhohadadoodlebugthatwouldrevealthepresenceofgoldandsilverintheearth,andasaconsequenceofthatIstillhaveinmysafe-depositboxdeedstovarioussquarerodsofNevadagravelandmountainsidethatmyfatherbelievedwouldonedaymakeusrich.
Whilewewaitedforoneofthosebonanzastomaterialize,heranagamblinghouseinReno,anoccupationassymbolicallyrightforhimasfortheWest.Andfinally,likeClarenceKingandmanyanother
gamblernoworseandnobetter,hediedbrokeandfriendlessinafleabagWesternhotel.OutofhislifeImadeanovel,TheBigRockCandyMountain,myfirstandmostheartfeltcommentaryonWesternoptimismandthecommonman'sdreamofsomethingfornothing.
But,somewillobject,iftheboosterspromisetoomuchandthesuckersexpecttoomuch,shouldthatmakeusknockers?Inanyhumanefforttherewillberisksandcasualties.ButobviouslynoteveryonehasfailedintheWest,ortherewouldn'tbe45or50millionpeoplelivingthere,thePacificCoastwouldnotbeconurbiafromSeattletoSanDiego,andDenver,SaltLake,Albuquerque,Phoenix,andTucsonwouldnotbespreadinglikeimpetigo.IftheWestweren'talittleinour
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favor,wewouldn'thavesurvivedit.WhatifSearchlightisdead,andButtedying?BillingsisgoingtobeasbigasDenver;andAspen,ParkCity,Jackson,andTelluridearerebornasskiresortsandculturalcenters.
True,manypeoplelivesuccessfullyintheWest,andmanyofthemcouldnotbebribedtoliveelsewhere,andmorekeepcoming.Theycomelookingforopportunity,butalsotheycomefollowingthehopefuldreamofescapefromindustrialcivilizationanditsdiscontents.Theywanthealthfulspace,cleanair,sun,skiing,avigorousoutdoorlife,accesstomountainanddesertwilderness,emancipationfromthedirt,crime,andcrowdingofthecities.
True,moderncommunicationshaveannihilatedspaceandbrokendowntheformerisolation.Westerntownsandcities,thosethathaven'tbeenoverwhelmedbyanoilorcoaloruraniumboom,havegrownup.ThereareBouldersandBozemansandLogansandMissoulasaswellasRockSprings'sandGillettes.In-migrantshavesweetenedthelocalculturalkitty.TheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsandtheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitieshavebroughtart,theater,music,anddancetocommunitieswhereinmychildhoodaboxsupperwasaprime-timeculturalevent.Westernwritershavebeguntolearntheirhistoryandtheirgeography,andarewritingbooksthatleavethemythstothehorseoperas,themovies,TV,andthepoliticians.AlittlecitylikeMissoulabecomesanauthenticliterarycenter.NewMexico,outofitsmultiplecultures,beginstoproduceIndianandHispanicwritersabletocompeteonaequalbasisthroughouttheEnglish-speakingworld.Uptonow,asIhavenotedelsewhereadnauseam,Westernliteraturehasbeenprettymuchaliteratureofmovement,oftheroad.Nowitshowsoccasionalsignsofgrowingoutofdeeplylived-inplacesandtraditionalculturalclimates.
Westernwriters,itseemstome,arelearningtousealltheirtoolsand
exploretheirrealpossibilities.Theycandealwithboththesanctuaryoftownsonwaterandinshelter,andwiththatawesomespacethatsurroundsthem,andthemobilityitenforces.ThatscriptsaysthattheWestisdynamic,hopeful,ontherightroad,assuredofarichfuture.Butwhilemanybelieveandadoptit,revisionisthistorianssuchasEarlPomeroy,HowardLamar,DonaldWorster,andPatriciaLimericksuggestanother,remindingusofthehistorywhich,ifweignoreit,wewillbedoomedtorepeat.
FortheWesternpastwasnotthetriumphalmarchthatthemythsandtheromanticchroniclershavemadeit.NotalloftheadvertisedamenitiesofthedreamareavailabletoallWesternersnow,norweretheyever.Themountainman'scelebratedandcolorfulsavageryinvolveda
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kindofindenturedwage-slavery,badfood,constanthardship,anunpayabledebttothecompany,andtheopportunitytodieyoung.Thecattlemanmightliveabaronialfreelife,butthecowboy,thatsymbolofpersonalindependence,wasandisahiredmanonhorseback,workinglonghoursforlowpay,hislibertythelibertytoquitonejobandtakeanotherjustasbad,hisfutureinthehandsofthechiropractors.Theminer,oncetheplacersplayedout,hadtomoveonorgotoworkforacorporationAnacondaortheHomestakeortheEmpireortheSilverKingandwhathefoundthereswiftlybroughtontheWesternFederationofMiners,amilitantandangryunionunthinkableinthemythicWestofpersonalindependence.Thehomesteader,havingbethislifeagainst160acresofdryground,fellbackinconfusion,orwasgoonedoffbycattleoutfitsclaimingtherangeandcontrollingthewater.TheIndiansandalotofWesternersareIndians,aswesometimesforgetwerefirstrobbedoftheirlandandtheirlivingandthenstuckonapoorfarm,wheretheystillare,enjoyingunemploymentratesupto60percentandstillwaitingforthewaterduethemundertheWintersDoctrine.AndaverylargenumberofWesterners,mostlyHispanic,followthecropsasmigrants,homelessanddispossessedandwithoutwhattheWestusedtocallaChinaman'schanceofbecomingfree,independent,landholdingfarmersofthekindthatThomasJefferson,theHomesteadAct,andtheNewlandsActallhadinmind.
TheWest,asWalterWebbpointedout,isanoasiscivilization.TheoverwhelmingmajorityofWesternersareurban.Theircitieshavetheillsthatcitieselsewheredofamilybreakup,slums,homelessness,drugs,crime,smog,violenceandsomethatarepeculiarlytheirown.Foroneexample,SanDiego,oneofthefastest-growingcitiesinAmerica,hasbeengrowingforyearsonwaterthatlegallybelongstoArizona.WhentheCentralArizonaProjectbeginsdivertingalltheColoradoRiverwateritisentitledto,waterthatuntilnowSanDiego
hasbeenenjoying,thenSanDiegowillbescramblingforaugmentation,whichwillbehardtofind.Anditwillprobablyblamethefedsforthefixitisin.
Anoasiscivilization.Peoplesettledwheretherewaswaterandleftessentiallyemptythewidedryspacesinbetween.Itwasariditythatmadethoseemptyspaces,andthatalsobroughtintobeingthefederalbureauschargedwithmanagingapublicdomainlargelyunfitforhumanhabitation.Humanengineeringletusmoveoutalittleintotheemptyspaces;butaltogether,inallitshistory,theBureauofReclamationreclaimedonlyanareaaboutthesizeofOhio.Nowweareattheendofthedam-buildingeraandclosetotheendofourexploitationofundergroundwater.ThewatertablearoundTucsonandPhoenix,where90percentofthewatercomesfromwells,hasbeenpumpeddownseveral
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hundredfeet.InthecentralvalleyofCalifornia,thoughthereissubstantialwaterfromreclamationdams,itislikewisepumpeddown.TheOgallalaAquiferunderNebraska,Kansas,andOklahomawillsoonbepumpeddry.Idon'tknowaboutotherstates,butinCaliforniathereisnocontrolwhateverofpumping.Theanswertoadryyearoralightsnowpackistodeepentheexistingwellsanddrillnewones.Thelogicalendofthatpracticeisnothardtoimagine.
Thereisapointtoallthiscalamityhowling.AsPatriciaLimerickhaspointedoutinLegacyofConquest,Westernboomshavealmostalwaysbeenraidsonasingleextractiveresourcebeaver,grass,gold,coal,whateverandtheyhavealwaysbeenfollowedbybusts,eitherbecausetheresourceranoutorbecausefierceWesternconditionsofheat,cold,ordroughtcamedownonthehopefullikethewrathofGodonSennacherib'sarmy(remembertheBigDie-UponWesternrangesinthewinterof1886-1887,ortheotheroneexactlytwentyyearslaterintheMontana-Alberta-Saskatchewancountry?),orbecausetheworldmarketbroke,asthebeavermarketbrokeonachangeinhatstylesabout1840.AyearortwoagoIwouldhavehadtoputDallasandFortWorthonmylistofWesterncitiesthatarespreadinglikeringworm.Notnow,eveninspiteofSaddamHussein'sadventureinKuwait.Thepointis,thingsthathappeninthePersianGulf,inBasrahorBahrainorBaghdad,cancooloffaWesternboomorheatitupassurelyascanthepeteringoutoftheresourceoranattackoflocalweather.
InBernardDeVoto'sphrase,Westerneconomicshavealwaysbeentheeconomicsofliquidation.Evenpresumablyrenewableresourcessuchastimberandgrasshavebeenmined,notnourished.TheblamehasoftenbeenlaidonEasterncapitalists,butwhenevertheyhavehadthechance,Westernershavehappilyplunderedthemselves.Fromtheverybeginning,AmericansapproachedtheWestnotastheChildrenofIsraelapproachedtheLandofCanaan(excepttheMormons,whodid
justthat),butasEgyptiangraverobbersmightapproachthetombofapharaoh.
Noboomseemstolearnmuchfromthepreviousones.Inacountrywhereourmostpreciousresourceiswater,wetreatwaterwastefullyandshort-term.IfdrainagefromouraditsthreatenstopoisontheWestRosebud,satisfyprotesterswiththelowestpossibledenominatorofprevention.IfinadryyearMontanastreamsrunlow,thegovernorjustifiestherancherswhodrainthemcompletelytobenefitasecond-ratealfalfacrop,whilethetroutandsalmonandthetouristindustry,whichisworthsixlimesthealfalfacropflopinthegravel.Ifourclear-cutslopesfillthespawningstreamswithsiltandourdamscutofftheColumbiaRiversalmonrunbytwo-thirds,too
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bad;withourwinningswecangofishinginIcelandorNewZealand.Ifweknowthatthefloodirrigationindesertvalleyswilleventuallyturnthefieldsintoalkaliflats,allthemorereasontominecropsoutoftherewhilewecan.IfourrunoffpondsareonthewaytoKestersonization,wehadbettergetonwithourlootingandpollutingbeforesomeinterferingFedtriestostopus.
IflargeareasoftheWestarewellonthewaytobecomingdesert,andifovergrazingisoneoftheprincipalcauses,pushinmorecattleandgettheBLMtochainmoresquaremilesofpiñon-juniperforesttocreatemorerangeforustomakeintodesert.Timeisshort.Ifoursmokestacks,asatFourCornersandPage,dirtywhatwasoncethebestairinAmerica,whythat'sthepriceofprogress.Andifourstripminescutintocoalbedsthatarealsoaquifers,withconsequencesnoonecanpredict,wecan'tstopourdraglinesforsuchhypotheticalreasons.Wemusttakeopportunitybytheforelockandscalpit.WemustkeeppushingourcoalleasesintothePowderRivervalleyandintotheCrowandNorthernCheyennereservations,thoughifwesucceedwewilldisplacebothIndiansandrancherswhohavebeentheresinceGeorgeArmstrongCusterwasacorpse.
IfIthoughttheAmericanDreamwasonlythedreamofbonanzathatmyfatherlivedbyandthatcontemporaryenergyconglomerateslivebyandthatagribusinessandthestockmenandtheminingindustrylivebyandthatpoliticiansapplaudasthespiritthatwontheWest,IcouldbeprettypessimisticabouttheWest'sfuture.Itcouldeasily,undertheattacksofthosewhowillnotadmititslimits,degenerateanddeteriorateuntilnotevenmassiveengineeringcankeepitliveable.Itcouldachieveitsproperpopulationsparsenessthehardwayandendupsupportingfarfewerpeopleandcattleandsheepthanitwouldifitweretreated,inthecantwordofcontemporaryenvironmentalism,''sustainably."Forwecannotforgetthatthedrycountryheals,ifatall,veryslowly.YoucanstillseeGeneralPatton's
tanktracks,leftfromthedeserttrainingexercisesofWorldWarII.Poisonedearthstayspoisonedforthelackofraintoleachandflushit.Bareeartherodesineverythunderstormforlackofrootsandplantstobindandholdit.TheAmericanWestisoneplacewhereanounceofpreventionisworthatonofcure.
Inthesummerof1926wemadeanexcursionthroughthesouthernUtahnationalparksandthenorthrimoftheGrandCanyon.AllthroughtheKaibabNationalForest,ineverylagoonandmeadow,thereweredeerintensandhundreds.MybrotherandI,tryingtokeepcount,losttrackinthatwildernessofanimals.Whatwewereseeingwasaclassicinstanceofapopulationexplosion,whenthewolvesandmountainlionsthat
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normallykeptthedeernumbersdownhadmainlybeenkilledoff.Withoutnaturalenemies,andwithhuntingprohibitedinthenationalpark,theherdsproliferatedlikelaboratorymice.Theywereasplendidsight,aspiritualexhilarationsuchasIhavenothadsince,exceptinTanzaniaduringthewildebeestmigration.Buttherewasacatch,oneweknewtoolittletounderstand:Thebrowsethatthedeerdependedonwasallgone.Wesawbucksstandingontheirhindlegstoreachtheuntastyhangingsprigsofponderosapines.Thatwinterthosedeerintheirthousandswerealldead,starvedtodeath.Whatwasalmostworse,theywouldnotrecoverforalonglongtime,becausebeforestarvingtodeaththeyhaddestroyedtheirownhabitat.
That,Isubmit,iswhatthepeopleoftheplainsandmountainsanddesertshadbetternotdo.IfIknewtheanswertotheWest'sfuture,IwouldcarryittoeverylegislativehallfromHelenatoSantaFe.ButIdon't.AllIknowisthatwhatevercombinationofranching,mining,logging,andtakingineachother'swashtheWestfinallycomesto,alloftheextractiveindustriesaregoingtohavetobefarmorescrupulousabouttheenvironmentthantheyhavebeeninthepast,andthatthepermanentpopulationoftheWesternstatesisgoingtobealotsmallerthantheboostersproject.
WhenIpondertheeffectsthedreamhasalreadyhadonthecountryIknewsixty-fiveorseventyyearsago,IremembertheadvicethatSatangavetheworldattheendofMarkTwain'sTheMysteriousStranger."Dreamotherdreams,andbetter!"Satanadvised.1Hewasspeakingofthedreamofhumanlife,andspeakingasarealpessimist;butasapersonofwideexperienceheshouldbelistenedto,andhiswisdomappliedwhereveritworks.Dreamotherdreams,andbetter.
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HOMEONTHERANGEforWallaceStegner
[sing:]Home,homeontherangeWherethedeerandtheantelope
[]
Chokeonfumespartcarbondioxidepartairborneasbestosyaireoffewerandfewerpartsoxygen.HomeontherangewhereonacoldbrightMarchmorningtheynibblegrassbladesymorassparklingfrostandlaceyedgesofuranium,shinyasfluorescentslimeonrancidham.
[sing:]Whereseldomisheardadiscouragingword []
GreatMiamiRivercontaminationRockyFlats ThreeMile
IslandFernaldOhio ButteMontana
BlackMesa
toxicwaste hazards
contaminants radioactiveleaksnuclearaccidentsTimetoheartheencouragingSTOP!Stopburningcoal!Stopcuttingtrees!Stopsprayingaerosols!Stopdrivingyourcareveryday!Stopignoringgov't/corporatecrimesagainstairlaketreesoil!Thesamecrimesthatgaveus
Page231Indiansorrow/slavesorrow/mestizosorrow/allsorrow.That'sthepathtowardasocietytomatchthescenery:turntheencouragingwordintoaseedofesperanzaforanangle,notawhole,butanangleofrepose,forafuture
[sing:]Wheretheskiesarenotcloudyallday. []
CordeliaCandelaria
PARTSEVENMr.Jeffersonin1990
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THEAMERICANWEST:THEDREAMFROMTHEVANTAGEPOINTOFCOLORADOIN1990ClayStrausJenkinson
Iamgivenaratherdifficultchallengethisafternoon.Iaminstructedtorespondrespectfullytoeachofthepapersthathasbeendelivered;toanswercertaincharges,someofthempolite,othersrude,leveledagainstmethisafternoon;toentertainarangeofaudiencequestionsandgivethecitizensgatheredheretheirfirstrealopportunitytoparticipateinademocraticdialoguetoday;tosumuponacheerfulnote;andtodismissyou.Allinabouteightminutes.Iamtempted,asIdidinallofthearenasofmylife,toshrinkfromsuchachallengeandtorunoutandbuyalaptopcomputer,thelogicalimpulseforthemanwhotinkeredwithportabledesksandthemany-writer,thepaperpolygraphstillondisplayatMonticello.IamremindedofGeoffreyChaucer'sprologuetoTheCanterburyTalesinwhichheepitomizesthecharacterofhisclerkwiththephrase,"andgladlywouldhelearn,andgladlyteach."Thoseofusfromthepasthavemoretolearnfromyourculturethantoteachyou.Iwillbebrief.AndthenIwillturntoyouforyourcommentsandquestions,althoughafterwitnessingafewfragmentsoftheyeastystuffofmoderndemocracyheretoday,Iwilladmittosensingtheadventofoneofthosemigraineheadachesthatplaguedmeallofmyadulthood.
Firstofall,letmesaythatIaminsympathywiththecrustyhumilityofWallaceStegner,whoseextraordinaryletterProfessorWilkinsonreadaloudearlier.Mr.Stegner,whosecrabbybuthonestprosestyleremindsmeagreeablyofmyoldfriendJohnAdams,asks,"HasanybodycarvedmyfaceonamountaininSouthDakota?"Inmy
view,thisissomethingnottobewishedfor,notmerelybecauseitneedlesslydefacesnature,and(inmycase)inaratherbadlikeness,butmoreimportantlybecauseitperpetuatesthemythofa"GoldenAgeof
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FoundingFathers,"demigodsparticularlyprudentandfarsighted.Encouragingthatmythdisablesyoufromtakingbackyourlivesinyourowntime.Asecularnationmustnotcreatesaints.Shakespearesomewheresaysthatweareallmenfrail,andcapableoffrailty.AsanEnlightenmentoptimist,Isayequallythatweareallmenbold,andcapableofrefashioningtheworldofhumanaffairs.
Second,Iwanttogetinmysolethemeearlyandemphatically.Nothingissacredbuttherightsofman;allelseisnegotiable.EverythingIstruggledtoachieveisessentiallyencapsulatedinthatsimplecreed.Ihavearticulatedoncetodaymypastoralvision,aVirginianpictureofaquietpeoplelivingunobtrusivelyontheland,mindingtheirownbusinessandlivinginanationthatmindsitsownbusinessawayfromthearenasofmercantilismandBonaparte.Thisportraitofanation,wherehappinessandfreedomaremoreimportantthanpowerandwealth,mayormaynotseemappropriatetoyouinthelatetwentiethcentury.Itisnotformetosay.Theearthbelongstothelivingandnotthedead.Perhapsmyvisionwasfundamentallyinerror.ThephotographicimagesIsawtodaysuggestedtomethatperhapsmyunderstandingoftheclimateandphysiognomyoftheWestwasmisguided.InmyowntimeIsawLouisianaasakindofinfiniteexpansionoftheOhiovalley:lush,fertile,well-watered,contouredliketheGardenofEden.Theruggednessandtheariditythathavebeenbroughthometometoday,bytechnologiesimpossibletoconceivewhenmovabletypewasstillthrillingandahorselesscarriageproducednomotion,wouldperhapsleadmetorethinksomeofmypastoralvision,atleastinthetrans-MississippiWest.(Ontheotherhand,Ihadbetteradmit,beforeaneo-Hamiltoniancountscouponme,thatItendedtoclingstubbornlytofavoriteideas,evenwhentheweightofevidencemadethemhardtosustain.)Letusatleastconsidermypastoralismdebatable.
Whatthenremainsofmyachievementforyoutoclingtoinyourown
troubledtimes?Theanswerissimple:Nothingissacredbuttherightsofman;allelseisnegotiable.Youreconomyisanartifice,aconstruct,andthereareundoubtedlymanyothereconomiesyoumightsuccessfullytry.IamtoldthateconomicopportunityisveryunevenlydistributedinyourtimesandthatmillionsofAmericansarehomeless,incapableoffindingworkorreducedtoformsoflabornotinharmonywiththedignityofman.Yourconstitutionismerelyarecipeforgovernment.IwasnotattheConstitutionalConventionof1787,butIknowfrommyfriendJamesMadisonandthegreatGeneralWashingtonthatfewoftheFoundingFathers(aconvenientterm,butoneIdislike)thoughtthenewconstitutionlikelytolastmorethanaboutaquarterofacentury.Itwasastartatnationalgovernment.Thedocumentof'87
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wouldeventuallybereplacedbysomethingbetter.Youhavemadeitinsteadasemi-sacreddocument,likethearkofthecovenant,toosacredtobetouched.Inmyview,thatisagreatmistake.Constitutions,politicalsystems,tripartitestructuresofgovernment,methodsofwriting,enacting,enforcing,andamendinglawsallthesearenegotiable.Theyareartifice.Nothingissacredbuttherightsofman.KeepyourBillofRights,orratherrecognizetherightsofmanandarticulateandrearticulatethoserightsasoftenasnecessary,butexperimentboldlyandevenirreverentlywitheverythingelseinlife.Historyonthewholeonlyteachesuswhatbadgovernmenthasbeen.Historyisarecordoffailures,ofanirrationalobsessionwithtradition,receivedideas,sacrosanctnotions,andunnaturalhabits.WemayaswellwearasadultsthesuitsthatfitteduswhenwewereboysasliveaccordingtothebarbarousregimenofourancestorsandthatincludesMr.Madison'sregimenandindeedmine.Yououghttoexperimentboldly,yououghttoseektomakeyourpoliticsequaltoyourdreamsofjustice,yououghttorepudiatethepastasoftenasnecessary.Yourchargeasyoumoveintothenextcenturyistocompletetherevolutionatlast,tofulfillthepromiseoftheDeclarationofIndependence.Thatpromiseistwofold:First,thateveryhumanbeingbornonthiscontinentbetreatedequallyinthemachineryofthelawand,second,thateveryhumanbeingbornonthiscontinentbeentitled,notbythegraceofGodorbythegenerosityofgovernment,butbythelawofnature,tosomethinglikeroughlyequaleconomicopportunity.UnlesseveryonehasasolidchancetothriveasanAmericancitizen,youmustnotpermitunusualaccumulationsofpowerandwealthinthehandsofthefew.Thisistheworld'sonlytruemeritocracy.Thatsystemworksbestonlyworks,infactwithlittleornogovernmentinterference.Butthenaturalaristocracy,asIcalledit,canonlyrisetohumbleleadershipifyouleveltheplayingfieldsothatartificialprivilegedoesnotlorditoverapurposefullyoppressedcitizenry.Untilyoureachthosetwosimplebutelusivegoals,yououghtto
revolutionizethissocietyasoftenasnecessary,andcertainlyonceeachgeneration.Ilikealittlerevolutionnowandthen.
Ihaveheardtodayachorusofanxiety,aconsciousnessofdeepfailureinAmericanhistory,aseriesofdescriptionsofexploitations,sometimessystematic,oflandandpeople,particularlytheaboriginalinhabitantsofthiscontinent.AndIhaveseenglimpsesamongthecitizensoftheWestofanunhappyawarenessofadependencyuponpowerandfinancialcenterselsewhere.Freedomandeconomicdependencyareacontradictioninterms.Myanswertoyourdreadandresentmentisnotthatyouwringyourhandsindespair,butthatyoubeginthebusinessofrevolution,includingpossiblybloodyrebellion.Let
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meofferyousixorsevenquickstrategiesforrevolution.Almostaloneamongtheso-calledrevolutionariesof1776,Iamnotafraidofbloodshedandterroriflibertyisatstake.Isaid,"Thetreeoflibertymustberefreshedfromtimetotimewiththebloodofpatriotsandtyrants.Itisitsnaturalmanure."1Aloneamongthefounders,IwenttomygravedefendingtheFrenchRevolution,includingtheReignofTerror.Apeoplethatwishestoenjoyitsnaturalrightsmustneverrenounceterrorism.Still,perhapsyouneednotresorttobloodshed,notyet.
Youhaveatyourfingertipsconstitutionalmechanismswithwhichtorevolutionizeyourpoliticallandscapealmostovernight.Youhavethepolls:anelectioneverytwoyearsforallmembersoftheHouseofRepresentativesinyournationalCongress,theelectioneveryfourthyearofthepresident,andtheelectioneverysixthyearofU.S.senators.Theroot-boundincumbencyofyourowntimeisashamefulrepudiationofrepublicanprinciples.Amateurgovernmentandrapidrotationinofficearetheheartandsoulofarepublicansystem.Careerismisthedeathofself-rule."Wheneveramancastshiseyelonginglyonpublicoffice,acertainrottennessofcharacterissuretocreepin."Thesimplestapproachtorevolutioninyourtimeissimplytoreturnallnationalofficerstoprivatelifeatthenextopportunity,goodmenandbad.Thenstartfresh.Youhavethatmechanismofrevolutioninyourhands.Whywringyourhandswhenyoucanwieldsuchpowerwiththem?
Perhapsyoumightattemptafewcheerfulimpeachmentsnowandthen.Asalifelongenemytothejudiciary,thatcorpsofsappersandminersdedicatedtothedestructionofAmericanliberties,Isuggestthatyoubeginwiththejudges.Lifetenureisanaffronttoself-government.Soisjudicialreview,oneofmyVirginiacousinJohnMarshall'sdubiousgiftstotheAmericanpoliticalsystem.Thewillofthepeopleisexpressedintheirelectedlegislatures.Legislativebodies
must,inaconstitutionalcrisis,besupreme.Ifinditappallingthatyoupermitanoligarchyofnineunelected,unaccountable,andvirtuallyunimpeachablejuriststodeterminewhatisconstitutionalandwhatisnot.Inademocraticrepublicthewillofthemajoritymustinallcasesprevail,even,Ifeelcompelledtoinsist,whenthatmajorityisinsensitivetothewilloftheminority.
Youmightalsotrytoamendyourconstitution.InmyownlifetimeIfearedthattheamendmentprocesshadbeenmadetoodifficult,butitisneverthelesspossibleandIurgeyoutoattemptit.Asafirmbelieverthatthetruthisgreatandwillprevailwhenlefttoitselfinthefreemarketplaceofideas,Iurgeyoutobuildamajorityforchangebyway
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ofeducation,persuasion,thegradualspreadofenlightenmentandthelightofscience.
Ifamendmentdoesn'tsuityou,tearupyourconstitution.IsuggestedthateveryconstitutionbewritteninplainEnglish,thatitbestrictlyandnotbroadlyinterpreted,thatitbeamendedwhenitceasestobeuseful,thatwhenitceasestobeamendableitbetornup,andthat,underanycircumstance,everyconstitutionstate,local,andnationalbetornupeverynineteenyears(oncepergeneration).Insistuponthatsimplemechanismofpeacefulrevolutionandyoucanstarttheworldoveragaininyourtime.
Ifthatdoesn'twork,secede.Thecompacttheoryofgovernmentguaranteesthateachstateisasovereignentityandthattheconfederationisavoluntarycompactofsovereignconstituentstates.Wheneveranystatefeelsthatitisnotbeingtreatedwellinthenationalconfederation,ithasasacredrighttosecede.Tryit.ItwillatleastgettheattentionofWashington.Asarivalrepublicyoumaydiscoverformsofgovernmentandpursuitsofhappinessthatwillinspirestatesmoretimidthanyourown.Asalonerepublicyouwillofnecessitylearnagainthepainfulbutvirtuouslessonsofself-sufficiency,andyouwilllearnthatmuchofwhatyouconsideressentialtoyourmaterialhappinessnotonlydoesnotmakeyouhappy,butinfactenslavesandenervatesyouwiththeluxuriesofcorruptempire.
Andfinally,andmoreseriously,whenyouhaveexhaustedallpeacefulmeansofbuildingaself-reliantagrarianutopiaandautopiainmyviewisnotaliteraryillusion,butanurgentdemandforallhumanitythenyoumay(andmust)begintoemployterror.Itmayevenbenecessarytokillinnocentpeopleinthestreets.Ipreferpeacefulchange,andwhenbloodshedisnecessaryIprefersurgicalviolencetoindiscriminateslaughter,butyoumustneverforgetthatbloodshedand
terrorarethepriceofhumanliberty.Ifyouabdicateterror,youwillnotlongremainfree.Historyteachesusnomoreclearandemphaticlesson.
ToallofthegloomandhelplessnessthatIhaveheardtoday,Ianswerthattherearesimplemechanismsofrevolutioninyourhands.Ifyouchoosenottousethem,itisyouandnotyoursocialstructurethatistoblameforyourdependencies.Painstakinglyexhaustpeacefulmeansfirstandthenbreakforthyourmusketsandpitchforks.Violenceisnottobeindulgedforlightandtransientcauses.Norisitalwaystobeeschewedbymenofhumanityandpeace.
Thereisasuggestion,implicitinourconversationstoday,thattherehasbeensomethinginevitableaboutAmericanhistory.ThelogicseemstobethatalthoughyouoftenbroughtgoodintentionstotheWest,
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neverthelessinevitablyyouexploitedtheresourcesandthepeoplesthatyouencountered.Inevitablyyoudisplacedtheaboriginalsovereigns,inevitablyyoulostsightofthepastoralvision,inevitablyyouerodedtherepublicandputempireinitsplace,inevitablyyoureplacedsmallfamilyfarmswithMr.Hamilton'sindustrialestates,inevitablymanyofthemostsublimeplacesofthecontinenthadtobe''developed"inthenameofhumanprogress.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.Wearemastersofourdestiny.ThatisthechiefgloryandperhapsthecurseoftheAmericanexperiment.ItisthismyththatIwishtocombatespecially.YouchosetheAmericaof1990.Therearenoironlawseconomic,political,social,environmentalofhistory.TheAmericanpeoplehaditintheirpowertocreateapastoral,decentralized,peacefulandisolationistnation,apluralisticnation,anationthatprizeddiversityandlibertyanddissent.Youchosenottomaintaintherepublic.Thiswasnotinevitable.Youareslavestonokingandnoprinciplesofculture.YouwroughtyourAmericabychoice.TherewasafiercedebateinmytimebetweenMr.Hamilton'svisionofAmericaandmyown.WefoughtliketwococksinthecabinetofthegreatGeneralWashington.Therewereothervisionsatlargeinthemarketplaceofeighteenth-centuryideas,someofthemattractivetome,othersrepellenttomyvision.Inmytimethepeoplepreferredmyvision,thougheventhentheyhadbeguntovotewiththeirpursesandtheirfeetforprinciplesnotinharmonywiththeEnlightenment.Sometimeaftermydeathin1826,amajorityofthecitizensoftheUnitedStatesgavethemselvesovertoMr.Hamilton'sdreamofaworldmilitaryandindustrialempire.YouarenowathoroughlyHamiltoniannationwithathinJeffersonianveneer,anditshows.ThepeopleoftheUnitedStateshavevoted.Theworldbelongstothelivingandnotthedead.Ihavenotcometoday,likeHamlet'sfather,towhetyouralmostbluntedrepublicanappetite.IfyouarecontentwithMr.Hamilton'svision,thenIintrudeuponyourworldonlyasapatheticantediluvianwithaquaintpastoraldream.Asa
democratandanoptimistsomesayafatuousoptimistIcanhavenoquarrelwiththefuture.
If,however,youopposetheempireanditsdislocationsoftherightsofmanhereandinyourclientstates,ifyoupreferdecentralizationtoconsolidation,andhappinesstogettingandspending,ifyoubelievethatthepurposeofAmericaistoexpandtheEnlightenmentandneveragainpermithumanprogresstobedarkenedbytheforcesofunreasonandauthority,ifyouwishtoliveaccordingtothedictatesofnature,andaboveallifyouwishtogovernyourselves,thenyouareatoddswithMr.Hamiltonandyoumustbegintherevolutiontoday.Thereisnothinginevitableinhumanaffairs.Itstrikesmeastheoddestofallparadoxes
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thatAmericanstheargonautsofhumanfreedomwoulddescendintotheconvenientmythofinevitability.ForifAmericastandsforanything,itstandsforlibertyandpossibility.Forapeoplewhohaveprizedtheirfreedoms,foughtforthem,erectedaBillofRightstoprotectthem,in1990toshrugtheirshouldersandsay,"Wehadnochoice,thisishowsocietieswork,itwasinevitable,whatcouldwehavedone?"isinmyviewapatheticabdicationofenlightenedresponsibilityandasuggestionthattheloftyrhetoricoftheNewWorldwasasemptyasthesophistryoftheoldorder,thebabbleofkingsandtherighteousnessofpriesthoods.ThomasPainesaidyouhaveitinyourpowertobegintheworldoveragain.I'dstarttonight.
Finally,althoughIhavepagesofnotesonthepapersthatIhaveheardandwishtorespondtothemall,IhavetimetorespondonlytoDavidCarrasco,professorofreligiousstudies,becauseIthinkheaskedthemostimportantofallthequestionswehaveheardtoday.lieargued,ifIunderstandhim,thatalthoughAmericancivilizationisthestoryofextraordinaryviolence,neverthelessthemythsthatwelivebyfreedom,justice,andopportunityforall,theconstitutionalorder,theruleoflaw,theextensionofthefranchiseofhappinessaremythsthatcondemnviolenceandexploitationandpromisehigherstandardsonthissideoftheAtlantic.AccordingtoProfessorCarrasco,resolvingtheAmericanparadox,comingtotermswithourviolenceratherthanpaperingitoverwithJeffersonianpastoralism,shouldbethebusinessofAmericanintegrity.Perhapsheisrightandperhapsheisn't.HisportraitofAmericanhistorysoundsbleakintheearsofanoptimist.Buthedoesraisethegreatquestionofthehumanities:IsitpossibleforanationliketheUnitedStatestobreakwiththepast,toliftthestandardsofhumanbehavior?OrishumannatureconstantandinsomesenseevenmoreevilinAmericabecauseofallthefreeresourcesandinfinitespacesthatwereavailabletoexploitwiththatdarkhumannaturehedescribes?Myownviewisquitedifferentfrom
his.Ibelievethathumansarebasicallygood,thatwhentheydoevilitisnotthroughtheirnaturebutbecausetheyaredistortedbybadinstitutionsandbadhabits.Andifwewillonlyreforminstitutionstobeequaltohumandignityandreason,andeducatethepeopleliberally,thenhumanswillrisetothechallengeoflivingingoodsenseandforbearanceandmutualunderstanding.Inshort,Idonotbelievethathumannatureisconstant.Ibelieveinprogress.LikethemoremoderatephilosophiesofFrance,Iproposethatweareindefinitely,althoughperhapsnotinfinitely,perfectible.Afriend,lateinlife,wrotemealettersaying:Mr.Jefferson,youhavegivenyourlifetothedestructionofthefourpillarsoftheoldorder:monarchy,aristocracy,thepriesthood,andstandingarmies.
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Whatthenislefttoholdoursocietytogether?InresponseIgaveasimpleandcharacteristicanswer.Isaid:Sir,theglueofagreatcultureiseducation.Ifweenlightenthepeoplegenerally,everyformoftyranny,bothofmindandbody,willdisappearlikefogandwitcheswhenthesunrisesinthemorning.Butifyouexpecttobeanationignorantandfree,youexpectsomethingthatneverhasbeenandnevercanbeinthehistoryoftheworld.Restraintinademocracyistheessentialvirtue.Thequestionyoutakeintothetwenty-firstcenturyis:Canaself-governingcitizenryrestrainitself?Ifnot,theWestisingravetrouble.
Therearethreeprerequisitesforrestraintinaself-governingsociety.First,educationisthefoundationofeverythingthatmattersinafreesociety.Contactwithnature,lifeinastateofnature,istheseconddesideratum.AndthethirdnecessityissomethingIliketocallourmoralsense.Youmightcallitconscience.Ibelieveweourbornwithamoralsensethatisasacuteasoursenseoftaste,smell,orhearing.Andifwewillonlyconsultitonalloccasions,justiceandgoodsensewillburstforthallovertheplanet.Inshort,inspiteofwhatIhaveheardtoday,Iremainanoptimist.Ihopeyouwillnotdismissmeasanaiveoptimist.Youhaveitinyourpowertobegintheworldoveragain.Itbeginswithyou.Indeed,whereelse?
Iwillsayonemorewordbeforeturningtowhateverquestionsyouhave.PhilipBurgess,withwhomIagreeinlargepart,saidearliertodaythatwemustinsistthatourcitizenstakeresponsibility.Idisagree.Thatisanimpositionofenlightenment.Wewillonlybeagreatnationwhenourcitizensspontaneouslytakeresponsibility.Thatdoesnotrequireanygovernmentatall.
ThePresidentgraciouslyagreedtoentertainafewquestionsfromtheaudience.Hereisasample.
Question:Mr.President:YouhavelearnedthatyourLouisianaPurchase
hasnotyetbeendigestedbythepeople.Largepartsofitremaininfederalhands,asyouknow,atafearfullosstothefederaltreasury.YouhaveheardthemayorofMissoula,Montana,suggestthatthisshouldbechanged.IwonderifyouwouldadvisethemayorofMissoulatoleadasecession,toformanewcountry,perhapscalledJeffersonia,andtotaketheremnantsoftheLouisianaPurchaseandotherfederalinstallationswithhim.
Answer:DoIsuggestsecession?Theworldbelongstotheliving,notthedead.Ifyoudosecede,however,IurgeyounottocallthiscountryJeffersonia.
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Question:Sir,Iwouldliketoknowyourdefinitionofman.Ifnothingissacredbuttherightsofman,Iwonderifyouwouldbewillingtoexpandyourdefinitionofmantoincludewomen,blacks,allhumanbeingsandalsolifeandstructureinotherwords,treesandmountainsandcanyonsandanimals....Isitpossiblethattheirrightsaresacred?
Answer:BymanImeanallhumanbeings,ofallcolors,ofallcreeds,ofalleconomicbases,andbothgenders.Thisisanabsolutestatement.HadmycountrymenknownofhowabsolutelyImeantmyfelicitousphrasein1776,theywouldprobablynothaveapprovedoftheDeclarationofIndependence.WeareidenticalatbirthintheeyesoftheCreator;weareentitledthroughoutourlivestobetreatedidenticallyinthepoliticalarena.Inthemachineofthelaw,therightsofallhumanbeingsareequal.Rightsmaynotalwaysbeadheredtoequallybygovernment,butthatisonlyameasureofthecorruptionofgovernment,notofthelimitsofthisprinciple.
Havingsaidthat,Iwillnowproceedtoconfirmyourimpliedcriticismofmyachievement,whichItaketobethepointofyourquestion.Mycandidviewwasthatblackpeopleandwhitepeoplewouldneverlivetogetherinharmonyonthiscontinentbecauseofthepoisonoftheinstitutionofslavery.Whiteslavemasterswouldalwaysfearreprisalafteremancipation,andfreedslaveswouldalwaysresenttheirformermasters.Itwasmyhopethatonceemancipationcame,ourblackbrethrenwouldchoosetorepatriatethemselvesintheirnativeAfrica.Iftheydidnotwishtodothis,IsuggestedablackhomelandsomewhereintheAmericanWest.Butitwasmycandidbeliefthattherewouldbepermanentracialtensioninthissocietybecauseoftheplagueofslaverywithwhichwebeganournationalexperiment.Thisisnotatallapleasantsubjectfordiscourse.IalwaysrememberedtheBritishmoralistSamuelJohnson'sstatementduringourrevolution.Isn'titinteresting,hesaid,thatthosewhoyelploudestforlibertyarealsothedriversofNegroslaves?
IndiansIsawsomewhatdifferently.Isawthemaseverybitourequals,inmanyrespectsoursuperiors.Theirgovernmentsweresuperiortoourown.Theyenjoyedtrueanarchy,nogovernmentatall.Theirreligionswerenomoreirrationalthanours,andinmanywaysless.ThesepeoplewerelivingaccordingtothedictatesofnatureandtheywereproofthatJohnLocke,
Rousseau,andothertheoristswerenotsimplyfictionalizingwhentheyspokeofmaninastateofnature.Herewerepeoplelivinginastateofnature.Theythrived.Itwasourdutynottoexploitthesepeople,buttolearnfromthemandatlengthtointermingleandintermarrywiththem.
Thelegalrightsofwomenofcoursemustbeprotected.WhenIrevisedthelawsofVirginiain1777,Iincludedprovisionstoamelioratethepropertylawsandotherlegalrightsofwomen.Mydaughters
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wereamongthebest-educatedwomenintheUnitedStates.Butifyouareaskingwhetherwomenshouldvoteorholdpublicoffice,thenImustindeedbeamanofmyowncenturyandremindyouthatthetenderbreastsofladieswerenotformedforpoliticalconvulsion.
Question:MayIbrieflyfollowupthatquestion?Arelifeandstructurepartofyourdefinitionofman?Inotherwords,doyouhaveregardlegallyforanimalsandthelanditself?
Answer:Ipridedmyselfonbeingontheenlightenedsideofeveryquestion,tostayasteportwoaheadofmycountrymen,butalwaystostayroughlywithintheboundariesoftheirownsenseofthings.Iwasaneighteenth-centuryman.Isubscribedtotheideaofanintricatechainofbeing.Ibelievedwithoutanyapologythathumansoccupythetopofthatchainofbeingand,althoughtheearthdoesnotexistforusalone,weareitsprimaryconstituents.Iftheworldaroundusmustbeadjusted,itisbetterthatitbeadjustedbyhumansratherthanspongesorwolves.Youmaydisagreeinyourtime,butrememberthatIsawtheworldfrombeforetheIndustrialRevolution,andthatmakesallthedifference.I'munabashedlyahumanist.Still,theconceptofusufructsuggeststhatwemustuseourexaltedstatusonthechainofbeingwithrespectandrestraint.Itwouldnotbenaturalforustobehaveinawaythatimpairedtheearth'scapacitytosupportfuturegenerations,includinghumangenerations.Iwasfortunatetoliveinasimplertime.Iwassoenamoredofthechain-of-beingtheorythatIdidnotbelievethatanyspeciesevercreatedcouldbecomeextinct.Thatwouldeffectivelybreakthechain.IinstructedmyexplorerstokeeptheireyesopenforthewoollymammothinnorthernLouisiana.
Letmetellonemorestorybeforeyoudepart,aparableabouttheNewWorldandtheOld.TherewasatheoryputforthbyFrenchscientistsinmytimethatAmericananimalsandplantswerecomparativelydegenerate.TheviewwasthatNorthAmericaemergedfromthelastfloodlaterthanEurope,andthereforeourclimatewascoolerandmoister,andsoouranimalswerelessvirile,lessfertile,lessmagnificent.WeinAmericaknewthiswasnonsense,butconvincingEuropeanskepticswasextraordinarilydifficult.WhenIwentto
FranceastheAmericanministerin1784,Itookwithmearatherlargepantherskin,whichIpresentedtotheComtedeBuffon,thegreatestofEuropeanscientists,asproofthatourfaunawereeverybittheequaloftheirEuropeancounterparts.Hedidn'tbothertoreplytothisgift.LaterIhadachancetomeethimatoneofhisdinnerpartiesinParis.MyfriendtheMarquisdeChastellux,whohadvisitedMonticelloatthecloseofthe
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RevolutionaryWar,introducedmetothecelebratedsavantandsaidthis:"Sir,thisisMr.JeffersonfromAmerica,whoinhisbookNotesonVirginiahasrefutedyourtheoryofAmericandegeneracy."Thegreatscientistdidnotevenbothertolookmeintheeye.Hemerelywenttohisshelf,pulleddownhislatestpublishedvolume,handedittoChastellux,andsaid,"WhentheAmericanshallhavereadthis,hewillseethatheisentirelyinerror."Thistroubledme.Herewasamanofsciencerefusingtoengageinopendebate.SoIscoutedhimandsaid,''Sir,itseemstomeinyourbooksyouhaveconfusedtheAmericanelkwiththeEuropeanreindeer,muchtotheprejudiceofourelk.Secondly,youhavesaidthereisnoantlerorrackinNorthAmericalongerthantwofeet.Ournation,sir,aboundswithbeastswhoseantlersextendbeyondtwofeettofourandfivefeet."Hesaid,"IfyoushowmetheantlerofananimallargerthantwofeetIwillburnmylibrary."AndfinallyIsaid,perhapsgoingtoofar,"Sir,itseemstomethatyourEuropeanreindeercouldwalkunderthebellyofanAmericanmoosewithsomeinchestospare."Well,theconversationendedabruptlyandsodidthedinnerparty.
Butnowmypridewasengaged.IwrotetomyyoungfriendMr.Madison,whomIburdenedallofmylifewithmysometimeszanyrequests,andsaid,amongotherthings,"Sendmeamoose."Well,Mr.Madisonhadnomoose,sohewrotetothegovernorofNewHampshire,JohnSullivan,aRevolutionaryWarheroandgoodRepublican,andsaid,amongotherthings,"Mr.Jeffersonrequiresamoose."AndSullivangotit.HetookoutawarpartyoftwentyarmedmeninablizzardinNewHampshireandfoundasmallherdofmoose,separatedoutarathermagnificentbull,shotit,andthendiscoveredtohischagrinthattheymustnowdragthattwo-thousand-poundcarcasstwentymilestothenearestvillage.Hesaidinhislongandsomewhatwhiningletterabouttheaffairthatthepartyhadtocutaroadthroughthewildernesstobringbackmymoose.Hehadit
cleaned,thebonesseparated,thepeltrymadereadyfortravel.HeboxedtheentirecarcassandshippedittoThomasJefferson,MinisterPlenipotentiary,CourtofLouistheSixteenth,Paris,France,andheshippeditCOD.Well,thiswasmorethanayearandahalfaftermyoriginalrequesttoMr.Madison,andIhadinthepressofbusinessforgottenallaboutthemoose.Onedayaminorofficialfromtheportauthoritycametomeandsaid,"Sir,thereisaratherlargecratewaitingforyouanditwillcostyouforty-fivepoundssterlingtoredeemit."Thatwouldbeabouttwenty-fivehundredofyourdollarsin1990,andinmytimethegovernmentdidnotroutinelyreimbursesuchexpenses.Nevertheless,IredeemedthemooseandtookittotheParisianequivalentofataxidermistandhadit
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preparedafterafashion,andIsentittotheBuffonwithmycompliments.Thegreatmansentapoliteletterofthanks,whichledmetoassumethathewouldcorrectthisgrievouserrorinfutureeditionsofhiswork.Buthedidn't.liediedjustsixmonthslater,andhiserrorswereentaileduponthefuture.
ItellthisstorytoremindyouthattheEuropeancommunitylookedwithderisionandevencontemptupontheNewWorldandourfragilelittleexperimentinself-government.Wehadtoprovetoaskepticalandnot-often-candidworldthathumanscouldgovernthemselves,withoutkings,priests,firstministers,andthecorruptionsoftheoldorder.Youarestillprovingthatgreattruthtotheoldworld,particularlyinLouisiana.Yourchallengeistolearntorestrainyourselves,toprovetotheworldthatafreepeoplecanliveinpeaceandprosperitywithoutexploitingthelifearoundthem.ThereisstilltimetoprovethatMr.Hamiltonwaswrong-wronginhisreadingofhumannature,wronginhissenseofnationalpriorities,wronginhisprinciplesofgovernment.Thisisthenationthatshouldneverknowdespair.ItrustthatyouwillregainyourEnlightenmentconfidenceandshowtheworldthatutopiaisnotthe"nowhere"ofliterarytexts,butanelusiveapproachtogovernmentthattheworldfinallyfoundmanifestinAmerica,andLouisiana.Iclosebyquotingfrommylastletter,writtenafewweeksbeforemydeathin1826:"Alleyesareopenoropeningtotherightsofman.Thegradualspreadofthelightofsciencehasalreadylaidopentoeveryviewthepalpabletruththatthemassofmankindwerenotbornwithsaddlesontheirbacks,norafavoredfewbootedandspurred,readytoridethemlegitimatelybythegraceofGod.Letthisbethegroundofhopeforothers."2
Thankyouverymuch.
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CONTRIBUTORSBruceBabbittservedasgovernorofArizonafrom1978to1987.Hewasacandidateforthe1988Democraticpresidentialnomination,currentlypracticeslawinPhoenix,andlecturesandwritesontheAmericanWest.
PhilipM.BurgessisthedirectoroftheCenterfortheNewWest,anindependent,nonprofitresearchandconsultingorganization.TheCenterfocusesonpublicpolicyandstrategiesforeconomicdevelopmentintheWest.
AdrianHerminioBustamantehasaPh.D.fromtheUniversityofNewMexicoinAmericanstudieswithemphasisonethnohistoryofthesouthwesternUnitedStates.HeistheauthorofvariousarticlesonHispaniclifeinNewMexicoandteachesatSantaFeCommunityCollege,whereheisheadoftheDivisionofArtsandSciences.
CordeliaCandelariaistheauthorofChicanoPoetry:ACriticalIntroduction.SheisanassociateprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder,andassociateprofessorofChicanostudiesfortheuniversity'sCenterforStudiesofEthnicityandRaceinAmerica(CSERA).
DavidL.CarrascoisaprofessorofreligiousstudiesattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.HeistheauthorofQuetzalcoatlandtheIronyofEmpireandReligionsofMesoamerica:CosmovisionCeremonialCenters.
JamesA.CarrierhashadtwoofhisseriesfromTheDenverPost"LettersfromYellowstone"and"JourneyDowntheColorado"publishedinbookform.Hehasbeenajournalistsince1966.
JoClarkisdirectorofprogramsfortheWesternGovernorsAssociation.Herareasofconcentrationincludewater,state-tribalrelations,wastemanagement,andruraldevelopment.
JamesN.Corbridge,Jr.,becamechancelloroftheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderin1986.Aprofessoroflaw,hehaswrittennumerousarticlesonwaterlaw,mininglaw,andrealestateproperty.
EdwardDorn,poetandauthorofHi-Plane,Slinger,andotherbooksofpoetry,isaprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.
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JohnE.EchohawkwasthefirstgraduateoftheUniversityofNewMexico'sspecialprogramtotrainIndianlawyers.HehaslecturedonIndianlawattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,andservesastheexecutivedirectoroftheNativeAmericanRightsFund.
WalterEcho-HawkisaseniorstaffattorneywiththeNativeAmericanRightsFund.liehasreceivednationalrecognitionforhispath-breakingworkoncasesinvolvingreligiousfreedomofAmericanIndians,prisonerrights,waterrights,andNativereburialrights.
SallyK.FairfaxisaprofessorintheCollegeofNaturalResources,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.Theco-author,withSamuelDana,ofForestandRangePolicy,herarticle"BeyondtheSagebrushRebellion:EmergingPatternsinPublicDomainFederalism"appearedintheEcologyLawQuarterly.
ThomasHornsbyFerrilispoetlaureateofColoradoandauthorofnumerousbooksofpoetry.
EstevanT.FloresisanassistantprofessorofsociologyandCSERA'sChicanostudiesresearchcoordinatorattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.Hehaspublishedin,amongothers,theInternationalMigrationReviewandtheHispanicJournalofBehavioralScience.
DavidH.Getches,professoroflaw,haswrittenextensivelyonwaterlaw,Indianlaw,environmentallaw,andpublic-landlaw.HeeditedWaterandtheAmericanWest,isco-authorofFederalIndianLawandWaterResourcesManagement,andwasafoundingdirectoroftheNativeAmericanRightsFund.
CamilleGuerin-GonzalezisanassistantprofessorofhistoryspecializinginlaborandimmigrationhistoryatOberlinCollege.Sheisaco-authorofPoliticsofImmigrantWorkersandtheauthorofProletariansintheGarden:MexicanWageLaborinCaliforniaAgriculture.
WilliamH.HornbyisasenioreditorofTheDenverPost.Inadditiontoextensivenewsexperience,heisadirectoroftheBuffaloBillHistoricalCenter,Cody,Wyoming,andapastchairmanoftheboardoftheColoradoHistoricalSociety.
EvelynHu-Dehartistheauthorof"ImmigrantstoaDevelopingSociety:TheChineseinNorthernMexico,1875-1932,"JournalofArizonaHistory,amongotherarticles.SheisdirectorofCSERAandaprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.
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ThomasJeffersonwasthethirdpresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
ClayStrausJenkinsonisaRhodesscholarcurrentlyworkingonhisPh.D.inclassicalstudies.Since1981hehasdirectedtheGreatPlainsChautauqua,atravelinghumanitiestentshow.Amongotherachievements,heportraysThomasJefferson.
RaymondDeanJones,agraduateoftheHarvardLawSchool,isajudgeoftheColoradoCourtofAppeals.
DanielKemmisisthemayorofMissoula,Montana;seniorfellowandprojectdirectorfortheNorthernLightsResearchandEducationInstitute;andaformerMontanastatelegislator.Hehasworked,boththeoreticallyandpractically,oncommunitybuildingandistheauthorofCommunityandthePoliticsofPlace.
WilliamKittredgeisaprofessorofEnglishattheUniversityofMontana.HehaswrittennumerousworksofWesternfictionandnonfiction,someofwhicharecollectedinOwningItAllandWeAreNotinThisTogether.Heisco-editorofTheLastBestPlace:AnAnthologyofMontanaLiterature.
PatriciaNelsonLimerickisanassociateprofessorofhistory,specializinginthehistoryoftheAmericanWest,attheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.SheisauthorofLegacyofConquestandDesertPassages.
BetsyMarston,agraduateoftheColumbiaUniversityGraduateSchoolofJournalism,workedintheEastasatelevisionnewsproducerpriortomovingtotheWestin1975.Sheiseditoroftheaward-winningbimonthlynewspaperHighCountryNews.
EdwinH.MarstonwasaprofessorofphysicsbeforeturningtojournalismintheRockyMountains.HefoundedtheNorthForkTimes
in1975,theWesternColoradoReportin1982,andsince1983hasbeenpublisherofHighCountryNews.
PeterF.Michelson,authorofPacificPlainsong,isassociateprofessorofEnglishandcreativewritingattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.
CharlesR.MiddletonisdeanofartsandsciencesattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.Heisaprofessorofhistory,specializinginnineteenth-centuryBritishsocialandpoliticalhistory.
RichardMisrach,authorofDesertCantosandBravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest,hasusedhisskillsasaphotographertodocument,study,andappraisenatureandhumannatureintheAmericanWest.
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ThomasJ.Noelisco-authorofDenver:TheCityBeautifulandItsArchitectsandColorado:AHeritageoftheHighestState.HieisaprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofColoradoatDenver,andin1987receivedHistoricDenver,Inc.'sAwardofHonor.
WallaceStegner,authorofmorethanthirtybooks,istheJacksonElyReynoldsProfessorofHumanitiesatStanfordUniversity,wherehefoundedtheStanfordWritingProgram.
BarbaraSudler,athird-generationDenverite,servedfortenyearsasthepresidentoftheColoradoHistoricalSociety.SheisaboardmemberoftheAmericanAntiquarianSociety.
MarkTrahant,formereditorandpublisheroftheNavajoTimesTodayandreporterfortheArizonaRepublic,isnoweditingandpublishingtheweeklyNavajoNationToday.Heisco-authoroftheawardwinning"FraudinIndianCountry,"aneight-partseriesonfederalIndianprograms.
CharlesF.WilkinsonistheMosesLaskyProfessorofLawattheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder.HisbooksincludeAmericanIndians,TimeandtheLaw;TheAmericanWest:ANarrativeBibliographyandaStudyinRegionalism;andTheEagleBird:SearchingforanEthicofPlace.
TerryTempestWilliamsisnaturalist-in-residenceattheUtahMuseumofNaturalHistory,UniversityofUtah.Shewasprojectdirectorfor"NavajoStorytelling:PerceptionsofCultureandLandscape,"1983-1985.HerbooksincludePiecesofWhiteShell,TheSecretLanguageofSnow,andCoyote'sCanyon.
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NOTES
PARTONEHolthaus,etal.
1.JosephWoodKrutch,MoreLivesThanOne(NewYork:WilliamSloanAssociates,1962),p.211.
PARTTWOJenkinson
1.MarshaltoC.C.Pinckney,March4,1801,quotedinDumasMaloneJeffersonthePresident:TheFirstTerm,1801-1805(Boston:LittleBrownPublishers,1970),p.22.
2.ThomasJefferson,AutobiographyofThomasJefferson,1743-1790(NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1914).
3.JeffersontoduPontdeNemours,March2,1809,inTheWritingsofThomasJefferson,Vol.12,eds.AndrewA.LipscombandAlbertElleryBergh(Washington,D.C.:ThomasJeffersonMemorialAssociation,1903),pp.259-260.
4.MerrillPeterson,ed.,ThePortableThomasJefferson(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1975),p.217.
5.ThomasPaine,CommonSense,ed.IsaacKramnik(London:PenguinBooks,1976),p.120.
6.JeffersontoJamesMadison,January30,1787,inPortable,p.417.
7.JeffersontoMadison,September6,1789,inPortable.
PARTTHREELimerick
1.DonaldWorster,etal.,"LegacyofConquest,byPatriciaNelsonLimerick:APanelofAppraisal,"WesternHistoricalQuarterly20,no.3(August1989),p.305.
Williams
2.LutherStandingBear,LandoftheSpottedEagle(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1933),p.26.
3.TerryTempestWilliams,PiecesofWhiteShell:AJourneytoNavajoland(NewYork:Scribner's,1984),pp.4-5.
4.D.11.Lawrence,"IntroductiontoStudiesinClassicAmericanLiterature,"TheEnglishReview,Vol.XXVII,July-December1918(November1918),p.330.
5.HermanMelville,MobyDick(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1950),p.69.
6.Lawrence,"IntroductiontoStudiesinClassicAmericanLiterature,"p.331.
7.PortlandOregonian,June7,1988.
Page252
8.RalphWaldoEmerson,"TheAmericanScholar,"inAmericanLiteratureSurvey,Vol.2TheAmericanRomantics,1800-1860,eds.MiltonR.SternandSeymourL.Gross(NewYork:VikingPress,1962),p.285.
W.Echo-Hawk
9.FelixS.Cohen,"TheErosionofIndianRights,1950-1953:ACaseStudyinBureaucracy,"TheYaleLawJournal62,no.3(February1953),p.390.
10.VirginiaIrvingArmstrong,IlaveSpoken:AmericanHistoryThroughtheVoicesoftheIndians(Chicago:SageBooks,TheSwallowPress,1971),pp.xi-xii.
11.ChiefSeattle,"TheWhiteManWillNeverBeAlone,"inLiteratureoftheAmericanIndian,eds.ThomasE.SandersandWalterW.Peek(BeverlyHills,Calif.:GlencoePress,1973),pp.284-285.
Flores
12.JamesCoates,BoulderDailyCamera,January15,1989,p.4A.
Kemmis
13.RobinsonJeffers,"ShinePerishingRepublic,"inRoanStallion,TamarandOtherPoems(NewYork:HoraceLiveright,1925),p.95.
14.JohnWinthrop,"AModellofChristianCharitywrittenonboardtheArabellaontheAtlanticOcean1630,"CollectionsoftheMassachusettsHistoricalSocietyVol.27(Boston:CharlesC.Little&JamesBrown,1838),p.47.
15.WendellBerry,"WorkSong,"inClearing(NewYork&London:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1977),p.32.
PARTFOURKittredge
1.GaeWhitneyCanfield,SarahWinnemuccaoftheNorthernPaiutes(Norman,Okla.:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1983),pp.47-48.
2.JaroldRamsey,ed.,CoyoteWasGoingThere-IndianLiteratureoftheOregonCountry(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,1977),p.229.
3.Canfield,SarahWinnemucca,pp.60-61.
4.D.1-.Lawrence,IntroductiontoBottomDogs,byEdwardDahlberg(SanFrancisco:CityLightsBooks,1961),p.viii.
5.Lawrence,IntroductiontoBottomDogs,p.x.
Clark
6.StewartL.Udall,"PausingatthePass:ReflectionsofaNativeSon,"inBeyondtheMythicWest,StewartL.Udall,etal.(SaltLakeCity:PeregrineSmithBooksinAssociationwiththeWesternGovernor'sAssociation,1990),p.20.
Carrasco
7.WilliamKittredge,"OwningItAll,"inOwningItAll(St.Paul:GraywolfPress,1987),pp.55-56.
8.WilliamKittredge,IntroductiontoMontanaSpaces'EssaysandPhotographsin
Page253
CelebrationofMontana,ed.WilliamKittredge(NewYork:NickLyonsBooks,1988),p.xv.
9.Kittredge,"OwningItAll,"p.58.
10.ReneGirard,ViolenceandtheSacred,trans.PatrickGregory(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1977),p.31.
11.Kittredge,"OwningItAll,"p.61.
12.Kittredge,"OwningItAll,"p.57.
13.PaulWheatley,"CityAsSymbol,"inaugurallecture(London:UniversityofLondon,1967),p.9.
14.ThomasWolfe,OfTimeandtheRiver:ALegendofMan'sHungerinHisYouth(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1935),pp.415-417.
Misrach
15.RichardMisrach,textfor"SnowCanyonStatePark,Utah,1987,"InRichardMisrach:Photographs1985-1987(Tokyo:GalleryMIN,1988).
16.RichardMisrach,textfor"ThePit,"atravelingphotographyexhibition(1987).
PARTFIVEBabbitt
1.16U.S.C.21(1982).
2.ActofMarch3,1891,ch.561,24Stat.1103,repealedby16U.S.C.471(1982).
3.FrankBurtFreidel,FranklinD.Roosevelt,Vol.4'Launchingthe
NewDeal(Boston:Little,Brown,1952),p.352.
4.16U.S.C.528(1982).
Corbridge
5.WallaceStegner,TheSoundofMountainWater(NewYork.E.P.Dutton,1980),p.13.
6.DavidH.Getches,"PuttingaWesternBrandonLegalEducation,"paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheMid-ContinentAssociationofLawSchools(Keystone,Colo.,July28,1986).
7.PaulT.Bryant,"WesternLiterature:AWindowonAmerica,"paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheCollegeEnglishAssociation(SanAntonio,March31-April2,1977).
8.PhilipD.Ortego,"WhichSouthwesternLiteratureandCultureintheEnglishClassroom?"ArizonaEnglishBulletin13,no.3(1971),pp.15-17.
9.FredErisman,"WesternRegionalismandAwarenessofPlace,"paperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish(SanFrancisco,November22-24,1979).
10.CharlesF.Wilkinson,"LawandtheAmericanWest:TheSearchforanEthicofPlace,"UniversityofColoradoLawReview59,no.3(1988),pp.401-425.
Gucrin-Gonzalez
11.JohnWinthrop,"AModellofChristianCharity,"inWinthropPapers,Vol2,
Page254
1623-1630,ed.StewartMitchell(Boston:TheMassachusettsHistoricalSociety),p.295.
PARTSIXStegner
1.MarkTwain,TheMysteriousStranger:ARomance(NewYork&London:Harper&BrothersPublishers,1916),p.150.
PARTSEVENJenkinson
1.JeffersontoCol.WilliamS.Smith,November13,1787,inTheWritingsofThomasJefferson,Vol.6,eds.AndrewA.LipscombandAlbertElleryBergh(Washington,D.C.:ThomasJeffersonMemorialAssociation,1903),pp.372-373.
2.JeffersontoRogerC.Weightman,June24,1826,inWritings,Vol.16,pp.181-182.
Page255
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Illich,Ivan.DeschoolingSociety.NewYork:Harper&Row,1971.
Jackson,KennethT.CrabgrassFrontier:TheSuburbanizationoftheUnitedStates.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1985.
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Krutch,JosephWood.TheModernTemper:AStudyandaConfession.NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandWorld,1956.
Krutch,JosephWood.MoreLivesThanOne.NewYork:WilliamSloanAssociates,1962.
Limerick,PatriciaNelson.LegacyofConquest:TheUnbrokenPastoftheAmericanWest.NewYork:Norton,1987.
Lipscomb,AndrewA.,andAlbertElleryBergh,eds.TheWritingsofThomasJefferson.20volumes.Washington,D.C.:ThomasJeffersonMemorialAssociation,1903.
Misrach,Richard.Bravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1990.
Mitchell,LeeClark.WitnesstoaVanishingAmericaTheNineteenth-CenturyResponse.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1981.
Morris,CharlesR.''TheComingGlobalBoom."TheAtlantic,October1989,pp.51-64.
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Peterson,Merrill,ed.ThePortableThomasJefferson.NewYork:PenguinBooks,1975.
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StandingBear,Luther.LandoftheSpottedEagle.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1933.
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Udall,StewartI.,etal.BeyondtheMythicWest.SaltLakeCity:PeregrineSmithBooksinassociationwiththeWesternGovernorsAssociation,1990.
Weatherford,J.McIver.IndianGiversHowtheIndiansoftheAmericasTransformedtheWorld.NewYork:CrownPublishers,1988.
Wintersv.UnitedStates,207U.S.564(1908).
Wolfe,Thomas.OfTimeandtheRiverALegendofMan'sHungerin
HisYouth.NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1935.
Worster,DonaldE.DustBowlTheSouthernPlainsinthe1930s.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1979.
Worster,DonaldE.RiversofEmpireWater,Aridity,andtheGrowthoftheAmericanWest.NewYork:PantheonBooks,1986.
Page257
INDEX
AAbbey,Edward,191-92
TheMonkeyWrenchGang,192
Abundance,98,107
Adams,Ansel,135-36
Agriculture,98-113
ThomasJeffersonon,23-24
SeealsoFarmers;Settlement
AmericanPlanningAssociation,121
Aridity,219-21,224,226-28
SeealsoWater
Art.SeeWesternart
Asians.SeeChinese;Culturaldiversity
Athearn,Robert,192
BBabbitt,Bruce,5,9
BannockWar,103
Bargin,Doc,146
Baudrillard,Jean,135
Beebe,Vance,112
Benton,ThomasHart,222
Berry,Wendell
TheUnsettlingofAmerica,85
"WorkSong,"90
Blacks.SeeCulturaldiversity;Slavery
Brownridge,Dennis,119
Bryant,Paul,191
Buffon,ComteGeorges-LouisLeclercde,244-46
BureauofLandManagement(BLM),165-66,168,203
BureauofReclamation,165,167-69,226
Burgess,PhilipM.,4,242
Bush,George,132
Bustamante,AdrianHerminio,5-6
CCaliforniaRuralLegalAssistance(CRLA),203-4
CaliforniaTomorrow,74
CaptainJack,103
Carrasco,DavidL.,7-8,241
Carrier,JamesA.,4-5
Carryingcapacity,116-19,135-52
CenteroftheAmericanWest,symposiaat,3-10
Chavez,Linda,73
Chinese,imagesoftheWestofimmigrant,69-70
Chona,Maria,52
Cities,89,114,128-30,226
SeealsoUrbanity
Clark,Jo,6
CleanAirAct(1977),178
Coddington,Dean,175
Cohen,FelixS.,62
Communications,187-88
Corbridge,JamesN.,Jr.,10
Coyote(inNavajoculture),58-59
Culturaldiversity,51-60,71-72
developmentand,73-74
DDemocracyintheWest,86-89
SeealsoFreedomandmyths
DesertAct(1871),167
Development,73-74
SeealsoEco-politics;People'sandenvironmentalneeds;Publiclands
Devine,John,102
DeVoto,Bernard,227
Dillingham,Rick,192
Douglass,Henry,102
Dubuis,Bill,203
EEcho-Hawk,Walter,7-8
Economyandtheenvironment,61-64.
SeealsoCarryingcapacity;Development;Eco-politics;Ethicofplace;People'sandenvironmentalneeds;Publiclands
Eco-politics,171-79
SeealsoPubliclands
Education,182-85,187-89,242
SeealsoRegionalismandeducation
Emerson,RalphWaldo,58
Environment,Indianexperienceof,61-68
SeealsoCarryingcapacity;Development;Eco-politics;Ethicofplace;Landandpeople;People'sandenvironmentalneeds;Preservation;Publiclands;Urbanity
Erisman,Fred,192
Ethicofplace,206-7
FFairfax,SallyK.,4-5
Farmers,ThomasJeffersonon,24-25
FederalLandPolicyandManagementAct(FLPMA)(1976),166,204
ForestService,166,168,201-4
Freedomandmyths,194-95
French,Peter,102-4
Page258
GGetches,DavidH.,9,190
Gilpin,William,222
Girard,Rene,ViolenceandtheSacred,127
Glenn,Hugh,101-2,104
GreatWesternSugarCompany,114
GreaterDallasCommunityRelationsCommission,74
GreaterYellowstoneCoalition,187
Grenville,George,82
Guerin-Gonzalez,Camille,8
HHamilton,Alexander,240,246
Hassrick,Peter,45
Hegel,Friedrich,PhilosophyofHistory,83-84
Heilbroner,Robert,TheFutureAsHistory,171-72
HighCountryNews,78-80,198
Hispanics.SeeCulturaldiversity;Development;Westernliterature
HistoryofEuro-AmericanWesternexpansioncivilizationand,83-90
interpreting,43-50
SeealsoWesternhistory
Holmes,Richard,146
Hornby,WilliamH.,7,9,50
Howard,JosephKinsey,86
Humboldt(Nevada)Register,101
IIllich,Ivan,76
ImagesoftheWest,81-82
ofChineseimmigrants,69-70
inpoetry,11-17,34-36,42,93-97,161-62,211-17,230-31
inprose,31-33,159-60
SeealsoAbundance;West
Indians,192-93
conflictbetweenwhitesand,100-3
culturallessonsof,65-68
inNorthDakota(NorthernPaiute),117
imagesof,andwhites,inpoetry,37-41
environment,economy,and,61-64
ThomasJeffersonon,23-24,243
SeealsoCulturaldiversity;Ethicofplace
JJackson,Kenneth,CrabgrassFrontier:TheSuburbanizationoftheUnitedStates,125
Japanese.SeeCulturaldiversity
Jeffers,Robinson,"ShinePerishingRepublic,"89
Jefferson,Thomas,83-84,88-89
interpretedbyClayJenkinson,21-28,235-46
NotesonVirginia,245
John,DeWitt,198
Jones,D.R.,103
Jones,RaymondDean,8-9
Jonesfamily,71
Journalism.SeePresscoverage
KKemmis,Daniel,5,7-8,194-95
Kittredge,William,10,86,114,128-31
andAnnickSmith,TheLastBestPlace,86
OwningItAll,126-27
MontanaSpaces,126
Kittredgefamily,98-100,103-13
Krutch,JosephWood,10
TheModernTemper,3
Kurumadafamily,54-55
LLamm,Richard,186
Landandpeople,126-33
SeealsoPubliclands
Landownership,89-90
SeealsoLandandpeople;Publiclands
Law.SeeWesternlaw
Lawrence,D[avid]H[erbert],56-57,104-5
Limerick,PatriciaNelson,118,192
LegacyofConquest,81,227
Literature.SeeWesternliterature
Lovins,Amory,187
MMadison,James,245
Marcuse,Herbert,195
Marston,EdwinH.,6,10
Melville,Herman,57
Mexico,relationsof,totheAmericanWest,69-70
TheMilagroBeanfieldWar,73
SeealsoNichols,John
MilitaryLandsWithdrawalAct(1986),146
MineralLandsLeasingAct(1920),199
Misrach,Myriam,146,150
Misrach,Richard,Bravo20:TheBombingoftheAmericanWest,146
Mitchell,Lee,WitnessestoaVanishingAmerica,48
ModocWar,103
Muir,John,163-64
Multiple-UseSustained-YieldAct(1960),166
NNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct,68,167
NationalForestManagementAct(1976),166,204
NewlandsAct(1902),167,222
Nichols,John,203
Page259
Noel,ThomasJ.,6-7
OOnLong,Charlie,103
OrganicAct(1960),166
O'Rourke,Jake,111
Ortego,Phillip,191
PPeople'sandenvironmentalneeds,75-80
SeealsoCarryingcapacity;Ecopolitics;Publiclands
PILTsAct(1976),199
Pinchot,Gifford,163
Pine,Steven,132
PlanforGovernmentoftheWesternTerritories(1784),25-26
Politicsofinhabitation,87-89
Populationgrowth.SeeAridity;Urbanity
Powell,JohnWesley,203
ReportontheLandsoftheAridRegion,220
Powell,Lewis,201
Preservation,124-25
Presscoverage,153-56
SeealsoCommunications
Publiclands,163-70
futuremanagementof,andwater,196-205
SeealsoEthicofplace
PyramidLakeWar,101
QQoyawayma,Al,192
RRamsey,Jarold,CoyoteWasGoingThere:IndianLiteratureoftheOregonCountry,102
Reformers,187
Regionalismandeducation,190-93
Resources.SeeDevelopment;Economyandenvironment;Ecopolitics;Environment;Ethicofplace;Publiclands
Roosevelt,FranklinDelano,165
Roosevelt,Theodore,164-65
Ruckelshaus,William,119
Russell,Charlie,126,128
S
SagebrushRebellion,165,197
Savory,Allan,187
Scalia,Antonin,201
Schragg,Peter,57
Schurtz,Carl,104
Seattle(Chief),63-64
Settlement,100-5
Shortbull,Renny,52
Sinner,George,6,117
Slavery,ThomasJeffersonon,25,243
Smith,Annick,86
Smythe,William,222
StandingBear,Luther,51-52,63
Stegner,Wallace,10,50,86,121,190,235
TheBigRockCandyMountain,224
SeealsoWesternliterature
Stegnerfamily,223-24
Sudler,Barbara,9
Sullivan,John,245
TTanton,John,73
TaylorGrazingAct,165
Technology,153-56
SeealsoEcopolitics
Toole,K.Ross,86
Trahant,Mark,9
Turner,FrederickJackson,56,81,84,86,185
BeyondGeography,56
Twain,Mark,TheMysteriousStranger,229
UUdall,Stewart,BeyondtheMythicWest,119
Urbanity,120-23
SeealsoCities
U.S.English,73
WWasteIsolationPilotProject(WIPP),5-6,76-77
Water,166-70,190
SeealsoAridity;Cities;Publiclands
Weatherford,Jack,IndianGwers,66
Webb,WalterPrescott,190,222,226
West,Pat,203
West
culturaldiversityof,51-60,71-74
environmentalstewardshipof,61-64
futureof,180-89
historicalmeaningofEuro-Americanexpansioninto,43-50
historyofcivilizationand,83-90
ideaoffreedomand,194-95
ThomasJefferson'sdreamof,23-28
WallaceStegner'svisionofthefutureof,218-29
SeealsoImagesoftheWest
Westernart,192
WesternGovernors'Association,119
Westernhistory,192,225-26
mythsandboostersin,222-23
SeealsoHistoryofEuro-AmericanWesternexpansion
Westernlaw,190-91,193
Westernliterature,191-92,225
Whcaton,Frank,103
Whites
imagesof,andIndians,inpoetry,37-41
settlementby,100-5
Wilkinson,Churles,118,122,185,190,193
Williams,C.K.,113