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1 18. A Short History of Indonesia Warring States and the VOC WC 3861 On 23 June 1596 1 four Dutch ships dropped anchor in the harbour of the Javanese trading port of Banten 2 . Portuguese merchants came on board to welcome them showing them all politeness and explaining the conditions of Java to them and exalting the great fertility and wealth of the island 3 . The following day the Sultan’s representatives also made them welcome by granting the Dutch permission to trade freely in their port. While this first contact between Indonesians and Dutch presents a rosy picture, all was not well. Map showing the kingdoms of Sunda and Galuh (red dots=capitals, black dots=important centres) The Dutch enterprise was under the command of Cornelius de Houtman who, as DGE Hall explains, was a bad commander, a boaster and a ruffian 4 . de Houtman has spent several years as a merchant in Lisbon and claimed to have a thorough knowledge of the Portuguese trade in Southeast Asia and charts drawn by the cartographer Plancius to help them find the spice isles. As it happened, the voyage took them twice as long as it should have done and de 1 There seems to be some dispute over the exact date: this, 23 rd June, I have taken from Vlekke, HM: Nusantara – A History of Indonesia, W. van Hoeve Ltd, 1959. Others say it was 27 th 2 This is variously spelled Banten and Bantam. The “-am” ending is the contemporary English spelling but is used by some historians, eg. Vlekke, op. cit; Hall, DGE: A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan Student Editions, 1970. Personally I prefer the Indonesian “Banten”. 3 Quotation from Vlekke, op. cit p.107 4 Hall, op. cit. p. 289

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18.  A  Short  History  of  Indonesia    

  Warring  States  and  the  VOC      

WC  3861    On  23  June  15961  four  Dutch  ships  dropped  anchor  in  the  harbour  of  the  Javanese  trading  port  of  Banten2.  Portuguese  merchants  came  on  board  to  welcome  them  showing  them  all  politeness  and  explaining  the  conditions  of  Java  to  them  and  exalting  the  great  fertility  and  wealth  of  the  island3.    The  following  day  the  Sultan’s  representatives  also  made  them  welcome  by    granting  the  Dutch  permission  to  trade  freely  in  their  port.  While  this  first  contact  between  Indonesians  and  Dutch  presents  a  rosy  picture,  all  was  not  well.      

 Map  showing  the  kingdoms  of  Sunda  and  Galuh    (red  dots=capitals,  black  dots=important  centres)  

 The  Dutch  enterprise  was  under  the  command  of  Cornelius  de  Houtman  who,  as  DGE  Hall  explains,  was  a  bad  commander,  a  boaster  and  a  ruffian4.  de  Houtman  has  spent  several  years  as  a  merchant  in  Lisbon  and  claimed  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Portuguese  trade  in  Southeast  Asia  and  charts  drawn  by  the  cartographer  Plancius  to  help  them  find  the  spice  isles.  As  it  happened,  the  voyage  took  them  twice  as  long  as  it  should  have  done  and  de                                                                                                  1 There seems to be some dispute over the exact date: this, 23rd June, I have taken from Vlekke, HM: Nusantara – A History of Indonesia, W. van Hoeve Ltd, 1959. Others say it was 27th… 2 This is variously spelled Banten and Bantam. The “-am” ending is the contemporary English spelling but is used by some historians, eg. Vlekke, op. cit; Hall, DGE: A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan Student Editions, 1970. Personally I prefer the Indonesian “Banten”. 3 Quotation from Vlekke, op. cit p.107 4 Hall, op. cit. p. 289

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Houtman  lost  145  out  of  his  249  man  crew,  mostly  from  scurvy,  before  they  reached  Banten.    The  Dutch  quickly  wore  out  their  welcome:  de  Houtman  and  his  men  behaved  so  badly  in  port  that  de  Houtman  himself  was  thrown  in  prison  and  had  to  be  ransomed  a  month  later,  but  not  before  his  ships  had  bombarded  the  city.  They  sailed  eastwards  to  the  tiny  port  once  known  as  Sunda  Kelapa  and  then  as  Jacatra  (now  Jakarta)  and  from  there  as  far  as  Bali  before  his  crew  forced  de  Houtman  to  return  home.  They  arrived  back  in  the  Netherlands  in  August  1597  with  only  3  of  his  four  ships  and  89  of  the  men  who  had  sailed  at  the  beginning  of  the  expedition.  Perhaps  most  damning  of  all,  they  returned  with    a  disappointingly  small  cargo  to  pay  for  the  venture.  Nonetheless,  the  Dutch  were  overjoyed  because  de  Houtman  had  at  least  demonstrated  it  was  possible  to  reach  the  Indies  and  to  obtain  the  valuable  spices  which  drew  them  like  the  lure  of  gold.      The  Dutch  were  to  remain  in  Indonesia  for  the  next  three  and  a  half  centuries  until  finally  driven  out  in  1942  during  World  War  II  by  the  Japanese.  Initially  their  intrusion  was  only  spasmodic  and  motivated  entirely  by  their  desire  to  trade,  but  like  other  European  powers  of  the  time,  they  found  themselves  increasingly  involved  in  the  power  politics  of  the  region  and  in  defending  their  establishments  from  the  depredations  of  their  fellow  Europeans.  This  incurred  costs  which  ate  into  the  profits  of  their  ventures,  costs  which,  for  example,  included  building  forts,  hiring  mercenaries  or  supplying  military  and  naval  support,  costly  gifts  and  bribes  to  indigenous  potentates  and  others  which  eventually  forced  the  Dutch  state  to  take  over  responsibility  and  thus  effectively  to  turn  the  Indonesian  archipelago  into  a  colony.      However,  it  is  a  common  mistake  for  those  of  us  of  European  descent  to  see  this  period  of  Indonesian  history  through  the  dark  glass  of  our  European  self-­‐interest.  The  biggest  distortion  occurs  when  we  focus  on  the  role  of  the  Dutch  in  the  archipelago  as  though  this  was  all  that  was  happening.  In  fact,  just  as  in  the  earlier  Buddhist-­‐Hindu  period,  the  mandalas  of  power  in  Southeast  Asia  were  forever  changing  and  to  a  large  extent  ⎯  certainly  before  the  19th  Century  ⎯  the  Dutch  were  tantamount  to  just  another  small  state  playing  a  part  in  the  power  games  of  the  time.  So,  before  outlining  the  events  of  Dutch  rule  in  Indonesia,  we  will  look  back  over  the  changes  which  followed  the  decline  of  Majapahit  because  it  is  against  that  shifting  background  the  European  intrusion  must  be  viewed.    The  lingering  decline  of  Majapahit  saw  power  shift  from  East  Java  and  the  valley  of  the  Brantas  River,  back  towards  Central  Java  and  perhaps  more  importantly,  to  West  Java,  or  Sunda  as  the  region  is  known.  This  also  saw  a  

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shift  from  the  old  kingdoms  which  drew  their  kesaktian,  or  right  to  rule,  from  the  old  Javanese  Hindu  religion,  to  newer  states  which  espoused  Islam.      The  Sunda  Kingdom  Sunda  is  the  westernmost  part  of  the  island  of  Java.  About  40  million  people  inhabit  the  area  of  approximately  35,000  square  kilometres,  making  it  outside  Jakarta  the  most  densely  populated  region  in  Indonesia5.  Until  2000,  the  province  also  included  the  Banten  region  but  this  was  excised  as  a  separate  province  in  that  year.    

                   

Sundanese  suling  (  bamboo  flute)  and  wayang  golek  

 Angklung  and  angklung  orchestra  

 Apart  from  the  national  language,  the  people  speak  Sundanese,  a  language  distinct  from  Javanese,  and  claim  a  culture  identifiably  different  from  that  in  Central  and  East  Java.  For  example,  instead  of  the  wayang  kulit    so  popular  in  the  rest  of  Java,  in  Sunda  the  great  folk-­‐theatre  employs    three-­‐dimensional  puppets  known  as  wayang  golek.  Music  is  also  different  ⎯  gamelan  degung,  angklung    and  kacapi    suling  are  the  genres  which  stand  out  for  me.  Even  food  makes  the  point  this  is  a  different  culture:  whereas  the  Javanese  cuisine  tends  

                                                                                               5 In 2005, population density was 1,150 persons per square kilometer.

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to  be  sweet,  in  Sunda  they  cook  with    Lombok  or  birds-­‐eye  chilli  in  just  about  everything  so  that  food  is  usually  pedas  sekali!6    The  degung  whose  bass  tone    punctuates  the  Sundanese  gamelan.    

Sunda  is  a  very  mountainous  region.  Its  capital,  Bandung,  lies  in  the  shadow  of  the  volcano  Tangkuban  Perahu,    so  named  because  it  resembles  an  upturned  boat.  Both  Bandung  and  its  neighbour  Bogor  (in  the  mountains  above  Jakarta)  are  important  university  cities  with  the  Bandung  Institute  of  Technology  and  the  Institut  Pertanian  (Agriculture  Institute)  in  Bogor  being  outstanding  examples  places  of  higher  learning.  The  late  

President  Soekarno  enrolled  at  ITB  as  a  young  man  in  1924.    

 (Left)  The  insignia  of  IT:  Ganesh,  son  of  Siva  and  the  god  of  science.  (centre)  The  famous  “buffalo  horns”  roof  of  the  main  ITB  building  and  (right)  ITB  as  it  was  when  first  built  in  1920.    

 This  mountainous  region  is  these  days  home  to  endless  tea  and  coffee  plantations  as  well  as  the  ubiquitous  rice  terraces.      

Tea  plantations,  Puncak  Pass  (near  Bogor)7  and  sawah  terraced  down  the  mountain-­sides  (photo:  BH  1969)  

     

 

                                                                                               6 Very spicy ⎯ there are two words in Indonesian for “hot”: panas, as in “hot water”, and pedas as in “hot with chilli” 7 Photo: http://www.weltrekordreise.ch/a_akte_indonesien.htm

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It  was  in  this  rugged  terrain  that  the  kings  of  the  Sunda  kingdom  reigned  from  669  to  c.  1579,  their  boundary  with  the  kingdoms  of  Central  Java  being  the  Brebes  and  Serayu  Rivers  .  The  name  Sunda  was  first  used  in  an  Old  Malay  inscription  dated  536  AD  memorialising  a  Rakryan  Juru  Pangambat  who,  according  to  the  text,  re-­‐established  power  in  the  kingdom  of  Sunda.  This  date  places  Sunda  at  the  time  of  the  kingdom  of  Tarumanagara.  A  much  later  mention  of  the  name  Sunda  is  on  the  Jayabupati  inscription  of  1030  AD.  This  records  a  law  made  by  the  King  of  Sunda  which  forbade  catching  fish  in  a  river  on  pain  of  horrible  punishments  by  supernatural  beings,  die[ing]  in  horrible  way[s]  like  their  brain  being  sucked  [out],  blood  being  drunk,  intestines  being  destroyed,  and  chest  split  in  two.    Another  account,  this  time  from  what  is  known  as  the  Wangsakerta  manuscript,  indicates  that  king  Tarusbawa  inherited  Tarumanagara  and  changed  its  name  to  Sunda  in  670  AD.  Chinese  records  confirm  this.  But  all  was  not  easy  for  Tarusbawa:  the  ruler  of  another  small  kingdom  which  had  been  a  vassal  of  Tarumanagara  insisted  the  old  kingdom  be  divided  between  him  and  Tarusbawa.    Because  the  other  ruler  had  powerful  connections  in  Central  Java,  rather  than  risk  war,  Tarusbawa  agreed  and  the  Taruma  territory  was  divided  in  670  into  Sunda  in  the  west  and  Galuh  in  the  east.  

 The  division  of  the  Tarumanagara  territory  into  two  kingdoms,  Sunda  and  Galuh.  

 The  two  kingdoms  led  a  turbulent  existence,  sometimes  as  separate  kingdoms,  sometimes  re-­‐united.  The  many  wars  and  complicated  

genealogies  make  this  period  difficult  to  comprehend,  but  one  name  stands  out:  Sanjaya.  Apparently  related  to  both  dynasties,  this  man  succeeded  Tarusbawa  as  the  second  king  of  Sunda.  He  ascended  the  throne  there  as  Prabu  Harisdarma  and  ruled  723-­‐732  but  later,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Galuh,  he  took  the  name  Sanjaya.  In  the  Byzantine  maze  of  family  relationships,  Sanjaya  also  had  a  legitimate  claim  to  the  throne  of  Kalinga  in  Central  Java  and  in  732  AD  he  thus  established  the  Kingdom  of  Mataram  and  began  the  Sanjaya  Dynasty.  His  son,  Prince  Tamperan  then  assumed  the  throne  of  Sunda  as  Rakeyan  Panaraban.    Although  we  have  extensive  king-­‐lists  and  the  relationships  of  these  rulers  to  each  other,  very  little  is  known  about  the  early  history  of  this  part  of  Java.  Fortunately,  however,  there  is  one  first-­‐hand  account  of  the  life  of  the  ordinary  people  in  the  11th  century.  Chu-­‐fan-­‐chi,  a  Chinese  visitor  to  the  region  sometime  between  1178  to  1225,  recorded  his  impressions  of  Sunda  and  its  port:      

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All  along  the  shores,  people  are  dwelling.  The  people  are  working  in  agriculture,  their  houses  are  on  poles  and  the  roofs  are  thatched  with  the  bark  of  the  leaves  of  palm  trees  and  the  walls  were  made  with  wooden  boards  tied  together  with  rattan.  Both  men  and  women  wrap  round  their  loins  a  piece  of  cotton,  and  in  cutting  their  hair  they  only  leave  it  half  an  inch  long.  The  pepper  grown  on  the  hills  (of  this  country)  is  small-­grained,  but  heavy  and  superior  to  that  of  Ta-­pan  (eastern  Java).  The  country  produces  pumpkins,  sugar  cane,  bottle-­guards,  beans  and  egg-­plants.  As,  however,  there  is  no  regular  government  in  this  country,  the  people  are  given  to  brigandage,  on  which  account  foreign  traders  rarely  go  there8.  

 Much  further  down  the  king  list  of  Sunda  is  Prabu  Maharaja  Lingga  Buana.  Hayam  Wuruk  of  Majapahit  wanted  to  marry  Lingga  Buana’s  daughter,  Dyah  Pitaloka  and  so,  with  much  ceremony,  the  Sunda  court  travelled  to  Trowulan  in  1357  and  established  themselves  on  Bubat  Square  in  the  city.  However,  Gaja  Mada  did  not  approve  of  this  marriage  and  at  the  last  moment  made  it  known  that  the  princess  was  to  be  a  concubine,  a  gift  in  submission  to  Hayam  Wuruk.  The  Sundanese  king  was  outraged,  a  skirmish  broke  out  in  which  he,  the  princess  and  most  of  his  court  were  killed.  One  of  the  major  books  of  the  Sunda  kingdom,  the  Kidung  Sunda,  records  that  Prabu  Maharaja  Lingga  Buana  was  thenceforth  known  as  Prabu  Wangi  in  remembrance  of  his  heroism  in  defending  the  honour  of  his  kingdom  and  his  descendants,  the  later  kings  of  Sunda,  were  known  as  Siliwangi  or  “successor  of  Wangi”.  A  great-­‐grandson  of  Lingga  Buana  when  he  became  king  was  called  Sri  Baduga  Maharaja  or  more  popularly,  as  Prabu  Siliwangi.    The  period  of  his  rule  (1482-­‐1521)  was  the  Golden  Age  of  the  Sunda  kingdom  during  which  the  Maharaja  paved  the  road  to  the  port  of  Sunda  Kelapa  (now  Jakarta),  established  reserves  and  forest  plantations  and  created  the  Talaga-­‐warna-­‐mahawijaya  Lake  near  the  Puncak  Pass.  This  was  a  time  when  the  kingdom  reached  the  zenith  of  its  power  and  became  extremely  wealthy  through  increased  efficiency  of  its  agriculture  and  the  growth  of  the  pepper  trade.      But  this  was  also  the  time  in  which  the  Sultan  of  Demak  was  aggressively  expanding  his  domains  and  along  the  way,  bringing  about  the  downfall  of  Majapahit.    By  the  early  1500s,  only  Balambangan  in  the  far  east  of  Java  and  Sunda  in  the  west  of  the  island  remained  Hindu  states.  In  both  1512  and  1521  the  king  of  Sunda,  Sri  Baduga  Maharaja  sent  his  son,  the  Crown  Prince,  to  Malacca  to  ask  for  their  assistance  by  signing  a  peace  treaty  between  them,  and  inviting  them  to  trade  in  pepper  and  to  build  a  fort  at  Sunda  Kelapa.  The  treaty  was  finally  concluded  in  1522  after  the  old  king  died  and  the  former  Crown  Prince,  best  known  as    Ratu  Sang  Hiang,  had  ascended  the  throne.      

                                                                                               8 Chu-fan-chi: Report on Far Countries, quoted by Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom

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However,  the  Luso-­‐Sundanese  Treaty  was  never  put  into  effect.  The  Portuguese  were  distracted  by  trouble  in  Goa  and  by  the  time  they  returned    it  was  to  find  the  harbour  at  Sunda  Kelapa  had  been  captured  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Sultans  of  Cirebon  and  Demak,  most  of  the  city  destroyed,  its  people  massacred,  and  the  harbor  itself  renamed  Jayakarta.  Although  the  king  sent  troops,  they  were  defeated  and  driven  back  to  the  Sunda  capital,  Pakuan.  The  war  between  the  Cirebon-­‐Demak  alliance  and  the  King  of  Sunda  lasted  for  5  years  until  finally  king  Surawisesa  concluded  a  peace  treaty  with  Syarif  Hidayatullah  in  1531.  Although  the  Portuguese  made  two  attempts  to  land  in  Jayakarta  they  were  too  weak  and  finally  gave  up  any  attempt  to  re-­‐take  the  city  for  their  ally,  the  Sundanese  king.    There  were  two  centres  of  power  during  the  history  of  the  Sunda  kingdom,  one  at  Pakuan–Pajajaran9  in  Sunda  itself,  the  other  in  the  some-­‐time  kingdom  of  Galuh  when  it  was  located  at  Kawali.  The  name  Pajajaran  referred  to  Pakuan’s  position  between  two  rivers  and  is  perhaps  more  familiar  today  than  the  older  Pakuan.  It  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  great  universities  of  Indonesia,  the  Universitas  Padjadjaran  in  Bandung.  Although  the  court  moved  from  Pakuan  to  Kawali  for  some  time,  Sri  Baduga  Maharaja  moved  the  

government  back  again  in  1482  and  it  remained  there  until  the  end  of  the  kingdom  with  its  fall  to  the  Sultanate  of  Banten  in  the  1550s.    Banten10  

       

The  Kingdom  of  Banten  The  Sultanate  of  Banten  was  founded  by  Sunan  Gunungjati,  a  Javanese  wali11  who  married  the  sister  of  Sultan  Trenggono  of  Demak.    He  is  said  to  have  been  the  grandson  on  his  mother’s  side  of  the  king  of  Sunda,  Prabu  Siliwangi.  In  1527  when  known  as  Fatahillah  he  helped  defeat  the  Portuguese  when  they  tried  to  take  Sunda  Kelapa.  He  also  led  military  expeditions  for  Demak  against  Banten,  then  still  a  Hindu  kingdom.  One  of  the  problems  in  studying  the  life  of  Sunan  Gunungjati  is  that  his  death  is  dated  to  1580  and  this  means,  if  he  was  indeed  the  grandson  of  Prabu  Siliwangi,  he  must  have  been  120  years  old!  He  

                                                                                               9 This is the new spelling; the Universitas Padjadjaran in Bandung still employs the old spelling based on Dutch phonetics in which the modern [j] is spelled [dj]. 10  Photo:  The  blog  of  Mikhail  Tsyganov,  http://mikejkt.livejournal.com/4736.html#cutid1  11 This is a term referring to men revered for their role of spreading Islam in Java and is more or less equivalent to “saint”. They are customarily given the title Sunan. Sunan Gunungjati is the only sunan to have become a king.

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is  also  credited  with  founding  the  Sultanate  of  Cirebon,  another  of  the  important  trading  ports  on  Java’s  north  coast.    Built  by  Sultan  Maulana  Hasanuddin  and  his  successor  Maulana  Yusuf  in  1552-­1580  the  stronghold  cum  palace  Keraton  Surosowan  lies  in  ruins  (its  western  and  eastern  walls  are  300  metres  and  its  overall  area  is  3  hectares).  

 Sunan  Gunungjati’s  son,  Hasanuddin  succeeded  his  father  as  Sultan  and  set  about  reviving  the  glories  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Sunda.  Whereas  his  father’s  capital  had  been  at  Banten  Girang,  some  distance  inland,  Hasanuddin  decided  to  build  a  new  capital  on  the  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cibanten  River  in  the  area  between  two  arms  of  the  river  as  it  flowed  from  its  delta  into  the  sea.  The  new  city  was  divided  into  quarters  by  main  streets  running  north-­‐south  and  east-­‐west.  The  royal  residence,  the  kraton,  was  built  on  the  south  side,  the  mosque  on  the  west  side  of  the  city.    Overall,  the  city  covered  3  hectares.  Merchants  and  other  foreigners  had  to  live  outside  the  city.  

 The  remains  of  the  palace  Keraton  Kaibon,    the  residence  of  the  sultan’s  mother  Saifuddin.  It  is  probably  older  than  Surosowan.  The  Dutch  dismantled  much  of  it  in  1832.  

 In  1546,  Hasanuddin  took  part  in  a  military  expedition  by  the  Sultan  of  Demak  against  Pasuran  and  when  the  Sultan  was  killed  in  the  battle,  

took  the  opportunity  to  free  his  city  from  its  vassalage  to  the  older  sultanate.  From  this  time  on,  Banten  enjoyed  great  prosperity,  principally  from  its  pepper  trade  which  both  Sunan  Gunungjati  and  Hasanuddin  had  been  at  pains  

to  secure.  Where  Demak’s  expedition  had  failed,  Hasnuddin  was  now  able  to  take  over  the  old  capital  of  Pasuran-­‐Pajajaran,  located  where  the  modern  city  of  Bogor  now  stands,  with  little  trouble.      A  tourist-­eye  view  of  Banten  

 From  this  time  on,  Banten  ruled  the  whole  of  West  Java  with  the  exception  of  the  Sultanate  

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of  Cirebon,  as  well  as  much  of  southern  Sumatra,  the  source  of  its  pepper  wealth.    It  was  in  this  prosperous  harbour  that  the  Dutch  first  dropped  anchor  in  1596  and,  although  their  expedition  was  not  as  profitable  as  it  might  have  been,  the  merchants  back  in  Holland  were  enthusiastic  enough  to  send  several  more  expeditions  immediately  and,  on  28th  March  1602,  to  found  a  chartered  company  dedicated  to  seeking  

profit  in  the  Indonesian  archipelago.  Known  in  English  as  the  Dutch  East  Indies  Company    ⎯  in  Dutch,  Vereenigde  Oost-­Indische  Compagnie  ⎯  this  company  is  best-­‐known  by  its  initials,  the  VOC.  The  States-­‐General  of  the  Netherlands  granted  the  VOC  a  21-­‐year  monopoly  on  commercial  activities  in  

Asia  and  legislated  to  allow  it  to  wage  war,  build  forts,  maintain  armies,    negotiate  treaties,  coin  money  and  establish  colonies  and  last  but  not  least,  to    to  account  financially  for  its  activities  only  once  every  decade.  This  was  an  innovative  step,  the  VOC  being  the  first  multinational  company  in  the  world  and  the  first  company  to  issue  stock.      A  VOC  “duit”  minted  in  1735.  The  basic  unit  was  the  “penning”  and  a  duit  was  worth  2  penning.  There  were  160  duit  to  the  “gulden”.  In  Bahasa  Indonesia  “duit:  =  “money”  or  “coin”.  

 For  all  the  Dutch  enthusiasm  to  set  up  this  mega-­‐corporation,  

the  English  actually  were  a  jump  ahead,  setting  up  the  East  India  Company  (commonly  called  “John  Company”)  in  1600.  Of  course  this  led  to  conflict,  starting  with  the  arrival  in  the  Moluccas  in  1604  of  an  East  Indies  Company  (John  Company)  expedition  intending  to  trade  there  for  spices.    Despite  Dutch  hostility,  the  English  continued  to  establish  trading  posts  throughout  the  archipelago  from  1611  to  1617,  including  in  Kalimantan,  Makassar,  Aceh,  and  in  Java,  in  Jayakarta  and  Jepara.  In  1623  this  conflict  led  to  the  Amboyna  

massacre  in  which  20  men,  ten  of  whom  were  Englishmen  employed  by  the  East  India  Company,  were  arrested  by  the  Dutch,  tortured,  tried  and  beheaded  for  conspiracy  against  the  Dutch  government.  Interestingly,  the  preferred  method  of  torture  for  the  VOC  was  waterboarding!    The  Dutch  and  English  enclaves  at  Amboyna  (top)  and  Banda-­Neira  (bottom).  1655  engraving.  

 

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The  Amboyna  Massacre  was  to  play  an  important  role  for  much  of  the  century,  mostly  as  propaganda,  in  the  lead-­‐up  to  the  First12,  Second13  and  Third14  Anglo-­‐Dutch  Wars  and  was  even  used  as  an  argument  vindicating  the  British  annexation  of  New  Amsterdam  ⎯  now  New  York!  Even  John  Dryden  wrote  a  play  called  Amboyna  or  the  Cruelties  of  the  Dutch  to  the  English  

Merchants  which  played  its  part  in  instigating  the  Third  Anglo  Dutch  War.    Batavia  in  the  17th  Century  (the  area  is  now  North  Jakarta).  

 The  first  permanent  VOC  trading  post  was  established  in  Banten  in  1603  and  two  years  later,  an  admiral  of  the  VOC  fleet,  Steven  van  der  Hagen,  captured  the  Portuguese  fort  on  Ambon  and  tried  to  seize  control  of  the  spice  trade  from  

there.  In  1610  the  post  of  Governor-­‐General  of  the  VOC  was  created  along  with  the  Raad  van  Indië  ⎯  Council  of  the  Indies  ⎯    with  headquarters  in  Ambon.  The  first  three  Governors-­‐General  were  stationed  there  but  the  site  was  strategically  unsuitable  being  so  far  off  the  main  sea  lanes.  On  30  May  1619  the  fourth  Governor-­‐General  of  the  VOC,  Jan  Pieterszoon  Coen,  with  a  fleet  of  19  ships,  stormed  Jayakarta,  drove  out  the  Bantenese  and  established  a  new  capital  for  the  VOC  which  was  re-­‐named  Batavia.    

 Nutmeg  and  mace15  

   Jan  Pieterszoon  Coen  was  ruthless.  Because  he  found  it  impossible  to  restrict  the  spice  trade  to  Dutch  factors,  Coen  decided  to  set  up  plantations  run  by  Dutch  colonists  on  Banda.  Now  Banda  is  a  group  of  very  small  islands,  

the  vestiges  of  an  ancient  volcano,  which  was  the  only  place  in  the  world  where  the  nutmeg  tree  grew.  This  tree  provided  not  only  nutmeg,  which  is  the  kernel  of  the  nut,  but  also  mace,  its  outer  fleshy  sheath.  So  Coen  deported  the  entire  indigenous  population  or  massacred  those  who  refused  to  leave  and  then  used  slave  labour  to  run  the  plantations.  His  plan  to  involve  colonists  to  over-­‐see  these  plantations  was  thwarted  by  the  Heeren  XVII16,    the  board  of  the  VOC,  who  were  not  willing  to  risk  such  uncertain  financial  commitments.    

                                                                                               12 1652–1654 13 1665-1667 14 1672-1674 15 Mace is sold in dried form but in Indonesia is often eaten fresh as a tasty mouth freshener. 16 Heeren Zeventien, “The Lords Seventeen”.

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 The  Third  Anglo-­‐Dutch  War  of  1672-­‐74  temporarily  cut  off  the  VOC’s  trade  with  Europe  and  seizing  the  moment,  the  East  Indies  Company  flooded  the  market  with  cheaper  pepper  from  their  sources  in  India.  As  it  happened,  this  rebounded  on  the  English  company,  forcing  it  close  to  bankruptcy,  but  by  then  France  and  Denmark  began  to  compete  for  some  of  the  VOC’s  pepper  trade  on  the  Coromandel  Coast  of  India  and  in  what  had  been  the  open  port  of  Banten  in  Java.  In  1684  the  VOC  obtained  a  treaty  from  the  Sultan  closing  Banten  to  all  but  its  own  ships.                                  Replicas  of  two  VOC  ships,  one  from  the  17th  Century,  the  other  from  the  18th.    The  first  is  the  replica  of  the  Batavia,  built  in  Amsterdam  in  1628  but  wrecked  on  her  maiden  voyage  at  the  Abrolhos  Islands  on  4  June  1629.  She  is  moored  at  Lelystad,  the  Netherlands.  The  second  (right)  is  a  modern  reconstruction  of  the  18th  century  VOC  Amsterdam.  The  original  was  beached  off  the  south  coast  of  England  when  her  rudder  snapped  in  a  storm  in  1749.  The  replica  was  completed  in  1991.    

The  18th  Century  eventually  saw  the  decline  of  the  VOC.  The  Company  was  gradually  squeezed  out  of  many  of  its  earlier  Asian  bases  of  operation  as  patterns  of  inter-­‐Asian  trade  changed  with  the  years.  Having  its  headquarters  in  Batavia,  although  helpful  in  the  earlier  phase,  later  meant  everything  had  to  be  shipped  there  and  then  transhipped,  a  costly  waste  of  effort.  The  venality  of  the  Company  also  was  a  major  player  in  its  demise.  It  was  not  a  good  employer  so  bribery  and  other  corruption  became  entrenched.  Although  forbidden  officially,  private  trading  by  employees  at  the  cost  of  the  VOC  was  rife.  Like  other  European  companies  trading  in  Asia,  mortality  and  illness  seriously  undermined  morale  and  efficiency.  And,  as  time  went  by,  the  business-­‐savvy  merchants  who  had  invested  were  gradually  replaced  by  an  aristocracy  who  had  little  experience  of  trade.  These  and  other  factors  too  many  to  mention  here  meant  that  by  the  end  of  the  Fourth  Anglo-­‐Dutch  War  (1780–1784)  the  VOC  was  a  financial  wreck  which  was  nationalised  on  1  March  1796  and  finally  allowed  to  expire  on  31  December  1800.    DGE  Hall  points  out  that  for  all  the  years  the  English  and  the  Dutch  were  competing  for  trade  in  the  Moluccas    

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…the  East  India  Company  was  able  to  pay  higher  dividends  than  the  V.O.C.  The  reason  was  that  the  Dutch  had  to  devote  too  much  of  their  profit  to  the  expense  of  building  forts,  maintaining  large  garrisons  and  equipping  fighting  squadrons.  They  were  firmly  convinced  that  the  spice  monopoly  was  a  matter  of  vital  national  importance,  and  so,  in  the  words  of  an  acute  critic,17  ’applied  their  greatest  effort  of  empire–building  to  an  object  that  was  only  temporarily  worth  attaining.’  For  with  the  expansion  of  world  trade  the  spice  trade  became  less  and  less  important,  and  the  misapplications  of  Dutch  energy  in  the  East  had  its  effect  upon  the  decline  of  their  national  power  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.18  

   

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                                                                                               17 Hall quotes JA Williamson, The Ocean in British History, p. 103 18 Op. cit. p 311