MATERNAL INCARCERATIONITS EFFECTS ON CHILDREN AND FAMILIES

A Presentation by Christina N. Semple

Center for Child Advocacy 6th Annual National Conference

Crimes against Children: The Multiple faces of Child VictimizationApril 15, 2011

Presentation objectivesBy the end of this presentation, my hope is that each participant

will have:

I. Gained an understanding of the statistical disparity between maternal and paternal incarceration

II. Understood the applicability of the Contextual Perspective in regards to studying maternal incarceration

III. Learned the effects of maternal incarceration on children: emotional, academic, behavioral, and psychological

IV. Learned the importance of the mother-caregiver bond during maternal incarceration

V. Discovered best practices

Current Issue• The number of parents held in the nation’s prisons increased by 79% between 1991 and 2007

•The number of children aged 18 and younger who had a mother in prison more than doubled (131%) in this same period

•The rate of incarceration for fathers has grown 77%

•Mothers more likely to report past abuse (4x), homelessness (2x), and health problems (1.5x)

•The impact of the separation between mother and child is probably most far-reaching when the mother is the main caregiver

Gaze, L.E., Maruschak, L.M. (2010). Parents in prison and their minor children. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, United States Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs(DOJ Publication No. 222984). Retrieved from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf

Miller, K.M. (2007). Risk and resilience among African-American children of incarcerated parents. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 15(2), 25-37. doi: 10.1300/J137v15n02_03

Contextual Perspective Defined

• Microsystem: attachment with caregivers, incarcerated parent, contact with parent, living arrangements

•Mesosystem: parent-caregiver relationship

•Exosystem: poverty, stress, financial burden, foster care, education, relocation

•Macrosystem: ethnic disparities, drug laws and public policy, social stigmas, visitation policies

•Chronosystem: developmental stage of child, changes over time in laws, incarceration period

Poehlmann, J., Dallaire, D., Loper, A.B., Shear, L.D. (2010). Children’s contact with their incarcerated parents: Research findings and recommendations. American Psychologist, 65 (6), 575-598.doi: 10.1037/a0020279

MicrosystemRepresentation of attachment relationships in children of incarcerated mothers

•Objective-examine children’s representations of attachment

•Participants-60 children (2.5-7.5 years old), non-maternal caregivers, incarcerated mothers

•Methods/Assessments- structured interviews, Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT), Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)

•Results-83% cried more, 52% generally confused, 40% angry and violent, 18% fearful, 32% sleep disturbances, 22% regression, 33% detachment or indifference, 82% had 2 or more of these, 2/3 ambivalent, violent, disorganized, 28% secure attachment

Microsystem: attachment with caregivers, incarcerated parent, contact with parent, living arrangements

Results con’t

Children who initially expressed anger and violence when mother was incarcerated:

>more likely to have representations of detachment and insecure feelings regarding mother

>poor mother-child relationship pre-incarceration

Poehlmann, J. (2005). Representations of attachment relationships in children of incarcerated mothers. Child Development, 76 (3), 679-696. doi: 0009-3920/2005/7603-0010

AttachmentUnderstanding the experiences and needs of children of incarcerated parents: views from mentors

•Objective-identify needs, challenges and affects of paternal incarceration on behavior and emotional well being

•Participants-Big Brothers, Big Sisters mentors

•Methods/Assessments-focus group separated by gender of incarcerated parent

Results: Children compared

Mother incarcerated Father incarcerated

Daughter Anger, aggression, academic issues

Withdrawn, shy, introverted, attention-seeking

Son Lack of discipline, respect of authority, fighting, anger, aggression, and academic issues

“ “

Davies, E., Brazzell, D., La Vigne, N., Shollenberger, T., (2008). Understanding the experiences and needs of children of incarcerated parents: Views from mentors. Urban Institute of Justice Policy Center Research Report.

Attachment: GrandparentsRepresentation of family relationships in children living with custodial parents

•Objective-attachment with custodial grandparents

•Participants-79 families

•Methods/Assessments-structured interview, Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME), Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale, Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Vocabulary and Comprehension subscales, Child Behavior Checklist

Results

•Depressed grandparents=children depressive symptoms, violent representations of relationships, sad, withdrawn; younger child and male

•Responsive/supportive grandparents=children had positive representations, fewer behavioral problems

Poehlmann, J., Park, J., Bouffiou, L., Abrahams, J., Shlafer, R., Hahn, E. (2008) Representations of family relationships in children living with custodial grandparents. Attachment and Human Development, 10 (2), 165-188. doi: 10.1080/14616730802113695

Infant attachmentEnhancing attachment security in infants of women in a jail-diversion program

•Objective-increase mother child attachment via parenting classes

•Participants-incarcerated mothers at Tamar’s Children Prevention Program

•Methods/Assessments-Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECRS), Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire: Warmth/Acceptance and Hostility/Rejection scales, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-IA), Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ), Traumatic Antecedents Questionnaire (TAQ), Circle of Security Perinatal Protocol (COS-PP).

Living arrangements-Residential phase and community living phase

Lesson/class structure-strange situation, snack time, play session, discussion time including presentation of videotapes, attachment theory, parent-child interaction and play, how to identify unhealthy attachment, how to foster healthy attachment, observational skills, emotional regulation

ResultsAfter parenting classes:

•70% of infants secure attachment, 20% disorganized attachments

•Mother’s sensitivity to child did not change

•Issues with results: curriculum or living with mother

Cassidy, J., Ziv, Y., Stupica, B., Sherman, L., Butler, H., Karfgin, A., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., Powell, B. (2010). Enhancing attachment security in the infants of women in a jail diversion program. Attachment

and Human Development, 12 (4), 333-353. doi: 10.1080/14616730903416955

Effects on incarcerated mothersThe relationship of parenting stress to adjustment among mothers in prison

•Objective-effects of parenting stress on self perceptions, and how it may contribute to depression, anxiety and other disorders

•Participants-women aged 19-59 primary caregivers

•Methods/Assessments-Brief Symptom Inventory, inmate records review, legal knowledge questionnaire, Parenting Stress Index for Incarcerated Women

Results

•Women did not feel incarceration effected relationship, no increase in stress

•Women did have clinical levels of depression, somatization, anxiety

Houck, K.D., Loper, A.B. (2002). The relationship of parenting stress to adjustment among mothers in prison. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72 (4), 548-558. doi: 10.1037//0002-9432.72.4.548

Criminogenic conditionsCycles of pain: Risk factors in the lives of incarcerated mothers and their children

•Objective-to discover what criminal activity children were exposed to prior to mother’s incarceration

•Participants-102 incarcerated mothers in California facilities and their children

•Methods/Assessments-structured interview/group discussion

Results

Mother Children86% sexually abused 83% sexually abused

65% witnessed violence in home 83% witnessed violence in home

63% witnessed parent/adult in home abuse drugs

55% witnessed mother/adult abuse drugs in home

65% physically abused as a form of discipline

44% physically abused as a form of discipline

Green, S., Haney, C., Hurtado, A.(2000). Cycles of Pain: Risk factors in the lives of incarcerated mothers and their children. The Prison Journal, 80(1), 3-23.

Criminal Activity ExposureRelation of exposure to parental criminal activity, arrest and sentencing to children’s maladjustment

Dallaire, D. H., Wilson, L.C. (2010). The Relation of exposure to parental criminal activity, arrest, and sentencing to children’s maladjustment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 404-418. doi: 10.1007/s10826-009-9311-9

•Objective: to record exposure to incarcerated-related events including law enforcement search and arrest, illegal activity, trial, sentencing

•Participants: 95 inmates, 32 children

•Methods/Assessments: Life Events Checklist, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition, How I Feel, Child Behavior Checklist for caregivers

•Results: Greater exposure to multiple events=lower vocabulary score, more depression, anxiety

Interactions with the child welfare systemThrowaway Moms: Maternal Incarceration and the criminalization of female poverty

•Objective-to note implications of maternal incarceration on the mothers

•Participants-26 incarcerated mothers aged 24-26

•Methods/Assessments-structured interview

•Results-8 had their parental rights terminated for at least one child, 2 had children in foster care, feelings of shame, guilt, betrayal by welfare system, fear children would also be incarcerated as adults

Allen, S., Flaherty, C., Ely, F. (2010). Throwaway moms: Maternal incarceration and the criminalization of female poverty. Journal of Women and Social Work, 25 (2), 160-172.

doi: 10.1177/0886109910364345

MesosystemFactors associated with young children’s opportunities for maintaining family relationships during maternal incarceration

Mesosystem: parent and caregiver relationship as a facilitator or inhibitor for emotional processing

•Objective-maintaining familial contact during maternal incarceration impacts child’s ability to process

•Participants-96 incarcerated mothers and their families

•Methods/Assessments-structured interview, Inventory of Family Feelings (IFF)

•Results-when mother chose caregiver familial contact was maintained, child more likely to be in stable environment (fathers)

Poehlmann, J., Shlafer, R., Maes, E., Hanneman, A. (2008). Factors associated with young children’s opportunities for maintaining family relationships during maternal incarceration. Family Relations, 57 (3), 267-280.

Mother/child bondInvolving care giving grandmothers in family interventions when mothers with substance abuse problems are incarcerated

•Objective-implementing best practices to support mother/child bond

•Participants-families in community with an incarcerated member

•Methods/Assessments-Multi Family Group System therapy module

•Results-participants felt a sense of community

Engstrom, M. (2008). Involving caregiving grandmothers in family interventions when mothers with substance abuse problems are incarcerated. Family Process, 47 (3), 357-371).

Caregiver parenting stylesMother-grandmother co-parenting relationships in families with incarcerated mothers: a pilot investigation

•Objective-effects of various parenting styles between incarcerated mothers and their mothers who are also their child’s caregiver

•Participants-40 incarcerated mothers and their mothers

•Methods/Assessments-two way mirror used to observe interaction between incarcerated mothers and their mothers, structured interview, Child Behavior Checklist

Phase 1: Grandmother chose topic to discuss for 5 minutes/topicdiscuss one child accomplishment discuss one area of concern

Phase 2: Grandmother and incarcerated mother each chose one topic, 5 minutes each

Results•When co-parenting was found to be supportive/collaborative=children had fewer problems

•When co-parenting was found to be difficult, children=disrespectful, experienced maladjustment, aggression, and were defiant

Baker, J., McHale, J., Strozier, A., Cecil, D. (2010). Mother-grandmother co-parenting relationships in families with incarcerated mothers: A pilot investigation. Family Process, 49(2), 165-184.

ExosystemThe relation of exposure to parental criminal activity, arrest, and sentencing to children’s maladjustment

Exosystem-familial poverty, stress, financial burden, foster care, education and child relocation

•Objective-detect child psychopathy as it relates to child exposure to criminal activity that lead to parental incarceration

•Participants-95 inmates with 32 children (1/3 lived with incarcerated parent prior to incarceration)

•Methods/Assessments-Life Events Checklist, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Checklist, How I Feel Questionnaire, Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)

Results

Children who witnessed parental criminal activity that lead to incarceration:

~scored lower on vocabulary tests

~had more maladjustment

~more depression and anxiety

Dallaire, D. H., Wilson, L.C. (2010). The Relation of exposure to parental criminal activity, arrest, and sentencing to children’s maladjustment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 404-418.doi: 10.1007/s10826-009-9311-9

Impact of maternal compared to paternal incarceration

•Objective-to determine if children of incarcerated mothers have an increased likelihood of future incarceration compared to those of incarcerated fathers

•Participants-7,249 incarcerated parents (16% mothers, 84% fathers)

•Methods/Assessments-online survey by Bureau of Census

•Results:~21% of mothers had an adult child in jail or prison compared to 8.5% of fathers~most mothers used drugs prior to incarceration presenting unique issues~incarcerated mothers were almost always the primary caregiver causing relocation issues for child compared to fathers

Dallaire, D. (2007). Incarcerated mothers and fathers: A comparison of risks for children and families. Family Relations, 56, 440-453. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00472.x

MacrosystemTiming of incarceration during pregnancy and birth outcomes: Exploring racial differences

Macrosystem-describe ethnic disparities, drug laws, and public policy, social stigmas and issues surrounding visitation

•Objective-to detect the effects of incarceration on pregnant inmates

•Participants-360 pregnant inmates in Texas prison:Hispanic=70, African-American=141, White=149 from gestation to birth. All women were pregnant when first incarcerated

•Methods/Assessments-medical records review

Results

•White women=almost twice as likely to be pregnant for the first time, have a chronic disease, history of drug/alcohol/tobacco use

•Hispanic women=least reported incidences of same issues

•African-American women-similar to Hispanic women (fewer than White women)

•Additionally, White women benefited most from the care provided during incarceration

Howard, D., Strobbino, D., Sherman, S., Crum, R. (2009). Timing of incarceration during pregnancy and birth outcomes: Exploring racial

differences. Maternal Child Health Journal. 13, 457-466. doi: 10.1007/s10995-008-0376-7

VisitationSaturday morning at the jail: Implications of incarceration for families and children

•Objective-to observe the visitation experiences of children and their families

•Participants-56 families on Saturday mornings; no physical contact was permitted between child and inmate, structured interview

•Results-55% of inmates perceived no change in relationship w/child, 56% spent the same amount of time as before incarceration w/child, 27% of children had more illnesses since incarceration while 46% no change in health

Arditti, J., Lambert-Shute, J., Joest, K. (2003). Saturday morning at the jail: Implicationsof incarceration for families and children. Family Relations, 52, 195-204.

This American LifeEpisode 119: Lockup, Act II “Mother’s Day”

•Mother’s Day in a state prison

•Aunt discusses bringing her nephew to visit his mother who’s incarcerated

http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/119/lockup

“Dana”

•Incarcerated mother

•Mother was also incarcerated

ChronosystemParental incarceration, attachment and child psychopathology

Murray, J., Murray, L. (2010). Parental incarceration, attachment and child psychopathology. Attachment & Human Development, 12(4) July, 2010, 289-309.doi:10.1080/14751790903416889

Chronosystem: developmental stage of child, changes over time in laws, incarceration period

Psychosocial factors

3 tracks: Incarceration can

1) exacerbate psychopathologic behavior

2) have no effect

3) decrease psychopathology

Best practicesFor ChildrenSupport groups in the school: identifying positive attributes of each child, drawing a self-portrait, bibliotherapy, reading the books I Like Myself or My Daddy is in Jail, discussions about making good and poor choices, identifying people in their social network whom they could trust, short sessions

Support groups within the jail or prison: enhance mother child bond by providing activities during visitation, allow children/teens to connect with other children who have an incarcerated mother while visiting (Aid to Incarcerated Mothers Counseling Project)

Mentor (Big Brothers/Big Sisters, The Amachi Program)

Enhance visitation-Girls Scouts Behind Bars

Child-in-Residence programs

More best practices

MothersParenting classes while incarcerated to assist in continuing the bond with child and caregivers

FamilyMulti-family Group system of therapy (MFG) to help process with other families, eliminates isolation, problem solve with group, emotional support and guidance

Objective I: Problem in Numbers

Learn the statistical disparity between incarcerated mothers and fathers

•The number of children aged 18 and younger who had a mother in prison more than doubled (131%) between 1991 and 2007

•The rate of incarceration for fathers has grown 77% in the same period

Objective II: Contextual Perspective

The contextual perspective helps us understand the multiple effects of maternal incarceration

•Microsystem: attachment with caregivers, incarcerated parent, contact with parent, living arrangements

•Mesosystem: parent-caregiver relationship

•Exosystem: poverty, stress, financial burden, fostercare, education, relocation

•Macrosystem: ethnic disparities, drug laws and public policy, social stigmas, visitation policies

•Chronosystem: developmental stage of child, changes over time in laws, incarceration period

Objective III: Effects on children

How does maternal incarceration effect children and families?

Children:

Withdrawn, depressed, aggressive, academic issues, anxiety

Girls react differently depending on gender of incarcerated parent while boys tend to react the same

Exposure to criminal activity: drug abuse, prostitution, parental arrest

Relocation or entry into child welfare system (foster care)

Grandparents become caregivers-financial burden, emotional strain

Objective IV: Caregiver Relationship between mother and child enhanced when caregiver and mother are in a cooperative relationship

Caregiver is responsible for well-being of child while mother is incarcerated

This American Life: Locked up “Mother’s Day”

Questions and Comments

ReferencesAllen, S., Flaherty, C., Ely, F. (2010). Throwaway moms: Maternal incarceration and the criminalization of female poverty. Journal of Women

and Social Work, 25 (2), 160-172. doi: 10.1177/0886109910364345Arditti, J., Lambert-Shute, J., Joest, K. (2003). Saturday morning at the jail: Implications of incarceration for families and children.

Family Relations, 52, 195-204.Baker, J., McHale, J., Strozier, A., Cecil, D. (2010). Mother-grandmother co-parenting relationships in families with incarcerated mothers:

A pilot investigation. Family Process, 49(2), 165-184.Cassidy, J., Ziv, Y., Stupica, B., Sherman, L., Butler, H., Karfgin, A., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., Powell, B. (2010). Enhancing attachment

security in the infants of women in a jail-diversion program. Attachment and Human Development, 12 (4), 333-353. doi: 10.1080/14616730903416955

Dallaire, D. (2007). Incarcerated mothers and fathers: A comparison of risks for children and families. Family Relations, 56, 440-453. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00472.x

Dallaire, D. H., Wilson, L.C. (2010). The Relation of exposure to parental criminal activity, arrest, and sentencing to children’s maladjustment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 404-418.doi: 10.1007/s10826-009-9311-9

Davies, E., Brazzell, D., La Vigne, N., Shollenberger, T., (2008). Understanding the experiences and needs of children of incarcerated parents: Views from mentors.Urban Institute of Justice Policy Center Research Report.

Engstrom, M. (2008). Involving caregiving grandmothers in family interventions when mothers with substance abuse problems are incarcerated.

Family Process, 47 (3), 357- 371).Gaze, L.E., Maruschak, L.M. (2010). Parents in prison and their minor children. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, United States

Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs (DOJ Publication No. 222984). Retrieved from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf

Green, S., Haney, C., Hurtado, A.(2000). Cycles of Pain: Risk factors in the lives of incarcerated mothers and their children. The Prison Journal, 80(1), 3-23.

Houck, K.D., Loper, A.B. (2002). The relationship of parenting stress to adjustment among mothers in prison. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72 (4), 548-558. doi: 10.1037//0002-9432.72.4.548

Howard, D., Strobbino, D., Sherman, S., Crum, R. (2009). Timing of incarceration during pregnancy and birth outcomes: Exploring racial differences. Maternal Child Health Journal. 13, 457-466. doi: 10.1007/s10995-008-0376-7

References con’tMiller, K.M. (2007). Risk and resilience among African-American children of incarcerated parents. Journal of Human Behavior in

the Social Environment, 15(2), 25-37. doi: 10.1300/J137v15n02_03Murray, J., Murray, L. (2010). Parental incarceration, attachment and child psychopathology. Attachment & Human Development,

12(4) July, 2010, 289-309. doi:10.1080/14751790903416889Poehlmann, J., Park, J., Bouffiou, L., Abrahams, J., Shlafer, R., Hahn, E. (2008) Representations of family relationships in children

living with custodial grandparents. Attachment and Human Development, 10 (2), 165-188. doi: 10.1080/14616730802113695

Poehlmann, J. (2005). Representations of attachment relationships in children of incarcerated mothers. Child Development, 76 (3), 679-696. doi: 0009-3920/2005/7603-0010

Poehlmann, J., Shlafer, R., Maes, E., Hanneman, A. (2008). Factors associated with young children’s opportunities for maintaining family relationships during maternal incarceration. Family Relations, 57 (3), 267-280.

Poehlmann, J., Dallaire, D., Loper, A.B., Shear, L.D. (2010). Children’s contact with their incarcerated parents: Research findings and recommendations. American Psychologist, 65 (6), 575-598. doi: 10.1037/a0020279

Shlafer, R., Poehlmann, J. (2010). Attachment and caregiving relationships in families affected by parental incarceration. Attachment & Human Development, 12(4) July, 2010, 395-415.doi:10.1080/14616730903417052

This American Life broadcast. Episode 119: Lockup. Act II, “Mother’s Day.” http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/119/lockup. 1/8/1999

MATERNAL INCARCERATION:ITS EFFECTS ON CHILDREN AND FAMILIES

Christina N. SempleCalifornia School of Forensic StudiesAlliant International University-Irvine

Email: noelle.semple@gmail.comphone: 404-277-1363 mobile

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