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1 7. A Short History of Indonesia Adat of the Archaic Indonesians WC 3862 The motto of the modern Indonesian state is Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, a Sanskrit phrase meaning Unity in Diversity. The diversity of Indonesia is immediately apparent in a country where the people live on hundreds of islands, separated by shallow, often dangerous seas and speak a Babel of languages and dialects. Despite this, attempts to unify the people into a cohesive nation these past fifty or so years have been surprisingly successful. Foremost among these attempts has been the development of the national language, Bahasa Indonesia, evolved from a lingua franca of the archipelago with help from linguists, politicians and most recently, the media. Dayak drawing on bamboo container showing village life in the afterlife 1 It is not political or economic unity, however, which is the underlying theme of Indonesian life. Rather, it is a deep seated value placed on harmony among all persons and in all aspects of life. This is a value elements of which have been inherited from the very ancient past, probably from the Neolithic and perhaps even earlier, and which took form during the early metal and megalithic phases of their history as the Austronesian people settled in the archipelago. It is a value which underlies some indefinable and mysterious thing Indonesians call adat, a principal of life which the dictionaries translate as “culture” or “tradition” but which has a far greater binding power over Indonesians than mere custom. In the next part of this course we will be looking at the influence upon the Indonesian archipelago of the Buddhist and Hindu cultures of India and the formation of increasingly powerful polities, principally in Java and Sumatra. 1 Catalogue of Art of the Archaic Indonesians, Dallas Museum of Fine Arts 1982, p. 8. The bamboo container was collected in 1904. Much of this Unit is taken from entries in this catalogue.

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7.  A  Short  History  of  Indonesia    

Adat  of  the  Archaic  Indonesians    

WC  3862    The  motto  of  the  modern  Indonesian  state  is  Bhinneka  Tunggal  Ika,  a  Sanskrit  phrase  meaning  Unity  in  Diversity.  The  diversity  of  Indonesia  is  immediately  

apparent  in  a  country  where  the  people  live  on  hundreds  of  islands,  separated  by  shallow,  often  dangerous  seas  and  speak  a  Babel  of  languages  and  dialects.  Despite  this,  attempts  to  unify  the  people  into  a  cohesive  nation  these  past  fifty  or  so  years  have  been  surprisingly  successful.  Foremost  among  these  attempts  has  been  the  development  of  the  national  language,  Bahasa  Indonesia,  evolved  from  a  lingua  franca  of  the  archipelago  with  help  from  linguists,  politicians  and  most  recently,  the  media.      Dayak  drawing  on  bamboo  container  showing  village  life  in  the  after-­life1      

 It  is  not  political  or  economic  unity,  however,  which  is  the  underlying  theme  of  Indonesian  life.  Rather,  it  is  a  deep  seated  value  placed  on  harmony  among  all  persons  and  in  all  aspects  of  life.  This  is  a  value  elements  of  which  have  been  inherited  from  the  very  ancient  past,  probably  from  the  Neolithic  and  perhaps  even  earlier,  and  which  took  form  during  the  early  metal  and  megalithic  phases  of  their  history  as  the  Austronesian  people  settled  in  the  archipelago.  It  is  a  value  which  underlies  some  indefinable  and  mysterious  thing  Indonesians  call  adat,  a  principal  of  life  which  the  dictionaries  translate  as  “culture”  or  “tradition”  but  which  has  a  far  greater  binding  power  over  Indonesians  than  mere  custom.    In  the  next  part  of  this  course  we  will  be  looking  at  the  influence  upon  the  Indonesian  archipelago  of  the  Buddhist  and  Hindu  cultures  of  India  and  the  formation  of  increasingly  powerful  polities,  principally  in  Java  and  Sumatra.                                                                                                  1  Catalogue  of  Art  of  the  Archaic  Indonesians,  Dallas  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  1982,  p.  8.  The  bamboo  container  was  collected  in  1904.  Much  of  this  Unit  is  taken  from  entries  in  this  catalogue.  

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But  even  there  ⎯  and  certainly  elsewhere  ⎯  the  indigenous  Indonesian  adat  remained  the  principal  force  binding  the  ordinary  people  together  and  colouring  all  they  did  even  when  overtly  honouring  foreign  gods.    So  now,  before  we  move  on  to  Indonesia  in  historic  times,  I  will  try  to  sum  up  some  of  the  manifestations  of  adat  and  those  aspects  of  the  peoples’  lives  which  can  be  said  to  be  truly  indigenous  and  in  the  next  Unit,  take  a  brief  look  at  the  arts  of  the  archaic  Indonesians.    A  totality  of  culture  

On  my  first  visit  to  Indonesia  I  spent  some  time  in  Java  and  then  made  a  short  visit  to  Bali,  travelling  there  by  bus  from  Surabaja  to  Denpasar.  After  leaving  Eastern  Java  we  crossed  the  Bali  Straits  by  ferry  to  Gilimanuk  and  proceeded,  on  rather  bumpy  roads,  eastwards  towards  the  capital,  Denpasar.  We  hadn’t  gone  very  far  

when  I  was  struck  by  how  different  the  houses  were  from  those  in  Java  and  perhaps  even  more  noticeable,  by  the  different  layout  of  the  villages.  There  was  a  kind  of  open  square  with  houses  built  around  what  I  took  for  granaries  in  the  middle.  These  were  raised  up  on  stilts  with  wooden  platforms  built  in  between  the  stilts.  From  what  I  could  see  from  the  bus  window  this  was  where  the  village  men  congregated,  sitting  and  chatting  with  each  other  while  young  children  ran  and  played  all  around.  Further  east  however,  the  architecture  changed  once  more,  giving  way  to  what  most  people  would  recognise  as  traditional  Balinese  buildings  and  the  Bali-­‐Hindu  temples  with  their  elaborate  gateways  and  temple  roofs.      Later,  I  came  to  realise  that  although  I  had  seen  the  differences,  underneath  the  veneer  the  concept  of  village  life  was  the  same.  Despite  differences  in  layout  and  architectural  design,  the  village  everywhere  was  an  entity,  the  world  in  which  its  inhabitants  lived  and  with  them,  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors,  their  gods  and  guiding  spirits,  and  all  this  despite  the  upper  layer  comprising  Indonesian  law  coupled  with  Islam  in  Java  and  Hinduism  in  Bali.    Dr.  W.  Stör,  in  his  Foreword  to  the  catalogue  of  an  exhibition  at  the  Dallas  Museum  of  Fine  Art  in  19822  wrote:    

The  most  important  thing  is  the  “totality”  of  the  old  culture.  This  manifests  itself  in  each  group  in  the  form  of  a  concept  of  a  harmony  of  reality  and  order.  This  prevails  all  the  way  from  the  creation  of  the  

                                                                                               2 Op. cit. p.11

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Cosmos  and  the  miracles  of  the  gods  to  daily  economic  necessities  of  village  life,  dealing  also  with  forms  of  civilization  and  social  organization.  It  follows  that  our  Western  systems  of  classification  into  sharply  defined  spheres  are  not  applicable  here.  The  culture  of  an  Indonesian  people  forms  a  whole,  although  this  unity  cannot  at  first  be  comprehended.  It  is  only  possible  to  try  to  discern  it  with  the  aid  of  primordial  manifestations  of  the  life  and  culture  of  these  people.  

 The  village  is  the  Universe  Dr  Stör  also  observed:  

 The  old  Indonesian  villages  are  self-­sufficient  closed  units  which  provide  the  framework  for  the  life  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  the  centre  of  their  existence,  the  basis  of  their  economy,  and  the  pole  of  their  thinking  and  actions.  They  are  the  centre  of  their  universe3.  

 Utom  village,  Baliem  Valley,  Irian  Jaya.  

 In  the  distant  past  each  village  was  politically  autonomous  although  where  necessity,  kinship  and  other  ties  made  it  possible,  sometimes  two  or  more  communities  might  join  together  into  a  larger  self-­‐governing  unit.  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  social  pyramid  was  probably  fairly  flat,  power  and  prestige  seeming  to  have  been  determined  by  age  and  experience,  kinship  relationships,  popularity  and  possibly  a  touch  of  charisma.  In  the  Neolithic  and  early  metal  phases,  there  was  little  evidence  of  power  hierarchies,  the  prevailing  authority  being  then,  as  even  now,  what  archaeologists  and  anthropologists  call  primus  inter  pares  or  “first  among  equals”.  This  follows  on  from  the  system  of  land  ownership  in  which  land,  or  territory,  was  vested  in  the  clan  or  village  so  that  the  individual  only  had  the  right  to  exploit  it  according  to  his  needs  in  his  lifetime.      This  system  of  community  ownership  of  the  land  necessitated  two  other  features  of  Indonesian  life.  One  was  a  system  known  as  gotong  royong  and  the  other,  as  musjawat.  The  first,  gotong  royong,  according  to  the  dictionary4,  means  “mutual  cooperation”  or  “mutual  aid”  but  digging  a  little  deeper,  the  

                                                                                               3 Op. cit. p. 11 4 I am using Echols, JM and Shadily, H: An Indonesian-English Dictionary, Cornell University Press, 1965. Note that this uses old system spelling.

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verb  from  “gotong”  means  to  carry  a  heavy  burden  together5,  so  essentially  the  term  means  to  shoulder  one’s  community  responsibilities.    

Road  in  Salatiga,  Central  Java    

 As  an  example,  when  I  was  in  Salatiga  in  Central  Java  back  in  1969,  my  hosts’  family  asked  me  if  I  was  coming  with  them…  “Where?”  I  asked  and  they  replied,  “It’s  gotong  royong…  we  are  all  mending  the  road…”  and  so  off  we  went,  old,  young  and  everyone  in  

between  to  a  patch  of  road  which  clearly  needed  pot  holes  filling  and  some  grading  and  everyone,  me  included,  got  stuck  in  with  buckets  of  soil,  shovels  and  anything  else  which  seemed  necessary.  This  was  work  on  behalf  of  the  village  ⎯  actually,  an  outlying    section  of  the  much  larger  town  ⎯  and  all  who  lived  there  expected  to  share  the    work  in  keeping  their  little  piece  of  Java  in  good  repair.  That  this  should  be  done  and  done  on  such-­‐and-­‐such  a  day  had  previously  been  decided  by  a  group  of  locals  and  announced  by  the  lurah  or  headman…  These  days  he  has  a  role  within  the  Indonesian  legal  system  but  the  role  and  how  it  is  performed  has  been  handed  down  the  ages  from  the  long  ago  and  remains  essentially  the  function  of  the  village  and  primus  inter  pares  person  acting  together.    How  that  council,  or  any  other  decision-­‐making  group,  worked  is  a  function  of  musjawat.  In  a  group  made  up  of  equals  no  one  person’s  opinion  is  more  important  than  any  other  and  so,  according  to  musjawat:    the  debate  continues  until  100%  consensus  is  reached!  Of  course  such  a  process  is  not  the  most  efficient  in  that  for  one  thing,  the  debate  might  have  to  continue  for  a  very  long  time  before  consensus  is  reached,  and  for  another  ⎯  and  not  uncommon  ⎯  the  decision  ultimately  reached  might  not  even  be  the  one  originally  scheduled.  Equally  true,  although  inefficient  in  time  in  an  economic  sense,  this  process  is  very  efficient  in  finding  the  solution  agreeable  to  everyone  ⎯  ie,  

there  is  no  disgruntled  out-­‐voted  minority  at  the  end  of  the  process.  This  latter,  Western-­‐style  outcome  would  not  be  harmonious  and  harmony  is  the  ultimate  objective.    Waringin  tree,  Bali  

 This  harmony  is  not  only  among  the  villagers  but  essentially  among  gods,  the  living  and  

most  importantly,  the  ancestors.  The  village  in  which  one  lives  is  a  kind  of  

                                                                                               5 the verb is mengotong – see entry in above.

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middle  earth,  somewhere  between  the  upper  and  lower  worlds  which  owes  its  existence  to  a  gift  from  the  gods  to  the  founder  of  the  first  village.  This  first  village,  nowadays  usually  enshrined  in  myth,  was  founded  by  the  ancestor  of  the  clan;  as  village  populations  grew,  so  new  daughter  villages  were  founded  and  so  on,  down  the  generations.  When  a  new  village  was  founded,  some  stones  from  the  previous  village  were  taken  to  the  new  location  and  rituals  performed  to  propitiate  the  local  earth  spirits  who  actually  owned  the  land.  To  commemorate  this  and  to  mark  the  origin  of  the  village,  a  tree  was  often  planted.  This  tree  was  the  waringin  ⎯    or  banyan  tree6  ⎯    which  is  probably  more  familiar  in  its  Indian  context  because  it  was  beneath  such  a  tree  the  Lord  Buddha  preached.  Other  markers  of  the  centre  of  the  village  (the  navel  of  the  village)  can  include  a  forked  pole  or,  in  some  places,  a  statue  of  the  founder.  

Asmat  Bis  Pole,    late  1950s  Omadesep  village,  Irian  Jaya  

 Province,  Indonesia7    

Perhaps  the  most  spectacular  of  all  ancestor  poles  are  made  by  the  Asmat  people  of  Irian  Jaya.  These  masterpieces  are  called  bis  poles.  They  are  made…  

 …..  in  only  a  limited  area  of  the  Asmat  region,  bis  poles  were,  and  are,  created  as  the  focal  points  of  a  memorial  feast  honoring  individuals  who  have  recently  died  and  become  ancestors.  Each  figure  on  the  poles  represents  and  is  named  for  a  specific  deceased  individual.  In  the  past,  the  poles  also  served  to  remind  the  living  that  the  dead  must  be  avenged.  In  Asmat  cosmology,  death  was  always  caused  by  an  enemy  either  directly  in  war  or  by  malevolent  magic.  Each  death  created  an  imbalance  that  had  to  be  corrected  through  the  death  of  an  enemy.  After  a  number  of  individuals  in  the  village  had  died,  the  male  elders  would  decide  to  stage  a  bis  feast.  In  the  past,  the  feast  was  held  in  conjunction  with  a  headhunting  raid.  Today,  the  Asmat  no  longer  practice  warfare  and  a  bis  feast  may  be  staged  to  alleviate  a  specific  crisis  or  in  connection  with  male  initiation.  

 Sadly,  after  the  feast,  the  bis  pole  is  carried  off  into  the  jungle  and  allowed  to  rot.  The  one  shown  in  the  illustration  is  part  of  the  collection  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  in  New  York.  It  is  over  5  meters  tall.    Traditional  life  was  held  together  by  an  extensive  kinship  system  in  which  exogamous  marriage  (that  is,  one  married  outside  one’s  own  “clan”)  was  

                                                                                               6 Ficus benjamina 7 flickr.com/photos/wallyg/2586203586/

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essential,  other  connections  being  deemed  incestuous.  Who  one  married  was  a  matter  for  the  village  to  decide  because  more  than  mutual  attraction  was  usually  involved,  including  defence  pacts,  land  and  water  arrangements,  and  of  course,  continuing  cooperation  between  groups.    Children,  according  to  the  archaic  Indonesian  notion,  were  a  gift  of  great  price  from  the  woman-­‐giving  group  to  the  woman-­‐receiving  group.  The  latter  group  of  course  then  owed  some  kind  of  marriage  portion  or  bride-­‐price  in  return  but  no  matter  how  much  they  paid,  they  could  never  equal  the  gift  the  woman-­‐giving  group  had  made  to  them.  Thus  the  debt  of  gratitude,  of  consideration  and  respect,  became  a  binding  force  upon  the  group  into  which  the  woman  had  married.      Although  as  I  said  earlier,  in  general  the  social  structure  of  archaic  communities  ⎯  particularly  in  very  early  pre-­‐historic  times  ⎯  was  very  flat,  every  person  being  on  much  the  same  level  as  every  other.  However,  as  time  went  by,  and  certainly  in  historic  times,  in  some  archaic  communities  a  social  hierarchy  gradually  evolved.  In  these,  “noble”  families  regarded  themselves  as  above  the  ordinary  people,  a  position  they  occupied  usually  justified  in  some  kind  of  religious  terms  and  often  because  of  relationship  to  ancestral  figures,  including  the  founder  of  the  village.  In  the  next  section,  we  will  see  how  this  escalated  as  the  centuries  rolled  by  until  kingdoms  were  established  and  some  rulers  became  god-­‐kings.  The  “kings”  of  later  polities  had  their  origins  in  what  some  anthropologists8  have  called  “Big  Men”,  that  is  men  ⎯  and  sometimes  women  ⎯  who  stood  out  for  one  reason  or  another  from  the  rest  of  the  citizens  of  the  village  or  community.  These  “Big  Men”  sometimes  went  on  in  life  to  establish  such  reputations  that  in  death  they  were  considered  

among  the  Ancestors  who  were    not  just  highly  respected  as  ancestors  had  to  be,  but  also  worshipped  or  in  some  other  way,  propitiated  and  asked  to  intervene  on  behalf  of  the  living  in  matters  of  importance.      A  pig  ritually  killed  with  an  arrow  in  preparation  for  a  feast  ⎯    Yali  villagers,  Angguruk,  Irian  Jaya9  

 

                                                                                               8  Sahlins,  Marshall  (1963).  "Poor  Man,  Rich  Man,  Big  Man,  Chief:  Political  Types  in  Melanesia  and  Polynesia".  In  Comparative  Studies  in  Society  and  History,  5/285-­‐303.  Online  version:  http://www.scribd.com/doc/22292/Marshall-­‐Sahlins-­‐Poor-­‐Man-­‐Rich-­‐Man-­‐BigMan-­‐Chief-­‐Political-­‐Types-­‐in-­‐Melanesia-­‐and-­‐Polynesia  9  Photo:  Albrecht  G.  Schaefer  

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Feasting  was  an  important  part  of  traditional  village  life.  This  was  not  just  a  party  but  a  large-­‐scale  consumption  of  the  community’s  resources.  In  other  parts  of  the  world,  as  among  the  Northwest  Indians  of  British  Colombia  where  the  term  originated,  such  conspicuous  consumption  has  been  called  a  “potlatch”.  There,  this  was  usually  undertaken  to  enhance  the  prestige  and  social  standing  of  one  Big  Man  but  in  archaic  Indonesia  it  was  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  community.  Although  the  Dutch  during  their  rule  in  what  was  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  attempted  to  stamp  out  this  practice  on  the  grounds  that  it  reduced  the  prosperity  of  the  place,  feasting  continued  in  some  places  on  a  grand  scale.10  Although  often  organised  around  the  death  rituals  of  an  important  person,  marriage  and  other  significant  social  occasions  were  also  times  for  such  communal  excess.  As  we  saw  earlier  when  looking  at  ceremonies  surrounding  death  and  burial  among  the  Toraja,  sacrifice  was  commonly  part  of  the  ritual  ⎯  in  the  Toraja  case,  as  in  many  others,  of  a  special  buffalo.  In  the  distant  past,  human  sacrifice  was  also  practised,  including  the  sacrifice  of  slaves  who  were  generally  prisoners  taken  in  warfare.    

What  the  Dutch  objected  to  was  not  so  much  the  sacrifice  of  one  special  buffalo  but  the  usual  practice  of  slaughtering  many  more  as  the  festival  continued,  in  some  cases  severely  reducing  the  size  of  herds.  Since  these  herds  were  the  capital  of  the  village  or  “clan”,  feasts  on  this  scale  really  did  reduce  the  prosperity  of  the  region.    Ibiroma,  Baliem  Valley,  Irian  Jaya.  The  men  do  the  cooking?  

 Feasts  on  such  grand  scales  have  all  but  disappeared  in  modern  Indonesia  although  it  is  still  customary  to  hold  what  are  called  selamatan  to  mark  important  events  such  as  circumcisions,  marriages  and  even  the  arrival  of  a  welcome  visitor.  These  are  not  just  family  parties  but  communal  events  ⎯  more  like  a  neighbourhood  party  to  which  all  the  extended  family  and  close  neighbours  contribute.  People  who  belong  to  the  community  but  are  living  far  away  will  often  make  long  journeys  in  order  to  participate  in  what  is  a  communal  responsibility  because  it  involves  not  just  a  good  time  but  more  importantly,  promoting  the  well-­‐being  of  the  community.    Much  of  what  features  in  adat  stems  from  the  kinship  system  which  seems  to  have  been  inherited  from  the  very  distant  past.  We  Europeans  (and  especially                                                                                                  10 Today such events are best known in the highlands of New Guinea.

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those  of  us  of    British  descent)  are  accustomed  to  a  patrilineal  system  in  which  people  take  their  membership  of  a  family  from  their  father.  This  is  particularly  so  among  those  of  us  of  Norman  descent,  the  Normans  inventing  the  surnames  we  now  use.  Those  of  us  who  are  of  Scots  descent  might  know  that  descent  in  Celtic  Scotland  was  through  both  mother  and  father,  although  men  inherited  their  membership  of  their  clan  from  their  father  and  patrilineage  tended  to  take  precedence.  We  also  know  of  matrilineal  cultures  in  which  descent  is  reckoned  in  the  female  line.  One  of  the  best  known  of  the  matrilineal  cultures  is  the  Minangkabau  of  western  Sumatra;  less  well-­‐known  are  the  Wemale  of  Seram  Island,  about  9,000  of  whom  live  in  villages  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  the  Ngada  of  Flores  where:    

Men  handle  politics,  but  Ngada  women  control  all  family  property.  Name,  status,  and  possessions  all  descend  through  the  female  line,  and  nothing  of  value  is  bought  or  sold  without  a  consensus  among  clan  women.  Traditional  Ngada  houses  contain  a  room  where  the  women  can  discuss  family  business.  These  meetings  are  highly  secretive;  the  rooms  are  windowless  to  prevent  eavesdropping,  and  nothing  said  in  the  sanctum  is  repeated  outside11.    

 In  general,  kinship  in  archaic  Indonesia  was  what  is  known  as  a  cognatic  system,  that  is  one  in  which  descent  is  reckoned  in  both  the  male  and  female  lines.  One  of  the  results  of  this  system  is  that  what  we  would  call  cousins  are  regarded  as  close  to  the  individual  as  his  or  her  brothers  and  sisters  and  are  as  entitled  to  inherit  from  uncles  and  aunts  as  are  their  biological  offspring.  As  a  consequence  in  Medieval  Java  for  example,  when  there  were  individuals  styling  themselves  as  “kings”  or  “rajas”  the  succession  was  often  not  dynastic,  the  genealogies  of  the  people  entitled  to  inherit  under  the  cognatic  system  being  less  important  than  the  community’s  assessment  of  their  sakti  or  spiritual  power  which  often  as  not,  determined  the  successful  contender’s  command  over  the  army  and  other  resources  of  the  time.      This  sakti12,  which  is  better  known  in  Oceania  as  mana,  is  a  personal  spiritual  power  of  great  significance  for  anyone  who  wants  to  rule  others.  We  might  consider  it  some  form  of  charisma  or  “leadership  qualities”  but  there  is  more  to  it  than  just  individual  personalities.  Many  events  are  taken  as  symbolic  that  this  or  that  person  has  notable  sakti  and  with  this,  has  the  favour  of  gods  or  spirits  or  other  supernatural  powers.  One  such  sign  or  symbol  which  had  personal  significance  to  me  was  the  way  a  seemingly  simple  event  was  read  by  friends  when  I  first  arrived  in  Bali  and  they  met  me  at  the  bus  station:  it  was  raining!  Now  I  more  or  less  expected  it  to  rain  often  in  Bali  but                                                                                                  11  See:  http://www.threadsoflife.com/textile.asp?id=floresisland#none.  Threads  of  Life  is  an  organisation  dedicated  to  preserving  the  traditional  weaving  skills  of  Indonesia.  12 Also the more abstract form of the word, kesaktian

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apparently  not  so  in  the  dry  season…  The  rain  which  greeted  my  arrival  signified  (a)  the  local  gods  or  spirits  were  pleased  to  see  me  there  (just  who  or  what  these  were  was  never  explained);  and  (b)  my  sakti  must  be  high13.  My  hosts  went  on  to  explain  what  a  good  omen  rain  was  on  arrival  or  departure.  “It  always  rained  when  President  Soekarno  came  to  Bali”  they  told  me,  reminding  me  Soekarno’s  mother  was  Balinese  (and  making  me  feel  even  more  important!)    According  to  these  ancient  beliefs,  a  person’s  soul  or  spirit  is  their  life  force  which  inhabits  us  while  we  are  alive  and  departs  like  breath  on  the  air  when  we  die.  Just  where  it  goes  varies  from  place  to  place  but  in  general  it  is  thought  to  rejoin  the  god  of  the  upper  world.  But,  as  Dr.  Stöhr  reminds  us,  this  life  force    

…given  by  the  gods    also  inhabits,  in  different  degree,  the  animals,  the  plants,  the  stars,  the  mountains,  the  rivers  and  their  sources,  weapons,  tools  and  utensils,  even  the  customs  and  laws14.  

   This  kind  of  belief  was  called  animism  by  the  great  English  anthropologist,  Sir  Edward  Burnet  Tylor  (1832-­‐1917)  and  many  still  regard  this  as  the  earliest  ⎯  ie,  most  primitive  ⎯  form  of  religion.  If  this  is  an  attempt  to  explain  things,  as  science  does  today,  then  it  is  indeed  primitive  but  in  most  other  aspects  it  is  an  extraordinarily  complex  and  sophisticated  way  of  linking  all  aspects  of  life  into  a  meaningful  whole.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  such  a  system  of  metaphysical  thought  is  the  Shinto  religion  in  Japan  which  may  or  may  not  have  had  a  common  origin  with  animism  in  Southeast  Asia.  In  Shinto,  everything,  especially  things  which  are  wondrous,  beautiful  or  serve  their  function  very  well,  are  believed  to  be  the  habitations  of  nature  spirits.  So,  for  example,  waterfalls,  unusual  rock  formations,  mountains,  tea  bowls,  buckets  and  even  paper  bags  could  all  be  reverential  objects.  But  it  must  be  clearly  understood  that  the  objects  themselves  are  not  worshipped  or  any  offerings  are  not  to  the  object  per  se:    the  reverence  is  to  the  spirit  temporarily  inhabiting  it  ⎯    it  is  but  the  spirit’s  house15.  One  of  the  explanations  why  Shinto  is  so  attuned  to  Nature  and  extraordinarily  responsive  to  beauty  is  that                                                                                                  13 Once, when I worked for the Immigration Department back in the mid-‘60s I had to visit a small paw-paw growing settlement in Queensland. I drove the several miles over bad dirt road into the village just a few minutes ahead of the storm which broke the long drought. “You brought the rain” the locals all declared and treated me like a king for the three days I was stranded there. 14 Op. cit. p. 14 15 Christians speak of a church as “the house of God”. They might show respect and even reverence towards the building but they don’t worship it.

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the  Jomon  people  lived  in  close  association  with  Nature  for  thousands  of  years  and  so  refined  their  aesthetics    uninterrupted  by  outside  influences16.  

     Tea  bowl  by  Suzuki  Osamu  

 The  belief  that  some  people  can  be  in  such  close  harmony  with  the  spirit  world  that  they  can  actually  influence  it  led  of  course  to  the  practice  of  magic  and  shamanism.  Throughout  archaic  Indonesia  and  even  into  the  present  is  an  acceptance  of  magic,  both  “white”  and  “black”.  

Learned  people  with  special  relationships  to  the  spirit  world  are  called  dukun.    They  are  found  most  commonly  in  Java,  Bali,  Madura  and  among  Dayak  communities.  Of  all  these  it  is  the  Madurese  who  are  the  most  feared  and  believed  to  have  the  strongest  black  magic.    

 Toba  Batak  shaman's  staff  "tunggal  panaluan"17    

 Not  all  dukuns  perform  the  same  functions  but  among  those  abilities  for  which  they  are  famous  (and  feared)  are  their  medicinal  and  curative  skills  for  which  they  can  use  herbs,  various  inanimate  objects  of  animal  body  parts,  trance  communication  with  the  spirit  world,  offerings  and  of  special  interest,  the  kris,  the  short  ceremonial  weapon  common  among  Malay-­‐type  people  which  is  believed  to  be  endowed,  as  we  will  see  later,  with  very  strong  spiritual  powers.    

Dukuns  can  also  be  called  upon  to  perform  exorcisms,  divination  and  soothsaying,  manufacture  charms  and  perform  blessings,  and  other  varieties  of  sorcery.  Most  dukuns  are  highly  respected  and  believed  to  be  

benevolent  ⎯  as  is  certainly  the  case  of  the  midwife,  the  term  for  which  in  Bahasa  Indonesia  is  dukun  beranak,  where  “anak”  means  “child”  and  the  “ber-­‐“  is  a  prefix  indicating  association  or  connection.    

                                                                                               16  For  a  detailed  discussion  of  Jomon  prehistory  and  Japanese  aesthetics  see  my  Ancient  Shells  and  Gods  of  Clay  –  The  Magical  World  of  the  Jomon,  in  my  U3A  course  “Genes,  Genetics  and  the  Migrations  of  Man”,  on  my  web  site  at  www.bobhay.org.  17 http://www.tribalmania.com/BATAKSTAFFFINE.htm

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Archaic  Indonesia  was  a  world  in  which  the  village  was  a  manifestation  on  earth  of  the  cosmos  in  which  every  member  had  a  deeply  ingrained  obligation  to  preserve  a  harmonious  relationship  among  neighbours  and  family,  natural  forces,  animals  and  gods,  spirits  and  ancestors.  Ancestors  were  especially  important  because  they  knew  everyone  of  their  descendents  and  their  spirits  lingered  nearby  so  they  could  keep  a  watchful  eye  on  the  world  below.  For  many  villagers,  these  spirits  of  the  ancestors  lived  in  the  waringin  trees  or  other  trees  surrounding  their  homes.    

 The  spirits  of  ancestors  hover  above  the  living  in  the  waringin  trees.    

These  are  a  fig,  Ficus  benjamina,  and  grow  to  huge  size,  dropping  aerial  roots  which  touching  the  ground,  become  trunks  in  their  own  right.  In  this  way  a  waringin    becomes  a  family  of  trees,  all  

related  and  interconnected  as  are  the  members  of  the  village  in  which  the  ancestor  is  like  the  old,  central  trunk.      

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