a rethink of ebonics

8/12/2019 A Rethink of Ebonics

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A Rethink of Ebonics: In Light Of Historic Factors Which Stigmatize Its Use

Language and Socia !ariation

Shame Hurd

"irmingham #it$ Uni%ersit$

&to e'ist socia$ means to be (ercei%ed) and (ercei%ed as distinct* +"ordieu) ,--,:../0

Ebonics) a %ernacuar associated 1ith African2Americans) has (oarized o(inion since the

Oakand Schoo "oard (assed a resoution in ,--3 introducing African2American

!ernacuar Engish +AA!E0,into Oakand cassrooms4 5he Oakand "oard recognized

Ebonics as a (edagogica too &for the benefit of African American students both in termsof (ositi%e a((reciation of the anguage and these students6 ac7uisition and master$ of

Engish anguage skis4* +8Origina Oakand Resoution8) ,--30 5he "oard6s com(eing

statement had ree%ant concerns for African2American students4 First$) Ebonics 1as

deemed b$ the "oard to e'hibit educationa 7uaities of some %aue4 Second$) ana((reciation of anguage +Engish0 coud be achie%ed through the im(ementation of

Ebonics in some form and ast$ Ebonics coud aid African2American students inac7uiring com(etent iterac$ skis4 A firestorm ensued from media and (ubic both

high$ critica of the Oakand "oards resoution4 O((osition to the resoution 1as most

notabe from Americas "ack estabishment 1ho 1ere (articuar$ scathing in theirassessment4 O%er time the continued criticisms e%eed against its ado(tion resuted in the

e%entua (assing of a ne1 resoution in ,--94 5he amended resoution b$ the "oard aid

em(hasis soe$ &on earning Standard Engish*) +8Amended Resoution8) ,--90 a return

to Standard Engish (ractices e'cuding an$ use of Ebonics4 Wh$ had the introduction ofEbonics (rom(ted such furor and 1h$ had Ebonics strugged to garner (ubic acce(tance

in (articuar 1ithin the African2American communit$ 5hese 7uestions raised issues ofanguage status) (ertaining to Ebonics) in societ$ and conte'tua factors that infuenceattitudes that sha(e its (ubic (erce(tion4 ;ubic o(inion thus far has stigmatized Ebonics

fueing ske(ticism concerning its socia %aue4 Inturn doubts regarding its %aue ha%e

raised (ubic concerns about its educationa (otentia to benefit African2Americanstudents4 Socioinguists ha%e defined

Ebonics to better understand "ack s(eech4 We ha%e come to terms 1ith Ebonics from a

inguistic stand(oint ho1e%er 1ithin the conte't of academic or forma settings Ebonics

remains an un1ecomed guest4 A rethink is necessar$ in order to re2e%auate Ebonics andits roe in societ$ and (otentia in education4 A roe not to re(ace but to ser%e 8as a

s(ringboard to Standard Engish4 8 +Rickford ? Rickford) .@@@0 #ontrar$ to other

anguages) (idgins) creoes) diaects and accents ha%ing gained credence) Ebonicsmean1hie remains on the (eri(her$ of mainstream societ$4 An outcast of sorts)

nonetheess Ebonics enca(suates for man$ African2Americans their 8"ack8 identit$4 An

identit$ defined not on$ b$ coor but b$ anguage) t1o factors ine'(icab$ inked to the"ack e'(erience4 ;ubic attention has focused e'cusi%e$ on Ebonics 1ithout

consideration to e'terna issues4 "roadening the sco(e of obser%ation) I 1i e'(ore a

,African2American !ernacuar Engish +AA!E0 is referred to b$ a host of references AA!E) Ebonics) "ack Engish)AAL) "ack Engish !ernacuar) etc4

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number historica factors 1hich gauge ho1 1e assess this anguage %ariet$4 In the

modern debate on Ebonics one must %ie1 the reationshi( bet1een Ebonics and societ$

and their mutua infuence on one another4 Ebonics is a refecti%e %ariet$ 1ith stronginherent indicators of regiona) socia and ethnic backgrounds4 From as(ects of

segregation to the "ack on "ack di%ide) the im(ortance of race is (aramount to an$

discussion on Ebonics4 I 1i aso address the stigmatization of ebonics infuencing the(ubic (erce(tion and ho1 these e'terna factors contributed to and enforced a anguage

dis(arit$ that e'ists e%en toda$4

5he education of "ack students has been im(acted b$ a series of factors that ha%e had far

reaching conse7uences on their education and anguage de%eo(ment4 5hese factors

1oud (resent obstaces for African2Americans (rior to entering education and continue

throughout their schooing4 In the andmark case of "ro1n %4 "oard of Education +"ro1n%4 "oard of Education) B/9 U4S4 /CB0 the Su(reme #ourt decared the se(aration of (ubic

schoos for "ack and White students to be unconstitutiona4 5he decision that 8se(arate

educationa faciities are inherent$ une7ua)8 +"ro1n %4 "oard ,-D/0 set in motion an

u(hea%a through the desegregation of Americas t1o2tier educationa s$stem4 =is(aritiesbet1een "ack and White education and inguistic differences arge$ ignored due to

segregation 1oud come to a head as African2American students began entering Whiteschoos4 =esegregation meant Ebonics s(eakers had no1 gained a foothod in White

schoos but interesting$ "ack teachers 1ere not afforded the same consideration of

integration into mi'ed cassrooms occu(ied b$ Whites4 5he ad%ent of integrationremo%ed a anguage baance bet1een +"ack0 teacher and +"ack0 student as "ack

teachers 1ere not suitabe to instruct White chidren in mi'ed cassrooms4 5his 1oud

initiate a anguage imbaance (er(etuated b$ the ack of +White0 teacher a1areness of

African2American inguistic differences4 Educationa conditions 1ere simiar for Latinosand ati%e2Americans com(ounding the educationa ine7uit$ 1hich e'isted for

minorities4 Ge'ican2Americans for e'am(e in 5e'as) athough schoo districts 1ere

forbidden from segregating Latinos based on aeged anguage deficiences in ight ofruings such as "ro1n %4 "oard) 1ere arbitrari$ cassified as 8White8 for segregationa

(ur(oses4 5hus African2American schoos 1ere desegregated b$ Latinos 1hie a White

schoos remained White) thereb$ e'cuding White students and mi'ing "ack and "ro1nstudents 8continued to be e'(osed to inferior faciities) and une7ua education (re%aied48

+#ontreras) ,--/0 5he "ro1n %4 "oard decision ensured African2Americans 1ere fina$

ao1ed access to Americas +White0 educationa s$stem but did itte ese to rectif$

inguistic shortcomings in the educationa e'(erience of African2Americans4 Integrationfor man$ African2Americans came at a (rice) these students 1ere no1 hed to simiar

academic standards com(arabe to their 1hite (eers4 In the ong batte for educationa

e7uait$ go%erning bodies had faied to account for or de%eo( (rocedures to he(African2American students once this transition 1as made4 O%er time the ack of ade7uate

measures to accommodate "ack students 1ithin their ne1 earning en%ironment 1oud

become garing$ a((arent4As (ubic education mo%ed gradua$ to1ard a standards2based curricuum) Schoo

boards 1ere faced 1ith e%idence that African2Americans 1ere academica$ chaenged

in their ne1 en%ironment4 5his dis(arit$ in education referred to as the &achie%ement

ga(*) described the academic (erformance bet1een African2Americans and their White

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(eers4 5hese troubing (erformance ga(s 1oud sho1 u( in grades) standardized2tests and

dro(out rates4 Statistica$ African2American students ha%e historica$ under2(erformed

1e beo1 norms found amongst White students at simiar grade e%es4 In one recente'am(e from .@@-) the Urban Strategies #ounci found that - of "ack maes in the C th

grade 1ere (roficient in reading in com(arison 1ith BB of White mae Cthgraders4

;oic$makers and academics began to focus attention on ho1 students from o12incomefamiies +&one in three "ack chidren)* +#hid ;o%ert$) .@@-00 faired in com(arison 1ith

those better off and ho1 Engish2anguage (roficienc$ coud factor in this continuing

dis(arit$4 Research into cogniti%e de%eo(ment su((ort ed caims chidren from o12income househods &are e'(osed to ess anguage in their homes on a dai$ basis than

midde2income chidren8 and conse7uent$) 8enter kindergarten 1ith a %ocabuar$ that is

one2fourth the size of %ocabuaries of chidren from higher2income famiies4* +Hart ?

Rise$) ,--D cited in Su((orting Language) .@@30 5he research sho1ed o12incomeAfrican2American chidren 1ere initia$ handica((ed b$ anguage barriers 1e before

the$ began an$ forma schooing4 E'acerbated not on$ b$ socia and economic factors

infuencing the anguage ga() it 1as aso com(ounded b$ the +"ack0 Engish the$ s(oke4

A socia stigma cear$ surrounds Ebonics 1hich ham(ers its mainstream acce(tance4

Stigmatized outside informa circes) Ebonics can be summari$ enca(suated in the %ie1

hed b$ academic Henr$ Louis ates Jr4 as 66ob%ious$ stu(id and ridicuous466 +Rich),--90 egati%e stereot$(es characterize Ebonics) a socia (erce(tion that 7uite often

stigmatizes its users4 Socia settings in 1hich Ebonics is s(oken fre7uent$ define the

reationshi( that e'ists bet1een user and anguage4 Socioogists ha%e endorsed the notion

that anguage) a socia marker) retains the abiit$ &to make or unmake grou(s* +"ourdieu),--,:..,0 in the frame1ork of societ$4 Within the African2American communit$ the

1iingness of indi%iduas to embrace Ebonics can signif$ acce(tance in certain

communities athough strenuous$ reKected b$ another4 #onficting ideas to1ards Ebonics1ithin the "ack communit$ stem from a ong2standing historica di%ide dating back to

sa%er$4 =uring sa%er$ and after its aboishment Ebonics estabished a coecti%e cutura

identit$ as 1e as being the dominant form of communication in %arious African2American communities (articuar$ in southern states4 African2Americans 1ho made use

of Ebonics 1ere distinguishabe to their counter(arts 1ho s(oke a %ariet$ regarded as

(ro(er +White0 Engish4 Standard Engish offered a means of sur%i%a to o(erate in White

societ$ for man$ African2Americans) this cou(ed 1ith an urgenc$ to (ro%e themse%ese7ua to Whites had ong2term effects on the anguage di%ide in the African2American

communit$4 5his ga( 1idened 1ith desegregation) in the choice to integrate or not to

integrate) and other economic factors that began to sha(e man$ African2Americancommunities4 5he e%entua rise of a midde2cass created not on$ economic barriers but

anguage barriers that dictated 1ho and 1here Ebonics 1as s(oken4 Ebonics for some

became a (eKorati%e term) that 1as used to abe and characterize the s(eech of o1er2cass Southern African2Americans4 5hus (o%ert$) coor and ocait$ became an

em(o1ering feature he(ing to sha(e attitudes about Ebonics and its socia acce(tance4

Ingrou( d$namics 1ithin the "ack communit$ 1hich ha%e aso (oarized Ebonics

a((eared during the Oakand Schoo "oard contro%ers$4 5he ebonics resoution strong$

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di%ided o(inion) a di%ision undoubting$ aided b$ media outets in its misre(resentation

of Ebonics4 5he media6s (ortra$a of the resoution 1as akin to the Oakand "oard6s tota

abandonment of Standard Engish in fa%or of Ebonics as the mode of anguageinstruction4 In fact Ebonics 1as no more a re(acement as suggested for Standard Engish

but instead 1oud be em(o$ed as a (atform to bridge Ebonics s(eakers 1ith Standard

Engish4 African2Americans fueed b$ the negati%e media re(resentation of Ebonicsabeed it as a 8traged$8 and 8faiure8 and continued to resist 1hat the$ fet 1oud hinder

or (re%ent com(etent iterac$ skis in African2Americans4 5his %ie1 1as chaenged b$

inguist John Rickford and others) stating Ebonics to be 8inguistica$ and (edagogica$sound48 +Rickford) ,--30 In the "oards acce(tance of Ebonics) those 1ho resisted the

measure e'(ressed a beief the Oakand resoution on$ further di%ided African2American

(eo(e and 1as racist4 ;rominent African2American figures s(urred on b$ the mainstream

media Koined in the debate em(hatica$ condemning its use4 Outs(oken critics such as"i #osb$) Ga$a Angeou) Edridge #ea%er and Jesse Jackson are Kust a fe1 1ho had

been %oca in their o((osition4 Jesse Jackson %ehement$ assaied and reKected its

egitimization) stating on "#s Geet the ;ress) &It6s teaching do1n to our chidren and it

must ne%er ha((en4* +Anon) ,--30 5his stance 1as softened sometime ater 1henJackson stated) 8Gan$ of us had a misconce(tion of 1hat the schoo district 1as tr$ing to

do48 +Anon) ,--30 51o of the aforementioned figures "i #osb$ and Ga$a Angeou arees(ecia$ note1orth$ in their o((osition) both of 1hom enKo$ %irtua iconic status 1ithin

the African2American communit$4 Ga$a Angeou stated she 1as 8incensed8 1ith the

Oakand decision to im(ement Ebonics) not1ithstanding the fact she has enKo$ed iterar$success em(o$ing the %er$ same 8"ack Engish8 1ithin her 1orks4 African2American

1riters ha%e a ong iterar$ tradition 1hich has made use of Ebonics such as Langston

Hughes) Aice Waker and 5oni Gorrison4 #omedian "i #osb$ 1hose characters Fat

Abert and the #osb$ kids) a (o(uar ate 9@s cartoon) embodied the essence of "ackidentit$ for man$ African2Americans4 5he cast of characters re(resentation of coor)

e'aggerated mannerisms and most (rominent$ their use of anguage) defined their

8"ackness" a rarit$ in cartoons at the time4 One of the sho1s characters) Gushmouths(oke in 1hat coud be described as 8bastardized Engish8 raised concerns 1ithin the

African2American communit$ about the characters (ortra$a4 5he sho1s critics (ointed to

the characterization of Gushmouth as enforcing stereot$(ica "ack beha%ior4 #omedian#hris Rock noted the sho1 1as & the most racist) most degrading cartoon e%er4* +Rock)

,--,0 #osb$6s e'(oitation of Ebonics for entertainment 1hie %iif$ing the %ernacuar as

8igno2ebonics8 +"augh) .@@@0 highights (re%aiing attitudes 1here conte'tua factors

(a$ an im(ortant (art in credibiit$4 5his doube2standard is a((arent in %arious genres ofmusic and mo%ies) that incor(orate 8"ack Engish8) enKo$ing huge (o(uarit$4 5his

(o(uarit$ 1oud 7uick$ turn to derision in the conte't of being utiized as a (edagogica

too4

On =ec4 ,C) ,--3 Oakands "oard of Education (assed a resoution +@4D-92@@3B0)

ado(ting recommendations made b$ 5he African2American 5ask Force4 5he resoutiondecared Ebonics 8as the (rimar$ anguage8 +8Origina Oakand Resoution8) ,--30 of

African2American students4 What the Oakand Schoo =istrict resoution did 1as to

(ubic$ ackno1edge %ernacuar differences e'isted bet1een "ack and White students4

5he resoution aso ga%e credence to caims educationa bodies had continua$ faied to

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account for these inguistic differences4 5he Oakand "oard6s resoution inter%ened on

behaf of African2American students b$ attem(ting to incor(orate a((ro(riate measures

to rectif$ ong2standing (edagogica (ractices 1hich ignored a 8genetica$ based8+Longres ? Harding ,--90 %ariet$4 A %ernacuar identified b$ the Oakand "oard as the

home anguage s(oken b$ miions of African2Americans became (robematic 1hen

faced 1ith a Standard Engish curricua4 5he Oakand resoution foo1ed a number ofega (recedents identif$ing a ack of anguage (roficienc$ in African2American students

and ade7uate measures 1ere not taken to correct this anguage dis(arit$4

In a striking simiarit$ to the African2American anguage (redicament the case of Lau %4ichos +/,/ U4S4 D3B +,-9/00 highighted #hinese2Americans home anguage

differences contributing to o1 iterac$ skis4 Limited Engish (roficienc$ dis(a$ed b$

#hinese2American students 1ithout su((ort from educationa bodies) 1as cause to seek

federa inter%ention in order to gain some form of academic he(4 Lau %4 ichos 1as oneof the first ega cases 1hich refected a coreation e'isted bet1een anguage and race4

5he Ann Arbor =ecision foo1ed the ruing in the Lau %4 ichos case asserting faiures

on (art of the schoo district4 5he case in Gichigan mirrored simiar issues that occurred

in Oakand) the Standard Engish tuition contrasted 1ith African2Americans homeanguage +"ack Engish04 ;residing Judge #hares W4 Joiner on his Ju$ ,.th) ,-9-

decision) ackno1edged a anguage barrier e'isted 1hich 1as (robematic for backstudents in their educationa achie%ement4 Judge Joiner recommended Ebonics s(eakers

be identified in order to im(ement suitabe academic measures) then to im(art instruction

in the African2Americans (rimar$ anguage4 O((osition to the introduction of Ebonics inthe cassroom fais to account for e'isting anguage discre(ancies 1hich go%erning and

educationa bodies ha%e recognized as a root cause to o1 anguage (roficienc$4 #ritics

such as Leon W4 5odd Jr4 Su((ort and em(hasize the im(ortance of a Standard Engish

on$ cassroom as the soe medium of instruction for "ack students4 #ritics such as 5oddJr4 assert Ebonics re(resents a counter2(roducti%e medium in the cassroom en%ironment

stating) 8ina((ro(riate s(eech 1oud misead African2American $oungsters creating fase

e'(ectations of future (rofessiona or academic achie%ement48 +5odd) ,--90 A commonassertion is Ebonics encourages (oor communication skis that effecti%e$ handica(

students and their academic (otentia4 5he beief that (rofessiona or academic success

1oud not be achie%abe 1ith the use of Ebonics inturn (er(etuates a c$ce of faiureenforcing negati%e stereot$(es4 For man$ African2Americans 1ho obKect to the use of

Ebonics do so in the beief that Ebonics enforces historica ideas of (o1er and (ri%iege

or ack of bet1een "acks and Whites4 5he faiure to incor(orate Ebonics is the foca

(oint of the (re%ious$ mentioned decisions 1oud enabe African2American students toachie%e sufficient iterac$ e%es through the introduction of a((ro(riate anguage

su((ort4 #onse7uent$) the ack of a((ro(riate measures taken to counter the

EbonicsStandard Engish dis(arit$ in American cassrooms has ed to a faiure for scoresof African2Americans4

In concusion) athough Ebonics is s(oken b$ man$ African2Americans mainstreamEngish is and 1i continue to be the %ariet$ standard re7uired for communication in

business) schoo and forma settings4 African2Americans must therefore recognize a e%e

of (roficienc$ in Standard Engish must be achie%ed in order to (a$ a roe in the current

1ider societ$4 5he Ebonics debate is one that cannot be dismissi%e of (re2e'isting

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eements 1hich ha%e contributed to an enduring stigma associated 1ith Ebonics4 A

baanced assessment must in%o%e an understanding of issues 1hich ha%e sha(ed Ebonics

in 8"ack8 ife for o%er a centur$4 5he "ro1n %4 "oard) one of the first ega (recedents)remo%ed the the (h$sica barrier ao1ing the introduction of Ebonics s(eakers into

+White0 cassrooms4 5his decision aong 1ith the numerous other ruings) attem(ted to

estabish an educationa e7uait$ bet1een "ack and White students) had faied to accountfor this sudden shift and ho1 these d$namics 1oud effect African2Americans in the

cassroom4 5he educationa shortcomings of African2Americans 1oud gradua$ become

a((arent in a "ackWhite educationa dis(arit$ e%idenced b$ research of standard basedcurricua in order to disco%er continua sub2standard anguage (roficienc$ demonstrated

b$ African2Americans4 For the Oakand "oard the resut of research ed to the (assing of

the resoution in order to rectif$ (re%ious faiings through the im(ementation of an

Ebonics (rogram in order to further im(ro%e African2Americans understanding ofStandard Engish) simiar$ to the Ann Arbor decision4 5he Oakand "oards decision 1as

met 1ith derision es(ecia$ from 1ithin the "ack communit$) the %er$ communit$ the

resoution 1as intended to he(4 5he decision aong 1ith media co%erage e'acerbated

(ubic furor b$ mistaking$ re(orting that Ebonics 1oud re(ace Standard Engish as thesoe medium of instruction4 otab$ (rominent African2Americans 1oud 1eigh2in the

debate e'(ressing simiar %ie1s critica of Ebonics4 egati%e attitudes to1ard the homeanguage 1oud estabish a barrier to success for African2Americans in academics4

"arriers that refused to recognize the egitimac$ of Ebonics in contrast to 1hat inguists

such as John Rickford regarded as inguistica$ sound for (edagogica (ur(oses4 I 1oudad%ocate the use of Ebonics as figures demonstrate that the maKorit$ of schoos

(erforming (oor$ ha%e a arge African2American student (o(uation4 Unfortunate$ (oor

reading and 1riting skis 1i (ersist the more the issue is argued among educators)

administrators and (arents4 So African2American students 1i be denied a (ossibeeffecti%e measure to im(ro%e their education and Engish ski e%e due to a (re%aiing

notion Ebonics is not a %aid anguage %ariet$4 A stigma easi$ attached but one hard to

remo%e4

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"ibiogra(h$:

,4 Angeou) Ga$a +,--9) Jan4 ,.0 Oakand Schoo "oard a((ro%es "ack Engish

;rogram and S(arks ation1ide =ebate4 Jet Gagazine: Johnson ;ubishing #om(an$4+!o4 -,) Issue4C (4 ,.0

.4 Amended Resoution of the "oard of Education4 +,--90 Retrie%ed fromhtt(:inguistist4orgto(icsebonicsebonics2res.4htm

B4 Anon$mous4 +,--3) =ec4 ,.0 Jackson #riticizes Oakand Schoos 6Ebonics6 =ecision4

5he L4A4 5imes) (4 ,4 Retrie%ed from htt(:artices4atimes4com,--32,.2.Bne1smn2,,-33M,Moakand2schoo

/4 Anon$mous4 +.@,.0 Finda14com4 Retrie%ed from

htt(:casea14(4finda14comscri(tsgetcase4(courtNus?%oN/,/?in%oND3B

D4 Anon$mous4 +.@,.0 Finda14com4 Retrie%ed fromhtt(:casea14(4finda14comscri(tsgetcase4(courtNus?%oNB/9?in%oN/CB

34 Anon$mous4 +.@,.0 Wiki(edia4 Retrie%ed fromhtt(:en41iki(edia4org1ikiLauM%4Michos

94 Administration for #hidren and Famiies4 +.@@30 Su((orting Language and cogniti%e

=e%eo(ment In Ear$ Head Start4 Retrie%ed from U4S4 =e(artment of Heath and HumanSer%ices 1ebsite:

htt(:1114acf4hhs4go%(rogramso(reehsresearchM(racticere(ortsangMiterac$angMi

terac$4(df

C4 "augh) John +.@@@0 "e$ond Ebonics: Linguistic ;ride and Racia ;reKudice4 O'ford

Uni%ersit$ ;ress) +(4 -,0

-4 #hidren6s =efense Fund4 +.@,.0 #hid ;o%ert$4 Retrie%ed from

htt(:1114chidrensdefense4orgchid2research2data2(ubicationsstate2of2americas2

chidren2.@,,(dfs(o%ert$4(df

,@4 #ontreras) Re$nado +,--/0 5he Im(act of "ro1n on the Education of Latinos4

Retrie%ed from 1114atinamericanstudies4orgatinosbro1n4(df

,,4 Jones) 5iffan$ +.@@C0 ou =one Lost o6 Gind Ain6t o Such 5hang as AA!E:

E'(oring African American Resistance to AA!E4 +5heses0 A%aiabe from eorgia StateUni%ersit$ =igita Archi%e

,.4 Longres) John F4 Harding) Scott +,--90 Ebonics and Socia Work Education4 Journa

of Socia Work Education) S(ringSummer -9) +!o4 BB Issue .) (...0

9
http://linguistlist.org/topics/ebonics/ebonics-res2.htmlhttp://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-23/news/mn-11966_1_oakland-schoolhttp://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-23/news/mn-11966_1_oakland-schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lau_v._Nicholshttp://linguistlist.org/topics/ebonics/ebonics-res2.htmlhttp://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-23/news/mn-11966_1_oakland-schoolhttp://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-23/news/mn-11966_1_oakland-schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lau_v._Nichols


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,B4 Origina Oakand Resoution on Ebonics4 +,--30 Retrie%ed from

htt(:inguistist4orgto(icsebonicsebonics2res,4htm

,B4 Rich) Frank +,--9) Jan4 C0 5he Ebonic ;ague4 5he e1 ork 5imes) (4 .4 Retrie%ed

from htt(:1114n$times4com,--9@,@Co(inionthe2ebonic2(ague4htm(age1antedN.

,3 Rickford) John Russe4 +,--30 Writing on Ebonics Issue4 Retrie%ed fromhtt(:1114stanford4eduPrickfordebonics

,94 Rickford) John Russe Rickford) Russe John +.@@@0 S(oken Sou: 5he Stor$ of

"ack Engish4 John Wie$ ? Sons +(490

,C4 Rock) #hris +,--,0 "orn Sus(ect United States: Atantic

,-4 5hom(son) John "4 +Ed40 Language and S$mboic ;o1er) #ambridge: ;oit$ ;ress4

.@4 5odd) Leon W4) Jr4 +,--90 5eing It ike It Is about the African2American Students6;ight4 Education) !o4 ,,C) o4 .

.,4 Urban Strategies #ounci +.@,,0 5he African2American Gae Achie%ement Initiati%e4Retrie%ed from

htt(:[email protected],.4(df

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a rethink of ebonics

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