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Project Co-ordinators:Paul Lundall and Colleen Howell

Education Policy Unit,University of the Western Cape

Sponsored by the International Development Research Centre

All stakeholders in South Africa’s schoolingsystem are having to confront the reality

that computers will play a more prominentrole in the teaching and learning process.

The national survey of computers in schoolsis the first in-depth analysis of the extent and

ways in which computers are being used inSouth African schools.

It provides the first set of base-line dataagainst which the use of computers in

schools can be measured.

The Computers in Schools report gives anoverview of the national survey and providesan accurate picture of computer resources.

It also explores the use of computers inteaching and learning; the funding and

maintenance of computers at schools; as wellas the obstacles to the further use of

computers in the schooling system.

Education institutions, private sector andnon-government organisations, parent and

teacher bodies, and individuals activelyinvolved in the promotion of computers in

education will be able to draw importantlessons about the environment shaping this

dynamic process.

ISBN: 1-86808-469-8

Education Policy UnitUniversity of the Western Cape

Sponsored by the International Development Research Centre

A national survey ofInformation Communication

Technology in South African schools

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Background and introduction In 1997 the National Centre for EducationalTechnology and Distance Education in theNational Department of Education, following onfrom the Technology Enhanced Learning Initiative(TELI), identified the need for the developmentof clear and comprehensive policies foraddressing the development of appropriate andsustainable Information CommunicationTechnology (ICT) capacity in South Africanschools.To this end a research process began inMay 1998 to undertake a national survey intoICTs in South African schools.

The main objective of the study was toinvestigate the nature and extent of ICTprovision in the schooling sector. Morespecifically, by mapping what ICTs are being usedin the schools, the manner in which they arebeing used and the organisational arrangementsused to facilitate their use, a picture emerged ofthe school ICT environment.

Equally important was to identify factors thatcould be regarded as enabling or hinderingconditions to the use of ICTs in schools. Allthese issues were used to provide insights forkey policy considerations such as the creation ofequity, facilitating quality in the use of ICTs andto help in identifying key areas for strategicinterventions towards achieving these objectives.

Funding to undertake the research wasreceived from the Canadian InternationalDevelopment Research Centre (IDRC) and theresearch process was placed under the directionof the Education Policy Unit (EPU) at theUniversity of the Western Cape. In undertaking

the survey the EPU also entered intocollaborative relations with the Science andTechnology Policy Research Centre based at theUniversity of Cape Town, Miller Esselaar andAssociates, an independent consulting agency, aswell as the Centre for Inter-Disciplinary Studiesat the University of Stellenbosch.Throughout theduration of the project, the research team drewon the expertise of a range of stakeholdersincluding members of academic institutions,educators from schools, members of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) operatingin the field and other relevant organisations.

The research process A combination of quantitative and qualitativeresearch methods was used in the study.

• A literature survey was done tocontextualise the study within the educationand policy environment in South Africa andto draw on the experiences of othercountries in the area of ICT policy and use ineducation.

• A postal survey with two specificallydesigned questionnaires were sent to asample of South African schools throughoutthe nine provinces. The sample of schoolswas derived from the 1996 Human SciencesResearch Council (HSRC) School Register ofNeeds Survey that indicated the presence orabsence of one or more computers in allschools in South Africa. All schools with oneor more computers were sent aquestionnaire as well as a 10% random

‘ ’Executive summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

sample of schools from those who did nothave computers in 1996.Two questionnaireswere sent to each of these schools. Onequestionnaire was aimed at schools withcomputers and one for those without.Schools were requested to send back thequestionnaire that was appropriate to theirpresent status. (This was done to ascertainwhether some schools had obtained or doneaway with computers between 1996 and1998 when the research began.)

• The information obtained through the surveywas deepened through interviews with keystakeholders and site visits to schools inthree provinces.

• A brief survey was also undertaken withimportant players in the private sector toexplore the nature and extent of theirinvolvement in ICT provision and support inschools.

• A similar investigation was done on the workof organisations in the NGO sector thatsupport ICT development in schools inSouth Africa.

• Once all the data had been collected adetailed analysis was made of all the researchfindings. Finally, the key findings of theresearch were synthesised into this report.

Contextualising the study ofICTs in educationA review of literature and studies pertinent tothis study was undertaken in order toparticularly explore the use and impact of ICTsin developed and developing countries. Anattempt was made to look at the area of teachingand learning as well as the administrative,managerial and technical prerequisites that arenecessary for sustained ICT development anduse. The literature indicates strongly that theeffective use of ICTs in a country impactsstrongly on the competitiveness of that economywithin the global marketplace as well as the

ability of governments to deliver on their socialgoals.The development of ICTs in education areseen as an important priority by most countries.

Experiences from other countries, whatevertheir stage of development, show that factorswhich accompany the successful implementationof ICTs in schools are networks of connectivityand structured and continuous programmes totrain teachers to use the new technology foreducational purposes.The literature also showsthat ICTs should be integrated from thebeginning into the teaching and learning process,as well as the administration and managementsystems for the path of development to beeffective. At the same time studies from othercountries show that as teachers become moreconfident so the levels of integration andinnovation increase.

The most effective policy initiatives in this areainternationally have been those that arecomprehensive in the scope of issues that theyaddress and in the integration of different areasof application. So where policies on ICTs ineducation have been linked, for example, toeconomic development initiatives through ICTs,implementation has been coherent and effective.Partnerships between the central role playerssuch as government, the private sector andNGOs appear to be especially crucial here.

Equally important is the need for ICT planningto be based on a comprehensive understandingof the existing needs and priorities of a country.There has to be recognition of the disparities ingeneral resource provision so that questions ofequity or inequity can be addressed.

With regard to the schooling and policycontext in South Africa, the review of existingpolicies, demographics and educational practices,show that comprehensive and innovative policiesdo exist which support the progressivedevelopment of ICTs in schools. However,prevailing inequalities and pressures on theeducation system also have the potential toundermine effective ICT development. Of

particular importance are factors such as:rural/urban disparities; poorly trained teachers;the reliance on school fees for meeting non-personnel costs in schools such as ICTs; andstruggles of provincial departments to managethe many change processes and policies withwhich they are confronted. It is against thisbackground that the findings of the study need tobe considered and addressed.

Overview of findings fromsurvey questionnaires A significant amount of data was collectedthrough the survey. Once all the data wascaptured a first level of analysis was done toexplore the responses of schools (and otherstakeholders) to the different questions asked inthe questionnaires. The frequency of responseswas recorded and compared to significantgrouping variables such as ‘type of school’,‘province’ etc. This was done to investigatewhether these variables impacted on the patternof responses. Below is an overview of the keyfindings from this level of analysis.

Schools with computersIn 1996 2 311 schools were registered in theHSRC database as having one or morecomputers. 962 of these schools returned aquestionnaire for the survey. This constitutes aresponse rate of 42.8%, which is regarded as avery good response rate for postal surveys.Therealised sample (returned questionnaires) wassufficiently similar to the target population(schools with computers in HSRC data base) interms of criteria such as school type andprovince to be regarded as truly representativeof all the schools with computers in South Africa.This means that the data received from theseschools is sufficiently representative to showaccurately the patterns that characterise use ofICTs at South African schools.

With this background in mind, the summary

which follows presents the central findings fromthe questionnaire designed for schools withcomputers.

ICT resources in schools

• Despite some extreme variations, schools inthe provinces of Gauteng and the WesternCape have on average a better ICTinfrastructure than schools in the EasternCape, Northern Cape and NorthernProvince. Schools in the Free State,KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the NorthWest province hold an intermediateposition.

• E-mail facilities are beginning to be usedmore extensively in many schools as amanagement and administrative resourceand also as a teaching resource.

• Internet use is becoming more common in awide spectrum of schools across allprovinces. For instance, nearly half (49%) ofschools in the Western Cape and Gauteng,which have computers, have access to theInternet.

Teaching computer literacy

• In both primary and secondary schools, theteaching of basic computer principles andword processing skills form the mostimportant component in the teaching ofcomputer literacy.

• At the secondary level, a movement towardsan increase in the level of complexity of theskills taught is evident.

• There are no significant differences in thenumber of female learners and male learnersthat are being taught computer skills.

• On average, learners in primary schoolsspend less than one hour per week learningcomputer skills. In secondary schools, thetime spent learning computer skills tends toincrease but is significantly influenced bywhether Computer Studies is offered as aschool subject or not and by the number ofcomputers that schools possess.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

PAGE 3

Computer use in the learning areas

• Computers tend to feature fairly extensivelyin the learning areas of Language andMathematics, Natural Sciences andTechnology, and less in Humanities and Arts.

• In Grades 1 to 7 computers tend to be usedto perform drill and practice, and problem-solving exercises. From Grade 8 upwards,computers tend to be used for a greatervariety of purposes in the teaching andlearning process, although the presentationof assignments and problem-solvingexercises tend to predominate.

• Drill and practice exercises although lessprominent, continue to be used in Grades 8to 12.

• The principal factors that prevent schoolsfrom using computers as a tool for teachingand learning are:

• insufficient funds.

• an insufficient number of computers.

• lack of computer literacy amongteachers.

• lack of subject teachers trained tointegrate computers into differentlearning areas.

• the absence of a properly developedcurriculum for teaching computer skills.

Computer Studies as a subject

• 66% of secondary schools with computersoffered Computer Studies as a matric subject.

• Schools offering Computer Studies are morelikely to have the resources and capacities fora relatively better ICT infrastructure.

• Normally, the offering of Computer Studiesis also associated with a dedicated teacherresponsible for its teaching.

Funding and maintenance

• The majority of schools with computers(73%) indicated that the school had a specificbudget for computers, but such budgetaryorganisation was more prevalent at schools

that had more than 10 computers.

• The computer budgets of schools tend to bedevoted to the purchase of computers,software and the maintenance of computers.

• The revenue sources through which items onthe computer budget are financed arederived mainly from allocations on schoolfees and funding activities and also throughfinancial donations from parents and theprivate sector.

Start-up date and teacher confidence

• The attitudes of teachers towards the useof computers in education are in generalpositive.

• Schools that have acquired a comparativelybetter ICT infrastructure started usingcomputers from an earlier period; 81% ofschools with 30 or more computers indicatedthat they started before 1995. A lowerproportion (62%) of schools with 10 or lesscomputers started using these before 1995.

• A majority of schools identified the lack ofavailable staff trained to use computers asthe biggest hindering condition to theeffective use of computers.However,only 5%of schools prioritised expenditure on thisitem in their ICT budget.

• Many schools indicated that some teachersat the school do have access to technologyrelated professional training opportunitiesthat take place outside the school. Thelargest proportion of teachers (44%) who fallinto this category had access to courses runby the Department of Education.

Computer use after school hours

• A minority of pupils at 59% of schools makeuse of school computers after school hours.

• After hours computer use is being done to aslightly greater extent at secondary schoolsand also appears to take place moreextensively at schools which started usingcomputers before 1990 and among thosethat offer Computer Studies as a subject.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• At some schools, outside groups attendclasses after school hours during which theyuse the school computers. Two-thirds ofthese schools (63%) charge a fee and morethan half involve schools that have 30 andmore computers.

Schools with no computersOut of the 10% random sample of schools listedin the HSRC database as having no computers,only 444 returned a questionnaire.This reflectsan 17.9% response rate from the 2 480 questionnaires designed for schools withno computers which were sent out. Even for apostal survey a response rate of 17.9% isregarded as relatively low. Given that this in factis only 17.9% of 10% of the whole population, therealised sample is probably too small to beregarded as representative of the entirepopulation of schools with no computers inSouth Africa. While we therefore regard thesurvey findings from these schools with caution,the data still shows interesting patterns amongschools with no computers.

Even though differences occurred betweenprovinces, a large proportion of schools withoutcomputers acknowledged receiving somematerial and resource benefits since 1996.However, huge backlogs still remain. Schoolswithout computers are more likely toexperience deficiencies in equipment such asVCRs, radios, tape recorders and slideprojectors. In order of rank, the key factorsinhibiting schools from acquiring computers are:

• an absence of electricity.

• lack of funding.

• insufficient building space.

• a lack of available and trained staff.

• poor security.

Despite the lack of resources, teachers atschools generally express positive feelings aboutthe value of computers at schools. The mostpopular reason given about why a school shouldstart using computers is to help prepare students

for the future (60%). Teachers at most schools inthe survey are keen to participate in themanagement and development of computers attheir school. Schools also asserted that there isa need for teachers to be trained to usecomputers before the school starts to use these.

The NGO sectorThere are a number of NGOs operatingnationally and provincially in the schoolingsector. Some of these take the form ofnetworks offering a range of services and co-ordinating functions. Others carry out specificfunctions, e.g. technical support oninfrastructure and maintenance; professionaldevelopment of teachers and support ofteachers in integrating ICTs into thecurriculum. Many NGOs are sustained throughcommitment and dedication from the peoplewho work in them, but donor funding has alsobeen essential to sustain these operations.

The Private sectorPrivate sector involvement with ICTs in SouthAfrican schools is embryonic at this stage.Withrespect to innovative offerings and contractswith schools, some software companies offerschools products that can be licensed at reducedrates. No major suppliers, distributors orretailers of computers that specifically target theeducational market for primary and secondaryschools were identified. Nor have they devisedcreative ways of exploring this market. Businessproviders of training support to teachers andlearners are however beginning to establish apresence in the field.

Synthesis and analysis of theresearch findings A second level of analysis was undertaken toexplore the correlation between different factorsand their influence on ICT provision and use inmore depth. These chiefly took the form of

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

PAGE 5

indexes derived from a number of variables withsimilar or comparative attributes that weremerged to develop a specific index. The principalindexes used are: the Index of ICT Sophistication(resourcing levels) and the Index of ICT Usage(reflecting degrees of use). Below is a summaryof the key trends that emerged from the analysis.

Factors that enable or restrict start-upSchools that are unable to acquire the basicmaterial resources for teaching and learning arenot likely to be successful in acquiring ICTs. Atthe same time, schools that meet the necessarymaterial conditions for using ICTs in teaching andlearning require support and intervention fromoutside agencies. Support agencies include thenational and provincial departments of education,businesses and NGOs as well as other nearbyschools that are already using ICTs effectively.

Schools that successfully acquire and use ICTsdemonstrate a number of enhancing conditionsand capacities.These include:

• relatively smaller class sizes.

• the ability of parents to meet additionalfinancial costs involved.

• the ability to integrate ICTs effectively intothe normal school routine.

• the presence of a dedicated computerteacher at a school.

• a tendency to have had computers for acomparatively longer period of time.

The comparison of schools withoutcomputers and those with computers showsclearly that the former group is disadvantaged inways that make effective start-up nearlyimpossible. The most basic infrastructuralconditions (electricity, inadequate classrooms,insufficient security) are not present in largenumbers of schools. Added to this are largeclasses, lack of funding to acquire computers anda lack of trained staff to manage ICTs.The factthat larger proportions of schools do not meetthese basic minimum conditions is an indicationof the huge challenge that South Africa faces if it

wishes to bring its learners into the informationage. This challenge is coupled with the realitythat where relatively high levels of ICT resourcesexist, these have largely been paid for throughparent’s contributions. This has importantimplications not only for the start-up of ICTs butalso for the creation of equity between schools.

Effective use of ICTsEffective use of ICTs in education refers to thepositive contribution ICTs make towards theprocess of teaching and learning. In this study‘effective use’ of ICTs was explored by looking atthe following:

• The domains in which computers are beingused in the school such as teaching andlearning, administration, management, etc.This also includes the specific learning areasthat computers are used for in theclassroom.

• The purposes computers are used for in theteaching and learning process, such as drilland practice type work, problem-solving, etc.

• The types of software that are used.

• The ways in which learners engage withcomputers, (i.e. primarily through groupwork or individual work).

By comparing the responses of schools in allthese different areas, an Index of Usage wasconstructed to demonstrate the degree ofinnovation and sophistication that schools aredemonstrating in ICT use. This index was thencompared to a number of key variables. Thefollowing are the trends that emerged:

• High and medium levels of use correlate withlower than average teacher to pupil ratiosand low levels of use correlate with higherthan average teacher to pupil ratios.

• Schools that started using computers priorto 1990 are more likely to fall into the highuse category.

• Levels of resources have a particularlyimportant impact on ICT usage. Schools that

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

are better equipped have a greaterpropensity and capacity to make moreeffective use of ICTs in the teaching andlearning process.

• High use also correlates with the provision ofe-mail facilities to more than 50% ofteachers, greater after hours use by studentsand teachers, access by a greater percentageof learners to computers at home, and apropensity among secondary schools to offerComputer Studies.

It is also pertinent to note that while thenature and extent of ICT use is substantiallyinfluenced by access to adequate resources,there are some schools that are able toovercome resource barriers and move towardseffective ICT usage. Although it is difficult fromthe findings of the study to postulate why thishappens, inferences from the questionnaires andthe interviews point to the presence of one ormore of the following factors in those schoolswhich have low levels of resources but whichshow high levels of innovation.The presence of a‘champion’ among educators, parents ormembers of the surrounding community, asupportive network among educators in thesame region and strong support from theprovincial education department.

ICTs and human resourcesEffective use of ICTs requires theestablishment of an ICT capability andinfrastructure that is conducive to teaching andlearning. An established infrastructure meansthat basic ICT resources are in place. It alsomeans that educators are present who areequipped with the skills, knowledge andconfidence to creatively insert ICTs into theteaching and learning process.

Cluster analysis using the Index of ICT Usage

showed clearly that teacher attitudes are both

affected by, and impact directly on, levels of ICT

usage, with high level usage clustered closest to

positive teacher attitudes. Similarly, there is a

strong correlation between low levels of use and

negative attitudes. The analysis also shows that

where there are a number of barriers towards

the use of ICTs in schools (e.g. lack of funds), it is

more likely that teacher attitudes towards ICT

usage will be negative.

Positive attitudes to ICTs in schools appear

to have been enhanced through the access

teachers have had to relevant training. Schools

where teachers had a relatively high level of

access to training opportunities expressed

positive attitudes to the use of ICTs. The

opposite prevailed for schools that had limited

access to training opportunities. The survey

data also shows that schools that have had

greater access to professional development are

those that possess a high level of resources.

Schools with low access to training have a

strong correlation to low resource levels.Thus

while access to training clearly affects the

attitudes of teachers towards ICT usage,

training is itself an issue affected once again by

resource levels.

With regard to the gender disparities

between ICT educators, even though there are

more than twice as many female teachers than

male teachers engaged in school education

generally, male teachers have a higher

proportionate representation in the teaching

of computer skills in both primary and

secondary schools and Computer Studies in

secondary schools.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

PAGE 7

Factors shaping ICT capability

Positive attitudes Access to training

Effective ICT use

1. N = refers to the number of

cases, for example, number of

schools in the sample.

Conclusions andrecommendationsIn terms of ICTs, schools in South Africa canbe segmented into two groups: those withcomputers (3 670 or 13% of all schools) andthose without computers (23 518 or 87% ofall schools).

Schools without computersA breakdown of the 23 518 schools withoutcomputers shows that they can be segmentedinto three clusters with a distinct range ofresource endowments and capacities.These are:

• schools with better levels of resources (N = 4 939; 21% of schools with nocomputers; 18% of overall number ofschools).1

• schools with minimum levels of resources (N = 10 583; 45% of schools with nocomputers; 39% of overall number ofschools).

• schools that are highly disadvantaged interms of resources (N = 7 996; 34% ofschools with no computers; 29% of overallnumber of schools).

Schools with computersThe study estimates that only 13% (3 670 out ofroughly 27 188) of schools in South Africa haveone or more computers. A breakdown of theseschools shows that they can be segmented intothree clusters with a distinct range of resourceendowments and capacities.These are:

• highly resourced schools (N = 477; 13% ofschools with computers; 2% of overallnumber of schools).

• medium resourced schools (N = 1 578; 43%of schools with computers, 6% of overallnumber of schools).

• lower resourced schools (N = 1 614; 44% ofschools with computers, 6% of overallnumber of schools).

Towards a national strategy forsupporting ICT development in theschooling systemThe following are regarded as the keyimplications arising out of this study for thedevelopment of policy in this area.

• The development and enhancement of ICTcapability in South African schools requires acomprehensive approach that recognises thesignificant differences between schools andparticularly the large discrepancies in theprovision of ICT resources. Mostimportantly, however, the impact thatresource levels have on use and capability inrelation to ICTs must be acknowledged.

• Strategy in this area needs to take intoaccount the likely impact if parentcontributions remain key to the provisionand maintenance of ICT resources.

• Despite the limitations of resourceinequities, the survey has also shown that,while some schools demonstratesophisticated use of their resources, there isa real need to increase innovation andimprove integration of ICTs into the processof teaching and learning as a whole. Lack ofeducator capacity in this area operates as akey barrier to start-up and effective use.

With these considerations in mind, the studyargues for a strategic approach to ICTs thatfocuses on interventions which mobilise existingresources in such a way that they are not onlyaimed at equitable distribution and redress, butthat they also enhance what is recognised in thestudy as ICT ‘capability’. Thus even if resourcesare limited, they should be mobilised in such away that they provide the framework andfoundation for a trajectory of developmentwhich will enhance ICT capability.

Key mechanisms for changeThe strategic approach described above providesan umbrella for the direction that should befollowed and the priorities that must be targeted

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

nationally. However, this approach needs to beoperationalised by focusing on the strategiesappropriate for each cluster of schools so thatthere is an alignment between distributivestrategies and those aimed at enhancing thequality of practice. The following provides abroad overview of the central strategiesproposed for ‘levering’ effective start-up, theequitable distribution of resources and buildingICT capability.

Mobilisation: facilitating effectiveICT start-upAs minimum levels of resources remain criticalto developing ICT capability, attention to infra-structure development among schools must beregarded as central to ICT start-up. Given theexisting resource disparities between schoolsand the reliance on parental contributions fornon-personnel expenditure in schools, it isimperative that resource mobilisation for ICTs,especially from the private sector is appro-priately targeted. From the findings of thestudy, it is argued that resources (infrastructureand human) necessary for ICT start-up shouldbe directed towards those schools withoutcomputers from the ‘minimum’ and ‘better’resourced clusters as well as the ‘lower’resourced category among those schools withcomputers. This does not preclude attentionbeing paid to improving the quality of provisionat better-resourced schools or continuing tobuild a basic educational infrastructure at themost disadvantaged schools. It is rather wherethe strategic ‘node’ exists at this stage in ICTdevelopment among schools in our country.

Partnerships: initiating andsupporting institutionalrelationshipsSchools with computers located in the high andmedium clusters should be encouraged topromote the development of ICT capability inless well-resourced schools in their community.This could be achieved through a range ofstrategies including the sharing of resources, the

offering of ‘expert’ support, the transference ofskills and facilitating linkages with existing serviceproviders. The private sector ought to beencouraged to develop appropriate partnershipswith schools, NGOs and even sectors ofgovernment in the field, particularly at aprovincial level. It is imperative that eachstakeholder and interest group seizes theinitiative to develop immediate and strategicpartnerships that can sustain ICT capability.

Capacity: building human resourcesfor ICT capabilityThe lack of sufficiently trained staff remains abarrier to the start-up and effective use of ICTs.This is evident throughout the profile of schools,from those that can be regarded as privileged tothose that are the most significantlydisadvantaged. While this is clearly a long-termresponsibility of the government there is also aneed for schools to be encouraged to includeteacher training as a central budget item. Theprocess of building human resource capacity alsoinvolves the development of national guidelinesand criteria for the training of educators in thisarea and to support educators in the applicationof ICTs in their schools.

The primary role for the transmission andsupport of these strategies remains agovernment responsibility with other agents inthe field making a secondary contribution.However, the governments’ role must beinformed and guided by the agents who aredirectly involved in the day-to-dayimplementation of ICT policy in schools.Particularly at a provincial level, educators,education managers and NGOs active in thisarea in the province are the social partners thatshould be centrally involved in the planning andimplementation process. At every level thisrequires effective consultation and consensusabout the strategic process that should befollowed to mobilise available resources so thatthey are directed at the creation of equity andthe enhancement of quality.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

PAGE 9

A national survey of Information Communication

Technology in South African schools

Project co-ordinators:Paul Lundall

and Colleen Howell

Education Policy Unit,University of the Western Cape

© Education Policy Unit, University of the Western Cape

and the International Development Research Centre

First published in April 2000 by:

The Education Policy Unit (EPU)

University of the Western Cape

Private Bag X17

Bellville

7535

Cape Town

South Africa

E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

All rights are reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be

made without the permission of the Education Policy Unit of the University of the Western

Cape or the International Development Research Centre.

Computers in Schools:A national survey of Information Communication Technology in

South African schools

ISBN: 1-86808-469-8

Project Coordinators: Paul Lundall and Colleen Howell

Editing: Mary Patrick

Design & origination: Erica Elk,TurnStyle Media

Cover illustration: students of the Ningizimu School for the Severely Mentally Handicapped,

KwaZulu-Natal.

Reproduction and printing: Shereno Printers, Johannesburg

Thank you to Robin Opperman and his students at the Ningizimu School for the

Severely Mentally Handicapped, in KwaZulu-Natal, for their illustustration of

technology in education which is used on the cover of this publication.

It can easily happen that some of the manyindividuals and organisations who supported theICT study over the past two years are forgottenand not thanked for the support they unhesitatinglygave to the project.

As the compilers of this final report, we want tothank everyone with whom we interacted duringthe process of research management andproduction for their committed support. Inparticular acknowledgment and special thanksneeds to be extended to the following:

• To all the members of the reference groupwhose insights and support proved invaluable inguiding the project through the different stagesof its development and implementation.Members of the reference group included MrVis Naidoo (National Department of Education),Mr Ntutule Tshenge (National Department ofEducation), Mr Mashala Kwape (NationalDepartment of Education), Mr ChristopherGeerdts (International Development ResearchCente), Ms Tina James (International DevelopmentResearch Centre), Mr Steven Marquard(SchoolNet SA), Dr Johnathan Miller (MillerEsselaar and Associates), Mr Lionel Benting(Western Cape Education Department), Dr YusufSayed (University of the Western Cape),Ms Cathy-Mae Karelse (Information Literacy Project), MsAlix Lowenherz (Grove Primary School), Ms JeanSeptember (South African Democratic TeachersUnion),Prof.Saleem Badat (EPU) and Dr GeorgeSubotzky (EPU).

• Ms Lesley Powell (EPU) whose dedication andinterest in this area helped to get the project offthe ground.Thank you to her for the time spentin generating the sample of schools for thesurvey and for her preliminary work towardsthe development of a literature review.

• Prof.Tim Dunne at the University of Cape Townfor his help with the generation of the samplesand the project’s research design.

• Mr James Hodge at the Science and TechnologyPolicy Research Centre (UCT) who participatedin the initial project planning and questionnairedesign.

• Ms Alyce Miller from Meta GroupCommunications whose insights compelled usto think seriously about the implications ofintegrating computers into the curriculum.

• The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC)for giving us permission to use selectedcategories of the Schools Register of Needs(1996) database to develop the sample for thesurvey to schools and for use in the analysis ofthe survey data.

• To all the schools who sent back questionnairesand to all those who opened their doors to usduring the interview process.

• To Microsoft, Corel and Futurekids for theirgenerous donation of prizes for returnedquestionnaires.

• To Ms Hameda Deedat at the EPU for heradministrative assistance during the initialstages of the project and to Eunice Snyder andTanya Oppel for continuing this support.

• To all the researchers who traveled all over thecountry undertaking interviews with schoolsand other stakeholders. In particular MrCharlton Koen (EPU), Ms Hameda Deedat, MsBeatrice Mokale (Free State) and Ms SibongileCingo (Gauteng)

• To Dr Johnathan Miller of Miller Esselaar andAssociates who invested significant time andenergy into the project planning, design of thequestionnaire and the investigation of private PAGE III

‘ ’Acknowledgements

PAGE IV

sector involvement in this area.Thank you toofor his contribution to assisting with theanalysis of the project findings and the helpfulfeedback which was received on the manydrafts of the final report.

• To Mr Stephen Marquard from SchoolNet SAwho provided valuable insights throughout theproject.

• Mr Neil Butcher and other staff of the SouthAfrican Institute of Distance Education (SAIDE)for the development of a report that providedus with the substance for Chapter 5 of thisreport and who investigated the extent ofNGO involvement in ICTs in schools.

• Ms Manilla Amin for undertaking preliminarywork towards the development of theliterature review.

• Ms Laura Czerniewicz who encouraged us notto despair during the long writing phase anddevoted time to read and comment on thedraft versions of the report.

• To Dr Yusuf Sayed for the endless support andadvice he gave us in developing our surveyquestionnaire, reading drafts of the final reportand for the enormous contribution he madetogether with Cathy-Mae Karelse in generatingthe final literature review and comparativeanalysis.

• To Ms Cathy-Mae Karelse for her unendingsupport throughout the project and particularlythe lengthy hours she spent together with YusufSayed developing the literature review andcomparative analysis. Her commitment tosupporting us at the most difficult time of theproject’s completion is gratefully acknowledgedand appreciated.

• We would also like to express a special thankyou to Prof. Saleem Badat, who as Director ofthe EPU when the project began, was

instrumental in not only helping in the project’sdesign and implementation but also inencouraging us to think critically at what wewere doing and how we should go about doingit. His knowledge and insights constantlyinspired us to move forward with the project.

• Deep and sincere gratitude is extended to Prof.Johann Mouton from the Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies at the University ofStellenbosch. Our thanks stems not only fromthe extensive time and energy which hedevoted to the analysis of the survey data butalso for his constant support, insight, affirmationand unwavering commitment to the projectand its completion. Thank you too to NieliusBoshoff and Fran Ritchie from the Centre whoin different ways gave much needed assistance.

• We would not have been able to complete thisproject without the support from all ourcolleagues at the EPU, particularly our actingdirector Dr George Subotzky.

• Thank you too to Ms Mary Patrick and Ms EricaElk who were responsible respectively for theediting and layout of the final report. Yourinnovation, patience and assistance are greatlyappreciated.

• A special acknowledgment needs to beextended to the International DevelopmentResearch Centre who provided the funding toundertake the study. In particular we wouldlike to thank Mr Christopher Geerdts and MsTina James who provided much neededsupport at various stages of the process.We areparticularly grateful to Tina for the long hourswhich she spent reading the drafts of thereport and providing us with useful feedback.

Paul Lundall and Colleen HowellApril 2000

Executive summary Page I

SECTION A: Background Page 10

Chapter 1: Introduction 10

Chapter 2: Research methodology 13

Chapter 3: Contextualising ICTs in education 21

Chapter 4: Issues arising from the application of ICTs in education 37

Chapter 5: The South African policy and schooling context 52

SECTION B: Data & analysis Page 65

Chapter 6: Schools with computers 65

Chapter 7: Schools without computers 114

Chapter 8: NGOs and the use of ICTs at schools in South Africa 121

Chapter 9: Supply of ICTs to schools by the private sector 130

SECTION C: Recommendations Page 135

Chapter 10: Material and infrastructural factors that enable or restrict the start-up of ICTs in schools 135

Chapter 11: Effective use of ICTs 142

Chapter 12: ICTs and human resource capacity 149

Chapter 13: Towards a national strategy for supporting ICT development in schools 156

APPENDIXES Page 163

Appendix A: Questionnaire A: Schools that have one or more computers 163

Appendix B: Questionnaire B: Schools without computers 187

Appendix C: Interview schedule 196

Appendix D: Interview guide for commercial firms 198

Appendix E: Interview guide for provincial education departments 199

Appendix F: Summary feedback from ICT suppliers in the private sector 200

BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 202

‘ ’Contents

SECTION A CHAPTER 1

The competitiveness of any economy in theglobal marketplace is to a large extentdetermined by its effective use of informationand communication technologies (ICTs). Inaddition, the ability of any government toeffectively administer a country and deliver onits social goals is also greatly enhanced byefficient use of ICTs. Within this context, thegrowth of ICTs in both the developed anddeveloping worlds has profoundly altered waysof communicating, work, space and time.Education has been seen both as a solution topreparing citizens for the information age, andas a problem in not preparing them fast enough.

The South African government, recognisingthe need for South Africa to participate in this‘global marketplace’ and the importance ofeducation in contributing to effectiveparticipation, has run a number of initiativesaimed at addressing concerns in this area.These have ranged from hosting a conferenceon the issue for developing countries, to theintroduction of policies on ICT development ina range of sectors, including education.

In 1997 the National Centre for EducationalTechnology and Distance Education in theNational Department of Education, followingon from the Technology Enhanced LearningInitiative (TELI), identified the need for clearand comprehensive policies to address thedevelopment of appropriate and sustainablecapacity around ICTs in the schools. Thiscommitment was made, with a clearrecognition that huge variations in access toICTs exist which largely reflect the disparities

inherited from the apartheid education system.It was also recognised that the use of ICTs inteaching and learning at present is disjointed,lacks clear direction and is highly fragmented.Although these problems were recognised, theability to address them was severely hamperedby a lack of informed and critical research inthis area.

Aims of this research projectThis research process began in May 1998aiming to undertake a national survey into ICTsin South African schools.The main objective ofthe study was to investigate the nature andextent of ICT provision in the schooling sector.More specifically, by mapping what ICTresources are presently being used in theschools, the manner in which they are beingused and the organisational arrangements usedto facilitate their use, a picture emerged ofICTs in the school environment.

In addition, we aimed to identify factors thatcould be regarded as enabling or restricting theuse of ICTs in schools.The performance of thecurrent system and issues important tostakeholders were also evaluated and noted.Thisinformation can now be used to provide insightsinto policy considerations around the creation ofequity, facilitating quality in the use of ICTs andidentifying key areas for strategic interventions.

Participants in the researchFunding to undertake the research wasreceived from the Canadian International

‘1’Introduction

INTRODUCTION

PAGE 11

SECTION A CHAPTER 1

Development Research Centre (IDRC) and theresearch process was placed under thedirection of the Education Policy Unit (EPU) atthe University of the Western Cape.

In undertaking the survey the EPU alsoentered into collaborative relations with theScience and Technology Policy Research Centrebased at the University of Cape Town, MillerEsselaar and Associates, an independentconsulting agency as well as the Centre forInter-Disciplinary Studies at the University ofStellenbosch. Collaboration was also sought toprovide information about the role of NGOsand the private sector in supporting ICTdevelopment in schools.

The research team also had the opportunityto engage in rigorous discussion on the researchprocess and methods with experienced policymakers and researchers whose mandate was tooversee the research process through regularplanning meetings with the team. The coremembers of the team were drawn fromacademic institutions, the teaching field as wellas from NGOs operating in the fields ofinformation literacy and information technology.

To ensure that stakeholders were fullyinformed about the progress and direction ofthe research project, the research team alsoparticipated in a reference group constitutedby key stakeholders involved in the project.Theprincipal stakeholders were the NationalCentre for Educational Technology andDistance Education at the NationalDepartment of Education as the principalbeneficiary of the research, and the IDRC asthe principal donor.

This report thus reflects the collaborativeefforts of a number of people who cametogether to undertake what proved to be anextremely exciting but daunting task. Althoughall the unique contributions may appearinvisible, the report is a measure of the processof collaboration and engagement, which allcontributors to the process tried to sustain to

the best of their abilities.

The research process included:

• a literature survey with a particularemphasis on contextualising the study anddrawing out learning experiences fromother countries.

• a postal survey with two specificallydesigned questionnaires was sent to asample of South African schools throughoutthe nine provinces.

• interviews with key stakeholders and sitevisits to schools in three provinces.

• a brief survey exploring the private sector’sinvolvement in ICT provision and supportfor schools.

• a brief survey of NGO involvement in ICTprovision and support to schools.

• a detailed analysis of data gathered fromthe returned questionnaires.

• the synthesis of the key findings of thesurvey into this final report.

ICTs: defining the conceptICTs are the convergence of microelectronics,computers and telecommunications whichmake it possible for data including text, videoand audio signals to be transmitted anywherein the world where these digital signals can bereceived. ICTs thus incorporate a range oftechnologies ‘used to support communication andinformation’. ICTs include both networks andapplications. Networks include fixed, wirelessand satellite telecommunications broadcastingnetworks. Well-known applications are theInternet, database management systems andmulti-media tools. By implication, a holisticunderstanding of ICTs necessarily includesconsideration of telecommunications policies,information policies and human resourcedevelopment policies. As Marcelle argues:

The ICT sector is a heterogeneous collectionof industry and services activities including:

SECTION A CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

information technology equipment andservices, telecommunications equipmentand services, media and broadcast, Internetservice provision, libraries, commercialinformation providers, network-basedinformation services, and relatedprofessional specialised services (1998:2).

Hamelink (1997) provides a useful and cleardefinition of ICTs indicating that ICTs arethose technologies that enable the handling ofinformation and facilitate different forms ofcommunication. These include capturingtechnologies (e.g. camcorders), storagetechnologies (e.g. CD-Roms), processingtechnologies (e.g. application software),communication technologies (e.g. local areanetworks), and display technologies (e.g.computer monitors).

While the study has been undertaken withthis broad conceptualisation of ICTs in mind, itsspecific focus is on the nature and use ofcomputers.

Structure of this reportThis report constitutes a detailed overview ofall the key components of the study and isorganised into three sections.

Section A (Chapters 2 to 5) provides abackground to the study. It outlinesinternational experience of the use of ICTs ineducation, and looks at factors that shapeschooling in South Africa generally. Thissection, in Chapter 2, also provides a moredetailed overview of the methodological

processes followed for all aspects of the study.

Section B (Chapters 6 to 9) provides a detaileddescription of the survey findings.Chapter 6 dealswith the findings of the questionnaires receivedfrom schools with one or more computers andthe headings replicate the headings in thequestionnaire. Responses received from schoolswith no computers are presented in Chapter 7 asthey provide particular insights into issuesaffecting these schools.Chapters 8 and 9 describethe work being done by NGOs and the privatesector respectively.

A more substantial analysis of the surveyfindings together with recommendations for away forward are addressed in Section C(Chapters 10 to 13). These chapters serve tocontextualise the survey results and tosynthesise key findings in such a way that areasfor strategic intervention are noted.

As stated earlier, this survey marks the firstsubstantial attempt to map this aspect ofeducation in South Africa. As such, it isprimarily an exploratory study which, based onquestionnaires, interviews and documentresearch, really only provides a ‘snapshot’ of theterrain as it existed over the period in whichthe study was carried out. While it isrecognised that this area is in constant flux,with new and innovative developments takingplace everyday, the survey provides valuableinsights into some of the key issues, bothpositive and negative, which characterise thedevelopment of ICTs in South African schoolsnow and that will continue to have an impact inyears to come.

SECTION A CHAPTER 2

Three distinct environments condition theprovision and use of ICTs in South Africanschools. These environments are the schoolssector itself, the NGO sector and the businesssector. Although the state plays a prominentrole in shaping policy and kick-startingprovision of ICTs in schools, the main focus ofthis investigation is to map the schoolenvironment by collecting base-line data aboutthe resources available and how theseresources are being used in the learning andteaching process. The study also identifies theconstraints that hamper the promotion anduse of ICTs in South African schools.

Review of the literatureIt was recognised at the beginning of the studythat the use of ICTs in education has alreadybeen researched in a number of otherdeveloped and developing countries. Thelessons learnt from these experiences providevaluable insights into the nature and scope ofthe use of ICTs in education, particularly withinthe framework of globalisation and themushrooming of ‘information societies’.

It was also clear at the outset that there arekey issues, which have shaped schools in SouthAfrica and which profoundly affect the use ofICTs in schools.

A thorough review of existing literature wastherefore essential for developing appropriateresearch instruments, informing the analysis ofthe data and increasing the knowledge andunderstanding of the area by the researchers.

The information and insights gained from thereview were drawn on throughout theresearch process, and are documented inChapters 3, 4 and 5.

Data collection in the field The research design envisaged that data wouldbe obtained through quantitative andqualitative methods. The design required thatthe quantitative data would be obtainedthrough the submission of a postalquestionnaire to schools throughout thecountry. Qualitative data was obtained throughinterviews, observations by researchers duringvisits to schools, NGOs and businesses as wellas through an analysis of documentary sources.

Developing a questionnaire forschoolsBy the end of August 1998, a preliminaryquestionnaire had been developed for pilotingpurposes. The questionnaire consisted of fivesections.These sections were on: school context,governance, human resources, funding andequipment and use of computers in schools.

The questionnaire was tested either with aprincipal, or a computer teacher/co-ordinatorat twelve schools in the Cape Peninsula.

Lessons from the pilotAfter testing the questionnaire, the researchteam met to analyse the responses obtained.The most important conceptual lesson welearnt was that the key focus of thequestionnaire had to be on the collection ofbase-line data about actual conditions in schools.

‘2’Research methodology

SECTION A CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Questions that required the filling in of fairlycomplicated evaluation scales were rejected oraltered in line with recommendations fromrespondents. Other questions requiredreworking and simplification. These revisionswere incorporated into the final questionnaire.

Rich data was obtained when the draftquestionnaire was tested. It showed that thereare a number of ways in which ICTs are used inthe schools. In some schools computers arerelatively absent from the education and learningprocess,but are integrated to a fairly large extentas an administrative and management tool. Inother schools there have been real attempts atintegrating computers into the teaching andlearning process across a range of subject areas.Where the integration of computers intolearning and teaching exists, it appears thatcomputers are also being used as a managerialand administrative tool. It is interesting to notethat some schools, particularly where there arefew ICT resources, tend to use computers toimprove the computer literacy and skills oflearners and teachers rather than applying themin the curriculum. In fact, the only availablecomputers at the school may be located within acomputer lab or classroom dedicated for theteaching and learning of computing skills. Therealso appears to be a distinct category of schoolswith computers where the emphasis is placed ongiving students an up-to-date education abouttechnologically relevant aspects of computers,particularly those that impact on the computerand software industries.

Drawing up the final questionnaireTwo central issues influenced the developmentof the final questionnaire. Firstly there wereconceptual changes in the project team’sthinking about what questions needed to beanswered by the research. Secondly, lessonswere learnt from testing the pilotquestionnaire. On the basis of the above thefollowing were identified as critical issues in thedevelopment of the final questionnaire:

Nature of information to be elicited The pilot questionnaire had made a cleardistinction between the ‘non-ICT context’ andthe ‘ICT context’. General questions aroundthe school’s functioning were placed in thefirst section and questions dealing with aspectsof ICT provision and use were placed in thesecond section. The piloting process showedthat this was an unnecessary and potentiallydivisive distinction. Much of the informationgiven by the respondents could not be clearlyseparated into the two areas of focus. It wasalso clear that some schools felt that thequestions regarding the non-ICT context wereinvasive and respondents could not see theirlink to the stated purpose of the study. Clearlythis would undermine the integrity of thestudy and the validity of the responses so ithad to change.

It was also realised that a much clearerdistinction needed to be made between theinformation which was needed from schoolswhere ICTs were used and those where therewere no ICTs. For example, information neededfrom the latter involved questions dealing withcritical factors hindering or enabling the use ofICTs, whereas the information from the formergroup required a clearer focus on technicalquestions dealing with specifications of ICTs aswell as questions interrogating the pedagogicalimpact of ICTs in the school.

In order to address these, the research teamwent through a rigorous exercise ofinterrogating each question to ascertain whatinformation it was likely to elicit and the valueof the information to the project.Through thisexercise the research team arrived at thedevelopment of two separate questionnairesaimed at schools with computers and thosewithout any computers. Both questionnaireswere to be sent to each school in the sampleand they would then fill in the relevantquestionnaire. The development of twoquestionnaires was important in giving equalattention to the two groups of schools. With

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

PAGE 15

SECTION A CHAPTER 2

the pilot questionnaire, schoolswithout computers had felt thatthey could only answer a fraction ofthe questions and perceived theircontribution to be less valuable thanthat elicited from schools with ICTresources.

Much work was done on makingthe questions and format of thequestionnaire as clear and accessibleas possible without losing potentiallyvaluable information. Attention wasgiven to uniformity in the style of thequestions as well as the nature of therequired response.

Attitudes to ICTsIt had been recognised throughoutthe planning of the survey thatdespite the inherent limitations of aquestionnaire, an attempt should bemade to use this research tool as faras possible to gather informationwhich would reflect attitudes to critical issuesaround ICT provision and use. In this regardthe pilot questionnaire included a number ofquestions, which required the respondent torank and rate their response to a questionalong a numerical scale.

While the value of incorporating anevaluative dimension was important, thestructure of these questions in the pilotquestionnaire was confusing and difficult toanswer. A much clearer and more accessibleformat was developed which made this processeasier for the respondent without losing thiscritical component of the survey.

Potential patterns of inequalityA review of the pilot questionnaire showedthat the research team had not paid sufficientattention to including questions, which wouldallow us to gain insight into patterns of accessand the extent to which they may be influencedby existing gender relations and inequalities inthe school. Questions around various forms of

access and possible patterns of inequality werethus integrated into both questionnaires.

Constructing a representativesample The data in the 1996 Human Sciences ResearchCouncil (HSRC) School Register of NeedsSurvey constituted the population of schoolsaround which the survey was developed. Whilethe HSRC data was two-years-old at the time,the EPU Survey was undertaken, it was themost comprehensive and up-to-date audit of

Table 2.1: Type of school in sample population

Type of school Schools with Schools without one or more computers computers N = 2 311 N = 24 794

Primary schools Count 1 121 16 450% 50.0 68.4

Combined schools Count 361 3 150% 16.4 13.1

Secondary schools Count 717 4 460% 32.6 18.5

Figure 2.1: Derivation of the sample

Province N %E/Cape 571 23.0Free State 273 11.0Gauteng 166 6.7KZN 488 19.7Mpumalanga 176 7.1North West 228 9.2N/Cape 42 1.7N/Province 412 16.6W/Cape 124 5.0

Total 2 480 100%


Total 2 311 100%

HSRC School DatabaseN = 27 105

Schools with no computersN = 24 794 (91.2%)

Random Sample 10% = 2 480

Schools with one or morecomputers

N = 2 311 (8.8%)


existing public and private schoolsin South Africa that was available.

The original project proposalwas to sample 10 600 schools inSouth Africa by means of a postalsurvey. Subsequently, using theHSRC data we realised that 90%of schools did not have computersat all so adhering to the originalsample size of 10 600 seemedunnecessary.

On the advice of a professionalstatistician we began to discussdeploying a smaller samplewithout foregoing an adequaterepresentation of the overallschool population in the sample.A decision was made toincorporate all schools which hadone or more computers into theresearch sample. The samplewould also be made up of arandomly generated stratified

profile containing 10% of all schools which didnot have computers.

The HSRC data indicated that a total of 27105 schools (public and private) existed inSouth Africa in 1996 providing for learners atvarious levels from Grades 1 to 12.The HSRCSchool Register of Needs data showed that 2 311schools possessed at least one computer in1996. This meant that 24 794 schools in the

country were without computers. 10% of thisfigure (2 480 schools) formed our randomsample of schools, which did not havecomputers. The total sample for the outgoingquestionnaire therefore amounted to 4 791schools. It was recognised that changes mayhave taken place in the period after the HSRCsurvey had been undertaken and allowance wasmade for this by sending each school twoquestionnaires. The two questionnaires weredesignated as Questionnaire A for schools withcomputers and Questionnaire B for schoolswithout computers.

Figure 2.1 graphically illustrates thederivation of the sample for the EPU studyfrom the HSRC database. It also providesprovincial breakdowns of the sample, as it wasconstituted from the HSRC database forschools with computers as well as schoolswithout computers.

In terms of the classification of schools thathave been used throughout this report, threetypes have been identified. These are: primaryschools, combined schools and secondaryschools. Using this classification, the sample ofschools drawn from the HSRC databasecontained the following distribution as isshown in Table 2.1. This information isimportant because it gives us a comparison andan additional mechanism by which to verify therealisation of the sample by school type, as willbe shown below.

Sample realisationTable 2.2 and 2.3 provide the profile of therealised sample. The realised sample needs tobe compared with the sample for thedistribution of questionnaires in order toascertain the degree to which the realisedsample mirrors the wider sample population.

The realised sample (N = 962) for schoolswith computers (Questionnaire A) constitutes41.6% of the target population of 2 311 schools.The total number of questionnaires received

Table 2.2: Sample realisation for schools with computers


Total 962 100%

Table 2.3: Sample realisation forschools without computers


Total 444 100%

Table 2.4: Sample realisation by type of school

Type of school Schools with Schools without one or more computers computers N = 962* N = 444#

Primary schools Count 457 254% 50.1 67.4

Combined schools Count 147 33% 16.1 8.8

Secondary schools Count 308 90% 33.8 23.8

Note: * 50 of these schools did not specify a type; # 67 of these schools did not specify a type


PAGE 17

SECTION A CHAPTER 2

back (N = 990), constitutes a rate of 42.8%. Thisis very ‘high’ for postal surveys. 28 questionnaireswere returned but had too many missingresponses and were subsequently not included inthe data analysis. In terms of provincialbreakdown and school type, a comparisonbetween the target population and the realisedsample shows that the sample is sufficientlysimilar in these respects compared to the targetpopulation. Further analysis shows that theproportions of school types in each provincewithin the sample are very similar to those in theoverall school population.

Against this background, and given therelatively large sample that was obtained, thesample of schools with computers can beregarded as a truly representative sample ofthe target population.

Table 2.3 depicts the sample realisation in terms

of provincial breakdowns for schools without

computers that returned Questionnaire B.

The realised sample of 444 schools thatreturned completed questionnaires constitutesa response rate of 17.9%. Compared to thetarget population of 24 794 schools, itrepresents only 1.8% of schools nationally. Theresponse rate of 17.9% is low even whencompared to the average obtained in mostpostal surveys (20–25%). The fact that therealised sample only constituted a 10% sampleof the target population means that the samplethat was obtained is probably too small to beregarded as representative of the specificpopulation. This is borne out by the rather

large differences – especially with regard to theprovincial distribution – between the sampleand the target population.

The results obtained from the realisedsample of schools without computers must betreated with caution and cannot be assumed tobe representative of all South African schoolswithout computers.

Table 2.4 depicts the sample realisation bythe type of school for schools with one ormore computers as well as for those schoolswithout computers. If this is compared withTable 2.1, it gives further confirmation of theclose fit between the sample distribution andthe sample realisation and indeed provides afurther indicator that the sample is a goodrepresentation of the actual target populationof schools.

Estimate of the number of schoolswith one or more computersEstimates of the number of schools in thecountry with one or more computers can bedeveloped from the sample of questionnairesthat were initially drawn. Since two sampleswere initially drawn, the number of schoolswith computers can be calculated from each ofthese. This can be done using the results inTable 2.6 on page 18.

The EPU survey indicates that 837 of theschools that returned a questionnaire wereinitially shown in the HSRC database to havecomputers. In the actual return however, 47schools from this group of 837 schools did nothave a computer in 1998. This implies that the

Table 2.5: Sample realisation in relation to the overall national school population

Province Total Quest. Quest. A B Total Returns as A return as B return asschools submitted submitted return return returns % of total % of total % of total1997 as % of schools schools schools

schoolsE/Cape 5 880 786 13 82 41 123 2 1 1Free State 2 881 427 15 77 43 120 4 3 1Gauteng 2 233 784 35 235 31 266 12 11 1KZN 5 409 870 16 168 96 264 5 3 2Mpumalanga 1 907 294 15 50 40 90 5 3 2N/Cape 526 147 28 36 11 47 9 7 2N/Province 4 170 446 11 19 02 121 3 0.5 2North West 2 412 360 15 45 42 87 4 2 2W/Cape 1 770 677 38 250 38 288 16 14 2

Total 27 188 4791 18 962 444 1 406 5 4 2


net loss of schools with computers from theoverall 1996 population of 2 311 schools withcomputers amounted to 5.6%. If this net losswhich is depicted in a highly representativesample is generalised to the overall populationof schools in 1996 which had computers, thecalculations show a fall from 2 311 schools to2 181 schools.

However, the data also shows that 149 outof the 2 480 schools that were registered asnot having computers in the HSRC databasereturned questionnaires indicating that theynow have a computer. Therefore there was anet gain in the number of schools that hadcomputers.The net gain was 149 schools withcomputers. As a proportion of the sample ofthe 2 480 schools which had no computers in1996, the net gain in computers, as apercentage, is 6%. Since a 10% random sampleof schools with no computers was initiallymade, we can still generalise this gain to theoverall population of schools that had nocomputers. The calculations show a closecorrespondence to the results of the samplebecause 6% of 24 794 amounts to 1 489schools which is almost exactly ten times morethan the 149 schools shown in the surveyresults.The net gain in schools with computerstherefore amounts to 1 489. Adding this figure

(1 489) to the new sum of schools withcomputers (2 181), our estimates show thatapproximately 3 670 schools had computers atthe end of 1998.

From these estimates, tentative projectionson the acquisition of computers by schoolsthat did not have them in the past can beadvanced in the short to medium term.

Table 2.7 shows the estimated growth rate inthe number of schools that have acquiredcomputers between 1996 and 1998.

The growth rate of schools that haveacquired computers between 1996 and 1998averages 59% and was higher among secondaryschools than primary schools. If the samegrowth rate is maintained over the next twoyears, roughly 5 835 schools will have one ormore computers in South Africa by the year2000/2001. While this rate of acquisition ofcomputers by schools is impressive, 5 835schools is a small part of the total number ofschools in South Africa.

The interview processUsing data for Gross Geographic Product (GGP)released by the Financial and Fiscal Commissionin 1998, the nine provinces were divided intothree clusters representing high income,mediumand low GGP provinces. One province wasselected from each of the three clusters forinterviews. The three provinces chosen were:Western Cape, representing the high-incomeprovinces, Free State, a medium income provinceand Northern Province as an example of a lowincome province. A wide range of schools,representing different levels of resourceendowments, were chosen for interviews.

Table 2.7: Estimated growth of schools with computers:1996–1998

Type of Actual Estimated Percentage school profile: 96 profile: 98 growthPrimary schools 1 179 1 839 56%Combined schools 379 591 55.9%Secondary schools 753 1 240 64.7%

Total schools 2 311 3 670 58.8%

Table 2.6: ICT characteristics of schools that returned questionnaires

Schools with Schools with one Totalno computers or more computers(HSRC database) (HSRC database)

Questionnaire A returned 149 790 939Questionnaire B returned 351 47 398

Total 500 837 1 337


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SECTION A CHAPTER 2

At least 15 schools were visited in eachprovince. All the interviews were recorded ontape. During the field trip to the NorthernProvince, a number of schools in Mpumalangawere also visited and interviews were conductedwith school managers and ICT coordinators.

Data analysisThe analysis of the data collected through thequestionnaires was captured and coded so thatan initial overview of frequencies and generaltrends in responses could be ascertained.Cross-tabulations involving the coded datawere then performed at two levels. The firstlevel involved the selection of groupingvariables and consistently using these toidentify patterns and deviations for each of theitems that were being tested. Thesecomparisons were generated in tabular formand are presented in Chapters 6 and 7 of thisreport. The following grouping variables wereselected to compare the findings and establishrelationships between variables.

• Type of school (primary, secondary andcombined school).

• Province (data for all nine provinces wereanalysed).

• Year in which school started to usecomputers. While Questionnaire Acontained six periods to classify thebeginning of this process for schools, theresearchers consolidated these into threeperiods: the number of schools which couldbe classified in the first and last periodswere roughly the same.

• Schools were also identified according totheir geographical location. Thisclassification identified whether schoolswere located in an urban, peri-urban orrural environment.

• Schools were also grouped according towhether they offered Computer Studies asa school subject or not.

• Finally, schools were classified into threecategories according to the total number ofcomputers in use. The three categorieswere the following: 10 and less, 11 to 29and 30 and more. All three categories wereverified as sufficiently close to the naturalranges that would have been selectedstatistically if this had to be done. Theabove range of categories however didprovide a round and elegant basis withwhich to work.

To explore the presence of more systemicrelations suggested through the data, broadercategories had to be constructed.These chieflytook the form of indexes and operated on asimilar basis to an index of prices (e.g.consumer price index or producer priceindex). A number of variables with similar orcomparative attributes were merged todevelop such indexes. A number of differentindexes are used in the report to illuminate theassociation between a grouping of variablesagainst key indicators of change. The principalindexes used are: indexes of ICT sophistication(reflecting resourcing levels in particular) andindexes of ICT application (reflecting degreesof usage in particular).The development of thespecific indexes used and their relevance forthe analysis of the survey are discussed in moredetail in Section C.

Gathering information from theNGO environmentVarious techniques were used to gatherinformation on NGOs involved in facilitatingthe use of ICTs at schools. First, a list ofrelevant NGOs was compiled throughconsultation with a range of people in the fieldtogether with database scans and websearches. A questionnaire was then circulatedto all NGOs identified through this process.The questionnaire included a section asking forinformation about other NGOs doing similarwork. Most NGOs responded electronically tothe questionnaire. Direct face-to-face

SECTION A CHAPTER 2

interviews and telephonic interviews guided bythe questionnaire were also held with selectedindividuals. A transcript of the interview was,wherever possible, verified for factual accuracywith the relevant contact person. In additionwe drew on work already done by the SouthAfrican Institute for Distance Education(SAIDE) in this area.

Mapping the business environmentIn order to develop a picture of theinvolvement of this sector in the school ICTsterrain, the following sources were used toidentify a sample of suppliers of computing andcommunications equipment and services:

• The National Department of Education andthe Western Cape and Free State EducationDepartments provided lists of suppliersapproved for State Tender Board purposes.

• SAIDE provided names of commercialorganisations that emerged in theirdiscussions with NGOs.

• A message posted to the School.za e-maillist requesting information on suppliers toschools provided some names.

• Press clippings covering primary andsecondary education over the period 1996-1999 added some contacts.

• Personal contacts in schools were asked fornames of suppliers with whom they dealt.

An interview guide was created to structurethe desired information from a selection of thefirms identified and this was distributed by faxand e-mail. A version of the interview guidewas also sent to the responsible officials in allthe provincial departments to get theirperspective on acquisition of facilities and

services. Both interview guides are included asAppendices D & E. Where possible theresearcher first made personal contact with anindividual in each firm or department toexplain the nature of the study and encouragethem to complete the interview guide. In somecases there was a follow up interview once theguide had been completed.

ConclusionIt is important to recognise that a study of thisnature is not a comprehensive national audit ofthe schooling sector and the impact of ICTs inthis area. The study is therefore not intendedto provide detailed audits of all ICT resourcesand their use. Rather, this study is a mappingexercise designed to inform the developmentof appropriate policy and interventionstrategies through an analysis of data receivedfrom the sample of schools surveyed. Therepresentative nature of the schools thatparticipated in the survey, particularly thosewith computers strengthens the value thatsuch a mapping exercise can add to detailedpolicy and planning.

However, since this is the first comprehensiveattempt to analyse the adoption and diffusion ofICTs into South African schools, there may be anumber of factors, which have either beenoverlooked or explored inadequately for morein-depth interventions by specific groups.Thesefactors could have a national, regional or even alocal orientation. If we are committed toexpanding our knowledge and insights into thisarea, it will be important to address these inlater studies and build on the analyses containedin this report.


SECTION A CHAPTER 3

This chapter is divided into two parts.The firstpart provides a broad contextualisation of ICTsin education. Part two provides an analysis of theprocess of policy development in the developedand developing worlds and outlines someexamples of education policies on ICTs in severaldeveloped and developing countries. Policy inthese examples is explored in relation to macro-level national development strategies and specificeducational responses and implications.

Contextualising ICTs The emergence of ICTs is connected to thetransformation occurring in the knowledgedomain and the world of production. Educationis perceived to be the sphere that mediates andconnects the world of knowledge with the worldof work.There are two different perspectives onhow countries can position education systems inrelation to ICTs: one that embraces it fully andone that stresses the need for extreme caution.It is our view that the approach that should betaken in South Africa is somewhere between thetwo extreme positions.

The shift to knowledge economiesThe convergence of telecommunications,microelectronics and computers have led tothe emergence of ICTs as the primary meansthrough which information and knowledge –the primary commodities of our time – aretransmitted.The informationisation of society,a concept coined in Japan in the 1960s, hastaken place and the notion of knowledge

societies in which ‘brain power’ is seen as aprime resource is already widely accepted.Increasingly, the dominant source of trade isinformation. Governments, businesses, publicand private sectors alike are generatingrevenue from the sale of information and theproduction of knowledge.

Information and knowledge are thethermonuclear competitive weapons of ourtime. Knowledge is more valuable and morepowerful than natural resources, big factories,or fat bankrolls. In industry after industry,success comes to the companies that havethe best information or wield it mosteffectively – not necessarily the companieswith the most muscle (Stewart, 1997: ix).

Implicit in this notion of linking information toknowledge creation is human capability. Therapidly advancing shift to knowledge economiesmeans that resources created through ‘brainpower are increasingly more valuable in wealthcreation than natural resources’ and value iscreated with information. This heralds an era inwhich human resources are the most valuedassets of the Global Information Society (Lepani,1996: 4).

ICTs are an intrinsic component ofknowledge societies. They are an importantpart of the capacity and infrastructure thatallows nations and communities to trade theirknowledge and resources. The networks thatICTs have spurred, have opened up marketsand contributed to an era of globalisation,associated with the concept of the informationage and community. Connectivity that has

‘3’Contextualising ICTs

in education

SECTION A CHAPTER 3 ICTS IN EDUCATION

reached most countries in the world, has thepotential to spread information in ways thatdefy national and cultural boundaries. Thisheralds an era in which time and space are nolonger barriers to communication.

The growth of the ICT sector globally hasattracted much attention from internationalagencies concerned with issues of universalaccess. In 1995, the United NationsCommission on Science and Technology forDevelopment (UNCSTD) set up a WorkingGroup on Information Technology andDevelopment.The Working Group investigatedthe obstacles to production, access and use ofICTs in developing countries.They argued that:

ICTs do not offer a panacea for social andeconomic development.There are risks ofunemployment and social and economicdislocation, and these may lead policy makersto give lower priority to the need to createeffective national ICTs strategies. However, onthe basis of the evidence, it is apparent thatthe risks of failing to participate in the ICTsrevolution are enormous. Failure to givepriority to ICT strategies that enabledeveloping countries, and countries intransition, both to develop their nationalinfrastructures and to join the GlobalInformation Infrastructure will exacerbate thegap between rich and poor.There is agrowing need to evaluate the social andeconomic impacts of ICTs and to createopportunities for capacity building that willensure their beneficial use and absorptionwithin national economies and civil society(UNCSTD: quoted in Marcelle, 1998: 1).

On the basis of this report, Mansell & Wehnalso state that:

Although the costs of using ICTs to buildnational information infrastructures whichcan contribute to innovative ‘knowledgesocieties’ are high, the costs of not doing soare likely to be much higher. Developingcountries are at very different startingpositions in the task of building innovativeand distinctive ‘knowledge societies’ and in

using their national informationinfrastructures to support their developmentobjectives (Mansell & Wehn, 1998:7).

This thinking, that the developing world hasno real choice but to participate in the globalinformation society, has informed manyinitiatives aimed at ensuring that developingnations participate in shaping the globalinformation infrastructure. However, the rapiddevelopment of the ICT sector hasnecessitated ongoing vigilance to constantlyaddress the interests being served by thisdevelopment and to ensure that developingnations are participating in decision-makingthat affects them.

The effect of knowledge economieson education and learningAgainst the backdrop of globalisation, the riseof knowledge economies and increasingappeals for the development of ‘open societies’,the demand for education is growing.Education and learning are emphasised becausecitizens require information competencies forthe effective and efficient use of ICTs, andbecause innovations in the ICT sector arelinked to learning. Mansell & Wehn quoteLundvall to make the point:

…the most fundamental resource in themodern economy is knowledge and,accordingly, …the most important process(of economic development) is learning.…learning is predominantly an interactiveand, therefore, a socially embodied processwhich cannot be understood without takinginto consideration its institutional andcultural context (Lundvall, 1992: 1; quotedin Mansell & Wehn, 1998:11).

The link between education and economicgrowth places greater focus on nationalgovernments to increase levels and quality ofeducation. There is a global trend towards‘quality education for all’ coupled withencouragement of self-directed learning andshifts in approaches to teaching methodology.

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1. See Gibbons et al (1994) who

charts the ways in which knowledge

production is changing and the

implications for universities. In

particular, they highlight the

emergence of Mode 2 knowledge

characterised as trans-disciplinary,

occurring in multiple sites, produced

by trans-disciplinary teams in a

collaborative fashion, and addressing

problems in context.

SECTION A CHAPTER 3

The potential for the new ICTs to deliverinformation and education to learners acrosstime and space alongside a growing knowledgeabout how learning happens, sees increasingcollaboration across previous divides occurringwithin the educational sector. Educationadministrators are seeing the benefits ofsharing and pooling resources to addressgrowing educational requirements.

These trends are influencing the rise oflearning societies. As information andknowledge production take on new, moredynamic forms, there is not only an increase inthe volume of information, but also a greaterglobal appreciation of the constancy of change.

In the wake of systems thinking whichemphasises interconnectivity and the ‘web ofrelations’ theory (Capra, 1982), we areencouraged to view knowledge as constantlyunfolding. Given this dynamic view ofinformation and knowledge, notions of life-longlearning are re-enforced as people equipthemselves to participate meaningfully indemocracies, to exercise their human rights, towork in environments with entities andcommodities which are constantly changing.

Since areas of knowledge are undergoingongoing development, expertise has to beconstantly updated.1 And because theproduction of knowledge is now potentiallynetworked, competition to remain at thecutting edge of any field presents the need tolearn in an ongoing way.

These features of the global informationsociety present the need to work withinformation critically, and also to workeffectively with the means of communication ofinformation and knowledge, i.e. with the newICTs. Life-long learning has thus becomecoupled with the new information technologies.

Information competencies are fast becomingpart of new curricula with pressure oneducators to ensure that students not onlyhave knowledge, but also the ability to learn

independently. The inclusion of ICTs in learningenvironments serves to automate someaspects of learning and has the potential totransform the learning experience. Thusinnovative educators are using ICTs not simplyto create electronic textbooks and journals,but also to promote group learning, theintegration of learning areas and the expansionof the learning experience as a whole. Learnersare being encouraged to think critically andindependently, to challenge ideas and togenerate new knowledge at a much earlier agethan before.

Two responses to the use of ICTsin education The growth of ICTs in education is a globalphenomenon. Countries in both the developedand developing worlds have expressed visionsof participating in, and shaping, the globalinformation society. Invariably these visionsemphasise education as a primary way for ICTsto produce competent learners, suitablyqualified and skilled to contribute to economicgrowth. In the developing world, mostcountries, irrespective of their economicstatus, feature the use of ICTs in their plans tobuild and sustain economic growth.

Whatever the reasons for the adoption ofthese strategies, there are a number ofprogrammes underway to ensure that thedeveloping world becomes a part of the ‘globalvillage’. For example, the African InformationSociety Initiative launched by the UnitedNations through its Economic Commission forAfrica is well underway and linking with otherinitiatives such as the InternationalDevelopment Research Centre’s (IDRC) Acaciaprogramme to get Africa online. Many of theseinitiatives take into account the real conditionsin Africa and seek to ensure that strategies forinformation infrastructure developmentarticulate with these.

While these views express the notion thatICTs are a crucial feature of the present global


condition, there is, however, sharp andprofound disagreement, about how countries,individuals, and groups should respond to thespread of ICTs.

Responses to ICTs can be classified in twoways. At the one extreme, is a euphoric andvisionary embrace of the potential benefits ofICTs (the optimistic view). At the otherextreme, are those who oppose ICTs believingthat they further divide society, exacerbateinequity, and that technology is beginning torule people’s lives and the world (thepessimistic perspective). Hamelink (1997)refers to these as utopian and dystopianperspectives. Most views of ICTs fall betweenthese two extreme positions with some leaningmore to one extreme than another.

The optimistic perspective derives from anumber of differing and contradictoryrationales. There are the ‘inevitabilists’ whomaintain that ICTs are a fact, a way of life andthat societies, countries and individuals need tobe familiar with and work with ICTs in orderto avoid being ‘left-out’. This leads to policychoices of ensuring that developing countriescatch up and are wired-up, often leading tosurface change with minimal questioning of therole, nature, content, and of who should benefitfrom this. In education, this position translatesinto a call for all learners to be familiar withICTs. Failure to achieve this is understood asleaving learners ill-equipped in a modern world.Inevitabilist discourses are rooted in tech-nological determinism whereby technology isseen to drive changes in social arrangements.The education system is thus forced torespond to the new technologies with minimalquestioning of what the appropriate forms areor what they are being used for.

Euphoric and visionary optimists maintainthat ICTs positively revolutionise ways of living,communication, and working. ICTs areliberating tools that promise endlesspossibilities. The optimistic scenario is mostprominent in the economic sphere. Here it is

argued that countries that invest in ICTs willensure that their economies are globallycompetitive and will increase productivitythrough increasing the skills, knowledge, andinsights of workers. The optimistic view,believes that ICTs will increase employmentand improve worker productivity.

Another variant of the optimistic version inthe context of the developing world is the notionthat ICTs will enable developing economies toleapfrog from industrialised to post-industrialisedsocieties. ICTs are held up as providing a way fordeveloping nations to overcome their dependantstatus in the new millennium.

Pessimistic perspectives point out theinequities that are engendered by ICTs. Suchperspectives highlight the divide between thetechnology rich countries (the developedworld) and the technology poor countries (thedeveloping world).This view is best expressedin the following quote:

Africa has 12% of the world’s populationand only 2% of its telephone lines. Overhalf of all these lines are in the largestcities.There is only one telephone line forevery 235 persons in sub-Saharan Africa.The costs of installing and maintaining linesare higher in Africa than in other countries,even when compared to other developingcountries, and reliability of services quitepoor (Marcelle, 1997: 2).

The picture in Africa, the disparity betweenthe richer of the developing countries and thepoorer is mirrored within South Africa in therural-urban divide. There are certainly moretelephone lines in the cities, and the lack ofthese resources in the rural areas certainlyinhibits the use of ICTs in those areas.

Hamelink (1997) points out that the validityof either the optimistic or the pessimisticperspective will not simply be settled by moreinformation or research. He highlights the factthat both perspectives are underpinned byvery fragile evidence. He states that the truth

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SECTION A CHAPTER 3

of these positions is a matter of policy choiceand that what is required is pro-active policiesand conscious social choice which take chargeof ICTs and steer a socially responsiblenational development agenda. The countriesthat succeed in meeting such challenges areable to move beyond the simple optimistic/pessimistic dichotomy.

The development of policyfor ICTs in schools

Increasingly all that governments andparliaments do is to react to policies that areestablished in the international area. It ishappening in Europe, it is happening inAfrica, it is happening elsewhere.Thedifference for Africa is that we have the leastroom for manoeuvre and the impacts aredirect and devastating (Abugre, 1996: 22).

Policy makers must look at the effects ofpolicies on different sectors of the population,and not gallop into a policy just because it isthe current fashion (Ashworth, 1996: 35).

Various governments have produced policiesthat address the use of ICTs in schools. Manyof these form part of over-arching policies andaim to articulate the efforts of differentgroupings towards development.

Policies that emanate from developedcountries are generally more established andrelated to strategic actions with sufficientfunding. While some countries in thedeveloping world have forged partnerships thatenable the implementation of such policy, thesecountries often face the challenge of having tofinance multiple components of their policies inenvironments where partnerships withindustry and the private sector are embryonic.In developed countries, sponsorship by theprivate sector is, in most cases, a well-established feature of educational develop-ment.The organs of government in these older,more established democracies also facilitate

processes of policymaking, planning andimplementation more easily.

Arguments have been put forward for theneed for the developing world to deploy ICTsto ensure their inclusion in a global society.There is no doubt that the developing worldcould well find itself playing catch-up withcountries that are not only strong, but thathave histories of world power and domination.

In order to avoid this it is crucial thatdeveloping countries respond creatively to thechallenge of ICTs. A starting point for acreative response to the ICTs challenge is theUNCSTD Working Group, which urgesdeveloping countries to prepare national ICTstrategies that provide a framework for action(IICD, 1998: Booklet 1:27 in Crede,A & Mansell R,1998). Such a framework should provideguidelines that address the risks faced bydeveloping countries, such as the exclusion ofsections of the population as well as theallocation of resources, to ensure that diverseinterests are served and that competing needsare acknowledged and ranked wherenecessary. However, Mansell & Wehn cautionthat:

For the least developed countries, theprospects for creating a comprehensive ICTstrategy addressing the range of issuesdiscussed above are extremely limited.Limitations in resources, previousexperience, and existing infrastructure,combine to severely constrain the optionsfor these countries.The challenge is to focusor ‘target’ strategies toward outcomes thatcan be affordably achieved and that willsustain movement toward fulfilling theirdevelopment objectives (Mansell & Wehn,1998: 259).

Developing countries clearly vary in scope,levels of poverty, wealth and development.There are also vast discrepancies in levels andquality of service and access provided to ICTsand different strategies to overcome these.While partnerships between the developed and


developing worlds are strengthening, there is animperative for the less developed countries toaddress the deployment of ICTs in relation totheir needs and priorities lest they run the riskof blindly throwing technology at the ‘gap’ indevelopment in an effort to bridge it.

In addressing the problem of service inSouth Africa, O’Siochru (1996) proposes auseful approach which impacts on the directiontaken by developing countries. His approachtakes account of the global dimension oftelecommunications as well as the competinginternal demands which developing countriesneed to address, i.e. those of ‘a highlysophisticated first-world urban business sector(with communication needs critical toinvestment and economic growth) with theneeds of a vast, under-served population inurban townships and rural communities, mainlywithout access to even basic telephone service’(O’Siochru, 1996).The approach includes policyformation, regulation and support. In terms ofICTs in schools, this approach could beunpacked as follows:

• Policy formation – to take account ofthe diverse needs within the nation as awhole and to target ways of addressingand prioritising competing developmentneeds. Such policy would have to beformed in keeping with broad principles ofsocial justice.

• Regulation – to effect growth within thesector along lines that promote holisticdevelopment.

• Support – to ensure that there isendorsement of and support for thestrategic framework through a range ofactions and contributions to both thepolicy and regulatory arenas. A nationalagency could provide this function of co-ordination and direction.

A further concern for developing countrieswould be that of integrating ICTs policy withother governmental and sectoral policies. This

requires not only articulation with otherpolicies, but also a shared vision. Such co-ordination requires the direct involvement ofgovernment and high-level endorsement bygovernment leaders. However, this may alsoresult in over bureaucratisation that could slowdown strategic actions.

Byron and Gagliardi (1998) have produced animpressive study entitled, ‘Communities andthe Information Society: The Role ofInformation and Communication Technologiesin Education’. They discuss policies andstrategies in a number of industrialised anddeveloping countries and present a criticaldiscussion of key issues pertaining to ICTs ineducation. Hawkridge, Jaworski & McMahon(1990) in ‘Computers in Third-World schools:examples, experiences and issues’ have alsomade a crucial contribution.

While it is our aim to reflect on some morerecent developments and discussions, it isnecessary to repeat certain essentials in thedebate.

Hawkridge offers four principle rationalesfor the use of computers in schools as follows:

• A social rationale – to do with theapparent importance of computers insociety making their demystification atschool level an imperative.

• A vocational rationale – concerned withthe need to prepare learners foremployment through providing computercompetencies, including programming skills.

• A pedagogical rationale – operating inthe belief that computers improve thedelivery of education and aid the teachingand learning process.

• A catalytic rationale – perceivescomputer usage as enhancing the overallperformance of schools, integratingfunctions of teaching and learning,management and administration(Hawkridge, et al. 1990).

It is important to note that in introducing

ICTS IN EDUCATION

PAGE 27

2. This chapter does not provide a

comprehensive comparative review

of all countries in the developed

and developing worlds. Instead, it

draws on a number of countries

that typify key aspects of ICT

policies that are of relevance to the

debate in South Africa.

SECTION A CHAPTER 3

computers in schools these rationales overlap.

Hawkridge et al’s contribution to the debatedraws on the work of Duguet (1989) whodistinguishes between restricted andcomprehensive policy approaches (Byron andGagliardi, 1998: 11). Duguet argues thatrestricted policies are designed around thesocial and vocational rationales whilecomprehensive policies (or transformativepolicies) engage with issues of pedagogy.

While they propose that most developedcountries are moving in the direction ofcomprehensive policies, and that developingcountries are still largely concerned withrestrictive policies, it is precisely in the area ofpolicy formation that developing countries candefy a building blocks approach to develop-ment by initially adopting more holisticapproaches to their ICTs planning.

The developing world, as is evidenced bypractices in South Africa and China, are basingtheir ICT strategies and policies upon theexperiences of the developed countries andthe newly industrialised nations.Their thinkingis informed not only by ICTs successes andfailures though, but also by their ownexperiences of development. For instance, inSouth Africa, the challenge of relating policy toplanning, of developing policies which are notwish lists but which address real problems andpose real solutions, is being addressed.

Many developing countries aim to includethe following features in transformativepolicies, making them:

• articulate across sectors.

• feasible and enabling.

• take account of real conditions that theyseek to change.

• inclusive in addressing the needs of allcitizens.

• gender sensitive and aware of notreproducing historic divides or introducingnew ones.

The following section provides an overviewof education ICTs policies in various countries.The discussion signals the ways in whichcountries have approached the use of ICTs ineducation and shows the importance theyplace on these developments.

Policies from more developedcountries2

The ICTs policies in place in the UK, USA,Canada and Ireland are considered in thissection. They are considered in relation tovarious issues in an attempt to compareapproaches and insights about ICTs that wouldbe helpful in a developing context.These are:

• What do they say and how are theyframed?

• What are their strategies for realising theirobjectives?

• What is the articulation between policiesfor education and other ICT policies?

• What are the organs/structures being usedto oversee implementation and monitorprogress?

Do these policies display elements ofHawkridge’s catalytic rationale, in other words,are these countries consciously using ICTs forchanging culture and shifting practice towardsintegrated organisational development?

The United Kingdom (UK)In 1998, the British Government introduced itsNational Grid for Learning (NGfL) initiative.This is a comprehensive strategy designed toguide Britain in its employment of digitaltechnologies for purposes of remaining acompetitive, developed country.

The NGfL, based on the Government’s clearcommitment to using ICTs in education, posesa comprehensive, multi-pronged strategy forthe next three-year period (starting in 1998with targets for 2002) and beyond. It isdescribed as ‘an architecture of educationallyvaluable content on the Internet and a

3. The East Sussex County Scheme

for Computers for Schools is one

example of how resources are made

available to schools. In this scheme,

the local authority generates funds

to provide laptop computers for

teachers in schools that fall under

the council.The allocation of these

computers is for specific areas of

curriculum intervention such as

Special Needs Education.

4. See responses to the NGfL at:

http:/www.becta.org.uk and at ‘The

Grid – Your Views

http://vtc.ngfl.gov.uk

SECTION A CHAPTER 3

programme of equipping schools and otherinstitutions with the necessary infrastructureand connectivity needed to access that content’(UK Government Statistical Services, 1998: 3).TheNGfL incorporates the following elements:

• Connecting to the Internet – allschools, colleges, universities, libraries andas many community centres as possible willbe brought online.

• Professional training – all teachers andlibrarians will be trained to ensure that theyfeel comfortable using ICTs for delivery ofeducation and information.3

• Competency in use of ICTs – all schoolleavers will be assessed to ensure that theyare proficient in the use of ICTs to ensureor at least improve their marketability.

• Digital communications for admin-istration – aiming to reduce paper-basedcommunications between educationbodies, the government and its agencies.

• Content development and learningservice export – developing excellenceand leadership in the areas of networkedcontent production and the export oflearning services.

It is estimated that it will cost over £1 billionto finance the strategy until the end of 2002.The government, the private sector and theNational Lottery are providing the funding.

It is important to note that mechanisms arein place to monitor and evaluate the impact ofICTs in education and the projects that give lifeto the NGfL.

The British Government has also built intothe NGfL, opportunities for the public tocomment on and feedback to the variousinitiatives underway under the auspices of thisgrand project. This mechanism gives everyoneways to influence policy and development.Already there has been general acclaim fromthe teaching profession.4 In summing up hiscritical appraisal of the NGfL, Owen Lynch,Chief Executive, British Educational

Communications and Technology Agency, said:

There is a developing quality of ourGovernment’s commitment to the use ofICTs in education.This commitment isembedded in… the quality of theGovernment’s strategic framework, whichmarries the development of infrastructure,content and practice into a coherent whole.In each area there are significant targetsfor levels of resource, connectivity, trainingand usage. For the first time we have acoherent framework for both the vision andthe means of making that vision a reality(Keynote Speech at North West RegionalEducation Conference and Exhibition,21 October 1999).

Already, to demonstrate progress, theDepartment for Education and Employment haveissued statistics which show a markedimprovement in ICTs provisioning in schools,teacher training, technical support since the 1998figures (UK Government Statistical Services, 1999).

The NGfL approach goes hand-in-hand witha strategy by the government to adopt the newtechnologies in all aspects of their work so thatthrough a ‘Better Government’ programme,they demonstrate effective use of ICTs. Theapproach is also all encompassing as it seeseducation delivery not only happening formallyin schools but also through libraries andcommunity centres.The ‘IT for All’ programmeenables citizens to become familiar with thenew technologies.

The emphases on staff training anddevelopment, content and multi-mediaproduction and on integrating ICTs intoadministrative functions suggest a fairlycomprehensive policy. In addition, the over-arching framework of using ICTs to improvequality of life of citizens (providing convenientaccess to ‘just-in-time information’ andcompetencies) and to transform the very waysin which the society works (promoting accessto government), implies that Britain is adoptingan integrated approach to their use of the new

ICTS IN EDUCATION

technologies. Such a cohesive approachprovides the framework for innovative use ofICTs as tools and catalysts of change (cf.Hawkridge’s catalytic rationale).

The United States of America(USA)Every classroom will be connected to theInternet by the Year 2000 and All Studentswill be Technologically Literate (The SevenPriorities of the USA Department of Education,July 1997).

The USA is continuing to use ICTs in schoolsas a strategy to improve quality of education.As the Panel on Educational Technology of thePresident’s Committee of Advisors on Scienceand Technology reports:

While a number of different approacheshave been suggested for the improvementof… education in the United States, onecommon element of many such plans hasbeen the more extensive and more effectiveutilisation of computer, networking, andother technologies in support of a broadprogram of systemic and curricular reform.During a period in which technology hasfundamentally transformed America'soffices, factories, and retail establishments,however, its impact within our nation'sclassrooms has generally been quite modest(March, 1997).

The USA has the greatest levels ofconnectivity of all countries in the world andthe highest levels of Internet use. According tothe International Data Corporation, the USA isranked number one as the nation mostprepared for the information age.

The Government’s plan to convert thistechnological infrastructure to social andeconomic development resides in itsEducational Policy released by the Secretary ofEducation in 1997. Similar to the Britishstrategy, the USA policy framework outlinesareas of focus over a five-year period until2001 (USA Working Document, 1997).

• Connecting schools especially in poorerareas.

• Improving student access to ICTs.

• Effective software development.

• Co-ordinating the schools effort throughmanagement of the process.

• Professional development.

The USA has also used legislation toestablish a culture and practice of ICTs inEducation. Among these are the ‘Goals 2000:Educate America Act’ which provides financialsupport for use of ICTs to promote schoolreform, and the ‘Improving America’s SchoolsAct’ which emphasises professional teacherdevelopment. To date it is the most explicit andcomprehensive American legislation aimed atpromoting educational technology (USACongress, Office of Technology Assessment,1995:6).

Through years of experience of educationaltechnology, the USA has come to emphasiseinvestment not only in technology, but also inhuman resource development, most especiallyof teachers. There is growing appreciation ofthe fact that only through investment inteachers will investments in technology berealised.

Among its core strategies to promote theuse of ICTs in schools, the USA draws onvarious existing funds such as the FederalCommunications Commission's UniversalService Fund discounts and ‘Netdays’ as well asthe Technology Literacy Challenge Fund. Inaddition, the government uses the expertise ofspecialist units like the National Institute onDisability and Rehabilitation Research and theAssistive Technology program to ensure thatdisabled learners are included in the use ofICTs in schools.

In addition, in ‘The Seven Priorities of the USADepartment of Education’, the Governmentnotes additional strategies for the promotion ofInternet use in ways that bridge divides.

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SECTION A CHAPTER 3

SECTION A CHAPTER 3

An ‘E-rate’ plan is being used by the FederalCommunications Commissions to providesubstantial discounts to ‘poorer’ schools andlibraries for discounts on technologyinstallations, connection charges and monthlyservice costs. The Federal CommunicationsCommission ruling provides at least a 50%discount to nearly 70% of all schools, withdiscounts of up to 90% for schools with thelargest concentrations of poor children’.

These strategies illustrate not only the USAGovernment’s emphasis on ‘connecting’ thenation, but on co-ordinating different efforts andinitiatives to achieve their objective of usinginformation and knowledge to remain a worldpower.At the same time, their vision embracesthe importance of using technology innovativelyfor purposes of new knowledge production.Thisis seen through initiatives such as the‘Technology Innovation Challenge Grants’.

These programmes encourage partnershipswithin the education sector between schools,colleges, universities and the private sector topromote innovative use of technologies forteaching and learning. Each Federal dollar isequaled or bettered with private or local funding.

The USA exemplifies an aggressive approachtowards the use of ICTs in schools. There issubstantial Congress and Federal support forthe promotion of ICTs in all areas of society inefforts to remain a leader in use and levels ofuse of ICTs. Their growing and relativelylengthy experience in the field of ICTs meansthat they are certainly well positioned toembrace comprehensive approaches to ICTsdeployment for the improvement of thesociety as a whole. In fact, even though they area well-developed and well-resourced nation,the main contribution that the USA makes toour understanding of ICTs in education resultsprecisely from their long innings in this field.

IrelandThe Irish Minister for Education and Sciencerecently issued a policy framework for ICTs in

education that is directly linked to economicdevelopment.

Through an Action Programme for the NewMillennium, the Government intends to catchup with its European partners by promotingICTs in schools and achieving high levels ofcomputer literacy. Its ‘Schools IT 2000’ project,projected until the end of 2001 has thefollowing goals:

• classroom resources and infrastructure,

• teacher skills development and support,

• policy and research.

As explained on the website, Schools IT 2000is a government initiated project underpinnedby substantial investment, which advancesobjectives and strategies for the integration oftechnology into schools. The major initiativesto be undertaken in this regard are:TechnologyIntegration Initiative (TII) Teaching SkillsInitiative (TSI) and School Support Initiative(SSI), incorporating the School IntegrationProject (SIP), and ScoilNet.

An important component of the programmeis the emphasis placed on partnership. Thegovernment is hoping to attract further fundingon the basis of its £40 million committed overthe next two years. Already, a tele-communications company has committed £10 million over the next three years.

Strategies to integrate ICTs in educationinclude linking all schools to the Internet overthe next two year period, providing classroomswith 60 000 multimedia workstations, trainingteachers to ensure that they have theprofessional skills to use ICTs effectively, theestablishment of distance learning initiatives, andthe establishment of an effective infrastructureto support curriculum innovations.

It is in the area of building support for theuse of ICTs in schools that the Irish experienceis particularly relevant to the developing worldcontext. The Irish place great emphasis oneducation and are keen to improve theirranking (at position 23, according to the

ICTS IN EDUCATION

International Data Corporation) in thepreparedness of countries for the informationage. To achieve their goal of bringing theeducation sector into the information society,they are attempting to structure partnershipsso that there is some means of co-ordinationbetween different initiatives.

Firstly, in the area of content development, thegovernment is forging partnerships with existingcurriculum development structures to ensurethat they bring expertise, and are influenced byICT integration. Secondly an Industry AdvisoryGroup has been established to help structurethe partnership between education, the privatesector and the public sector. This groupsupports and promotes investment by the ICTindustry.Thirdly, the government has establisheda National Policy Advisory and DevelopmentCommittee to help guide the implementation ofits strategic framework.

Like other developed countries, the Irishemphasise staff development in addressing theproblems of the ‘digital divide’.They have takenmeasures to improve levels of universal serviceso that a national information infrastructure isin place for their educational objectives.Whilethe Schools IT 2000 project makes referenceto a catalytic approach to including ICTs, andwhile it seems that the policy is framed by thebroader Information Society SteeringCommittee’s initiatives, the frameworksomehow seems less evolved than those of theUK and USA. Thus while the framework iscoherent in focusing on key areas ofdevelopment, partnerships particularly withindustry and the private sector seem to be anew area of development.

CanadaThe Canadian government’s ICT strategicframework is a national policy well gearedtowards the development of a ‘knowledge-based economy’. There is no question thatCanada has achieved not only the articulationof ICT policies, but also a seamless integration

of ICTs into the society premised on a strongvision. Its approach to ICTs in education isbased upon an understanding of theimportance of building a national infrastructurethat can connect various sectors (e.g. schoolsto other schools and libraries) as well asstrong, in-depth research and development inthe ICT sector. The components for a soundand meaningful approach to real developmentare in place.These are:

• an information infrastructure withpenetration throughout society and acrossall divides.

• professional development programmes.

• effective, appropriate and extensive use ofICTs by the government to improve citizenaccess to decision-making.

• structures and mechanisms to promoteICTs such as the innovative program of 21stCentury Chairs for Research Excellence,and SchoolNet Canada (see below).

Canada has a well-established educationsector in which the federal Ministries ofEducation are co-ordinated through a Councilof the Ministers of Education. In addition,teachers have an active voice in policyformation and decision-making throughSchoolNet, a national structure. A well-resourced and powerful organisation,SchoolNet holds conferences and publishes onthe subject of ICTs in education, indicating astrong commitment to the area. One of thedebates taking place under the auspices ofSchoolNet, within the Canadian Teachers’Federation, is on the value of ICTs ineducation.The creation of a space for this kindof discussion and interaction provides aplatform for lobbying and mobilising a body ofpractitioners and allows them to influencepolicy formation. It seems that this mechanismfor allowing practitioners a voice in the policyprocess, alongside formal representation onpolicy forming structures, improvesparticipation in the issues, generates action and

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5. Michael Dertouzos argues the

following essentials for innovation:

‘four ingredients – risk-aware

capital, a high-tech infrastructure, a

creative idea that serves a pressing

human need, and a passion-oriented

entrepreneurial culture – are rare.

It’s even rarer for them all to come

together in a startup. Perhaps that’s

why so few succeed. But when they

do, the rewards are ample’.

Michael Dertouzos is director of

MIT’s Laboratory for Computer

Science and a columnist for

Technology Review.

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gives substance to the notion of the ‘knowledgesociety’. Canada’s strategic framework issophisticated, coherent, comprehensive andfunctional – they provide an example of thecritical use of ICTs.

Policies in the developing world

Establishing the best policy framework isessential if the development potential ofICTs is to be fully realised (Crede andMansell, 1998: 26).

There is general consensus, among thosewho write about the use of ICTs in developingcountries, that strategic use of the technologieshas to be guided by a policy and a strategicframework. The UNCSTD Working Group isparticularly adamant about this, arguing that,unless careful thinking and planning is in place,developing countries run the risk of notrealising the potential of the new technologiesand of misdirecting financial and otherresources (Crede and Mansell, 1998:28).

A much harsher view is forwarded by deMoura Castro who argues that technologyinvestment in developing countries is alreadyoften premised on models from the developedworld which are unaffordable andinappropriate (1999:39). Niel Postman asks: ‘iftechnology is the solution, what is the problemand whose problem is it’, and pressesdeveloping countries to answer the question:‘what are we using the new technologies forand why?’ (Moll and Froese-Germain, 1998a).

To compound this issue, a major problem fordeveloping countries is that of developingstrategies that are financially, and in all otherrespects, sustainable. In other words whendeveloping countries incur debts in buildingexpensive information highways, this is not aonce-off cost. These infrastructures andsystems have to be maintained and upgraded toremain viable.This is obviously a critical issue insustaining ICTs development in schools.

It seems sensible for developing countries to

use ICTs in ways that are going to make adifference to their economies and the qualityof life of their citizens. It is important fordeveloping countries to address the reasonsthey are adopting the new technologies so thatthere is clarity of purpose and an agenda thatmakes sense within their own specific context.However, it is important too that developingcountries have the same space forexperimentation and innovation that theadoption of any new intervention requires.5 Itis only in this way that developing countries willbe able to ‘make ICTs their own’.

An enormous stumbling block in the use ofICTs faced by all developing countries is thelow levels of basic literacy. This very basicproblem, when looked at together with thedemands of the business sectors in thesecountries, means that strategies have to takeaccount of very different, and often competing,social sectors. Governments often have to dealwith the impoverished conditions of the vastmajority of their citizens as well as the urgentbusiness requirements of a small sector of theirpopulations. Because the latter often generatewealth in a more direct way, it is tempting forgovernments to prioritise their demands overand above those of the majority.

This raises the crucial question of theeconomic development strategy pursued bygovernments. It may be argued for instancethat investing in technology to generateeconomic growth would provide thesubstantial resources needed for effectivedelivery of basic social services and goods. Itcould also be argued that investment in andprovision of social goods is a key aspect ofimproved productivity and growth. Theapproach of most governments to these twopositions has been to settle for a delicatemiddle path focusing on both social serviceinvestment and technology investment forbusiness growth.

Irrespective of how persuasive the logic ofeducational investment in ICTs might be, most

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governments in the developing world have toaddress the competing claims made on budgetsby different sectors. To what extent cangovernments justify investment in ICTs foreducation in the face of demands for improvedhealth, proper shelter, and urban and ruraldevelopment?

In African contexts, it is important to notethe schooling conditions that prevail. A 1997United Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organisation (UNESCO) reportindicates only 39% of girls and 50,4% boys wereat school in 1992. Figures for Sub-SaharanAfrica are even more dismal: 20,3% girls and25,9% boys. Furthermore, highly impoverishedconditions in most African countries mean thatschool buildings, sanitation, water, electricitysupplies and other basic resources are often inpoor supply. It is against this backdrop thatcampaigns to build the informationinfrastructure in Africa and to use ICTs forpurposes of development must be viewed.

The 1996 Information Society andDevelopment (ISAD) conference, recognisedthese very real disparities and challenges withwhich global society has to contend. Theycalled for co-ordinated action to promote theuse of ICTs in the interests of bridging the ‘gap’between the developed and developing worlds(ISAD Conference, 1996).

To help developing countries which do notyet have ICT policies in place think through theissues, the UNCSTD Working Group havelisted with the following areas of concern.(UNCSTD Working Group Report, in Mansell &Wehn, 1998: 266-270).

• Producing and using ICTs to social andeconomic advantage – Policy is required toreduce the potential of ICTs to widenexisting social divisions or introduce newones and to create economic and socialbenefits for all.

• Developing human resources for effectiveuse of ICT. People are the primary

resource in the information age. Policymust ensure that people have the skills towork effectively with the new technologiesand that these skills can be constantlyupdated in accordance with changes in thetechnology.

• Accessing networks. To avoid exclusion ofany players, policies around nationalinformation infrastructure must allow forgrowth and upgrading as well as integrationwith the global information infrastructure.

• Promoting and financing investment inICTs. Governments must have policies thatenable them to actively pursue successfulways of securing ongoing investment in theICT sector. This cannot be left to marketmechanisms, especially in countries that areunattractive to investors.

• Creating and accessing scientific andtechnical knowledge. Policies that promotethe production of scientific knowledge andthat bring countries into the global societymust be advanced.

• Monitoring and influencing the ‘rules of thegame’ – governments must ensure that theyparticipate in creating the ‘rules of thegame’ such as setting standards and policiesaround intellectual property rights,regulation and trade.

These guidelines deal with areas that anydeveloping country must address in theproduction of their strategic frameworks. Theconsiderations apply as much for ICTs ineducation as they do for national ICTstrategies. There are other concerns thoughfor countries in transition in their approachesto adopting ICT strategies for development.There are issues of: mobilising resources bothwithin countries and from donor communities;adjusting decision-making processes tofacilitate efficient, decentralised structures thatallow for participatory planning procedures;integrating policies on ICTs with overarchingeconomic development strategies; indigenous

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capability development to bolster nationalproduction of, and proficiency in, variousaspects of the infra- and infostructures.

The following examples of ways in whichdeveloping countries are addressing ICTsprovide a glimpse of the kinds of issues whichare pressing at this time.

ChinaChina emphasises its use of ICTs for purposes ofdevelopment. Its educational network, ‘ChinaEducation and Research Network’ (CERNET),was formed in 1993 and plans to link allcomponents of the education sector to theInternet. The network is funded by thegovernment and managed by the Ministry ofEducation. CERNET will link all universitiesputting in place a national infrastructure which allschools (high, middle and primary) will also join.

China’s education policy on ICTs is not yetevident, there is no doubt that the governmentis keen to use ICTs for development and thatthrough CERNET, it is signaling a strong linkbetween education, research and economicdevelopment.

Covering 9.6 million square kilometers andwith a population of 1.2 billion, China has 30provinces, 517 cities and 1,075 universities andinstitutes, more than 39,412 middle schoolswith 55 million students and 160,000 primaryschools with 122 million pupils.

To direct their efforts most efficiently, Chinahas recently merged a number of Ministries(Electronics Industries and Posts andTelecommunications with parts ofBroadcasting, Film and Television) to forge thenew Ministry of Information Industries (Bohlin,et.al: 1999). Over the last decade China has alsoseen significant growth in universal access.Between 1988 and 1994 telephones in urbanareas increased by 207% and in rural areas by193% (Mansell & Wehn, 1998: 160). However,despite enormous investment by governmentand the ability to attract global funding, it seemsthat China faces the problem of ‘growing

dualism’ between urban and rural. Despite thegrowth in the number of telephones indicated,in 1994 there were 6,74 telephones per 100inhabitants in urban areas whereas in ruralareas there were only 0,67.

IndiaIndia’s government aims to make the country an‘IT super-power’ by the year 2008. It has put inplace a National Task Force on InformationTechnology and Software Development. TheTask Force has emphasised information andknowledge as strategic resources and aims toimprove the country’s information infra-structure to provide access to the Internet.Thegovernment is intending to provide hardware tohigh schools (of which there are about 100 000)and colleges on a grand scale with the idea oflinking these to the national informationinfrastructure (Bohlin, et al. 1999). Implicit in thismove is the appreciation of the centrality ofeducation to information society development,a lesson also learnt through India’s involvementin software development.

India has become one of the leading softwareproducers in the developing world. It is usingICTs innovatively in this area by encouragingsoftware companies to locate in a rural area ofone of its states in an effort to decongest thecities (Bohlin, et al. 1999). At present, India istraining over 55 000 IT professionals a year andthe government has introduced new courses(in areas of computer application andcomputer engineering) to address this area ofgrowth (Mansell & Wehn, 1998:139).

India provides the international softwarecompanies with access to cheap labour, andround-the-clock service.This has had a positiveimpact on the Indian economy, generating alarger focus of resources on the ICT sectorand this has implications for the integration ofICTs in education. But the experience has alsorevealed infrastructural and cultural challengesthat developing countries have to contend within software production. Mansell & Wehn (1998:

ICTS IN EDUCATION

140) site some of the barriers to entering thehigher value software markets as follows:

• lack of experience in broad softwaredevelopment,

• unreliability of India’s own ICTsinfrastructure,

• lack of trust based on cultural difference.

India’s experiences highlight the difficultiesdeveloping countries face when enteringmarkets still dominated by global superpowers.They signal the importance of: developing anexperience base to become a global player; theneed to develop indigenous capability so thatefforts are not geared only towards export butfocus on local requirements and priorities; theneed to appreciate the less tangible realm ofcultural diversity and its implications inentering global partnerships and markets.

India’s experience also highlights the issue ofquality of infrastructural development.Connectivity in the developed world does notnecessarily mean the same thing as connectivityin the developing world. Both India and Chinafor instance operate largely on 64 Kbps satelliteor fibre optic links. 2Mb pipes are rare andcelebrated. In the USA, the average connectionis a 16Mb fibre optic cable.The discrepancies inthe amount of information and the speed atwhich this information can be transmitted arevast. The discrepancy also probably indicates apredominance of particular kinds of contenttransmitted from the developed world acrossthe information highway.

These experiences notwithstanding, one ofIndia’s states – Andhra Pradesh – with apopulation of 75 million, has opted forextensive investment in the full integration ofICTs into all aspects of governance and life.Thus the government itself will use ICTs, andICTs will be integrated into the education,banking and commercial sectors and will beused for the delivery of preventative primaryhealth care (Bohlin, et al. 1999).

Malaysia Malaysia, a fast growing economy in the East,strongly emphasises the development of ICTs.Information technology and literacy is seen tobe inextricably linked to economicdevelopment and the stated strategy forgrowth and progress as identified in theSeventh Malaysia Plan (1996 – 2001).

The promotion and advocacy of informationtechnology and literacy is not only part of acentrally initiated and co-ordinated strategy; thePresident himself spearheads it. Informationliteracy is seen as part of a process ofmodernisation and economic development. Thespread and increased use of appropriateinformation technologies is perceived to becentral to the project of catapulting Malaysiansociety into the 21st century. Allied to themodernisation project is the growing assumptionthat technological familiarity and competenceamongst all Malaysians is central to the continuedeconomic development of the country and vitalin ensuring that Malaysia develops as theeconomic power-house in the East.

Higher education institutions are setting upprogrammes and short in-service courses thatdevelop information literacy skills. Oneexample of this is the Masters in Education(M.Ed) in Information Technology offered bythe Faculty of Education, University of Malaya.It is envisaged that soon all university studentswill take an information technology foundationcourse related to their field of study.

Information literacy is identified with themoves to refocus teaching and learning awayfrom teacher-dominated instructional settingstowards more learner-centred and resource-based education. The discourse of learner-centred education is premised on the groundsthat new information technologies generatemultiple sources of informational resourcesthat cannot be ‘taught’ in the conventionallecture-student relationship. Instead, it isargued that learning, particularly in higher

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education, should provide students withgeneric competencies and skills that enablethem to become effective information-seekersand critical users. Such an approach tolearning, it is believed, necessitates greatercollaboration between academics, librariansand other persons involved in education.

The creation of a Division of InformationTechnology in the Ministry of Educationenables educators to implement awareness andappropriate information technology pro-grammes and projects in schools. TheEducation Ministry, in collaboration with thegovernment and within the framework ofMalaysia’s plan for growth and development forthe 21st century, has embarked on aprogramme to integrate informationtechnology into education at a primary andsecondary level. Throughout the programmes,rural schools have been prioritised to ensuretheir inclusion in the development process.

Furthermore, collaboration is perceived asvital to the successful institutionalisation of

information literacy projects and programmes.Forms of collaboration include a range ofnetworks that exist between academics,information specialists, government depart-ments and the business sector.

Conclusion This chapter has argued that the issue of ICTs ineducation must be seen in the context of globaltransformation in knowledge production. It isinappropriate to embrace ICTs uncritically or todeny their value. The starting point of aneffective ICT policy is a clear understanding andcomprehensive audit of needs and requirementsplus effective mechanisms of policy delivery.While many countries are strong on visionarypolicy statements regarding ICTs in education,there is often little attention to the developmentof strategic delivery plans. Moreover, given thefast changing nature of ICTs, planners requirerapid, flexible, and responsive policy formulationand delivery mechanisms and structures.

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The previous chapter looked at goals andvisions contained in policies on ICTs, but littlewas said about how ICTs are being used inschools both locally and internationally at thistime. This chapter reviews the literature interms of issues that the use of ICTs raises inschools.The main issues are:

• Are ICTs being used in teaching andlearning? Are they simply tools for drill andpractice or are more innovative usesevident?

• Are ICTs being used for management andadministration and to transform relationsand roles in the schools context?

• What investment is being made in teachersand other staff necessary to support ICTs?

• Given the massive costs of ICTs, aremonies wisely spent on ICTs?

• In what ways are ICTs being used to bridgeor widen gaps or create new ones?

• To what extent is the area of ICTs ineducation being developed as an area ofresearch in which knowledge can be shared?

ICTs in teaching In a context of massive global transformation,in which the education sector is experiencingits fair-share of the pressures of change, it isnot uncommon for educational technology tobe viewed as a solution to crises in education(Moll & Froese-Germain, 1998a). It is thereforeimportant, especially in the context ofdeveloping countries, to view the opportunities

presented by ICTs in education against thebackdrop of all the challenges faced byeducation systems, particularly in view ofshrinking resources.

‘Technology is only a tool. Educationalchoices have to be made first in terms ofobjectives, methodologies, and roles ofteachers and students before decisions onthe appropriate technologies can be made.No technology can fix bad educationalphilosophy and practice.The challenge is torethink learning objectives and to align thelearning technologies with these objectives’(Haddad, 1999:1).

ICTs are being used in a variety of ways toengage with teaching and learning. Traditionallytechnology is used to promote ‘drill andpractice’ type exercises; to teach technologyitself, to introduce new subjects like computerstudies; to teach basic computer skills like word-processing. More recently, technology has beenused to promote student-centred learningthrough a greater emphasis on project andteamwork. In the latter approach, ICTs becomeintegrated into the curriculum so that studentsacquire new communication skills at the sametime as learning about a knowledge domain.

While this approach comes closer to engaginglearners in ways that deepen their learningexperience it is teacher-intensive in the levels ofinput and facilitation required (Alexander,1999:9).It is important to recognise that student-centredlearning does not alleviate teacher workloads.Teachers are still responsible for designinglearning programmes that deliver content and

‘4’Issues arising from the

application of ICTs in

education

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enable the acquisition of competencies and inaddition their role expands to include facilitation,guidance and the instilling of awareness instudents of their own learning patterns.

Basic, generic information skillscoursesUNESCO endorses the use of ICTs in educationand is committed to helping developing countriesachieve this (Johansen, 1999: 55). Of someconcern in their approach is the promotion of a‘Basic Foundations in Informatics’ course(1997:19). While there clearly is a demand forlearners to acquire basic information skills, thereis a debate about how best learners acquire andretain such competencies.

Recent studies on information literacy haveraised concerns about the value of genericcourses in promoting information skillswithout their bearing to a knowledge base orsubject area. While generic competencies maybe taught, it seems that in order for learners tointernalise these, they must have meaning inrelation to a particular learning problem.Thesestudies suggest that ideally, learners shouldacquire information skills in relation to contentand that the kinds of skills learnt may well varyacross disciplines and contexts. It seems thatgeneric courses such as the ones proposed byUNESCO assume transferability of skillsacquired. Limited evidence suggests thatinformation competencies have to bereinforced at all levels of learning due to thecontextual nature of learning. In other words,the development of generic skills is intimatelyconnected to exposure to ICTs and theapplication of those skills.

Issues of content and materialsdevelopmentThe integration of ICTs into learning areasraises the issue of content and materialsdevelopment. Who is producing this content,which messages are being transmitted and how

costly and time-consuming is it to generatesoftware? These questions have to do withissues of relevance for local contexts and thedomination of particular kinds of knowledge.The development of materials is clearly an areathat requires additional skills for teachers.However, as is noted in the quote below, ICTsmay highlight the lack of indigenous content,but these problems are not necessarily new:

‘Educational software, sometimes, isreferred to as if it were an additionalteaching and learning resource that differsin format, but not in kind, from the non-electronic materials of textbooks and thelike. It can be just this. Increasingly, however,it is something radically different – throughusing the World Wide Web, Intranets andnetworks – to create interactive,individualised learning situations. And, someof the important uses of ICTs in schools donot use educational software as such at all– whether networking between studentsand teachers using e-mail or bulletin boardsor different forms of document formattingand publishing applications.We need to besensitive to this diversity of forms and use,which give rise to increasingly complexissues concerning quality, partnerships andpolicy steering (Alexander, 1999: 8).

It is important to recognise that thetechnology sometimes presents old problemsin new guises and sometimes presents newopportunities that cannot be easily seizedbecause they are seen in traditional ways.

In response to the need for indigenouscontent, many developing countries areemphasising content development, digitisationof their archives and use of ICTs to promotetheir national heritage. It seems that suchdevelopments are an important, often costly,yet important and intrinsic part of buildingnational information infrastructures. However,the additional communication opportunitiespresented by ICTs referred to by Alexandersuggest firstly that content development is part

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of a process, not an end in itself, and secondly,that the area of educational collaborationpresents a new set of concerns whicheducationalists and learners are encounteringmore and more as these features of thetechnology are being used.

Integrating ICTs into curriculaThe content/learning/technology dilemma isone that reinforces the complexity of theteaching process. In the experiences of the US-based Institute for Research on Learning(Goldman, et al. 1999) the following are helpfulways to create a healthy balance in integratingICTs in education:

• Ensure that learners are dealing with real-world problems and that their projects areas realistic as possible – it seems that whenlearners are designing a project for thepublic domain, they assume responsibilitiesthat accompany authorship.

• Ensure that there is sufficient time forplaying with the technology as part of thelearning experience – due to pressure onscarce resources, it seems that learnersoften compromise learning for the sake ofcompletion of their projects.

• Ensure that students have the necessaryskills that allow them to use theinformation to which they have accessefficiently and effectively – while learnersregister a need for more information toimprove the quality of their projects, theyaren’t always competent to use informationresources proficiently whether online,computer-based or hardcopy.

• Ensure that learners are involved indecision-making – it appears that as learnerstake greater control of directing and leadingtheir projects as part of teams, they takegreater responsibility for driving the projectand pushing the limits of the technology toget it to perform to their requirementsrather than conforming to its capacities.

• Ensure that there is systematic assessmentthroughout the project – in so far aspossible, learners should be evaluating theirwork themselves and monitoring theircreations and development against agreedcriteria.

• Ensure that teachers are helping learnersbecome conscious of the content they arelearning – learners can register excitementabout the technology or their authorshipand yet remain unaware of what they havelearnt about a particular topic.

These experiences are based on theapplication of ICTs to learning contexts inwhich teachers were particularly concernedwith using ICTs creatively to impart theirsubject knowledge. The emphasis was onlearning the content rather than thetechnology, although it was found that thetechnological dimension added an element ofpleasure for learners.

In response to needs expressed by teachersto integrate ICTs into curricula, the USAEducation Department has produced an onlineresource entitled: ‘Educator’s Guide toEvaluating the Use of Technology in Schoolsand Classrooms’. This tool helps teachers dealnot only with issues to consider in ICTsintegration, but also with how to buildmonitoring mechanisms into their design. It isproduced in manual form in relation to manyreal questions teachers ask in relation to ICTsand as such, has proved a valuable resourcewith appeal also to developing contexts.

In response to broader issues of ICTs ineducation, the GINIE (Global InformationNetworks in Education) project (www.ginie.org)is a web-based resource that is designed,according to its director, ‘specifically fordeveloping countries in times of educationalcrisis’ (McClure, 1999:57). This tool is gearedtowards education professionals and providesinformation to train teachers and assist in thedevelopment of policies for using ICTs.


Free educational materials are provided andteachers are encouraged to post their ownproductions to the site. Emphasis is placed onnetworking professionals and policy-makers inthe belief that such communications willovercome lack of support that people indeveloping countries may experience.

ICTs and learningA primary question being asked is whether ICTsimpact positively on learning. In order to addressthis question, it seems important to clarify what‘learning’ means.As Heinecke, et al. argue,

‘If one defines student learning as theretention of basic skills and contentinformation as reflected on norm referencedand criterion referenced standardised tests,then, evidence suggests, there is a positiverelationship between certain types oftechnology and test results. For instance, it iswell established that if a teacher usescomputer-assisted instruction or computerbased learning approaches, where thecomputer is used to manage the ‘drill andskill’ approach to teaching and learning,students will show gains on standardised testscores.This view of technology reduces theequation to only a student, a computer anda test. It ignores the effects of schools,teachers, and family and community life onthe learning process. Even though we cannotcontrol for these variables, we must notdiscount them. If, on the other hand, oneviews the goal of education as theproduction of students who can engage incritical, higher order, problem-based inquiry,new potential for entirely different uses oftechnology emerge’ (Heinecke, et al. 1999).

Looking at ICTs and learning suggests that anew understanding of what learners ought to bedoing and acquiring through their schoolingshould be reached. That is, new learningoutcomes that prepare students for activeparticipation in the information age and inbuilding knowledge economies are essential.This

argument underscores global shifts towardsoutcomes-based education, although it alsosuggests that public education ‘creates’ citizenswho can undertake specific economic and socialfunctions dictated by the needs of commerceand industry (Moll & Froese-Germain, 1998a).

While this debate is not being revisited here, itis important to note that broader notions ofwhat education ought to be about inform anydiscussion of ICTs and learning. Definitions aretherefore context-dependent, historicallydetermined and fluid. However, given thetremendous impetus towards student-centred,outcomes-based education, questions regardingthe impact of ICTs on teaching and learning arepertinent. It is interesting to note as stated abovethat while ICTs are geared towards independent,self-directed learning, teachers must investsignificant time in designing and directing learningprogrammes that guide and monitor learning.

Recent studies of impromptu learning in Indiasuggest that students engage with the newtechnologies in ways that present new insightsinto group and dynamic learning (Papyrus News:1999). Educators from the CognitiveEngineering Research Centre of a leading Indiancomputer education firm used a ‘minimallyinvasive’ approach to introduce mainly non-school going children to technology.

Their findings showed that without anyinstruction, the children discovered and useddifferent features of the technology (both thehardware and software), started teaching eachother, developed their own vocabulary toexplain the computer functions, did somedrawing and surfing on the web. The childrenidentified the need to find themselves a teacher– a second year Bachelor of Arts distanceeducation student who has taken a basic coursein computers – to accelerate their learning.

The researchers undertook the experiment inresponse to academic concerns that theInternet is not of value to the region and thattoo much investment in training would be

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required. Although generalisations cannot bemade from the study, the researchers argue thatthe exercise shows that uneducated children canteach themselves about computer and Internetusage at least to some extent.They suggest thatthrough introducing more kiosks of this nature,poor children with access to the Internet willgenerate their own demands for and uses ofthese facilities. They plan further suchexperiments in the hope that through thechildren’s enthusiasm, communities will startusing the Internet for their own purposes.

On the issue of cost, the researchers pointout that India is the largest film producingcountry with many citizens patronising cinemasdespite their poverty. They suggest that oncecommunities have experienced the benefits ofInternet access, citizens would patronise thisindustry too.

While experiments of this nature do notprovide conclusive evidence of the relationbetween ICTs and self-directed learning, theycertainly illustrate the possibilities for youngergenerations of learners to use newtechnologies to access learning. Even thoughno comment can be made on the kind oflearning, or on the value of ICTs to theirexperiences, it seems that ICTs added pleasureto the learning experiences of these children.Experiments such as these also suggest usefulways of addressing the digital divide evidentwithin developing countries by ensuring thatpoor communities not only acquire the skills,but also access the resources that allow themto at least feature in the information society.

Experiments of this kind suggest thatcomputers can be introduced intoimpoverished environments through initiativeslike community learning centres with ameasure of ‘minimum intervention’ at least atthe level of instruction. It seems that a degreeof self-learning is possible with access tocomputers and to ICTs. The introduction ofthese kinds of centres may lessen the burden

on schools as the first point of contact withICTs, to spend lots of time on induction andfamiliarity type exercises. They may mean thatlearners coming into school with some degreeof familiarity could move more speedily tointegrated learning contexts in which ICTs areused to acquire content and knowledge.

This in itself raises questions about howlevels of preparedness are gauged and whethersome learners may require extra tuition toallow them more advanced and efficient use ofICTs. It seems though that a strict buildingblocks approach to the acquisition of a range ofinformation competencies may beinappropriate and that learners acquire skillsand know-how on the basis of interest andneed.Thus if learners are required to performadvanced functions and allowed time toexperiment, with minimal instruction, they mayretain these competencies on the basis of theirneed to know, and their application ofinformation competencies to real problems.

However, despite these inputs, there arediverse opinions about the value that ICTs addto learning. On the one hand, there is a viewthat there is insufficient evidence to prove thatICTs improve the educational experience (Moll& Froese-Germain: 1998c; Jurich, 1999).This viewstates that it is also dangerous to generalisefrom one or two success stories.

On the other hand, there are those whoargue that in order to do justice to the question,new approaches to research that take accountof uncontrollable variables that influencelearning must be developed. Not only that ICTsadd value in the classroom, but also that thetechnologies themselves can be used to conductand report on evaluations. Based on work atthe National Centre for Research on Evaluation,Standards and Student Testing, when a full rangeof questions are asked, there is no doubt thatICTs have a positive effect on learning.

While these polarised views cannot beresolved here, it is important to note that just


as information is not neutral, neither are ICTs,the contexts in which they operate nor thepurposes for which they are used. Similarly,evaluating their impact is not a neutral processand is always informed by why the evaluation istaking place, by whom and for what purpose.

In an attempt to understand the impact ofeducational technology, Jurich (1999) sum-marises four research reports written during1993 and 1999. Each signals that their studiesare context specific and that their findings maynot be generalisable.To illustrate the contextualnature of studies and the nature of research inthis area, three of the studies tested for gender-related discrepancies in the use of computers inschools yielding different results – some show apositive relationship between girls andcomputers and others the reverse. What thestudies seem to agree upon is the degree ofdifference that positive teacher involvementmade to the use of ICTs in schools.The studiesalso suggest a positive relationship betweencomputer use and student achievement,especially for those students most in need(poorer, disadvantaged students).

They also indicate that when teachers andlearners have easy access to computers, i.e.when they are based in the classrooms ratherthan in laboratories, effective use and goodexperiences result. What Jurich proposes isthat improved test scores tell us very littleabout other factors that are changing with theintroduction of computers and that these maywell positively influence educationalachievement even without the introduction ofcomputers. For example, professionaldevelopment and community involvement andsupport are influences that could greatlyenhance any educational context.

Honey et al. drew on a number of authors toargue that:

In order to be effective, innovative androbust technological resources must beused to support systematic changes in

educational environments that take intoaccount simultaneous changes inadministrative procedures, curriculum, timeand space constraints, school-communityrelationships, and a range of other logisticaland social factors (1999).

These statements all indicate that it isimportant to accept that a wide range offactors influence effective ICT use. Curriculumdesign, classroom organisation, time allocation,social setting and culture all influence the waysin which ICTs are used and perceived inschools. It is almost impossible to undertakestudies to test for improvement withoutengaging with these dynamics. In fact, theyargue that in order for technology to make ameaningful impact on learning, it has to beintroduced alongside other kinds of change.These are:

• instructional leadership

• effective school improvement teams

• extensive professional development inwhole-language teaching approaches andco-operative learning

• a strong emphasis on student creativity andthe expression of ideas in multiple formats

• an emphasis on providing different points ofentry into a task for children working atdifferent ability levels

• a de-emphasis on remediation and anemphasis on learning for all

• establishment of classroom libraries andmedia-rich classroom environments

• a multi-text approach to learning thatincludes the integration of technology intoinstruction (Honey et al. 1999).

Introducing ICTs requires attention to manyother areas so that a holistic approach toeducational change is developed. Regarding thesystem as a whole even at a school level wouldhelp administrators identify why they aremaking changes, what these are, what the newsystem will look like and how it will function

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effectively. The introduction of ICTs in such acontext allows these changes to be part ofglobal, school-wide changes, not simplyfashionable add-ons which throw technology atstudents in an attempt to solve educationalcrises and poor performance.

More recent developments surrounding thenotion of information literacy (Candy, 1996) arealso useful in understanding the relationshipbetween ICTs and learning. The literaturesuggests that the use of technology cannot bedivorced from processes relating to the criticalevaluation of information skills that are bothgeneric and subject/context specific. In otherwords, the impact of ICTs on learning isconnected to the extent to which learnersbecome critical evaluators of information tosolve problems and develop new insights andunderstanding.

ICTs as administrative andmanagement tools An additional dimension of ICTs usage in schoolsis for educational management. Computers fulfillan important function in automating routineprocedures such as timetables, class lists andwork scheduling. Through automation of suchprocedures, computers provide an institutionalrecord, which requires minimal change on a day-to-day basis. Removing the tediousness,drudgery, and time-consuming nature of suchadministrative processes, computers allow forthe effective use of educators’ time in morecreative and productive ways (Crawford,1997).For example, some teachers use computers tomonitor learner progress through constructingstudent profiles (USA Congress Office of TechnologyAssessment, 1995).

Effective use of computers for properadministrative procedures also offerspossibilities for some degree of cost saving. Forexample, communicating with staff throughe-mail saves on photocopying costs.

However, it is important to note thatcomputer technology is not a substitute forpoor or non-existant administrative systems.With or without computer technology, badlymanaged schools will remain so. It is onlythrough careful and properly planned usage,that computer technology can free time formore creative work. Once again, an integratedand comprehensive approach to using ICTs foradministration and management is required.

Staff needs and teachertrainingThe UNCSTD Working Group places greatemphasis on human resource development.The information age has created a range ofeducational and social requirements to sustainitself.Teachers are now expected to perform arange of new functions in order to produce awell-educated layer of confident young peoplewho can generate revenue for their countriesin a host of new ways.

While ICTs present many excitingopportunities for teachers, there is no doubt thatthe current pace of change causes great pressure.It is important that policy-makers and plannerstake account of this and that the following keyresources are put in place in schools.

Technical supportInformation infrastructures require constantmaintenance and frequent upgrading. Technicalstaff that ‘look after’ the ICTs including theworkstations and fileservers, require anunderstanding of the hardware and softwarethey are installing, and also of the ways in whichthe technology is going to be used in the shortto medium term.

They need to know whether certainapplications or software will run on a school’ssystem. They should be able to advise onoptimal use of a network and sensible upgradesfor long-term planning. It is clear that these

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functions are vast and could be extended toinclude user and network administratorfunctions such as the creation of user identities(login names and e-mail addresses), advising onlicensing agreements, etc.

To address these very real servicerequirements, schools need to decidewhether to:

• outsource some of the work.

• share certain staff with other schools intheir area.

• combine certain roles, e.g. technicalsupport staff could also perform a trainingor user-support function.

It is crucial for management in schools torecognise that the best plans come undone ifthere is lack of articulation between ‘technical’and ‘educational’ functions.Cost considerationsshould include the fact that technical staff haveto upgrade their skills fairly often and this canbe expensive.

AdvisorsTeachers need support to help them workthrough issues of design and delivery ofcurricula and programmes. The demands ofdetermining what students need to know andbe able to do on completion of their studiesand translating this into curricula and activitiesis something in which teachers ought to betrained. However, integrating ICTs intocurricula in ways that develop content as wellas information and research skills that expandthe brief of teachers beyond that of a conveyorof subject knowledge.

Teachers often don’t know what they can dowith technology and the tendency is to use ICTssimply to automate traditional teaching methodswhich is why drill and practice is usually the firstform of implementation. The need for advisorswho can provide support and a resource base toguide teachers is critical. Advisors can alsofacilitate group work among teachers so thatthere is a sharing of experience and hopefully

collaboration around projects. In many schoolsthis advisor role is simply allocated to a teacheras an additional responsibility, and advisors arenot trained for the task they need to perform.Increasingly, at least in the developed world, thissupport function is being acknowledged ascrucial to the effective use of ICTs. In the UKsupport teams, which include advisors, havebeen put in place to help heads of ICTs atschools develop their plans for implementation,teacher support and development (cf. 5.1).Through the Office of Technology, the USA hasalso identified ways of increasing support forteachers keen to use ICTs by:

Training master teachers, who then serveas resources for their colleagues, andproviding expert resource people fromother staff, such as librarians, computercoordinators, or volunteers from business,parent, and student groups (1995: 28).

However, in reality these ‘experts’ or advisorsare absent in most school settings and oftenwhere they are found, the support persons tendto supervise students rather than supportteachers (USA Congress Office of TechnologyAssessment, 1995: 129).

Teacher trainingIt seems that many countries start using ICTsin very rudimentary ways so that ‘drill andpractice’ type activities feature commonly.Thereason for this is that there is a ‘development’period during which teachers and studentsbecome familiar with the technology. AsGoldman et al. explain:

In case after case we see that whencomputer technologies are adopted, thelearning about the technology often takesover, and it is only after several rounds ofintegrating technology with content thatcontent emerges in strong ways.Thetechnology learning curve tends to eclipsecontent learning temporarily – both kidsand teachers seem to orient to technologyuntil they become comfortable (1999).

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It seems that this factor, is one around whichadministrators can plan. Since there is a strongindication that familiarity with technology is anarea that requires attention, it may beappropriate to emphasise both teacher trainingand student induction in the use of ICTs.Computer laboratories and sessions duringwhich time learners acquire ICTs andinformation skills may suggest centralisation ofICT facilities. However, since this strategy isgeared towards integration of ICTs in subjectareas, availability of workstations in classroomsalso becomes desirable. Moreover, it seemsthat as more students gain access totechnology outside of the school contextthrough telecentres, libraries or their homes,computer laboratories may not be needed toperform the function of promoting familiaritywith the technology and their purpose may beadapted to provide time for project-based,collaborative work. Clearly, professionaldevelopment, which is dealt with below, iscrucial to overcome the steep learning curvenecessary for teachers.

Beyond questions of the most appropriatedeployment of computer resources, lies thecrucial question of ensuring that schools arereceptive to the promotion and use of ICTs.What is required is an institutional climate thatis open to ICTs work.

There appears to be general consensus thatteachers are key to optimising ICTs in schools.There is a growing concentration on the roleof the teacher and the kind of training theyneed in order to use ICTs effectively.Technology investments made without teachertraining are wasteful. In the USA, thegovernment has been advised to increase theportion of ICTs budgets for teacher trainingfrom 15% to 30% (1999). The USA CongressOffice of Technology Assessment asserts that:

Helping teachers use technology effectivelymay be the most important step to assuringthat current and future investments intechnology are realised (1995:2).

The area of teacher training must addressboth pre-service (PRESET) as well as in-servicetraining (INSET). It seems that many teachersare still reaching the classroom from theirformal training with little confidence in how touse ICTs effectively, although policies citedabove aim to address not only the training ofteachers in-service, but also preparatorytraining. Practice at present still appears tofavour INSET training due to teacher demandfor such ‘skilling’. It may well be the case thatbefore teachers enter the classrooms, they areunaware of the extent to which thesecompetencies will be central to their practice.

Teacher training courses should prepareteachers for working with technologyeffectively and confidently, but cannot simplyimpart ‘technical’ competencies. Teachersrequire the abilities to integrate ICTs intocurricula, to design courses that will conveyboth content and skills and to be able to devisemonitoring mechanisms. Most importantly,teachers need to be able to work in teams,across job categories, and increasingly, acrossgeographic borders.Training in the use of ICTstherefore has to be part of a much richereducation for teachers, and must address issuesof pedagogy in the context of global change.

Some authors like de Moura Castro (1999)argue strongly that developing countries willonly reap the benefits of this kind of trainingmany years from now. A shortage of goodteachers is a prominent feature of developingcountries and must be worked around.However, it seems that teachers themselves areusing INSET to better equip themselves andprepare for change. The difficulty seems to bethe translation of broad rhetorical visions toreal-life practical projects that allow teachersto feel part of a changing environment. Indeveloped countries it seems that throughvarious grants and funds that encourageinnovation, teacher development is prioritised(cf. Section 5).While the developing world maynot be able to imitate these efforts on a grand

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scale, the need to include key components ofprofessional INSET and PRESET into strategicpolicies is especially important.

Costs and sustainabilityImplicit in costing the use of ICTs in schoolsare a range of issues such as the variouscomponents that have to be costed as well asthe standards that are used for provision. Inunpacking the costs of ICTs in schools, a longlist begins to unfold: teacher training, additionaladvisory and technical staff, hardware,software, telecommunications infrastructure(e.g. phone lines) and content developmentcosts are some of these. Initial expenditure hasto be considered along with recurrent costsand issues of sustainability.

In the Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD)countries, it is estimated that US$16 billion perannum is spent on hardware, software andcommunication links in education (Alexander,1999: 9). It is also estimated that in thecommercial sector, a computer, including thecost of purchase and maintenance is close tofive times its initial price (Lynch, 1999).Furthermore, technologies should be used asextensively as possible to improve return oninvestment which in itself often generates newneeds and innovations which may encounterunforeseen additional expenses (de MouraCastro, 1999: 40).

For developing countries these challengesare difficult and vast. Benchmarks ofdeveloped countries with regard tocomputer:student ratios are inappropriateand unattainable.What confounds issues is thedegree of diversity within developingcountries so that in small pockets of theeducation sector, developed countrystandards are probably matched and in somecases improved. In these instances, local elitiststandards are confused with the norm (e.g. ahighly resourced private school is situated in a

rural area of South Africa). The real difficultyis how best to invest in those areas whichhave very little if anything by way of ICTs ineducation, i.e. the areas in greatest need andat greatest risk of being excluded.

Most authors, basing their arguments onexperiences in those countries that have beenactive in the field for a while, argue stronglythat investment in people and especially inteacher training is the most important item ofan ICTs budget (Alexander, 1999; USA CongressOffice of Technology Assessment, 1995; Froese-Germain: 1998).

In some countries, for example, schemes arebeing put in place to help teachers purchasetheir own computers in the belief that easieraccess to the technology will improve teachercompetencies in innovative use.

Costing frameworks that help schools dealwith purchasing decisions and procedures arealso on the increase providing for district andprovincial co-ordination. While these arehelpful measures, they still do not address theissue of how developing countries can affordICT education and at what cost.

The area of costing, as with all others, isdirectly linked to so many other considerationsin adopting ICTs in schools. At a macro level,there are conceptual issues of whether schoolsin developing countries can support the kind ofinvestments required to make their ICTstrategies meaningful enough to work. Thereare also, as has been argued above, argumentsabout whether they can afford not to becomeinvolved in ICT education. What the costingconsiderations then raise are how developingcountries, given other pressing educationalneeds and resource shortages, can becomeinvolved in ICT education to ensure that theydo not run the risk of exclusion but are makingsensible investments that will generate returns.It is suggested that if developing countries areinnovative in the use of ICTs, they will avoid thetemptation to copycat expensive experiences

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in the developed world. De Moura Castromakes a strong argument against suchreplication:

…developing countries cannot afford toignore the costs of education in its differentmodalities.They cannot afford the sametechnologies being used in the industrialisednations. In many cases, the alternatives areeither to have expensive technologies for aprivileged few, or to have more economicalalternatives for a larger share of the school-aged population (1999:41).

The more specific concerns about costingrelate to the cost-effectiveness of using ICTs inschools and the design of realistic costingstrategies that address issues of sustainability.The difficulty with determining cost-effectiveness has to do with the need to mapthe effectiveness of technology education asopposed to increased expenditure on otherareas such as improved libraries andlaboratories or more teachers. Such evidencedoes not yet exist.

However, de Moura Castro argues forinvesting wisely in appropriate forms of ICTsthat do not rely on what is already lacking inthe education system such as well-trainedteachers. Instead he advocates using existingconditions to reach constituencies thatconventional systems of instruction cannotreach (1999: 42). In other words, he arguesthat instead of relying on extensive professionaldevelopment to accompany the introduction ofICTs into schools, developing countries turninstead to television broadcasting as a means ofimproving access to education. High-qualitybroadcasts achieve economies of scale in usinglimited professional expertise to developprogrammes that can reach a much greateraudience. He refers to the Telecurso 2000example of Brazil and the Telesecundaria modelof Mexico as cost-effective uses of technologyto bring high-quality education to learners whomight never previously have accessed such

teachers or programmes. This use of ICTsrelies on pre-existing infrastructures andtherefore does not require extensiveexpenditure in this area.

Although there is insufficient evidence tosuggest that the levels of learning achieved in thisway are on par with those achieved inconventional educational settings, there is nodoubt that these programmes reach significantnumbers of learners. The programmes aresupported in classrooms by facilitators who arenot expected to impart the subject mattercontained in the programme, but to providesupport to learners who attend these centres.An interesting point is that the best examples ofeducational television come from developingcountry contexts,not from the developed world,which has the resources to use ICTs to enhancealready well-established education systems.

Realistic budgetingWhen schools budget for ICT expenditure,they seem to commit a significant portion tohardware and software purchases (at theexpense of teacher training) and appear toregard this as a once-off cost. Costs ofinstallation, maintenance and expansion remainhidden unlike in the commercial sector where‘the capital cost of a PC represents only onefifth of the yearly cost of running that PC’(Lynch, 1999).

It seems that in the US for example, schooldistricts are spending only half of what theyshould be spending on teacher training and thebulk of IT budgets are being spent on hardwareand software. It is estimated that the costs in theUS of building a technology-rich educationsystem with low computer to student ratios andwired schools will amount to five times thecurrent per capita costs of hardware per annum(Froese-Germain:1998). This excludes theadditional human resource costs that are clearlya crucial component in maximising the gains ofany ICT strategy.

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In Africa it is estimated that less than 1% ofpeople use or have access to the Internet (ADF,1999) while the US tops the list of Internetusing countries. It is also estimated that in theUS between 1995 and 1998, the number ofhome computers rose from 13 to 31 million(Heyneman, 1999). These figures provide asense of the scale of discrepancies globally,hinting at the unaffordability of ICTs on a globalscale in developing countries.

These observations point to the fact thatdeveloping ICTs in schools requires long-termplanning which takes account not only of issuesof sustainability, but also the new kinds ofdevelopments that ICT education may generate.For instance, if schools are going to invest insoftware or content development, these costsshould be budgeted for. The significant financialrequirements and the dependency on donorsand external funding that this entails may wellcause developing countries to consider lessexpensive strategies such as educationaltelevision in combination with communitylearning centres or telecentres. It seems thatmulti-pronged strategies,which allow developingcountries to experiment with different kinds ofICT interventions in different settings, may wellallow countries to develop their own models ofbest practice.

In other words, schools need to consider aresource strategy that maximises the impact ofICTs and that entails balancing investment incomputers (hardware and software) withinvestment in other technologies that might becheaper and equally effective (e.g. videorecorders, television sets). Investment in ICTsshould maximise the use of the full range ofavailable technologies.

Access and social justiceThere is little doubt that in many instancesICTs are bridging some divides and wideningothers.While extensive research is being doneon how gender disparities and other forms of

injustice are being reproduced or introduced,there is also common knowledge about thecontext of global impoverishment in which theuse of ICTs is unfolding. The conditions ofextreme wealth on the one hand andwidespread poverty on the other will not beremedied by technology or any otherdevelopment strategies overnight, but plannersmust nonetheless remain vigilant of them.

In terms of access to ICTs, there is a rathersimplistic notion that equity simply has to dowith planning for equal access to technology.Thus ‘leveling the playing fields’ is seen in termsof the equal distribution of resources inaccordance with set standards and criteriaapplied across the board. However, suchplanning takes little account of the fact that likeinformation, access to technology is not an endin itself, but merely a means to achievingeducational, decision-making and other goals.As described by the USA Congress Office ofTechnology Assessment:

It is becoming clear that actual equity fortechnology today goes well beyond machinecounts; in fact, machines are a necessarybut not sufficient component of teachingand learning. Students in some classes mayhave access to machines, but nothingavailable from or through the hardware ofany real value. Likewise, teachers need tobe able to locate and retrieve information,collaborate with others electronically, anddevelop and share materials at their ownpace for their own needs. In the informationage, access to necessary information maybe the true measure of equity (1995: 43).

This argument underlines the need for ICTinterventions to be part of holistic,comprehensive policies in order to truly addvalue to an educational experience. It raises theimportance of the mediation of technology byeducational planning that ensures effective use.

With regard to gender disparities, thecontext into which ICTs are being introducedglobally is one of male domination of the sector

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at virtually all levels. Men occupy most policyand decision-making positions as well asmanagement, technical and supervisory roles inthe sector (Goddard et al. 1999). In Africa, thereare fewer girls attending school than boys andeven lower rates of women in science andtechnology than men (Karelse, 1998). In termsof the literacy barrier, there are 1.35 billionilliterate people amounting to more than 30%of the global population and for every illiterateman, there are two illiterate women (Manselland Wehn, 1998:35).

While various initiatives are underway toaddress these and the many similar inequitiesprevalent in all societies, policy interventionshave to explicitly contain strategies promotegender equity.

Two interesting initiatives towards buildingequity are both USA based, offering differentapproaches that could be used in developingcontexts. The first is a project calledCyberspace Regionalisation that uses ICTs tocombine two schools in close proximity toeach other, which are divided along racial andincome group lines.The project is described asa ‘unique test of the ability oftelecommunications to increase the socialpurposes served by schools’ (Becker, 1999). Themajor goals of the project are to:

1. create an infrastructure of tele-communications to connect two highschools separated by 70 miles.

2. familiarise and train teachers and studentsat both schools in the use of ICTs.

3. create programs or activities to bring thestudents and teachers together.

4. apply those programs to issues of racialunderstanding.

5. apply those programs to improvement andreform in the two schools.

These project goals are loosely based on the‘Contact Hypothesis’ posited as early as 1954by Gordon Allport. In its most basic form, this

hypothesis holds that, under ideal conditions,contact with members of different culturalgroups promotes positive, tolerant attitudes(Becker, 1999).

A second programme which is exclusivelyconcerned with the kinds of divides generatedand fuelled by the information age is the USNational Telecommunications and InformationAdministration Series: ‘Falling through the Net’in which the digital divide in the USA isconstantly monitored (1999). While this maywell be an expensive exercise to undertake ona national scale, it seems imperative thatprogrammes are installed to measure the waysin which ICTs are affecting society or at least asector of society.

The latest report signals a growing dividebetween low-income groups in relation tohome Internet access. The research thus alsoprovides indicators of the extent to which thesociety as a whole is participating ininformation age type activities, presuming thatInternet access is one such measure. In theUSA, community access centres are being used(and their use measured) as a viable means ofaccess to groups with no other means ofaffordable access to the Internet.

Research and developmentResearch into ICTs in education and theevaluation of such programmes requiresextensive consideration of a wide range ofvariables including socio-cultural setting,curriculum and teacher preparedness whichmight previously not have been considered toimpact on performance. An argument forcomprehensive investigations which do notattempt definitive, global statements but whichgive detailed insight into micro initiatives so asto assist with intelligent planning has alreadybeen made. Such insights may not have verybroad appeal, but do allow administratorsmuch greater confidence in using ICTs to

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direct desired change. In addition, evaluationresearch and development is critical both tounderstand and direct the ICTs arena globally.A greater understanding of how ICTs can beused to promote equity, to bridge divides andto address social as well as economic demands,would greatly assist with informed decision-making. It has become clear though that theseinvestigations are not simple and that they areusually time-consuming and costly.

The rate of change in ICTs means that thenature of investigations are changing, newquestions are being asked requiring differentmethodologies. Honey et al. state thatresearchers are learning to ask questions froman educational perspective rather than to posequestions from the point of view of thetechnical capabilities. These investigations areyielding a greater understanding of educationalaims and achievements (1999). However,Norris cautions:

there are real barriers for teachers andadministrators in gaining access to thewisdom in … research. Currently, researchis written with other researchers as anaudience; currently, there are precious fewtools for practitioners to use in accessingresearch; and there are significant gaps inthe research since practice has not been amajor driver of the research (1999).

These reservations aside, research andevaluation in the field of ICTs in schools isexpanding. Developed countries have a clearidea of the relevance of research to thedevelopment of this field. In response to thepressures to measure the success of ICTinterventions in education, the USA RandCorporation has published a sourcebook onevaluation of education technologyprogrammes entitled: Evaluating ChallengeGrants for Technology in Education (1997).The authors, Bodilly and Mitchell, site a rangeof influences that must be considered in anyevaluation of ICTs in schools programmes.They believe that increase in school

attendance, homework completion, changes instudent performances, increased application ofresearch and higher-order cognitive skillsshould all be measured as part of anassessment. Heinecke et al. argue that longi-tudinal studies which trace changes over timewill be necessary to indicate improvement inschool performance and that comparativestudies may be necessary to assess thesuitability of innovations to different settings(1999). They refer to The IntegratedTechnology Adoption Diffusion Model,developed by CMC Corporation to state that:

Evaluations should include the contextswithin which technological innovationsoccur.This includes looking at technologicalfactors, individual factors, organisationalfactors and teaching and learning issues(See Sherry, Lawyer-Brook, and Black,1997). Evaluation designs must be flexibleenough to attend to the varying degrees ofadaptation occurring with different contentareas. Evaluations must includeimplementation assessments, formativeassessments as well as standard summativeand outcomes assessments. Evaluationsmust include the quality of trainingprograms offering teachers the opportunityto learn new technologies within relevant,subject-specific contexts (1999).

This excerpt highlights the complexity ofevaluations into ICTs in schools and their impacton learning. It also points out that evaluations inthis area seem to be an enterprise on their own,often being extremely expensive operationsrequiring expertise beyond that usually held bywell-trained teachers.

It is important for developing countries notto be constrained in their approach to thisissue. It seems that the challenge remains forinnovative teachers to find ways in which theycan practice and teach their students self-reflection to build up records of experience ofICTs in ways that add value to investigationsthat seek to report on this. To help teachers

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document a project’s development (andstudent achievement in it), programmes such asQuality School Portfolio that allow for mappingof student progress and comparingexperimental and control group scores are onthe increase (Heinecke, et al: 1999). These aretools that can assist with evaluation, but do notanswer the greater need for an evaluationframework that will help teachers have a senseof what their efforts are achieving.

A South African study into levels ofinformation literacy among higher educationlearners generated some interesting issues forevaluation research. Sayed (1998) and Badat,Sayed & Watters (1998) note that part of theproblem of understanding ICTs in education isthe difficulty of measuring the extent to whichthe technology itself is the key variable inimproving learning and achievement.The rangeof variables that influence learning are oftenmultiple, interact in complex ways with theoutcome not always apparent. It is thereforedifficult to identify with precision the role oftechnology in learning.

Similar to the studies above, Sayed (1998)notes that it is important to adopt acomprehensive approach to ICTs in educationwhich considers levels of student confidenceand motivation, issues of access to technology,and the ability of learners to critically evaluateinformation obtained from, for example, theInternet. In other words, evaluations of ICTs in

education need to understand learning in amulti-dimensional way.

Sayed’s 1998 research highlights the extentto which prior learning experiences affectstudent learning, and strongly emphasises theextent to which the use of ICTs in education inSouth Africa reflects race, gender, andinstitutional inequities. This confirms the needfor contextually specific investigations of ICTsin education in South Africa. The study alsohighlights the need for processes of evaluatingICTs that are participatory, interactive andinvolve policy-makers who are active in shapingICTs policy. Such an approach creates afavourable climate for ICTs intervention andcreates opportunities for changes ininstitutional cultures and priorities.

ConclusionThis chapter has attempted to show that theimpact of ICTs in education raises complexquestions about teaching, learning, assessment,research, human resource development,budgeting, school policies and equity. A crucialrecommendation from the UNCSTD WorkingGroup is that investments in ICTs foreducation should guard against massive initialresourcing without a proper long-term planthat will ensure sustainability. This is aparticularly important lesson for developingcountries such as South Africa.

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1. This chapter is based on a report

prepared for the EPU by the South

African Institute for Distance

Education (SAIDE).

As with other basic services, thedistribution of education and trainingprovision in our country follows a patternof contrasts and paradoxes’ (Dept ofEducation, 1995:18).

These contrasts and paradoxes continue to

dominate and define our education system

and are especially evident when policies of

change are put into practice.1 Obviously they

impact on the provision and use of ICTs in

South African schools. They also provide

insights into the opportunities for growth and

development in this area.

To identify the critical issues that have

shaped the present level of provision of ICTs

in schools and the nature and extent of their

use, two areas of concern are considered in

this chapter. The first area concerns various

policy initiatives that have been put in place

since 1995 to influence the development of

quality education through effective teaching

and learning. Here, we look first at broad

policies on schools development and at

curriculum changes that impact on ICTs and

then we discuss policies specifically about

ICTs. The second area is the actual

inequalities that continue to permeate the

schools sector in South Africa at this time.

We describe some of the trends in education

on the ground. These two interrelated areas

are particularly important in understanding

present ICT use and for informing choices

for the future.

General policy ontransformation in schools Policy in South Africa has moved a long waytowards promoting and understanding therole of ICTs in society in general and ineducation in particular. There is a rich andproductive discourse about ICTs thatprovides a useful starting point for promotingICTs in education. The real challenge,however, lies in the ability of the policyframework to enable schools to overcomethe inequalities of the past and provide qualityeducation for all learners.

Since 1994 a number of new policies havebeen developed and implemented which havesubstantially altered the education system inSouth Africa. The most important of thesehas been the establishment of a single,education system to replace the separate,racially defined, education departments thatpreviously existed. The general philosophy,principles and goals for education areexpressed in the White Paper 1 on Educationand Training (1995). The way in whichschools are organised, governed and fundedis outlined in the South African Schools Act(1996).

These two documents have beenimportant in shaping the policy environmentfor the provision and use of ICTs in schools.It is important to recognise that anystrategies developed around ICTs in schoolshave to be based on the principles outlined inthe White Paper.

‘5’The South African

policy and schooling context

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These principles can be summarised asfollows:

• A commitment to providing access toquality education, and a right to basiceducation as enshrined in the Bill ofRights.

• A commitment to developing the fullpotential of South Africa’s people for theiractive participation in all processes of ademocratic society and their contributionto the economic growth and developmentof the country.

• Redressing imbalances of the past throughthe implementation of new teaching andlearning strategies for the effective andflexible delivery of services within variouslearning contexts and through theequitable distribution of technological andother resources.

• Implementing learner-centred andoutcomes-based approaches to educationand training in order to achieve qualitylearning based on recognised nationalstandards.

• Enabling all people to value, have access to,and succeed in life-long education andtraining.

• Developing a problem-solving and creativeenvironment in which new technologiesare harnessed to produce knowledge,products, and services.

• Integrating technology into the strategiesintended to reach these goals so as toadvance South Africa’s ability to harnessnew technologies in its growth anddevelopment.

In line with the provisions of theConstitution, the practical implementation ofthese principles is the joint responsibility of thenational and provincial departments ofeducation. The National Department ofEducation is responsible for developing policyand setting national norms and standards and

the Provincial Departments are responsible forthe provision of education. Provincialresponsibilities include: provincial legislation,finance, personnel, logistics, information andphysical facilities, provision of books,examinations and computer services.

To undertake this responsibility, provinceshave had to restructure, incorporating variousdepartments into one coherent educationdepartment. In addition, they have had todevelop and adopt strategic plans tooperationalise their responsibilities. The degreeto which provinces have moved towardsassuming autonomy and authority for educationis uneven and this has important implications forthe management and support of ICT use inschools as will be seen later in the chapter.

In the schools themselves, ownership,governance, and funding are set out in the SouthAfrican Schools Act (1996). The Act, besidesrepealing all apartheid legislation pertaining toschools and providing for a single schoolingsystem, also abolished corporal punishment andintroduced compulsory education for childrenbetween the ages of seven and fifteen. Despitethe historical significance of the Act, the processtowards its development was marked by severecontestation,over provisions such as school feesand the composition and powers of governingbodies. The Act provides for the setting up ofgoverning bodies at all schools, which should becomposed of parents (the majority group);educators; pupils (in secondary schools); non-educator staff and a co-opted non-parentmember of the community. The Act alsoprovides for a system of user fees (school fees)to supplement limited state funding to schools. 2

While all these regulations are significant forthe provision and use of ICTs in schools, it isthe area of school fees that is of particularimportance. The implications of this source offunding for ICTs in schools are addressed inChapter 6 through the findings of the survey.However, it is important to note here that the

2. Based on a contribution by Salim

Vally in ‘Poverty and Inequality

Hearings: Education Theme’ by Vally,

Chisholm & Motala, 1998. Also,

‘Education Policy and

Implementation’ in Quarterly Review

of Education and Training in South

Africa, 5, 3. Vally & Spreen, 1998.

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3.While the act provides for a

system of compulsory school fees it

also provides for exemption where

parents are unable to pay.

system of compulsory school fees, whichsupplements state allocations to schools, hasperpetuated a number of the resourcedisparities in the education system.3

Linked to the above has been thegovernment’s setting of national norms andstandards for school funding. As might beexpected, a core focus of these national normsand standards is on redress of educationalinequities within the system.The provisions ofthis policy provide for a framework ofgovernment spending on schools that directsgreater state resources to the mostdisadvantaged schools. In addition, it focuses onpressing budgetary problems within theschooling system, possibly the most notable ofwhich is the unusually large percentage ofexpenditure consumed by personnel items (i.esalaries). Both of these aspects are directlyrelevant to attempts to increase the use ofICTs at schools.

Curriculum changesChanges implemented since 1994 haveincluded the development of a new curriculumframework for learning and teaching.Outcomes-based education (OBE) is beingimplemented in schools through Curriculum2005. This new framework seeks to changesome of the traditional approaches to teaching.The following are the general shifts envisagedthrough the new curriculum:

• from content-based to outcomes-basededucation.

• from passive to active learners.

• from examination-driven to ongoingassessment.

• from rote learning to critical thinking,reasoning, reflection, and action.

• from textbook/worksheet-bound, teacher-centred education to learner-centrededucation, where the teacher is a facilitatorof the learning environment.

Because it challenges traditional ways ofteaching, the implementation of Curriculum2005 is complex and highly contested. It hasimportant implications for defining theteaching and learning framework in whichICTs will be used.

Recent curriculum development is beginningto suggest important ways in which ICTs canbe integrated into forms of teaching andassessment. For example, in the senior phaseof schooling, provision is made for a language,literacy and communication programme.Similarly, at the foundation and intermediatephases, there are explicit signals about theneed for learners to access informationbeyond books and texts. The key challenge isto translate these signals into action forpromoting ICTs in education.

All the education policy documents projecta universal consensus about the importanceof technology education for learners. In this,technological literacy is argued to be ascrucial and basic as reading and writing. Thusit is assumed that by the end of the foundationphase of schooling, learners should betechnology/information literate. Similarly, allthe documents agree that the mastery oftechnology enhances the potential ofindividuals and leads to economicproductivity. In this, there is an incessantdiscursive urgency about ICTs in education.

Policies specific to the use ofICTs in schoolsOf the many policy texts dealing with ICTs,the most comprehensive and thoughtprovoking is the Technology EnhancedLearning Investigation (TELI) commissionedby the Department of Education in 1995.Thereport has many productive suggestions forpromoting technology enhanced learning inschools including information literacycourses, an information clearing house, and a

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learning site on the World Wide Web. Perhapsthe most significant aspect of the TELIinvestigation is the emphasis (captured in thetitle) that technology is a means forimproving education and not an end in itself.In other words, technology is a tool forlearning if carefully deployed and is an aid toimproving teaching.

For the most part, national policy on ICTs hasfocused on three key issues. Firstly, there hasbeen a conscious attempt to improve thecoverage and delivery of the necessaryinfrastructure for ICTs (White & Green Paperand Tele-communications Act, as well as theUniversal Service Agency Working Document).Secondly, policy has focused on establishing theregulatory framework and mechanism for thespread of ICTs in South Africa through theestablishment of the South AfricanTelecommunications Regulatory Authority.Thirdly, there is growing emphasis on the needfor maths, science and technology as the key togrowth and economic productivity in SouthAfrica (Science and Technology White Paper).

Also at national level, the library sector hasidentified the importance of ICTs (NationalPolicy on School Library Standards). Thediscussion document on School Library Policymarks a significant departure in governmentthinking in that it acknowledges that the spreadof ICTs tends to blur the distinction between thework of librarians and educators. In other words,

there is a growing acknowledgement that thespread of ICTs implies that library work in thefield of information literacy is curriculum work.

At provincial level there are many policydocuments on ICTs. As has been mentioned,the provision of schooling is a provincialcompetency and by implication, so is thepromotion of ICTs in schools. There is thustremendous diversity in ICTs betweenprovinces. From a policy perspective, there isa need to consider how provincial ICT policyin education articulates with national policy.5

What really happens inschools According to the School Register of Needs,there were 27 188 schools in South Africa in1996, the majority of which are to be found inthe Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and theNorthern Province. Approximately 70% ofthese are primary schools. According to the1996 data, the distribution of schools perprovince by number and type is provided inTable 5.1 above.

In 1994, the total number of learnersenrolled at the primary level (Grades 1–7)was 7 890 519, and the enrolment figures forsecondary learners (Grades 8–12) was 3 517079. The total number of learners for 1994was close to 11.5 million (RIEP, 1995). In 1995,

4. Source: Data from the 1996

School Register of Needs. Not

included in table are technical

colleges and schools where the type

is unknown.

5. For government documents,

including legislation, see

http://www.polity.org.za

Table 5.1: Distribution of schools across the provinces4

Province Total Combined Primary Secondary SpecialisedSchools

E/Cape 5 880 1 006 3 892 960 24Free State 2 881 141 2 418 296 18Gauteng 2 233 207 1 413 559 60KZN 5 409 152 3 865 1 344 41Mpumalanga 1 907 111 1424 377 12N/Cape 526 49 392 80 1N/Province 4 170 59 2 713 1 372 11North West 2 412 121 1 624 630 39W/Cape 1 770 119 1 271 314 68

National total 27 188 1 965 19 012 5 932 274% of national total (100%) 7% 69% 22% 1%


6. Source: Data from the 1996

School Register of Needs.

7. Note this information is

based on data sets obtained

from RIEP.

however, enrolment figures for the primarylevel were 8 159 435 and 3 749 448 at thesecondary level, increasing the total toapproximately 11.9 million learners(Edusource, 1997).

This suggests that about 400 000 new learnersenter the education system every year, with thegreatest intake being between Grades 1–7. By1998, South Africa’s school population was about13 million, of which 25% was in KwaZulu-Natal.

Much of the demand for schools in SouthAfrica is at the primary level and most pupilsare enrolled in Grades 1–7. In Tables 5.3 and5.4 on page 57 show a breakdown of learnerenrolment at primary and secondary level byprovince for 1997 and 1998.

A comparison of these figures gives a clearindication of the rate of increase in learnerenrolments at primary and secondary levels.For example, in the Eastern Cape, the numberof learners at the secondary level increased byabout 54 000 from 1997 to 1998, while primarylevel enrolment figures increased byapproximately 240 000. Nationally, enrolmentat primary level increased by 605 000, and by 320 000 at secondary level.Whilst the majorityof learners are enrolled at the primary level,enrolment trends suggest that there is also asignificant increase in flow to secondaryeducation. In addition, while it appears thatmore learners are passing through the

schooling system, there is an overall decline inintake in Grade 1.The Grade 1 intake for 1995was approximately 1 666 980 and in 1997 ithad dropped to 1 558 019. 7

Gender profilesMore boys than girls are entering the schoolsystem at the primary level, with an averageratio of boys to girls in the region of 1,05:1.Interestingly, this trend is reversed at thesecondary level. In Grade 1, more boys enrollin schools than girls, but there are significantlymore girls than boys in Grade 12. Accordingto Monica Bot (1998), this suggests that thereis a higher dropout rate among boys in thehigher levels (Bot, 1998:128). Similarly, in linewith the general trend towards the decreasedenrolment in Grade 1, the intake of boys atGrade 1 in 1997 dropped by 8 000 from theprevious year, while the intake for girlsdeclined by over 34 000 pupils.

The picture presented above suggests thatthere have been significant shifts in enrolmentpatterns in South Africa since 1994. Most ofthe country’s children are now attendingschool, and more learners are moving throughthe schooling system at the secondary levelnow than in previous years.

A comparison of the number of schoolswith enrolment patterns for each province(Table 5.2) provides some sense of the extentof school shortages. Out of South Africa’stotal enrolment figure of close to 13 million,almost seven million students attend schoolsin KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape, and theNorthern Province. In the case of KwaZulu-Natal there are 5 409 schools in which toaccommodate 2 864 501 learners.The EasternCape has 5 880 schools in which toaccommodate 2 110 015 learners. SoKwaZulu-Natal has more learners than theEastern Cape, but fewer schools in which toaccommodate them. Thus the demand forschools in KwaZulu-Natal is inevitably higher.

Table 5.2: Total learner enrolment per province6

Province Total number Total number Total number Percentage of schools in 1997 learners in 1997 learners in 1998 increase in

learnersE/Cape 5 880 2 110 015 2 403 127 13.9%Free State 2 881 794 555 810 986 0.2%Gauteng 2 233 1 474 152 1 566 538 6.3%KZN 5 409 2 864 501 3 152 236 10.0%Mpumalanga 1 907 872 513 1 010 221 15.8%N/Cape 526 189 629 202 846 7.0%N/Province 4 170 1 856 481 1 990 069 7.2%North West 2 412 968 398 1 016 189 4.9%W/Cape 1 770 871 569 891 699 2.3%

National total 27 188 12 001 813 13 043 911 8.7%

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SECTION A CHAPTER 5

Access to resourcesMany schools are still plagued by inadequate

provision of material and physical resources.

These range from a lack of textbooks and

other teaching materials, to classroom

shortages and lack of facilities such as libraries

and laboratories. According to the School

Register of Needs Survey (1996), only 17% of

schools have libraries and about 50% of schools

have an adequate supply of textbooks (from

Edusource, 1998). Overall, schools in the

Northern Province, and Eastern Cape are the

worst off in terms of infrastructure such as

condition of buildings, libraries, laboratories,

water supply, electricity supply, ablution

facilities, and telephones. Schools in the

Western Cape, Gauteng, and the Northern

Cape are generally in a better position,

although there are also major discrepancies

within provinces.

The extent to which learners’ needs

regarding provision and upgrading of classroom

facilities are being met varies from province to

province. In the North West province, which

has a backlog of 4 000 classrooms, 511

classrooms were constructed during the

1995/6 financial year (SAIRR, 96/97:7). Similarly,

in Mpumalanga, 48 new schools were built and

226 damaged schools were renovated during

1997.The province estimates that an additional

4 325 classrooms are needed to overcome

backlogs (SAIRR, 96/97:7). In the Northern

Province, during the 1995/6 financial year, 1 000

new classrooms were built, and an additional

R200 million was set-aside in 1996/7 for new

schools (SAIRR, 96/97:7). In Gauteng, 2 219

classrooms have been built over the past four

years. The Eastern Cape department of

education reports that its 1998/99 budget did

not allow it to make provision for the building

of classrooms, thus leaving the department

with a shortage of about 20 000 classrooms

(Edusource, 1998:6).

It is important to recognise that although

some provinces may have an average

teacher/pupil ratio within the national

norm,10 significant classroom shortages mean

that, in reality, teachers have much larger

classes. In the Northern Province, for

example, the average provincial teacher-pupil

ratio is within the national norm. The

shortage of classrooms in the province (as

indicated by a teacher-classroom ratio of

1,4:1) implies that about half of the primary

school teachers are likely to have classes

larger than 40 learners, and as many as 519

000 primary and secondary learners (37%)

are in classes of about 70 learners (JET,

1997:4). A similar situation exists in the

Eastern Cape, which has a teacher-classroom

ratio of 1:51, requiring teachers to teach up

to 51 learners.These two provinces have the

8. Education and Manpower

Development 1997, No 18 RIEP,

Faculty of Education, University of

the Orange Free State.

9. ibid.

10. The national norm for teacher-

pupil ratios, proposed by the

national Department of Education, is

40:1 in primary schools and 35:1 in

secondary schools.The national

Department of Education recently

proposed a ‘national ceiling for

teacher/pupil ratios of 39:1 for the

1999 school year.

Table 5.3: Enrolment in primary schoolsper province8

Province 1997 1998E/Cape 1 534 462 1 773 911Free State 511 276 519 661Gauteng 946 448 990 618KZN 1 972 386 2 128 098Mpumalanga 578 599 666 743N/Cape 130 860 141 273N/ Province 1 167 160 1 252 757North West 632 535 660 516W/Cape 587 422 596 754

Total 8 061 148 8 730 331

Table 5.4: Enrolment in secondary schoolsper province9

Province 1997 1998E/Cape 575 553 629 216Free State 283 279 291 325Gauteng 527 704 575 920KZN 892 115 1 022 010Mpumalanga 293 914 343 478N/Cape 58 769 61 573N/Province 689 321 737 312North West 335 863 355 673W/Cape 284 147 294 945

Total 3 940 665 4 311 452


greatest classroom shortages (JET, 1997:129).

As a general trend, teachers in the Northern

Province, Eastern Cape, and North West

share classrooms, teach outside, or use non-

teaching areas.

With the responsibility for educational

provision having been devolved to the

provinces, the related issues of classroom

shortages and teacher-pupil ratios have

become the responsibility of each provincial

department. This means that provinces now

have the power to determine their own ratios

based on their budgets. Thus, those schools

that are in a position to raise extra funds to

employ extra staff and build more classrooms

are able to maintain lower teacher-pupil ratios.

Inadequate provision of resources is not

confined to classrooms or library facilities.

As mentioned above, there is a severe

shortage of textbooks for South Africa’s 13

million learners. The School Register of

Needs Survey (1996) has shown that

approximately 49% of schools have an

inadequate supply of textbooks. By mid-1998,

Grade 1 classes in six provinces were without

textbooks, largely due to a lack of funds.

Despite these backlogs, government spending

on textbooks decreased from R851m in

1995/6 to R381m in 1996/7 and R226m in

1997/8 (Edusource, 1998:10).

Access to computers Within context outlined above it is notsurprising that in 1996, according to the SchoolRegister of Needs Survey, only 2 311 schoolswere in possession of one or more computers.This amounts to approximately 8.8% of thetotal school population, i.e. in 1996 less than10% of schools had access to computers.Similarly, as with other resources, the patternof computer resource distribution mirrorsinequalities between and within provinces.Stark inequalities are also evident when thedistribution of computer resources are lookedat comparatively between schools in ruralareas, schools in urban areas and those in peri-urban areas.

Table 5.5 above shows the distribution ofschools with one or more computers in 1996,according to the School Register of Needsdatabase. Figure 5.1 shows the distribution ofthese schools according to their location. Thedistribution of schools with computerscompared to those without (Figure 5.2) showsclearly that ICT resources are primarily an urbanphenomenon. It also shows the stark inequitythat exists between urban and rural schools.

The broad picture presented above showsthat over 90% of schools still have insufficientand/or inadequate resources. The historicallegacy of schooling in South Africa means thatthere exists a substantial backlog in terms ofminimum educational requirements, withlimited government funds to meet the needs oflearners. As Vally & Spreen have noted:

a differential education system continues toexit where differently endowed communitiesenjoy widely varying levels of provision andonly some are able to meaningfullysupplement state resources (Vally &Spreen,1998:7).

Funding for computersIt was noted that the National Norms andStandards for School Funding (1998) provide a

Table 5.5: Provincial distribution of schools with one ormore computers in 1996

Province Number of schools Percentage per with computers province

Eastern Cape 212 9.2%Free State 155 6.7%Gauteng 606 26.2%KwaZulu-Natal 355 15.4%Mpumalanga 146 6.3%North West 130 5.6%Northern Cape 105 4.5%Northern Province 57 2.5%Western Cape 545 23.6%

Total 2 311 100%

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SECTION A CHAPTER 5

11. See note 3.

12. Quoted by Chisholm & Petersen,

Quarterly Review of Education and

Training, 6 (1).

framework for state expenditure, which isaimed at redressing the inequities in schooling.Recurrent cost allocations to schools fromprovinces are now based on a formula wherethe most needy schools will get priority infunding. In principle the norms and standardsprovide a funding mechanism for achievingredress, and could potentially increase the useof ICTs in schools in disadvantagedcommunities. However, if recurrent costallocations are swallowed up by other needs orpriorities and cannot be used for the funding ofICTs, it is likely that the costs of ICT provisionand maintenance will come from additionalfunding generated by school governing bodies.

In this context, the roles and responsibilitiesof governing bodies and the contribution ofparents to school funding become especiallysignificant. The South African Schools Act(1996) makes provision for a governing bodyto ‘take all reasonable measures within itsmeans to supplement the resources suppliedby the state in order to improve the conditionand quality of schooling’ (1996:4(36)). Similarly,as noted above, the Act provides for thecompulsory payment of schools fees byparents.11 Whilst on the one hand this maysignal a positive move in the light of existingdisparities, it may also mean that the gaps inschooling provision, will not only remain butmay even widen.

The role of parents in school fundingbecomes even more significant, particularlyfor ICT provision, when the trends inspending on non-personnel items areconsidered. According to Chisholm andPetersen, non-personnel expenditure hasbeen cut in real terms by 16% over the pastthree years (Chisholm and Peterson, 1999:2).This means that despite the commitment onthe part of the govern-ment to reduce theratio between personnel and non-personnelexpenditure, wage increases continue to pushup the costs of educator personnel. What ismost important, however, in considering the

impact of this scenario on parent funding toschools, is that:

As non-personnel expenditure at school-levelis decreased, parents are made to share abigger burden of the education expenditure.In certain instances, this will result inimproved service delivery at a lower cost butin many instances, the ability to pay willinfluence the quality of service received.Thisplaces poorer households at a disadvantage’(Department of Finance, Medium TermExpenditure Report,1998, 22).12

In a country in which there are largedisparities in earnings among parents as wellas high unemployment, the above scenariosuggests that inequities between schools mayactually increase. It is also likely that suchdisparities will be particularly evident foritems that may be regarded by some as ‘non-essential’, including computers and othertechnology hardware. Moreover, it may not

Figure 5.1: Schools with one or more computers

Rural 7.2%

Peri-urban 4.3%

Urban 88.6%

Figure 5.2: Schools with no computers

Peri-urban 7.2%

Urban 16.4%Rural76.4%


only be the purchase of such resources that isof concern but also the costs associated withtheir maintenance. Thus, in an environmentwhere state expenditure is heavily skewed infavour of personnel costs, and parents takemore responsibility for funding, opportunitiesand possibilities for achieving equity in ICTprovision will be severely undermined unlessthese patterns of expenditure are shifted.These trends in school funding create agreater imperative for ICTs to be seen asessential for building quality education amongall schools, especially those previouslydisadvantaged.

Provincial and local disparities As part of the process of provinces takingresponsibility for the provision of education,strategic plans have been adopted in eachprovince, thus beginning a process ofdepartmental restructuring and thedevelopment of effective organisational andgoverning structures. The extent to whichprovincial education departments have madeprogress in effectively taking over areas suchas finance, management, and the provision offacilities and textbooks differs from provinceto province.

It is reported that the Western Cape hasmade the most progress in taking over thevarious functions:

The most advanced province…is theWestern Cape which by the end of July[1995] had taken control of more than90% of the functions in areas of legislation,organisation, provision of books and physicalfacilities…KwaZulu-Natal and the FreeState have also reported substantialprogress, with the Northern Province andthe Northern Cape lagging far behind inalmost all areas (Edusource,1997:5).

However, whilst the Western Cape has madeconsiderable progress in comparison to otherprovincial departments, the impact of this

across schools within the province has beenuneven. As Garson notes:

Although the Western Cape’s 2 000 schoolsfall under one administrative structure, thedifferences between them are so vast theymay as well be hemispheres apart. Oneschool has abundant resources, good accessto the provincial department of Education,and sophisticated management andteaching skills that allow it to forge aheadwith fund-raising and implementing the newcurriculum. A few kilometres away, anotherschool has none of these. Instead, it hasviolence, gangsterism overcrowdedclassrooms and ill-trained teachers in shortsupply’ (Garson,1999:14).

The Western Cape is obviously not uniquewith respect to differences between schoolswithin a province. Indeed, a key feature of theeducation sector is that of disparity betweenschools under one provincial department. Forexample, in the Northern Province, schools inand around Pietersburg are in a much betterposition relative to schools in the formerhomeland areas of Gazankulu, Lebowa, andVenda. These former homeland areas wereonly amalgamated into the Northern Provinceeducation department late in 1996.Thus evenwithin provinces the development of specificregions has been shaped by differenthistorical, political and economic forces.

The disparities between schools underprovincial education departments point to theproblem of ensuring coherence anduniformity in terms of policy implementationfrom national to provincial, district, and schoollevels. It also underscores that the process ofdevolution and decentralisation of educationis difficult, requiring effective planning andmanagement, open and reliable channels ofcommunication, and an immense amount ofcapacity-building. Different provincial depart-ments are faced with different sorts ofchallenges as they grapple with the develop-ment and implementation of strategies

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SECTION A CHAPTER 5

towards ICT provision and effective usage inschools.

Provincial departments have experiencedconsiderable difficulties in the areas of financeand management. It is estimated that by theend of 1997, over-expenditure by provincesamounted to approximately R5.5 billion (Dept.of Finance, 1998). There are, however,indications that this pattern of overspendingwas significantly better controlled in the1998/1999 financial year, a trend that wasconfirmed by the Minister of Finance’s 1999budget speech (Business Day, Feb 1999).

As a means of dealing with the issue of over-expenditure, the national department ofeducation announced that a new approach tospending would be introduced in 1999, withmechanisms to ensure that:

Schools and district offices would in futureshoulder responsibility for their ownfinances. Each school would have aseparate budget allocation…. Schools wouldhave to develop their own budgets formaintenance, teacher costs, non-teacherpersonnel costs, textbooks and equipment(Edusource, 1998:1).

However, an underlying assumption of thisapproach is that school staff and governingbodies have the necessary financial expertise totake on the responsibility of budgeting. As Vally& Spreen emphasise,

As schools are to become their own budgetand cost centres, the burden of establishing,exempting and retrieving fees will besevere. Budget formulation and financialarrangements with district and provinciallevels will require considerable expertiseand…the need to afford governing bodiesextensive training in financial managementis therefore crucial’ (Vally &Spreen,1998:8).

Once again, it is likely that schools whereparents and teachers have more experienceand greater knowledge of ICTs will be more

able to manage and sustain effective ICTdevelopment in their school. Clearly, thesetrends cannot be ignored in an environmentwhere ICT skills are becoming a keydifferentiator in employment opportunities.

Profile of educatorsAlthough the numbers of teachers presentlyemployed in the formal schooling system canbe fairly accurately calculated, opinions differas to whether there is an oversupply orunder-supply of teachers in the system.Different estimates of teacher vacancies makeit extremely difficult to develop an accuratepicture of personnel levels within the system.

Despite the uncertainties in determiningeducator levels, there is more consensus andcertainty about the fact that the majority ofteachers in both primary and secondaryschools are women. In 1997 the GenderEquity Task Team (GETT) noted a female:maleratio among primary school teachers of73.5:26.5 and a ratio of 63.8:36.2 at thesecondary school level. Chisholm andPetersen, in commenting on a report by theGauteng Department of Education, note that,according to the report, while women makeup approximately 75% of the teaching force inthe province, only 33% of them are principals(Chisholm & Petersen,1999:3).This scenario isnot limited to Gauteng. GETT providecombined figures for schools and technicalcolleges in 1997 which show that of the 36%of teachers who are males, 58% of them holdprincipal posts, 69% deputy principal postsand 50% hold head of department posts(GETT, 1997:82).These figures therefore pointto significant gender inequalities among theSouth African teaching force.

A profile of the teacher population in SouthAfrica also shows that although amatriculation certificate plus three yearshigher education training is regarded as theminimum requirement for teachers, a


substantial number of CS educators have

qualifications lower than this. Even though it

would appear that skills levels are improving, a

high percentage of teachers with low levels of

skills obviously impacts on the quality of

teaching and learning. Similarly, low levels of

skill in general probably mean an even lower

level of skill in the area of ICTs.

Over and above these problems is the low

level of teacher morale. The Minister of

Education, in outlining his plan of action for

the next five years, commented in July 1999

that ‘many teachers have been demoralised by

the uncertainty and distress of rationalisation

and redeployment’ and that the expectation

of job security and stability in schools ‘has

been long in coming’ (Asmal, 1999:3). In

explaining this further he argues that the high

levels of violence including drug-dealing,

sexual abuse also substantially affect morale

and other forms of physical assault, which

permeate many of the schools in South

Africa. Those teachers who manage to

overcome these obstacles and are committed

to their work are further demoralised by high

levels of absenteeism and lack of discipline on

the part of their colleagues and learners

(Asmal, 1999:3).

While these factors obviously impact on

the context in which ICT development will

take place, there are the more ‘subtle and

insidious’ forms of demoralisation which arise

when teachers are unclear or unconfident

about the demands placed on them,

particularly in regard to curricula and new

forms of pedagogy. If it is recognised, as

highlighted in international experience, that

innovation and a commitment to new forms

of learning and practice are key to the

effective use of ICTs by educators, then the

issues described above have the potential to

create significant barriers to ICT

development in our schools.

The nature of teaching and learningAs part of the government’s commitment to

the improvement of the quality of teaching

and learning in schools, it launched the

COLTS (Culture of Learning, Teaching, and

Service) campaign in 1997.This campaign was

launched in direct response to a breakdown in

learning and teaching in a large number of

schools across the country.

Despite these trends, effective teaching

and learning (as evidenced by matriculation

results) continues to take place despite

adverse conditions in some of the poorest

and most under-resourced schools in South

Africa.

In the North West province, for example, a

combined school of about 600 pupils from

Grades 1–12 with 17 teachers, no

laboratories, media centres, library or fence,

achieved a 67% matriculation pass rate in

1997, placing it amongst the top 100 schools

of South Africa (Sowetan, 1998). Similarly, it has

been reported that a secondary school near

Thohoyandou achieved a 100% matric pass

rate in 1996 ‘despite extremely deprived

physical circumstances (Cape Times, October

1998).

These exceptional cases highlight that,

while it is essential for the state to tackle the

serious issues of provision of resources and

physical infrastructure, these factors do not, in

themselves, provide any guarantee that

effective teaching and learning will take place,

nor is their absence sufficient explanation for

under-achieving schools.

One of the most significant factors

impacting on teaching and learning in the

classroom is the high levels of violence to

which many students and teachers are

subjected. The violence in schools and/or

adjacent communities impacts enormously on

students. Violence in schools is not only

limited to overt criminal or political violence

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but is also experienced through high levels ofracism in the schools.

Teaching and learning in schools has alsobeen substantially affected by the implemen-tation of the new curriculum framework.Since the introduction of the new curriculum,its impact across the provinces has beenuneven.Vally & Spreen report that:

In rural or under-served areas it isestimated that at least 20 000 primaryschools (one in five of the schoolstargeted) have failed to implement thenew curriculum for reasons such as lackof teacher preparation or resourcematerials. Not surprisingly, the provincesthat have fallen furthest behind are theNorthern Province, KwaZulu-Natal, theNorth West and the Free State (Vally &Spreen, 1999:14).

All provinces have experienced, to lesseror greater degrees, difficulties with the newcurriculum. A study commissioned by theGauteng Institute for CurriculumDevelopment (GICD) ascribed the difficultiessurrounding implementation of the newcurriculum to ‘inadequate training ofteachers, a lack of materials and poorcommunication between department officialsand teachers’ (Garson, 1999:6).The difficultiesencountered with the implementation of thenew curriculum looks set to continue wellinto the new millennium, with the EasternCape provincial department, for example,reporting that:

Curriculum 2005 was threatened with nofinance available for materials andeducator training, and the department didnot foresee being able to extend theprogramme to grade two in 1999(Edusource, 1998:3).

An important component of Curriculum2005 is the Technology 2005 project, jointly

initiated in October 1994 by the Departmentof Arts, Culture, Science and Technology andthe National Department of Education.Technology 2005 is a three-year curriculumdevelopment project, which aims to workwith provincial departments in thedevelopment of:

• a national curriculum framework fortechnology education in the compulsoryschool phases.

• appropriate pre- and in-service teachereducation programmes in technologyeducation.

• systems for the implementation andevaluation of the Technology 2005 projectin participating provinces (JET, 1997:6).

Attempts have been made to include ICTsin teacher training. For example, theCommittee of Teacher Education Principals(COTEP) schemes suggest that all teachertrainees should cover mathematics and/orscience and/or computers in their training. Itis crucial that this happens as it provides newteachers with the skills they will require forICT education.

In addition, some education departmentshave already begun instituting technologyprojects in schools. In the Northern Province,for example, 24 schools have been chosen toimplement Technology 2005 (Edusource,1998:11). Initiatives such as these are rare andare primarily dependent on donor funding. AsShindler writes in Edusource, ‘althoughtechnology education is to be part ofCurriculum 2005, some provinces have noresources for schools, no training programmesfor teachers and no strategies in place forimplementation’ (Edusource, 1998:5).Thus whileCurriculum 2005, and its associated Technology2005 project, provides important frameworksfor ICT development in schools, the reality oflimited funding and capacity hinder the progressof their implementation (Edusource, 1998:5).

SECTION A CHAPTER 5

ConclusionAlthough discrepancies haunt the statistical

information underpinning the trends described

above, correction of these discrepancies is,

however, unlikely to change the general

patterns significantly. Hence, even based on

existing data, these patterns present important

strategic challenges to people contributing to

the growing use of ICTs at South Africanschools. While we have a rich and thoroughpolicy base from which to draw, the realities ofconditions on the ground have the capacity tosubstantially shift policy intentions. In the areaof ICTs, while the policy slate is not empty orbarren, the real challenge lies in developingstrategies that are effectively co-ordinated andimplemented at all levels of the system.

SCHOOLING CONTEXT

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

This chapter is divided into seven sections and

provides a detailed overview of the findings

from the questionnaires received from schools

that have one or more computers. Each section

deals with a specific aspect of ICT provision in

schools by providing an overview of general

trends that can be gauged through basic cross-

tabulations of the data.The sections are:

• An audit of resources

• Teaching computer literacy

• Computers in teaching and learning

• Computer studies

• Funding and maintenance

• General school-computer context

• After hours use

The present chapter provides an overview of

all the questions contained in the

questionnaire, including a discussion of the

most pertinent findings. Each section ends with

a short summary of the main findings in each

case. (For a further synthesis of all the findings

of the study and a discussion of the policy

implications, see Section C.)

As was mentioned in Chapter 2, specificgrouping variables were selected to comparethe findings and establish relationships betweenvariables.The data was then analysed accordingto these variables, namely:

• type of school (primary, secondary andcombined school).

• province (data for all nine provinces wereanalysed).

• year in which the school started to usecomputers (three broad periods wereused).

• geographical location, i.e. whether schoolswere located in an urban, peri-urban orrural environment.

• Computer Studies offered as a schoolsubject.

• total number of computers in useaccording to three categories, i.e. 10 orless, 11 to 29 and over 30.

The findings of the survey in this first level ofanalysis are presented in tables that show theresponses of schools according to the sixgrouping variables listed above.

‘6’Schools with computers

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Audit of resourcesThis section is devoted to a discussion ofresults pertaining to:

• hardware: types and numbers of computersand printers per school.

• Internet access and connectivity: access tothe Internet and e-mail and associated costs.

• software: types of software available and howmuch they are used in schools.

• home computers: access to homecomputers.

Hardware: computers and printersMost schools in the sample (44%) havebetween 11 and 29 computers, and asubstantial proportion (38%) have 30 or morecomputers. A fifth of the schools have 10 orless computers. Not surprisingly, secondaryand combined schools tend to have a highernumber of computers than primary schools.There are provincial differences that reflectlarger socio-economic inequalities. Provincessuch as the Northern Province andMpumalanga are not as well-equipped as theWestern Cape, Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal.As far as geographical location is concerned,the pattern is as expected with urban andperi-urban schools better resourced thanrural schools.

Table 6.1.2 shows that secondary andcombined schools have, on average, highernumbers of computers than primary schools.In fact, the average number of Pentiums in usein secondary schools (17.3) is significantlyhigher than the average for all schools and isnearly seventy percent higher than theaverage number of Pentiums in primaryschools (10.4). However, any measure of theaverage number of computers across allschools (mean) needs to be read with cautionas the survey data also shows largediscrepancies between schools. For example,while the overall average number of Pentiumcomputers may be 17.3 for secondaryschools, some schools have 60 computerswhile others have only five.

Schools that offer Computer Studies havesignificantly higher proportions of both new andold computers compared to those who do not.In addition, there are nearly twice as manyPentiums (18.17 per school) at schools that offerComputer Studies as a subject compared toschools that do not (9.41 per school). (Analysisof variance shows that these differences canconfidently be generalised for the entirepopulation of schools that have computers).

SCHOOLS WITH COMPUTERS

Table 6.1.1: Total number of computers (categories) per school

Total number of Totalcomputers (categories) 10 and Between 11 30 and less and 29 moreRow % Row % Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 36 41 23 427Secondary 22 36 42 338Combined 29 40 31 121

ProvinceEastern Cape 34 43 24 80Free State 34 41 25 71Gauteng 21 29 50 226KZN 27 50 24 161Mpumalanga 40 27 33 48Northern Province 53 13 33 15Northern Cape 38 53 9 34North West 37 35 28 43Western Cape 34 40 27 243

Geographical locationUrban/towns 27 40 33 787Peri-urban/semi-towns 50 29 21 28Rural 53 27 19 73

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 21 38 41 2621990 – 1994 29 38 33 3481995 and after 37 43 20 268

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 11 41 47 384No 43 37 20 497

Computer skills teacher (recoded)Department/govt 20 43 37 578Private/contract 14 45 40 139

Total 19 44 38 717

Schools which offer Computer Studies as asubject also tend to have a higher number ofmore modern printers (laser printers andbubble-jets) than schools that do not offerComputer Studies as a school subject. Schoolsthat do not offer Computer Studies tend tohave a marginally higher average number ofoutdated matrix printers.

Internet access and connectivityThe Internet is beginning to be used as aresource and communication tool inclassroom teaching and learning. Internetaccess and connectivity requires theavailability of appropriate hardware andsoftware at schools. A major constraint, thattends to limit Internet use, are the costs ofconnecting and of transmitting information,images and data.

More than 40% of all schools sampled haveaccess to the Internet. This national profile,however, masks some rather large differenceswhen some other factors are taken intoconsideration. 49% of secondary schools haveaccess to the Internet while 35% of primaryschools have access. Similarly, schools in urbanareas are better connected than theircounterparts in peri-urban and rural areas.There are also significant provincialdifferences. Schools in the Western Cape andGauteng are better off than most with nearlyhalf of schools (49%) having access to theInternet. A relatively small proportion ofschools have computers in the NorthernProvince and Northern Cape, and schools inthese provinces also show the lowestprovincial Internet connectivity at 12% and21% respectively. One reason for this may bethe high telephone costs that are associatedwith accessing the Internet by using directtelephone lines.

When Internet access is correlated with start-up date, the teaching of Computer Studies as aschool subject and overall number of

computers, the results are generally as expected.More schools that started using computersbefore 1990 are connected to the Internet thanthe late starters. Schools that offer ComputerStudies are much better connected (56% versus30%) than those who do not and schools whichare well-resourced and have more than 30computers are also better connected than thosewhich have less computers.

Most schools (85%) gain access to theInternet through modems. There are onlyslight variations in this figure across provinces,geographical location and other groupingvariables. Less than one in ten schools gainaccess to the Internet by means of leasedlines.This is slightly more common in the caseof schools in the rural areas (15%). Theseschools tend to be located in the Eastern


PAGE 67

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.1.2: Distribution of types of computersin use by type of school

Type of school Older than 486s Pentium's 486s in use in use in use

PrimaryMedian 6.00 4.00 5.00Mean 9.63 9.28 10.39Std. deviation 10.08 10.92 12.07N 260 284 320Sum 2 504 2 636 3 326

SecondaryMedian 8.00 5.00 10.00Mean 11.49 11.00 17.33Std. deviation 12.74 12.13 17.37N 233 239 284Sum 2 678 2 629 4 922

CombinedMedian 9.00 5.00 8.00Mean 11.47 11.56 14.29Std. deviation 11.11 17.09 17.71N 73 80 96Sum 837 925 1 372

TotalMedian 6.00 4.00 7.00Mean 10.63 10.27 13.74Std. Deviation 11.39 12.39 15.55N 566 603 700Sum 6 019 6 190 9 620

Median = the middle value: that value where half the cases fall below, andhalf are placed above it Mean = average N = number of schools Sum = number of computers

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces.

Tables 6.1.5 and 6.1.6 reveal quite largeprovincial differences both as far as Telkom andInternet Service Provider (ISP) costs areconcerned. Provinces such as the North West(R759) and KwaZulu-Natal (R543) seem to paymuch more than the national average (R399)for their Telkom costs and the reasons for thisshould be investigated.The large differences inaverage Telkom costs per province (rangingbetween a low of R88 and a high of R566 perschool) also warrant further attention.

Table 6.1.7 shows that nearly six in 10schools, which have computers, also have acomputer network. A more detailed analysis

highlights variations to this. Higher thanaverage percentages were recorded in twoprovinces: Free State (68%) and Gauteng(70%). On the other hand, Northern Province,Northern Cape and Mpumalanga recordedlarge proportions of schools withoutcomputer networks. Furthermore, schools inurban and peri-urban areas tend to have anetwork (61% and 58% respectively). A highproportion of schools (68%) that have acomputer network started using computersbefore 1990. Schools that started usingcomputers later show significantly lowerlevels of network connections. Similar levelsof networking of computers are shown atschools (69%) that offer Computer Studies asa school subject within the curriculum of theschool. The evidence also suggests that thepropensity towards the networking ofcomputers increases as the number ofcomputers at the school increases.

According to the results presented in Table6.1.9 half of all schools, which have computers,also have a file server. This tends to be the caseirrespective of the type of school or theprovince in which the school is located. Somedeviations from the rule are: in the NorthernProvince 88% of schools in a relatively smallsample do not have a file server, in theNorthern Cape 68% of schools are without fileservers, and in Mpumalanga, 61% have no fileserver. The same qualification applies to ruralschools, where 65% indicated that they do nothave a file server. On the other hand, 50% ofurban schools have file servers. As one wouldexpect, the total number of computers perschool is an important factor in determiningwhether a school has a file server or not. Only18% of schools which have 10 or lesscomputers have file servers, compared to 49%of schools which have between 11 and 29computers and 80% of schools which havemore than 30 computers.

Table 6.1.8 shows that a comparativelyhigher proportion of learners have their own


Table 6.1.3: Internet access

Internet access TotalYES NOCount Row % Count Row % Count Col %

Type of schoolPrimary 154 35 285 65 439 49Secondary 169 49 173 51 342 38Combined 48 39 75 61 123 14

ProvinceEastern Cape 31 38 51 62 82 9Free State 22 30 51 70 73 8Gauteng 114 49 121 51 235 25KwaZulu Natal 62 38 103 62 165 18Mpumalanga 15 30 35 70 50 5N/Province 2 12 15 88 17 2Northern Cape 7 21 26 79 33 4Northwest 11 26 31 74 42 4Western Cape 121 49 124 51 245 26

Geographical locationUrban/towns 338 42 462 58 800 88Peri-urban/semi-towns 9 35 17 65 26 3Rural 24 30 57 70 81 9

School started to use computers actively?Before 1990 129 49 135 51 264 301990 - 1994 143 41 209 59 352 401995 and after 100 37 173 63 273 31

Computer studies as a school subject?Yes 217 56 168 44 385 43No 155 30 360 70 515 57

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 44 16 234 84 278 30Between 11 and 29 138 39 213 61 351 3830 and more 197 69 89 31 286 31

Total 379 41 536 59 915 100

personal e-mail addresses compared to eithermanagement, administration or teachers atschools. The proportions from each of thesegroups at schools nationally where some havepersonal e-mail addresses are 43% ofmanagement, 27% of administration, 53% ofteachers and 56% of learners.

Just over half of the schools that participatedin the survey have e-mail addresses for some ofthe teachers. In 11% of the schools, more than50% of the teachers have their own e-mailaddresses. However, a majority of schools inthe Free State (57%), Northern Province (58%),Northern Cape (81%) and North West (62%)do not have personal e-mail addresses forteachers. In the remaining five provinces,majorities of the schools indicated that someteachers at the school have their own personale-mail addresses. Schools that started usingcomputers before 1990 (61%), as well as thosethat offer Computer Studies as a school subject(63%) and schools that have 30 or morecomputers (73%) recorded higher levels ofpersonal e-mail access for teachers at theschool. The highest concentration of personal e-mail access (50% or more) for teachers atschools are shown to exist at combinedschools (17% or 17 out of 103) and schools inthe Western Cape (24% or 51 out of 215).Thus only a very small number of schoolsreported having personal e-mail for over 50%of their teachers.

In absolute terms, 434 schools indicate thatsome learners have personal e-mail addresses,and 424 schools indicated that some teachersat the school have personal e-mail addresses.The distribution of schools where learnershave e-mail is uneven across provinces.Generally, schools in the Northern Provinceand Northern Cape, as well as schoolssituated in peri-urban and rural areas have noe-mail access for learners. A similar situationapplies to schools that do not offer ComputerStudies as a subject and schools that have 10or less computers. Slightly more than 10% of


PAGE 69

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.1.4: Means of gaining access to the Internet

How does school gain Internet access? TotalModem ISDN Leased Line OtherRow % Row % Row % Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 89 1 6 4 158Secondary 84 4 9 3 167Combined 79 4 13 4 47

ProvinceEastern Cape 78 3 13 6 32Free State 86 5 9 22Gauteng 88 5 5 2 112KZN 80 2 13 6 64Mpumalanga 88 6 6 16Northern Province 50 50 2Northern Cape 86 14 7North West 92 8 12Western Cape 86 2 8 4 121

Geographical locationUrban/towns 86 3 7 4 340Peri-urban/semi-towns 73 9 18 11Rural 78 22 23

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 80 2 11 7 1351990 – 1994 88 4 4 4 1461995 and after 88 1 9 1 95

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 85 2 10 3 216No 86 3 5 6 160

Computer skills teacher (recoded)Department/govt 86 3 8 3 259Private/contract 86 1 7 6 84

Total 86 3 8 4 343

Table 6.1.5: Average Telkom costs per school, permonth

Province Mean Minimum Maximum NE/Cape R354.61 R60.00 R3 000.00 18Free State R126.85 R75.00 R500.00 13Gauteng R565.54 R38.00 R9 000.00 66KZN R557.67 R45.00 R5 130.00 43Mpumalanga R190.83 R96.00 R600.00 6N/Province R145.00 R90.00 R200.00 2N/Cape R419.00 R40.00 R1 800.00 5Northwest R87.75 R75.00 R100.00 8W/Cape R350.31 R1.00 R2 500.00 74

Total R423.37 R1.00 R9 000.00 235

SECTION B CHAPTER 6 SCHOOLS WITH COMPUTERS

Table 6.1.7: Does school have a computernetwork?

Computer network TotalYes NoCount Row % Count Row % Count Col %

Type of schoolPrimary 252 59 175 41 427 48Secondary school 203 59 142 41 345 39Combined school 67 55 54 45 121 14

ProvinceEastern Cape 47 57 35 43 82 9Free State 51 68 24 32 75 8Gauteng 162 70 69 30 231 25KZN 86 54 73 46 159 17Mpumalanga 25 50 25 50 50 5Northern Province 3 16 16 84 19 2Northern Cape 14 41 20 59 34 4North West 22 52 20 48 42 5Western Cape 132 56 105 44 237 26


School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 177 68 83 32 260 301990 – 1994 190 55 157 45 347 401995 and after 158 58 113 42 271 31

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 263 69 118 31 381 43No 261 51 246 49 507 57


Total 535 59 367 41 902 100

Table 6.1.9: Does school have a file server?

File server TotalYes NoCount Row % Count Row % Count Col %

Type of schoolPrimary 197 47 221 53 418 48Secondary school 172 51 163 49 335 39Combined school 56 48 61 52 117 13

ProvinceEastern Cape 40 53 36 47 76 8Free State 41 59 29 41 70 8Gauteng 140 61 88 39 228 25KwaZulu Natal 68 43 91 57 159 18Mpumalanga 19 39 30 61 49 5Northern Province 2 13 14 88 16 2Northern Cape 10 32 21 68 31 3North West 17 44 22 56 39 4Western Cape 104 44 132 56 236 26



Computer studies as a school subjectYes 223 59 154 41 377 44No 203 42 282 58 485 56


Total 436 50 438 50 874 100

Table 6.1.8: Proportions of various groupswho have their own e-mail address

None < 50% > 50% TotalEmail – management

Count 452 234 107 793% 57.0% 29.5% 13.5% 100.0%

Email – administrationCount 569 125 83 777

% 73.2% 16.1% 10.7% 100.0%

Email – teachersCount 387 334 90 811

% 47.7% 41.2% 11.1% 100.0%

Email – learnersCount 347 357 82 786

% 44.1% 45.4% 10.4% 100.0%

Table 6.1.6: Average Internet Server Provider (ISP)costs per school by province

Province Mean Minimum Maximum NE/Cape R314.86 R45.00 R1 500.00 17Free State R207.69 R50.00 R500.00 15Gauteng R392.78 R15.00 R6 000.00 68KZN R542.738 R10.00 R5 500.00 42Mpumalanga R155.00 R50.00 R400.00 6 N/Province R400.00 R400.00 R400.00 1N/Cape R388.71 R6.00 R1 800.00 7North West R758.75 R35.00 R5 085.00 8W/Cape R364.38 R20.00 R3 000.00 77

Total R398.96 R6.00 R6 000.00 241


schools indicated that more than 50% of theirlearners have their own e-mail addresses.More than half of these schools are located inthe Western Cape (55%). 76% of these schoolsstarted using computers before 1995, 70%offer Computer Studies as a school subjectand about 65% have 30 or more computers.

Software packages and usageSchools were asked to indicate whichsoftware programmes they use and whetherthey use such packages frequently orinfrequently. In Figure 6.1.1, we summarise theusage (without distinguishing betweenfrequency of use) in descending order. As isevident from the graph, word processingsoftware, spreadsheets and software foradministrative purposes are used by morethan two thirds of all schools that havecomputers. It is worth pointing out that theremay be some overlap between these threecategories as administrative software probablyincludes both word processing andspreadsheets packages. More than half of theschools (481 out of 962) use electronicinformation resources such as encyclopediason CD-Rom, while presentation and databasesoftware are also used by a significant numberof schools.

The results showed that most schools douse the software they possess to greater orlesser extents. Word processing andAdministration software programmes wereused frequently by 88% and 94% of schoolsrespectively. Other software programmeswhich schools use frequently areSpreadsheets (60%) and Programminglanguages (67%). Only a small proportion ofsoftware is not being used at all. Software thatis technically easier to use shows only minorunder-utilisation, whereas software that lendsitself to more complex technical applicationstends to be under-utilised at between 10–35%of schools. Examples of these include:Presentation software (48%), Drawing PAGE 71

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.1.1: Software programmes used by schools(frequency of use)

807

695

481

417

355317

676

464

322

Web publishing

Simulation software

Drawing software

Internet browsers

Programming languages

Problem solvers

Drill & practice

Database software

Presentation software

Information resrouces

Spreadsheets

School admin

Word processing

297256

117 114

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Table 6.1.10: Proportion of learners with e-mail addresses

E-mail – learners TotalNone Less than 50% More than 50%Count Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count Col %

Type of schoolPrimary 160 46 158 45 31 9 349 46Secondary 124 40 150 49 34 11 308 41Combined 48 48 38 38 15 15 101 13

ProvinceE/Cape 26 41 33 52 4 6 63 8Free State 28 47 31 52 1 2 60 8Gauteng 78 39 106 53 17 8 201 26KZN 66 46 65 45 14 10 145 18Mpumalanga 19 45 21 50 2 5 42 5N/Province 7 64 4 36 11 1N/Cape 17 68 8 32 25 3North West 15 48 16 52 31 4W/Cape 91 44 73 35 44 21 208 26

Geographical locationUrban/towns 281 42 316 47 71 11 668 88Peri-urban 12 57 7 33 2 10 21 3Rural 43 63 20 29 5 7 68 9

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 75 32 122 53 34 15 231 311990 – 1994 137 46 132 45 27 9 296 401995 and after 110 50 89 41 19 9 218 29

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 104 30 182 53 55 16 341 45No 223 54 168 41 23 6 414 55

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 144 67 65 30 5 2 214 28Between 11 and 29 131 44 142 48 23 8 296 3930 and more 56 22 147 58 52 20 255 33

Total 331 43 354 46 80 10 765 100

software (41%), Simulation software (29%),Database software (47%) and Web publishingsoftware (26%).On the whole, between 4%and 43% of schools used the types of softwarelisted in the table infrequently. On the otherhand between 26% and 94% used these typesof software frequently.

Home computersIn response to this question only 10% ofschools indicated that none of their studentshave access to home computers. The majorityof schools indicated that less than 50% of theirlearners have home computers while a smallerproportion indicated that more than half oftheir learners have computers at home.Figure 6.1.2 shows the breakdown of learnersaccording to grades.

PAGE 72


Table 6.1.11: Software programmesused by schools

Not Infr. Freq. TotalWord processing

Count 12 90 717 819% 1 11 88 100

Spreadsheets Count 34 251 425 710% 5 35 60 100

Presentation softwareCount 68 209 255 532% 13 39 48 100

Drawing software Count 50 132 124 306% 16 43 41 100

Internet browsersCount 53 119 178 350% 15 34 51 100

Programmers Count 36 80 237 353% 10 23 67 100

AdministrationCount 15 28 667 710% 2 4 94 100

Simulation software Count 50 69 48 167% 30 41 29 100

DatabaseCount 71 189 228 488% 15 39 47 100

Web publishingCount 61 69 45 175% 35 39 26 100

Info resourcesCount 29 163 319 511% 6 32 62 100

Figure 6.1.2: Access to home computers by different groups

10

75

15

22

70

8 9

72

19 19

72

9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

None <50% >50%

Grades 1 – 3 Grades 4 – 7 Grades 8 – 10 Grades 11 – 12


PAGE 73

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Summary• While the data contained in the survey must be used cautiously because national and provincial averages in the audit of

resources mask regional variations, it still provides useful information. It can be observed that schools in provinces suchas Gauteng and Western Cape appear to have better facilities and more up-to-date computers than schools in the EasternCape and Northern Cape. Schools in the Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the North West provinces arewalking a middle path between the two.There are however clusters of schools in each of the provinces whose resourceendowments exceed the national average. It is likely that these schools were either previously classified as Model Cschools, or are presently independent schools.

• Generally schools that offer Computer Studies as a school subject are better situated to develop a broad infrastructureof resources and make greater use of ICTs than schools that do not offer the subject. In addition to possessing a largenumber of computers, such schools also tend to be better connected to the Internet. Nearly 50% of schools in theWestern Cape and Gauteng have access to the Internet.

• More effective managerial, administrative and teaching practices could be encouraged at schools if more teachers hadpersonal e-mail addresses. At present, only 43% of management, 27% of administration and 53% of teachers at schoolssurveyed have personal e-mail addresses.This is especially true for teachers at schools in rural areas.

• Most of the software which schools possess is being used. However, there are some software programmes installed atschools that are not used at all. These tend to involve software that performs advanced and complex technicalapplications.

• Only 10% of schools indicated that none of their students have access to home computers. The majority of schoolsindicated that less than 50% of their learners have computers at home.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Computer literacyThis section addresses the issue of computerliteracy and outlines the skills that are taught.We look at whether there are differencesbetween male and female learners and theaverage number of hours spent on learningcomputer skills across grades.The question ofwho teaches computer skills is discussed andthe issue of how the teaching of computerskills can be expanded is addressed.

An overview of computer skillstaught in the different gradesThe two figures below present overviews ofthe types of computer skills taught in primaryand secondary schools respectively. In bothcases, percentages are shown. Figure 6.2.1

summarises the results for Grades 1–3 andGrades 4–7. Figure 6.2.2 presents the resultsfor Grades 8–10 and Grades 11–12.

The results illustrated in Figure 6.2.1 indicateclearly that up to Grade 7 the basic principlesof computing and word processing skills aregiven the most attention. For Grades 1–3, 32%of the schools indicated that basic principles ofcomputing are taught and for Grades 4–7, 38%of the schools recorded the teaching of theseskills. Similarly, 17% and 35% of schoolsindicated that word processing skills are taughtin Grades 1–3 and Grades 4–7 respectively.

The pattern towards a greater emphasis onthe teaching of computer skills in general fromGrades 4–7 is clear from Figure 6.2.1. Only 2%of schools indicated that web design skills weretaught at either level. As expected, skills likethese and other more complex and technicallyorientated skills such as programming,spreadsheets, file management and databasesreceive more attention at the secondary level.

It is also interesting to note that fewschools place much emphasis on teachinglearners how to use the Internet before theend of Grade 7. A mere 3% of schoolsindicated that this was taught in Grades 1–3and only 11% teach it in Grades 4–7. Anumber of primary school teacherscommented during interviews that, at theprimary school level, Internet use mainlyconsists of the teacher downloading infor-mation and making the information availableto the students through a network.

All areas of skill receive greater attention atthe secondary level as indicated in Figure 6.2.2.It is particularly interesting to note the changein emphasis that takes place between Grades 8–10 and Grades 11–12. In comparison withthe primary schools where basic computingprinciples receive more attention, only 38% ofsecondary schools indicated that these skillsare taught to learners in Grades 8–10. Thisdrops to 23% in Grades 11–12.


Figure 6.2.1: Computer skills (percentages) as taught in primaryschools

32

38

35

23

17

97

20

15 15

13

1110

9

44443

2

5

22 00

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Basic computing

Word processing

Spreadsheets

Presentation graphics

File management

Internet

Databases

Information skills

DTP

Web design

Programming skills

Systems analysis

Ethics

Figure 6.2.2: Computer skills (percentages) as taught insecondary schools

38

23

29

14

37

1616

28

15

19

9

14 13

22

4

10

21

29

14

2

20

57

1618

30

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Key

G1 – G3 (%) G4 – G7 (%)

G8 – G10 (%) G11 – G12 (%)

A similar picture is evident if the teaching ofword processing skills is considered. It isinteresting to see that 37% of schools indicatedthat they teach these skills in Grades 8–10 and35% of schools teach this in Grades 4–7.Thusmost schools focus on teaching wordprocessing skills between Grades 4–10 and bythe time learners reach Grade 11 they areexpected to be competent in this area. Theteaching of basic computer principles alsohappens mostly in Grades 4–10.

In looking at the two figures together, it isinteresting to note that the area of informationskills (which was explained to schools in thequestionnaire as consisting of tasks such asresearch and exploration using CD-Rom andthe Internet) receives the most prominence inGrades 4–7. While only 16% and 14% ofschools indicated that this is addressed inGrades 8–10 and 11– 12 respectively, 23% ofschools indicated that they taught these skills inGrades 4–7. Only 9% indicated that theyfocused on this area in Grades 1–3. Again itseems that the teaching of basic skills to equiplearners to use computers as sources ofinformation is emphasised by a number ofschools in the late primary phase of schooling.

It seems therefore that Grades 4–7 is acritical stage for many schools in equippinglearners with a number of the basiccomponents in the efficient and effective use ofcomputers, i.e. the principles of computing;word processing; and using computers forinformation gathering and research.

Another area of skill that appears to formpart of the curriculum at all levels, is the ethicsof computer use. Although the emphasis isgreater at the secondary level, 4% of schoolsindicated that this area is already discussed inGrades 1–3.

The three types of skills identified by themajority of the respondents as being veryimportant (Figure 6.2.3) are:

• Basic computing principles (42%).

• Word processing skills (39%).

• Programming skills (16%).

All other skills mentioned receive very littlegeneral support. This rank-ordering suggeststhat, although a large variety of computer skillsare taught in secondary schools (see Figure6.2.2), most respondents view these threetypes of skills as the core skills that shouldform part of all curricula.

Basic principles of computers as akey area of emphasisThe subject of ‘basic computing’ is the area ofskill considered most important by the greatestpercentage of respondents at both primary andsecondary level (Figure 6.2.3). Further analysisrevealed interesting results when this variableis cross tabulated with whether ComputerStudies is offered as a school subject and thetotal number of computers at the school.

When the area of basic computing skills wasconsidered in relation to whether schoolstaught Computer Studies, it was interesting tonote that 67% of schools that teach ComputerStudies indicated that the basic skills weretaught in Grades 8–10. In comparison, only 19%of schools that do not teach Computer Studiesteach basic computing skills at this level. Thesame picture is evident when looking at theGrades 11–12, but, in general, a smallerpercentage of schools teach basic computerskills at this level. This confirms the change inemphasis in the Computer Studies curriculumbetween these two levels.

If the teaching of basic skills in Grades 8–10 isconsidered in relation to the number ofcomputers which a school has (Table 6.2.1), thepercentage of schools teaching these skills


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SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.2.3: Ordering of most important computerskills for Grades 8–10 (First choice)

Basic computing skills 42%

File management 1%

Internet usage 2%

Word processing 39%

Programming 16%

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

increases as the number of computers increase(i.e. 19% for those with 10 or less, 41% for thosewith 11 to 29 computers and 56% of those with30 computers or more).The evidence thereforeshows that access to computers correlates withthe teaching of basic computing skills to learnersat this level.

Proportions of male and femalelearners that are taught computerskillsThe following two figures compare male andfemale learners and the proportions of eachgroup that is being taught computer skills invarious grades.

In Grades 1 – 3 and Grades 4–7, there is verylittle difference between the percentage ofmale and female learners taught computerskills in schools. In both sets of grades, thereare slightly more female learners than malelearners in schools where over 50% of learnerslearn computer skills.

A similar picture can be seen in secondaryschools with little difference being seenbetween the percentage of male and femalelearners taught computer skills among thoseschools where more than half learn computerskills and in schools where less than 50% learncomputer skills. In general therefore, theevidence from the respondents shows that inthe teaching of computer skills genderdifferences are statistically insignificant. Thispattern did not yield any important changeswhen other variables such as level of computerresources were considered.

Average hours spent learningcomputer skills The evidence from Table 6.2.2 shows thatlearning computer skills forms a very small partof the overall teaching and learning process inmost primary schools from the sample.Learners in primary schools spend on averageless than an hour per week learning computer


Figure 6.2.4: A comparison of proportion of male and femalelearners that are taught computer skills in primary schools

19.3

30

50.7

16.9

30.2

52.9

12.9

33.3

53.9

11.1

32

56.9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Figure 6.2.5: The proportion of male and female learners thatare taught computer skills in secondary schools

12.1

45.942

10.9

44.3 44.8

14.8

51.4

33.8

13.6

52.3

34.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Table 6.2.1: Basic computing principles by total number ofcomputers

Total number of computers (categories) Yes No Total10 and lessBasic computing principles (G1–G3) Count 58 222 280

% 21% 79% 100%Basic computing principles (G4–G7) Count 78 202 280



% 13% 87% 100%

Between 11 and 29Basic computing principles (G1–G3) Count 151 202 353




% 22% 78% 100%

30 and moreBasic computing principles (G1–G3) Count 99 189 288




% 35% 65% 100%

Male (G1–G3) Female (G1–G3) Male (G4–G7) Female (G4–G7)

None Less than 50% More than 50%

Male (G8–G10) Female (G8–G10) Male (G11–G12) Female (G11–G12)

None Less than 50% More than 50%

skills. The situation in secondary schools isslightly better: about 33% of learners spendbetween two and three hours a week learningcomputer skills, while 20% in Grades 8–10 and34% in Grades 11–12 devote more than threehours per week to this.

Further analyses revealed that these profilesare generally true across provincial boundariesand geographical areas.

Two other factors seem to be more stronglyrelevant to the learning of computer skills:whether Computer Studies is taught as asubject and the number of computers in theschool. The findings show in schools whereComputer Studies is offered as a subject, largerproportions of learners get involved in learningcomputer skills. This pattern is evident acrossall grades at the secondary level and is mostvividly illustrated at the highest level. Amongschools that teach Computer Studies as asubject, 44% of learners from Grades 11–12spend an average of three hours or more perweek using computers. Among those that donot teach the subject, only 7% indicated thesame amount of use at this level (i.e. threehours or more per week).The responses againshow the important influence of ComputerStudies as a school subject in all our analyses.

Another particularly important factorinfluencing the time spent, is the number ofcomputers which a school has (Table 6.2.3).

If we look at Grades 11–12, where schoolshave up to 10 computers, 17% indicated thatlearners spent more than three hours perweek learning computer skills. Where thereare 11 to 29 computers, 32% of the schoolsindicated more than three hours is spent andamong those with 30 computers or more, 42%indicated the same amount of time spent. Asimilar pattern is evident in Grades 8–10.

Of particular interest however is the fact thatat the lower levels, a greater number of hoursseem to be spent by learners in those schoolswith fewer resources. In schools with 10

computers or less, 5% indicated that learners inGrades 1–3 spent more than three hours aweek on the computers and 4% indicated thisfor Grades 4–7.Among the schools with 11 to29 computers, 2% and 3% respectively indicatedsuch an amount of time spent by learners atthese two levels. Where schools have 30 ormore computers only 1% indicated this amountof time spent by learners in Grades 1–3 and 3%indicated the same for Grades 4–7.

This suggests strongly that time spent isinfluenced by the existence of Computer Studiesas a subject in a school.This, in turn, means thepresence of a relatively large number of

SCHOOLS WITH COMPUTERS SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.2.2: Average hours spent learning computer skills

0-1 2-3 > than Totalhrs hrs 3 hrs

Hours spent on comp skills (G1–G3) Count 343 41 9 393% 87% 10% 2% 100%




Table 6.2.3: Average hours spent learning computer skills andthe total number of computers at school

Total number of computers (categories) 0-1 2-3 > than Totalhrs hrs 3 hrs

10 and lessHours spent on comp skills (G1–G3) Count 74 12 5 91

% 81% 13% 5% 100%Hours spent on comp skills (G4–G7) Count 83 12 4 99



% 57% 26% 17% 100%

Between 11 and 29Hours spent on comp skills (G1–G3) Count 160 16 3 179




% 33% 36% 32% 100%

30 and moreHours spent on comp skills (G1–G3) Count 104 12 1 117




% 27% 31% 42% 100%

computers. In primary schools with fewer

resources there appears to be a tendency for

learners to spend more time at the computers.

This may relate to attempts to maximise the

resources through sharing and group work to

allow a greater number of learners some time in

learning these skills.These processes may require

more time from the timetable.

Profile of the computer skillsteachersSchools were asked to indicate who mainlyteaches computer skills at the school. FromFigure 6.2.6 it is clear that most schools (42%)employ a permanent member of the teachingstaff who teaches computer skills as well asother subjects. Only 24% of schools employ adedicated computer skills teacher. Significantproportions of schools employ either a full-time person contracted by the governing body(15%) or more than one permanent staffmember on a part-time basis (16%). Some 3%of schools indicated that they have a person ina full-time capacity that works for acommercial provider.

The overall pattern that occurs across thesample is the prevalence of female teachersresponsible for computer skills in the schools;58% indicated a female teacher, 35% indicated amale teacher and 7% said that they have morethan one teacher.

The prevalence of female teachers is mostapparent in primary schools. Of the primaryschool respondents, 66% indicated that theircomputer teacher was female, whereas 26%indicated that they had a male computerteacher. Among the secondary schools, 50%indicated that they had a female computerteacher and 44% indicated that they had a malecomputer teacher. Similarly among thecombined schools, 51% indicated a femaleteacher and 40% a male teacher.

While the number of computers does notseem to affect significantly the pattern of morefemale teachers, the percentage difference ishighest among schools with 30 computers ormore. Among these schools, 64% indicatedthat they had a female computer teacherwhereas 31% indicated that they had a maleteacher. While the evidence shows that thereare more female teachers teaching computerskills in the schools, it will be shown in SectionC that if the average ratio of male to female


PAGE 78

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.2.4: A breakdown of the gender profiles of the peoplewho mainly teach computer skills

Teachers teaching computer skills TotalMale Female > one teacherCount Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count Col %


ProvinceE/Cape 25 36 31 45 13 19 69 9Free State 19 31 38 62 4 7 61 8Gauteng 54 28 130 67 9 5 193 25KZN 60 42 80 56 4 3 144 19Mpumalanga 9 24 24 63 5 13 38 5N/Province 2 18 8 73 1 9 11 1N/Cape 13 46 12 43 3 11 28 4North West 6 18 26 79 1 3 33 4W/Cape 83 42 98 49 17 9 198 26

Geographical locationUrban/towns 232 35 390 58 47 7 669 90Peri-urban 6 32 13 68 19 3Rural 27 47 24 42 6 11 57 8

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 85 35 133 55 22 9 240 321990 – 1994 101 35 165 57 22 8 288 381995 and after 77 35 134 60 12 5 223 30


Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 60 40 77 51 14 9 151 20Between 11 and 29 122 36 188 56 25 7 335 4430 and more 86 31 177 64 15 5 278 36

Total 268 35 442 58 54 7 764 100

Figure 6.2.6: Teacher teaching computer skills atschool

Commercial provider 3%

Contract teachers 15%

More than one part-time 16%

Permanent, otherresponsibilities 42%

Dedicated post 24%

teachers for the system across all subject areas

is considered, the ratio of male to female

teachers in this sector is slightly higher.

Factors that could help to extendthe teaching of computer skills inschoolsRespondents were asked to identify one factor

that would help them to extend the teaching of

computer skills at their school. As is evident

from Figure 6.2.7, the factor identified by most

respondents (46.1%) is increased time available

to learn computer skills. This is followed by

30.7% of respondents indicating that a greater

range of computer skills should be included in

the curriculum and 16.1% saying that the depth

of knowledge around computer skills already

being taught should be improved. Just 5.6% said

that more resources should be made available

to schools.

A more detailed breakdown of these

responses by grouping variables are presented

in Table 6.2.5 below.


PAGE 79

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.2.5: Factor to be emphasised to extend the teaching of computer skills

Extend teaching of computer skills TotalIncrease Improve Increase Improverange depth time resourcesCount Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count Col %

Type of schoolPrimary 110 32 57 16 159 46 18 5 349 47Secondary 83 29 45 16 138 48 18 6 286 39Combined 32 31 15 15 46 45 6 6 102 14

ProvinceE/Cape 17 25 17 25 26 38 7 10 69 9Free State 13 25 7 13 29 55 1 2 53 7Gauteng 62 33 27 14 92 49 6 3 189 25KZN 33 24 24 18 64 47 12 9 137 18Mpumalanga 12 31 7 18 19 49 1 3 39 5N/Province 2 20 3 30 5 50 10 1N/Cape 8 28 7 24 13 45 1 3 29 4North West 17 49 5 14 11 31 2 6 35 5W/Cape 70 35 26 13 91 46 13 7 200 26

Geographical locationUrban/towns 199 31 107 16 299 46 38 6 652 89Peri-urban 5 25 3 15 11 55 20 3Rural 19 33 11 19 26 45 1 2 58 8

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 59 26 46 20 103 45 15 7 229 311990 – 1994 98 35 38 13 132 47 15 5 283 391995 and after 69 32 34 16 99 46 11 5 216 30

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 105 30 62 18 158 45 17 5 348 47No 126 32 56 14 184 46 26 7 397 53

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 59 36 17 10 74 45 12 7 165 22Between 11 and 29 89 28 49 15 152 48 22 7 319 4330 and more 80 31 56 21 117 45 7 3 261 35

Total 228 31 122 16 343 46 41 6 745 100

Figure 6.2.7: Factors that should be emphasised toextend the teaching of computer skills

More time available 46.1%

More resources 5.6%

More depth of knowledge 16.1%

Greater range of skills 30.7%

Other 1.4%


The overall pattern (Figure 6.2.7) does notdiffer much across the type of school.

• Primary schools: 46% identified time as themost important item to emphasise, 32%identified the need to increase the range ofcomputer skills taught and 15% isolated theneed to emphasise an improvement in thedepth of knowledge that is taught in thisarea. Improving resources for the teachingof computer skills was seen as crucial byonly 5% of the primary schools.

• Secondary schools: 48% identified time asthe most important factor, with range ofskills being identified by 29% and depth ofknowledge by 16%. Only 6% of thesecondary schools identified improving thelevel of resources as the main factor.

• Combined schools: 45% identified time asmost important, 31% identified range ofskills, 15% emphasised depth of knowledgeand 6%, an improvement in resources.

Although similar patterns are evident acrossthe nine provinces, it is interesting to note that49% of schools from the North West provinceindicated that increasing the range of skills wasmost important. 31% of the schools from thisprovince identified time as the most importantfactor. In all the other provinces, time wasidentified as the most important factor by mostschools.

The significance of time as the mostimportant factor to be emphasised inextending the teaching of computer skills doesnot appear to change in relation to whenschools first started using computers. Forschools that stated using computers before1990, 45% isolated time as most important.Only 26% and 20% of these schools isolatedrange and depth respectively as mostimportant. Among those schools that startedusing computers between 1990 and 1994, 47%indicated time as most important as comparedto 35% identifying range and only 13%, depth ofknowledge. The pattern remains the same forschools that started using computers after

1995 – 46% of these schools identified time asmost important with 32% noting theimportance of range of skills and 16% notingdepth of knowledge.

It is also very interesting to note that theimportance of time does not appear to diminishregardless of the number of computers that aschool may have. Among those schools with 10computers or less, 45% isolated time as mostimportant in comparison to the 36% of theseschools which identified range of skills as mostimportant and the 10% that saw depth as themost critical factor. Similarly, among schoolsthat have between 11–29 computers, 48%regarded time as most important, with 28% ofthe schools isolating range of skills and 15%noting the importance of depth of knowledge.Even where schools have 30 computers ormore, 45% feel that time is most important forextending the teaching of computer skills, 31%feel that increasing the range of skills is mostimportant and 21% feel that improving depth ofknowledge is most essential.

While a higher proportion of schools in all ofthe three categories discussed above identifiedrange above depth, it is interesting to note thatas the number of computers in the schoolincreases, the percentage difference betweenthe identification of range above depth ofknowledge decreases slightly. That is, amongschools with 10 computers or less, 36% choserange as most important, with only 10%choosing depth of knowledge (a difference of26%). Among schools with 11 to 29computers, 28% chose range of skills and 15%chose depth of knowledge (a difference of12%). Of those schools with 30 computers ormore, 31% chose range of skills and 21% chosedepth of knowledge as most important (adifference of only 10%). It seems therefore that,where schools have a larger number ofavailable computers, there is a tendency formore consideration to be given to depth ofknowledge as central to extending the teachingof computer skills.


PAGE 81

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Summary• The sample data shows clearly that at both the primary and secondary level, the teaching of basic computer principles

and word processing skills form the most substantial component of computer literacy teaching. At the same time, whileall areas of skill are given greater attention at the secondary level, there is also a movement towards an increase in thelevel of complexity of the skills taught at secondary level. Thus skills such as spreadsheets, file management, databasemanagement as well as programming skills receive prominence at the secondary level. There is a close correlationbetween these trends and the teaching of Computer Studies at secondary school level.

• One of the most interesting patterns which arises from an assessment of what skills are taught at which level, is thepredominance of Grades 4 – 10 in the teaching of both basic computer principles and word processing skills.This suggeststhat there is a tendency for schools to only start concentrating on these competencies from Grade 4 onwards. Similarly,by the time learners reach Grade 11 it is expected that a minimum level of competency in these areas would exist amongmost learners. It is also interesting to note that information skills,which include competencies such as using the computerfor research via CD-Roms or the Internet, appear to receive the greatest prominence in Grades 4–7. Thus the datasuggests that Grades 4–7 are regarded as a critical period in which learners are equipped with basic competencies forthe efficient and effective use of computers.

• Although it has been suggested that a greater diversity and more complex skills are taught at secondary school level, itis important to note that when schools were asked to rank the most important skills for Grades 8 –10, basic computingprinciples and word processing still received the most support.

• A profile of the percentages of male and female learners who are being taught computer skills in the schools showedthat in general there are no significant differences in the number of female learners that are taught computer skills incomparison to their male counterparts.

• The data shows that on average learners in primary schools spend less than one hour a week learning computer skills.At the secondary school level the time spent tends to increase but is significantly influenced once again by the offeringof Computer Studies as a subject and the number of computers that a school has.

• At the secondary school level, as the number of computers increases so too do the number of hours spent by learnersin the school. However, at the lower levels (primary level) the pattern appears to be the opposite with more time spentby learners at this level where there are fewer resources. It is suggested therefore that the offering of Computer Studiesstrongly influences time spent at the secondary level. However, at the primary school level it is shown that whereresources are limited, more time is actually spent by the learners at the computers.

• When a profile was obtained of who is presently teaching computer skills in the school, the evidence showed that 42%of the schools employ a permanent member of the teaching staff to teach computer skills with this person also havingadditional responsibilities within the school. Only 24% indicated the presence of a teacher who has no otherresponsibilities at the school and is only responsible for computer teaching. Interestingly, the data shows that there is adominance of female teachers compared to male teachers teaching computer skills. This is most apparent in primaryschools as well as those that are well resourced.

• Of particular interest is the predominance of ‘increased time available’ as a factor that needs attention if the teaching ofcomputer skills in schools is to be extended.This emphasis does not seem to diminish despite the number of computerswhich a school has or when they started using computers. 46% of schools indicated this factor as most important with31% indicating that there was also a need to increase the range of computer skills taught.The need for a greater rangeof skills is given more prominence than increasing the depth of knowledge taught at both the primary and secondarylevel. While range still predominates over depth when other grouping variables were considered, it is interesting to notethat the importance of depth is given slightly more attention among better resourced schools.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Computers in teaching andlearningOne of the main aims of the survey was toestablish whether, and to what degree, schoolsare integrating computers in teaching andlearning. To this end a number of questionswere asked pertaining to the following areas:

• The learning areas in which computers areused in teaching and learning

• The purposes for which computers areused in different grades

• Factors preventing schools from usingcomputers as a teaching and learning tool

The learning areas in whichcomputers are used in teaching andlearningSchools were asked to indicate in which of thecurrent learning areas computers are used. AsTable 6.3.1 below shows, there are rather largedifferences across learning areas with

computers featuringprominently inLanguage andMathematical Literacy,Natural Sciences andTechnology but less soin the Humanities andArts.

A breakdown oflearning areas wherecomputers are usedshows that they areused selectively accor-ding to the type ofschool. In fact, thereare a range of learningareas where no morethan one third of

schools make use of computers in teaching andlearning. Within primary schools the use ofcomputers in teaching and learning tends to beemphasised for Language and Mathematical

Literacy. Computers appear to be used lessextensively in the remaining learning areas.

In secondary schools, more extensive use ofcomputers in teaching and learning tends tooccur in technology areas, such as ComputerStudies. The remaining learning areas insecondary schools appear to be associatedwith lower levels of computer use.

A comparison between schools whereComputer Studies is offered as a schoolsubject and where it is not shows surprisingdifferences in the use of computers inparticular learning areas. For schools whereComputer Studies exists as a school subject,the use of computers in teaching and learningis higher in Natural Sciences (32%) andTechnology (81%). In schools where ComputerStudies is not a school subject, the use ofcomputers in the Natural Sciences andTechnology is under 25%.

Interestingly however, while not very high,the use of computers in Language Literacy(58%) and Mathematical Literacy (57%) ishigher in schools where Computer Studies isnot offered as a school subject compared toschools were they are.This may also relate tothe predominance of those learning areas inprimary schools where Computer Studies isnot taught. In schools where Computer Studiesis a school subject, 52% use computers inLanguage Literacy and 49% use computers forMathematical Literacy.

Respondents were also asked to prioritisetwo learning areas where learners make themost use of computers.The responses to boththe first and second choices are presented inFigures 6.3.1 and 6.3.2.

Technology, Language and Mathematics weremost often the first choices of learning areas inwhich learners make the most use ofcomputers.

The second choice of learning areas thatschools considered learners to be making themost use of computers were in Technology and


Table 6.3.1: Use of computers acrosslearning areas

Yes NoLanguage Literacy Count 520 442

% 54 46Mathematical Literacy Count 505 457

% 52 48Natural Sciences Count 245 717

% 25 75Technology Count 443 519

% 46 54Human/Social Sciences Count 209 753

% 22 78Economics Count 95 867

% 10 90Arts and Culture Count 112 850

% 12 88Life Orientation Count 148 814

% 15 85


PAGE 83

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.3.2: Computer use in learningareas by school type

Yes NoPrimary

Language Literacy Count 312 137% 69 31

Mathematical Literacy Count 301 148% 67 33

Natural Sciences Count 123 326% 27 73

Technology Count 143 306% 32 68

Human/Social Sciences Count 115 334% 26 74

Economics Count 22 427% 5 95

Arts and Culture Count 57 392% 13 87

Life Orientation Count 79 370% 18 82

SecondaryLanguage Literacy Count 119 228








% 14 86

CombinedLanguage Literacy Count 72 50

% 59 41Mathematical Lliteracy Count 68 54







% 15 85

Table 6.3.3: Use of computers acrosslearning areas and the teaching ofComputer Studies as a subject

Yes NoComputer Studies

Language Literacy Count 200 188% 52 48

Mathematical Literacy Count 191 197% 49 51

Natural Sciences Count 124 264% 32 68

Technology Count 314 74% 81 19

Human/Social Sciences Count 96 292% 25 75

Economics Count 54 334% 14 86

Arts and Culture Count 60 328% 15 85

Life Orientation Count 71 317% 18 82

No Computer StudiesLanguage Literacy Count 305 217








% 13 87

Table 6.3.4: Computer use bylearners

Yes No Yes NoCount Percentage

Individual work G1–G3 205 757 21 79Individual work G4–G7 214 748 22 78Individual work G8–G10 226 737 36 77Individual work G11–G12 237 725 25 75Group work G1–G3 73 889 8 92Group work G4–G7 68 894 7 93Group work G8–G10 54 908 6 94Group work G11–G12 29 933 3 97Individual & Group G1–G3 133 829 14 86Individual & Group G4–G7 187 775 19 81Individual & Group G8–G10 122 840 13 87Individual & Group G11–G12 96 866 10 90

Language, followed by Mathematics. Thisselection strengthens the priorities thatschools put forward in their first choices.

The purposes for which computersare used in different gradesComputers are used for different purposes atdifferent levels. Respondents were asked toindicate which of five possible purposes are

relevant in their schools and at what grades.The overall responses are summarised inFigure 6.3.3, and the rank-ordering ofpriorities identified by schools are presentedin Figure 6.3.4.

For Grades 1–3 and 4–7, drill and practicefollowed by problem-solving exercises remainthe most important purpose for whichcomputers are used. In Grades 8–12,computers tend to be used for a wider varietyof purposes but these are dominated bypresentation of assignments and problem-solving exercises. Although less prominent,computers continue to be used for drill andpractice exercises in Grades 8–12.

Schools indicated that the most importantpurposes for which computers were usedwere for drill and practice, problem-solvingand presentation of assignments. Almost 77%of schools chose one of these three optionsas the most important purpose for whichcomputers are used.

The evidence in Table 6.3.4 suggests thatlearners across all grades use computersmore for individual work (22–25% in allgrades) than for either group work (3–8% inall grades) or individual and group work(10–19% across all grades).

The evidence shows that essentially, alllearners, regardless of grade or the number ofcomputers available, use computers more forindividual work than for group work only orindividual work and group work combined.

Factors preventing schools fromusing computers in teaching andlearningIn the questionnaire, respondents were firstasked to tick off the factors that preventschools from using computers in teaching andlearning. The results are presented in Figure6.3.5. The factors most often ticked off wereinsufficient funds, an insufficient number ofcomputers, lack of computer literacy amongPAGE 84


Figure 6.3.1: Learning areas in which learners make themost use of computers (First choice)

Other

Arts & Culture

Life Orientatin

Economics

Human Sciences

Natural Sciences

Mathematical

Literacy

Language Literacy

Technology

3130

32

3

6

26

30

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Use (Freq)

Figure 6.3.2: Learning areas in which learners make themost use of computers (Second choice)

Other

Arts & Culture

Life Orientatin

Economics

Human Sciences

Natural Sciences

Mathematical

Literacy

Language Literacy

Technology

32 32

8

32

67

54

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Use (Freq)

teachers, lack of subject teachers with trainingon how to integrate computers into specificlearning areas and the absence of a properlydeveloped curriculum for teaching computerskills.

Then respondents were asked to list, inorder of priority, the most important factorspreventing the use of computers as a teachingand learning tool. In answer to this, the mainfactors indicated were: insufficient funds, aninsufficient number of computers at schoolsand a lack of computer literacy among subjectteachers. This list was consistent with thefactors identified in Figure 6.3.6.

Analysis of the data revealed that the factorslisted as preventing schools from usingcomputers as a teaching and learning tool issharply influenced by the number of computersthe school possesses. It can be observed inFigure 6.3.7 that schools that have 10 or fewercomputers are faced with a greater intensity ofinhibiting factors.The most prominent of theseis insufficient funds and too few computers.

However, when a perceived lack of computerliteracy among subject teachers was measuredas a factor against the number of computersper school, the responses were in fact inverted.It appears to be comparatively, but notabsolutely more observable that for schoolswith 30 or more computers a lack of computerliteracy among teachers is seen as more of anobstacle.


PAGE 85

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.3.3: Purposes for which computers are used indifferent grade levels

34

77

35

22

1920

23

16

13

20

16

22

26

10

15

18

9

18

8

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Figure 6.3.4: Prioritising of purposes for which computers areused by school type (first choice)

55

14

10

40

1614

4

13

17

4 3

10

22

19

12

32

5

9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Drill & Practice Presentation of assignments Researching projects

Simulation exercises Problem-solving

Drill & Practice Presentation of assignments Researching projects

Simulation exercises Problem-solving Other

G1 – G3 (%) G4 – G7 (%) G8 – G10 (%) G11 – G12 (%)

G1 – G3 (%) G4 – G7 (%) G8 – G10 (%)


Figure 6.3.5: Factors that prevent schools from using computersas a teaching and learning tool

6664

43

19 17

3

51

40

40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

%

Figure 6.3.6: Rank ordering of main factors preventing schoolsfrom using computers as a teaching and learning tool (First choice)

42

21

8

5 4

12

6

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Insufficient funds Not enough computers Computer illiteracy

No integration Other No curriculum

Lack of teacher Lack of space Teachers fear increased workoad

Figure 6.3.7: Rank ordering of factors preventing schools fromusing computers by total number of computers (First choice)

48

39

35

30

22

14

6

1416

4 4 5

10 and less Between 11 and 29 30 and more

36 6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Insufficient funds Not enough Computer Lack of teacher No curriculumcomputers illiterate

Table 6.3.5: Computer use bylearners by total number ofcomputers (Grades 1–7)

Total number of Yes No Yes Nocomputers (categories) Count Percentage10 and lessIndividual work G1–G3 42 238 15 85Individual work G4–G7 50 230 18 82Group work G1–G3 18 262 6 94Group work G4–G7 21 259 8 93 Individual & Group G1–G3 29 251 10 90 Individual & Group G4–G7 33 247 12 88

Between 11 and 29Individual work G1–G3 87 266 25 75Individual work G4–G7 88 265 25 75Group work G1–G3 36 317 10 90Group work G4–G7 27 326 8 92Individual & Group G1–G3 67 286 19 81Individual & Group G4–G7 96 257 27 73

30 and moreIndividual work G1–G3 74 214 26 74Individual work G4–G7 73 215 25 75Group work G1–G3 15 273 5 95Group work G4–G7 15 273 5 95Individual & Group G1–G3 36 252 13 88Individual & Group G4–G7 57 231 20 80

Table 6.3.6: Computer use bylearners by total number ofcomputers (Grades 8–12)

Total number of Yes No Yes Nocomputers (categories) Count Percentage10 and lessIndividual work G8–G10 25 255 9 91Individual work G11–G12 29 251 10 90Group work G8–G10 9 271 3 97Group work G11–G12 5 275 2 98Individual & Group G8–G10 16 264 6 94Individual & Group G11–G12 11 269 4 96

Between 11 and 29Individual work G8–G10 86 267 24 76Individual work G11–G12 84 269 24 76Group work G8–G10 19 334 5 95Group work G11–G12 9 344 3 97Individual & Group G8–G10 48 305 14 86Individual & Group G11–G12 35 318 10 90

30 and moreIndividual work G8–G10 112 176 39 61Individual work G11–G12 121 167 42 58Group work G8–G10 24 264 8 92Group work G11–G12 14 274 5 95Individual & Group G8–G10 58 230 20 80Individual & Group G11–G12 50 238 17 83

Insufficient funds Insufficient computers Lack of computer literacy

Lack of subject teachers Inadequate curriculum Inadequate space

Lack of computer teacher Fear of teachers Outdated computers


PAGE 87

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Summary• The use of computers in primary and secondary schools tends to feature more strongly in the learning areas of Language,

Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Technology, but less in the Humanities and Arts.This was affirmed when schools wereasked to identify the learning areas in which learners make the most use of computers. In addition, the use of computersacross the curriculum appears to be more extensive at schools where Computer Studies is offered as a school subjectin the curriculum.

• The use of computers to perform drill and practice, and problem-solving exercises, tends to be the norm in the lowergrades i.e. Grades 1–7. From Grade 8 upwards, computers tend to be used for a greater variety of purposes in theteaching and learning process, although the presentation of assignments and problem-solving exercises are the major usesto which computers at schools are put. However, drill and practice exercises using computers, although less prominent,are still used in Grades 8–12.

• In terms of the manner in which computer use is organised in the classroom, at most schools learners tend to usecomputers more for individual work than for group or collaborative work.This appears to be the case regardless of howmany computers the school has.

• There are a number of factors that prevent schools from using computers as a teaching and learning tool.The principalones are insufficient funds, an insufficient number of computers, lack of computer literacy among teachers, lack of subjectteachers with training on how to integrate computers into specific learning areas as well as the absence of a properlydeveloped curriculum for teaching computer skills.These factors have also been confirmed by a rank ordering providedby schools of specific institutional priorities. Schools that had less than 10 computers appeared to face a greater intensityof inhibiting factors. The most prominent of these were insufficient funds and an insufficient number of computers.Although insufficient funds and an insufficient number of computers were identified as factors preventing schools with 30and more computers from using computers as a teaching and learning tool, a comparatively greater proportion of suchschools listed the lack of computer literacy among subject teachers as a problem.


Computer Studies as aformal school subjectThis section deals with ‘Computer Studies’ as aformal school subject that is taught mainly inGrades 8–12 and can be chosen as a matricsubject. A profile of schools that offerComputer Studies is presented with variationsaccording to province, geographical locationand other variables. Areas of work covered inthe subject are addressed and analysedaccording to the same variables.Then we lookat the profile of teachers who teach thesubject.And finally, responses that schools gavewhen asked why they believe the subject to beimportant are listed and analysed.

Schools that offer Computer StudiesTable 6.4.1 summarises the responses ofschools to whether or not they offer asubject that focuses on Computer Studies. Ofthe 881 schools that responded, 44%answered yes and 56% indicated that no suchsubject was offered.

As would be expected Computer Studies ismainly offered at the secondary level andtherefore the responses from primary schoolsand secondary schools are very different. Of theprimary schools who responded, only 19%indicated that they offer a subject of this nature,whereas 66% and 61% of the secondary andcombined schools respectively indicated thatthey offer Computer Studies as a subject. It islikely that Computer Studies is offered as amatric subject by these schools. For thepurposes of this study we have assumed that theprimary schools that answered yes to thisquestion are teaching a computer literacy subjectbut not the matric subject referred to here. Infurther analysis therefore we concentrated onthe combined and secondary schools.

It is especially interesting to note thecorrelation between when schools started touse computers and those that teach ComputerStudies. Prior to 1990 there was a strong linkbetween the acquisition of computers and theoffering of Computer Studies as a subject. Ofthe schools that started using computers priorto 1990, 53% indicated that they offerComputer Studies as a subject, whereas 47%indicated that they do not offer such a subject.Among schools that acquired computersbetween 1990 and 1994, 42% indicated thatthey offer Computer Studies, whereas 58%responded that they do not offer this subject.Where schools acquired computers after 1995,only 36% indicated that they offer ComputerStudies as a subject and 64% indicated that theydo not.Thus the percentage of schools offeringComputer Studies in comparison with thosewho do not has decreased since 1990. Of the

Table 6.4.1: Schools that teach Computer Studies

Computer studies at schoolYes No TotalCount Row % Count Row % Count Col %


ProvinceE/Cape 19 25 58 75 77 8Free State 28 38 45 62 73 8Gauteng 107 48 116 52 223 25KZN 99 60 65 40 164 18Mpumalanga 19 40 28 60 47 5N/ Province 8 50 8 50 16 2N/Cape 7 20 28 80 35 4North West 18 42 25 58 43 5W/Cape 83 36 149 64 232 25

Geographical locationUrban/towns 337 44 434 56 771 88Peri-urban 13 48 14 52 27 3Rural 23 30 53 70 76 9


Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 44 17 213 83 257 29Bet. 11 & 29 158 46 185 54 343 3930 and more 182 65 99 35 281 32

Total 384 44 497 56 88 100

schools that acquired computers after 1995, a

larger proportion does not offer the subject.

The table also shows that the offering of

Computer Studies as a subject goes hand in

hand with a greater number of available

computers.The responses indicated that of the

schools with less than 10 computers, only 17%

offer the subject and 83% do not.Where schools

have between 11 and 29 computers, 46% of

these indicated that they offer the subject and

54% indicated that they do not. However, of the

schools that have 30 computers or more,65% of

these schools offer Computer Studies as a

subject whereas 35% do not. The evidence

suggests therefore that where Computer

Studies is offered as a subject, the ratio of

computers to learners is generally greater than

in schools which do not offer the subject butwhere computers are used.

Areas of work covered in ComputerStudiesThe following tables present data on the areasof work covered by the subject of ComputerStudies in Grades 8–10 and Grades 11–12respectively.

In comparing Tables 6.4.2 and 6.4.3, it isinteresting to note that among the schools thatoffer Computer Studies as a subject, there is atrend towards schools covering particularareas of work in Grades 8–10 and other areasof work in Grades 11–12. Of these schools,72% indicated that they cover an introductionto computers in Grades 8–10, whereas only


1. Data presented for primary

schools reflects the anomaly

discussed earlier and therefore

should be read with caution.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.4.2: Areas of work covered in Grades 8–101

Intro Basic Prog. Spreadsheets/ Authoring System Computers Programming Languages databases analysis Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes NoRow % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row %

Type of schoolPrimary 23 78 6 94 5 95 15 85 5 95 100Secondary 88 12 72 28 64 36 57 43 21 79 24 76Combined 78 22 43 57 32 68 59 41 16 84 15 85

ProvinceE/Cape 68 32 37 63 32 68 37 63 26 74 16 84Free State 75 25 75 25 54 46 50 50 18 82 11 89Gauteng 76 24 61 39 57 43 54 46 16 84 20 80KZN 68 32 49 51 42 58 32 68 9 91 11 89Mpumalanga 68 32 58 42 53 47 47 53 26 74 26 74N/Province 63 38 50 50 25 75 38 63 25 75 25 75N/Cape 57 43 43 57 29 71 29 71 100 14 86North West 67 33 61 39 44 56 56 44 28 72 22 78W/Cape 76 24 40 60 31 69 63 37 18 82 17 83

Geographical locationUrban/towns 72 28 54 46 46 54 47 53 16 84 17 83Peri-urban 54 46 38 62 31 69 31 69 100 8 92Rural 83 17 48 52 35 65 65 35 22 78 13 87

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 72 28 60 40 52 48 50 50 13 87 17 831990 – 1994 78 22 56 44 48 52 51 49 17 83 19 811995 and after 67 33 40 60 30 70 43 57 22 78 15 85

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 59 41 48 52 32 68 34 66 5 95 5 95Between 11 and 29 68 32 46 54 38 62 40 60 18 82 13 8730 and more 78 22 60 40 53 47 59 41 17 83 23 77

Total 72 28 53 47 45 55 48 52 16 84 16 84

2. Data presented for primary

schools reflects the anomaly

discussed earlier and therefore

should be read with caution.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

37% indicated that these areas of work were

dealt with in Grades 11–12. Similarly, 53% of

these schools indicated that basics of

programming is addressed in Grades 8–10 with

only 42% indicating that these issues are

covered in the higher grades.This suggests that

in most cases where schools are offering

Computer Studies as a subject, learners have

developed an understanding of computers and

have some knowledge of programming by the

time they reach Grade 11.

The scenario changes when the other four

areas of work are considered, i.e. programming

languages, spreadsheets/databases, authoring

and systems analysis. The tables show that, in

general, more schools offer these four areas of

work in Grades 11–12 than in Grades 8–10.

There are no significant differences in the

areas of work covered if the responses are

considered in relation to the grouping variables

used throughout. However, it should be noted

that among those schools with 10 computers or

less, all areas of work are covered at all levels by

a significantly smaller percentage of schools than

among those schools with 30 computers or

more.The one interesting exception however is

in the area of introduction to computers at

Grades 11–12.Among those schools with fewer

resources, 45% indicated that they covered this

area of work in the higher grades. However,

among schools with 30 computers or more,

41% indicated that they covered this area at this

level. It would seem therefore that the increased

number of available computers allows for the


Table 6.4.3: Areas of work covered in Grades 11–122

Intro Basic Prog. Spreadsheets/ Authoring System Computers Programming Languages databases analysis Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes NoRow % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row %

Type of schoolPrimary 4 96 3 98 5 95 6 94 5 95 1 99Secondary 45 55 58 42 79 21 85 15 29 71 44 56Combined 51 49 41 59 46 54 65 35 22 78 30 70

ProvinceE/Cape 42 58 47 53 63 37 58 42 37 63 32 68Free State 29 71 50 50 54 46 82 18 36 64 32 68Gauteng 36 64 43 57 65 35 66 34 21 79 37 63KZN 34 66 48 52 58 42 57 43 14 86 30 70Mpumalanga 32 68 42 58 58 42 58 42 16 84 26 74N/Province 50 50 38 63 50 50 63 38 38 63 38 63N/Cape 43 57 29 71 57 43 57 43 14 86 29 71North West 50 50 67 33 72 28 83 17 33 67 39 61W/Cape 41 59 28 72 39 61 63 37 25 75 27 73

Geographical locationUrban/towns 36 64 44 56 58 42 66 34 23 77 33 67Peri-urban/semi-towns 38 62 38 62 54 46 54 46 15 85 23 77Rural 57 43 35 65 35 65 52 48 22 78 30 70

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 41 59 53 47 66 34 73 27 21 79 36 641990 – 1994 38 63 44 56 61 39 67 33 24 76 33 671995 and after 35 65 29 71 39 61 52 48 24 76 28 72

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 45 55 39 61 34 66 43 57 7 93 9 91Between 11 and 29 31 69 34 66 46 54 55 45 22 78 22 7830 and more 41 59 50 50 70 30 76 24 26 74 46 54

Total 37 63 42 58 56 44 64 36 22 78 32 68

teaching of a greater range of subject areas fromGrade 8–12.

A profile of Computer StudiesteachersSchools were first asked to indicate whetherthey have a specific teacher who is responsiblefor teaching Computer Studies.The responsesare presented in Table 6.4.4. A subsequentquestion was asked to establish the gender ofsuch a teacher. An analysis of these responsesis summarised in Table 6.4.5.

In responding to the question of whether theschool has a specific teacher responsible forComputer Studies, 92% of the schoolsindicated that they do have such a teacher. Ofthe secondary and combined schools thatresponded, 95% and 93% respectively said thatthey had a specific teacher responsible forComputer Studies.

It appears from the data that the presence ofa dedicated teacher responsible for ComputerStudies is not significantly affected by how longa school has had computers. Among thoseschools that started using computers before1990, 92% indicated that they do have such ateacher and 8% indicated that they do not. Ofthose schools that started using computersbetween 1990 and 1994 and those whoacquired them after 1995, the percentagedifferences are very similar to the previouscategory.

The presence of a specific teacherresponsible for teaching Computer Studies alsoappears to be influenced by the number ofcomputers that a school has. Of those schoolsthat have 10 computers or less, 87% have aspecific teacher responsible for teaching such asubject whereas 13% do not.The picture is thesame for schools with 11–29 computers.Among the group of schools with 30computers or more, 97% indicated that theyhad a specific teacher for Computer Studieswhile only 3% specified that they did not have

a specific teacher for this purpose.

If the data presented in Table 6.4.4 and in

Table 6.4.1 is correlated, there is a particularly

strong relationship between the presence of 30

or more computers, the offering of Computer

Studies as a subject and the existence of a

dedicated teacher for teaching this subject.

As with the general teaching of computer

skills in schools, there are more female teachers

than males teaching Computer Studies among

the sample of schools from the survey. Table

6.4.5 shows that 58% of the respondents

indicated that their Computer Studies teacher

was female whereas 39% of the respondents

indicated that the teacher was male.This pattern

does not change significantly across the

provinces, with the only province showing a

higher percentage of male Computer Studies

teachers among the respondents being the

Eastern Cape (56% male and 31% female).


PAGE 91

3. In primary schools this is likely to

refer to the teacher responsible for

a subject taught on computer

literacy.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.4.4: Does the school have a specific teacherresponsible for Computer Studies?3

Dedicated computer studies teacher Yes NoCount Row % Count Row %


ProvinceE/Cape 15 79 4 21Free State 25 89 3 11Gauteng 100 96 4 4KZN 88 91 9 9Mpumalanga 18 100N/Province 8 100N/Cape 6 100North West 16 89 2 11W/Cape 69 88 9 12

Geographical locationUrban/towns 300 92 26 8Peri-urban/semi-towns 13 100Rural 18 82 4 18


Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 34 87 5 13Between 11 and 29 133 87 20 1330 and more 175 97 5 3

Total 342 92 30 8

4. Note previous caution with regard

to primary schools.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Similarly, no significant variations are evident ifthe start-up date for computers is considered.Some slight variations are evident if the numberof computers owned by the school isconsidered. For those schools with 10

computers or less, 50% indicated that they had amale Computer Studies teacher while 47%indicated the employment of a femaleComputer Studies teacher. For those schoolswith 11 computers or more the profile changesonce again to a greater percentage of femaleComputer Studies teachers. If the 11-29computers group and the over 30 computersgroup are looked at comparatively, it seems thatthe percentage difference between the numberof schools with male teachers decreases as thenumber of computers increase.

Reasons for offering ComputerStudies as a subject In requesting schools to consider theimportance of offering Computer Studies as asubject, no single reason stands out significantlyabove the others.This suggests that schools areof the opinion that there are a number ofbenefits to offering learners the option ofComputer Studies as a subject. These benefitsrange from the kind of skills which they willacquire through this learning area as well as theopportunities which such skills will open up forthem with regard to future job prospects andtheir contribution to the country as a whole.

Least important to most of the respondentswas the offering of Computer Studies as a wayof making the school more attractive to otherschools (only 21% indicated that ComputerStudies was important for this reason). It is alsoimportant to note that almost half (49%) of theschools offering the subject note theimportance of Computer Studies as providinglearners with skills which they will be able touse or will be required to use in their careers.Thus it seems that many schools feel thatteaching Computer Studies contributes to anecessary level of computer competencyamong learners once they leave the school.Thisaspect was particularly emphasised by thoseschools with 30 computers or more (87%indicated the importance of these skills for arange of career options).


Table 6.4.5: Gender of Computer Studies teachers4

Male Female M&F teachersCount Row % Count Row % Count Row %


ProvinceE/Cape 9 56 5 31 2 13Free State 10 40 13 52 2 8Gauteng 30 30 65 65 5 5KZN 43 48 46 51 1 1Mpumalanga 3 17 15 83N/Province 2 25 6 75N/Cape 2 33 4 67North West 4 25 12 75W/Cape 31 45 37 54 1 1

Geographical locationUrban/towns 116 38 176 58 10 3Peri-urban/semi-towns 5 38 8 62



Total 133 39 201 58 11 3

Figure 6.4.1: Reasons given for why Computer Studies isimportant

49.2

42.9 42.3

20.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

None

Generic skills Economic development Career options More competitive


PAGE 93

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Summary• From the respondent sample, 66% of secondary schools indicated that they offered Computer Studies as a subject

whereas 34% indicated that no such subject was offered despite the presence of computers in their schools.

• As can be expected, Computer Studies, as a formal subject, is largely offered by secondary schools and where such asubject is offered there are similar patterns among the schools regarding the areas of work covered in Grades 8–10 andGrades 11–12. In general the trend is towards introducing learners to computers and developing an understanding ofthe basics of programming in Grades 8–10 and then moving on to more specialised skills such as programming languagesin Grades 11 and 12.

• The evidence from the research findings again suggests that a correlation exists between the offering of ComputerStudies as a subject and the presence of a greater number of computers in the school. Stated in another way, withinschools that offer Computer Studies as a subject, the ratio of computers to learners is generally greater than schoolsthat do not offer the subject but where computers are used. However, it is important to recognise that this ratio maybe skewed if the computers are primarily used by learners who take Computer Studies as a subject and are not usedmuch by other learners in the school.

• The profiling of schools offering Computer Studies also shows a clear pattern with regard to when schools acquiredcomputers and the offering of the subject. More specifically, the data shows that where schools acquired computers priorto 1990, there appears to have been a strong link between purchasing the computers and offering Computer Studies asa subject. It is interesting to note however that this pattern appears to have altered over the last nine years. Comparingthe percentage of schools that offer Computer Studies with those that do not and grouping them according to whenthey started using computers shows interesting changes.While prior to 1990 there was a greater percentage of schoolsoffering the subject compared to those that did not but still had computers, after 1990 the greater percentage of schoolsare those which have computers but which do not offer Computer Studies as a subject.

• The offering of Computer Studies also goes hand in hand with the presence of a specific teacher responsible for thissubject. Once again the data obtained from this profile adds to the growing sense that the offering of Computer Studiesas a school subject has had a significant influence on the level of computer resources at a school and the presence of adedicated teacher responsible for this area of teaching and learning.

• As with the teaching of computer skills more generally, there is a predominance of female Computer Studies teachersamong the sample of schools. Of these schools, 58% indicated the presence of a female teacher compared to 39% witha male teacher (the remaining schools had both a male and female teacher for this area).

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Funding and maintenanceThis section explores sources of funding forcomputers, including peripherals (such asprinters, modems, etc.) and maintenance costs,and it examines the sort of priority these itemsreceive in school budgets. It also providesinsights into the people responsible formanaging school computers as well as thoseassigned to provide maintenance and technicalsupport for this equipment.

Computer budgetOver 70% of schools that returnedquestionnaires indicated that they have aspecific budget for computers. However, therewere some variations in this trend.

• Only 33% of schools in the NorthernProvince (6 out of 18) indicated that theyhad computer budgets.

• Fewer rural schools (57%), than urbanschools (74%) had a specific budget forcomputers.

In addition, there appears to be a directrelationship between the number of computersa school has and the existence of a dedicatedbudget for computers. Nearly 80% of schoolsthat had between 11 and 29 computers, andover 90% of schools which had 30 or morecomputers, had a specific budget forcomputers. This was in sharp contrast to theschools that had up to 10 computers of whichonly 45% indicated that they had a specificbudget for computers.

Table 6.5.2 shows items of computerexpenditure at schools over the last two years.From this it can be seen that nationally themost important items were the purchase ofnew computers (53%), purchase of newsoftware (58%) and the maintenance ofcomputers (66%).

These patterns of expenditure weregenerally constant across the types of schooland the different provinces, although theproportion of schools in the Northern Capethat purchased new computers (33%) orupgraded existing computers (28%) was belowthe national average. In the Northern Province,lower than average expenditure was recordedfor new software purchases (26%) andmaintenance (32%).

Expenditure on resources showed aconsiderable difference between schools thathad 10 or fewer computers where it wascomparatively low; and schools which had 30or more computers where it was


Table 6.5.1: Does the school have a specific budget forcomputers?

Computer budget TotalYes NoRow % Row % Count Col %


ProvinceE/Cape 72 28 82 9Free State 66 34 74 8Gauteng 85 15 233 25KZN 68 32 164 17Mpumalanga 78 22 50 5N/ Province 33 67 18 2N/ Cape 59 41 34 4North West 77 23 44 5W/Cape 67 33 242 26


Geographical locationUrban/towns 74 26 798 88Peri-urban/semi-towns 65 35 26 3Rural 57 43 79 9

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 84 16 383 42No 65 35 519 58

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 45 55 271 30Between 11 and 29 78 22 352 3930 and more 94 6 287 32

Total 73 27 910 100

comparatively high. Schools that started using

computers before 1990, or offered Computer

Studies as a school subject, also recorded high

expenditure for new computers and software.

Sources of fundingThe two most important sources of funding for

computer resources are allocations from

school fees and fundraising activities. A larger

proportion of primary schools (52%) than

secondary schools (33%) finance new

computer resources through school

fundraising activities. The converse is true of

school fees. A higher proportion of secondary


Table 6.5.2: Expenditure items on school computer budgets for the last two years

New compters Upgrade exist. New software Teacher Maintenance Internet Totalbought compters bought training of compters connectionYes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes NoRow %Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 47 53 40 60 57 43 20 80 64 36 26 74 446Secondary 60 40 47 53 58 42 20 80 70 30 34 66 350Combined 46 54 33 67 50 50 22 78 57 43 31 69 127

ProvinceE/Cape 49 51 43 57 59 41 28 72 63 37 27 73 82Free State 42 58 44 56 49 51 12 88 56 44 23 77 77Gauteng 64 36 52 48 68 32 25 75 77 23 38 62 235KZN 49 51 35 65 52 48 17 83 59 41 28 72 168Mpumalanga 52 48 38 62 62 38 18 82 72 28 20 80 50N/Province 37 63 32 68 26 74 16 84 32 68 5 95 19N/Cape 33 67 28 72 36 64 11 89 58 42 22 78 36North West 53 47 38 62 53 47 13 87 71 29 13 87 45W/Cape 48 52 38 62 54 46 21 79 60 40 32 68 250

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 63 37 49 51 66 34 27 73 72 28 40 60 2671990 – 1994 50 50 44 56 56 44 20 80 70 30 27 73 3531995 and after 49 51 37 63 55 45 15 85 58 42 25 75 278

Geographical locationUrban/towns 54 46 44 56 60 40 21 79 67 33 30 70 810Peri-urban/semi-towns 39 61 39 61 43 57 14 86 57 43 25 75 28Rural 34 66 26 74 35 65 11 89 45 55 19 81 85

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 67 33 53 47 65 35 24 76 77 23 43 57 388No 42 58 34 66 52 48 17 83 58 42 21 79 524

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 25 75 19 81 31 69 9 91 36 64 8 92 280Between 11 and 29 53 47 44 56 60 40 19 81 71 29 30 70 35530 and more 79 21 64 36 82 18 34 66 90 10 51 49 288

Total 53 47 42 58 58 42 21 79 66 34 30 70 923

Figure 6.5.1: Rank-ordering of items which received the mostfunding (First option)

49

19

7

18

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

New computers bought Maintenance Computers upgraded

New software Internet connection Teacher training

Other

1. A computer levy refers to the

additional levy specifically for

computers that is added on to the

school fees. Essentially the parents

are the source of funding.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

schools (72%) than primary schools (60%) fundnew computer resources through school fees.

75% of schools that offer Computer Studiesas a school subject fund new computerresources through allocation of school fees,whereas 57% of schools where ComputerStudies is not offered use fees to buyequipment. School fees, as a source of fundsplays a bigger role as the number of computersat a school increases. Less than half of schools(41%) which have 10 or less computers financenew computer resources through fees. Theimportance of school fees as a source offinancing new computer resources increases to67% for schools that have between 11 and 29


Table 6.5.3: Funding sources for new computer resources at the school

Parent Provincial Private NGOs School Computer School Totaldonation government sector fees levy fundraisingYes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes NoRow% Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 23 77 0 100 15 85 2 98 60 40 10 90 52 48 446Secondary 16 84 4 96 13 87 3 97 72 28 16 84 33 67 350Combined 30 70 5 95 19 81 5 95 57 43 16 84 42 58 127

ProvinceE/Cape 23 77 100 7 93 2 98 60 40 9 91 49 51 82Free State 22 78 5 95 14 86 3 97 62 38 16 84 39 61 77Gauteng 22 78 2 98 13 87 1 99 75 25 16 84 47 53 235KZN 18 82 3 97 15 85 2 98 59 41 9 91 38 62 168Mpumalanga 16 84 100 18 82 6 94 62 38 12 88 42 58 50N/Province 16 84 16 84 5 95 100 42 58 5 95 26 74 19N/Cape 25 75 3 97 11 89 3 97 58 42 19 81 28 72 36North West 18 82 100 18 82 9 91 64 36 11 89 51 49 45W/Cape 23 77 2 98 17 83 3 97 58 42 12 88 47 53 250

Geographical locationUrban/towns 21 79 2 98 14 86 2 98 66 34 13 87 45 55 808Peri-urban 18 82 7 93 18 82 7 93 61 39 18 82 25 75 28Rural 24 76 3 97 16 84 6 94 43 57 8 92 41 59 87

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 22 78 2 98 11 89 1 99 75 25 15 85 42 58 2661990 –1994 21 79 2 98 15 85 2 98 65 35 12 88 46 54 3531995 and after 23 77 3 97 18 82 4 96 57 43 12 88 47 53 277

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 22 78 3 97 12 88 2 98 75 25 20 80 42 58 388No 21 79 2 98 17 83 3 97 57 43 8 92 46 54 522

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 20 80 5 95 15 85 3 97 41 59 3 98 40 60 280Between 11 and 29 22 78 1 99 16 84 2 98 67 33 16 84 47 53 35330 and more 22 78 1 99 13 88 2 98 84 16 20 80 46 54 288

Total 21 79 2 98 15 85 2 98 64 36 13 87 45 55 921

Figure 6.5.2: The most important sources of funding forcomputer equipment1

54

18

6

12

50

10

20

30

40

50

60

School fees School fundraising Parent donation

Private sector Computer levy Other

NGOs Provincial government

computers and to 84% for schools where thereare 30 or more computers.

The bar chart in Figure 6.5.2 shows that themost important sources of funding that schoolsreceive to finance computer resources atschools are, in order of rank, school fees,school fundraising activities and financialdonations from parents.

In order of priority, the most importantsources of funding for the support andmaintenance of the use of computers atschools are through school fees, schoolfundraising activities and computer levies.

At most of the schools, maintenance of thecomputer equipment is undertaken largely byprivate professionals/commercial providers andby a teacher or teachers assigned to this task.At a much smaller though significant number ofschools, the school principal and parents ofschool pupils also carry out this function(Figure 6.5.4).

The vast majority of schools in the surveyhad assigned the overall responsibility formanaging the computers, including planning,budgeting, and acquiring equipment to teachersat the school. Just under one third of theschools surveyed had Principals who playedthis managing role (Figure 6.5.5).


PAGE 97

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.5.4: Person/group who mainly providesmaintenance and technical support for school’scomputers

Responsible teacher 37%

Other 2%

No specific person 4%

Private providers40%

Parents 6%Learners 2%

Principal 9%

Figure 6.5.5: Person/group who is mainlyresponsible for managing the school’s computers

Other 5%

Responsibleteacher 60%

Learners 0%

Principal 25%

Private providers 4%

Parents 4%No specific person 2%

Figure 6.5.3: Sources of funding for support and maintenance ofcomputer equipment

68

12

35 60

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

%School fees School fundraising Computer levy

Parent donation Private sector Provincial government

Other NGOs


Summary• The majority of schools with computers (73%) indicated that they have a specific budget for computers, but such

budgetary allocations were more prevalent at schools that have more than 10 computers.

• The most important items of expenditure on the computer budgets of schools in all provinces were the purchase of newcomputers, the purchase of software and the maintenance of computers. Schools that started using computers before1990 or that offer Computer Studies as a school subject or had 30 or more computers tend to spend more on newcomputers and software.When schools were asked to rank the items that received the most funding, their list containeddifferent combinations of the following: purchase of new computers, maintenance of computers, purchase of newsoftware and upgrading of computers.

• There are multiple sources from which schools derive funding for new computer resources. The main sources areallocations from school fees and school fundraising activities and donations from parents and the private sector.

• At primary schools fundraising activities are almost as important as school fees as a source of funding for computerresources. At secondary schools, school fees are a more significant source of finance, but fundraising activitiesnonetheless continue to play an important role.

• At schools where Computer Studies is offered as a school subject, school fees play a bigger role as a source for thefunding of computer resources. Similarly, school fees assume greater importance as a revenue source as the number ofcomputers increases at a school.

• The revenues generated to cover maintenance and technical support of computers follows similar trends to thoseobserved for the financing of new resources.The evidence shows that the most important sources of funding for thesupport and maintenance of computers are school fees, school fundraising activities and computer levies.

• Private professionals or commercial providers and either a teacher or teachers usually undertake maintenance andtechnical support.

• At most schools the people who are mainly responsible for managing the computers are teachers assigned this task.Principals quite often also take on this role.

The school-computer contextThis section covers a broad range of issueswithin schools that may impact on computeruse.The following areas are addressed:

• teacher attitudes to computers

• start-up date and reasons for beginning touse computers

• computer use in schools – prioritisation

• a profile of users

• expenditure planned over the next twoyears

• technology-related professional develop-ment of teachers

• computer-related training needs

• conditions underlying the use of computersin schools

• factors limiting access to the Internet

Teacher attitudes towards the use ofcomputers in educationSchools were asked to respond to ninestatements that capture how teachers view andfeel about the use of computers in education.Statements were positively and negativelyphrased to reduce the possibility of a biasedresponse set. Table 6.6.1 summarises thefrequency and percentage distribution of theresponses. In a follow-up question, respondentswere asked to rank-order the three mostcommon feelings that teachers have towardsthe introduction of computers in education.The respondents’ first choices are presented inFigure 6.6.1.

Both the table and figure show that threeattitudes are widely held by respondents.These are:

• Computer skills provide learners withgreater job opportunities.

• Computers help learners to think and workindependently.

• Computers can be useful in preparinglessons and administrative tasks.

The data also shows thatthe majority of respondentsrejected the statementsexpressing negative attitudestowards the use ofcomputers. Only onestatement – ‘Computers canbe used to allow learners andteachers to interact withother schools through e-mailor joint projects’ – did notfind overwhelming support,with 55% disagreeing.

More detailed analysis ofthese responses with therange of grouping variablesused in previous sections –school type, province,geographical location, andtotal number of computers –did not produce anysignificant results. While thissuggests an overwhelminglypositive response of teachersto the use of ICTs in theirschool, some interestingvariations to this trend willbe discussed in Section C ofthe report.


Table 6.6.1: Attitudes of teacherstowards the use of computers ineducation

Yes NoProvide job opportunities

Count 756 206% 79 21

Little value in using computers in learningCount 45 917% 5 95

Other learning should get higher priorityCount 110 852% 11 89

Computers important in helping learners to work independently

Count 697 265% 72 28

New technology might increase workloadCount 116 846% 12 88

Teachers might be required to do further trainingCount 166 796% 17 83

Computers useful in preparation of lessons and administration

Count 698 264% 73 27

Computers are an important source of informationCount 631 331% 66 34

Computers are useful for interactionCount 432 530% 45 55

Figure 6.6.1: Rank ordering of teachers attitudes towards theuse of computers

40

31

79

40

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

More jobs Helps learners Useful in lessons Info source

Other needs Increased workload Further training Useful in interactions

Other attitudes Little value

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

The rank ordering of responses in Figure6.6.1 shows that teachers are convinced thatcomputers will provide learners with greaterjob opportunities (40% hold this view) and alsothat computers are important because theyhelp learners to think and work independently(31% of respondents chose this option). Afurther 9% indicated that computers can beused in lesson preparation and administration.

Start-up date and reasons forbeginning to use computersSchools were asked to indicate when they firstbegan to use computers actively. The sixresponse categories were recoded into three:those starting before 1990, those startingbetween 1990 and 1994 and those onlystarting after 1994.The results are summarisedin Table 6.6.2.

The period 1990 to 1994 is when most ofthe schools that have computers first began touse them actively.The table shows that amongthe primary schools in the sample, 26% startedto use computers prior to 1990. 39% startedbetween 1990 and 1994, and 36% started from1995 onwards. Similarly, among the secondaryschools, 34% started up prior to 1990, 43%started between 1990 and 1994, and only 24%of these schools started after 1995.

This pattern applies to all provinces exceptthe Free State and KwaZulu-Natal, wherelarger proportions of schools started to usecomputers prior to 1990. Slightly more than40% of schools in the Free State indicated thatthey started using computers prior to 1990,22% started between 1990 and 1994 and 37%started from 1995 onwards. In KwaZulu-Natal,36% of the schools indicated that they began touse computers prior to 1990, with 33%indicating that this had happened between1990 and 1994, and 31% identifying the post1995 period as the time that they first startedto actively use computers in their schools.

It is interesting to note the trends that are

evident in urban schools compared to those inthe peri-urban and rural areas. In urban areas,40% of schools indicated that they startedusing computers between 1990 and 1994,compared to 31% and 29%, before 1990 andafter 1994 respectively. However, in the peri-urban areas 42% of schools started usingcomputers after 1994, 29% started before 1990and another 29% started between 1990 and1994.Among the rural schools that responded,47% indicated that they started usingcomputers after 1994, 15% started before 1990and 38% started between 1990 and 1994.

Although the total number of schools thatresponded from the urban areas was muchhigher than from the peri-urban and ruralareas, it is important to note that outside theurban areas most of the schools which havecomputers have only had them since 1995.

While the overall trend indicates the 1990 to1994 as the time in which the greatestpercentage of schools in the sample started touse computers, some interesting patterns areevident when the number of computers thatschools have are considered in relation to theirstart-up date.

• Of those schools that have 10 computersor less only 22% started before 1990, 40%started in the period 1990 – 1994 and 38%started after 1994.

• Of the schools that had 11 – 29 computers,29% started before 1990, 38% startedbetween 1990 and 1994, and 34% startedafter 1994.

• Where the schools have 30 computers ormore it is interesting to note that 39%indicated that they started to usecomputers before 1990. This increasedslightly to 42% of these schools startingbetween 1990 and 1994. And only 20% ofthese schools started after 1994.

So among the schools with 30 or morecomputers, there is a percentage decrease of22% in the period after 1994. However, among


those schools with only 10 computers or less,the percentage decreased by only 2% after1994 and by only 4% for those schools with 11to 29 computers during the same period. Morespecifically, 81% of the schools with 30computers or more started using computersprior to 1995; while 62% of the schools with 10or less started using them prior to 1995.

The evidence suggests that generally, schoolswhich are now comparatively well-equippedhave been using computers for a longer periodof time than those with less computerresources.These results also suggest that therehas been a tendency for schools to increasetheir computer resources over time. Thecomparatively small percentage of well-resourced schools that only started usingcomputers after 1994 (20%) suggests that thetendency to immediately start using computerswith a minimum level of thirty machines isrelatively rare.

Schools were also asked to indicate what themain reasons were that led them to start usingcomputers when they did. The evidenceshowed that from the reasons related to:

• preparing students for the future

• improving student learning

• facilitating new forms of learning

• keeping the curriculum up-to-date

• to offer community access to computers

• streamlining school administration.

Priorities for computer use inschoolsWhat are the priorities for computer use inschools? The responses to this question aresummarised in Table 6.6.3 In a follow-upquestion, schools were also asked to rank-order their preferences as far as priorities forcomputer use is concerned. These rankorderings are presented in Figure 6.6.2.

Given the trends that were noticed in theprevious table, the data presented in Table 6.6.3

is somewhat surprising. More than 80% ofschools said that they would prioritise the useof computers in school management andadministration. This is followed by smallerpercentages – although still quite high – forcomputers to be used in the teaching andlearning context. Only two ‘uses’ did not getmajority support as a priority: using computersin lesson preparation and staff development(both received 48% support). One possibleexplanation for this (slight) anomaly is thatrespondents could have argued that these usesare not mutually exclusive. One can prioritisethe use of computers in management andadministration and also view them as useful inthe classroom.

The trends noted in Table 6.6.3 are

repeated in Figure 6.6.2.The graph shows the

distribution of items identified by the schools

as their most important priority (choice 1).

The dominance of computers for school


PAGE 101

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.6.2: Profile of schools according to start-up date

School started to use computers actively? TotalBefore 1990 1990 - 1994 1995 and afterCount Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count Col %


ProvinceE/Cape 26 33 30 38 23 29 79 9Free State 28 41 15 22 25 37 68 8Gauteng 59 27 103 47 56 26 218 24KZN 58 36 53 33 50 31 161 18Mpumalanga 11 22 23 47 15 31 49 5N/Province 1 8 6 46 6 46 13 1N/Cape 5 16 14 45 12 39 31 3Northwest 14 35 16 40 10 25 40 4W/Cape 64 27 93 39 80 34 237 26

Geographical locationUrban/towns 235 31 310 40 222 29 767 89Peri-urban 7 29 7 29 10 42 24 3Rural 11 15 27 38 34 47 72 8


Total number of computers (categories)10 & less 56 22 102 40 98 38 256 29Bet. 11 & 29 99 29 131 38 116 34 346 3930 & more 107 39 115 42 54 20 276 31

Total 262 30 348 40 268 31 878 100

management and admini-stration is once againevident (29%), closelyfollowed by the use ofcomputers as a teachingand learning tool in allsubjects (28%) and theteaching of computer skills(25%). Interestingly, the useof computers in staffdevelopment and lessonpreparation is not regardedas the first priority by mostof the schools. The

evidence clearly shows thatmost schools see the useof computers to supportlearners and schoolmanagement and admini-stration as more of apriority than providingteachers with ‘teaching’support, such as help withlesson preparation andtraining.

Profiles of computer users at schoolsWho are the regular computer users atschools? Respondents were asked to indicatewhat proportions of different groups areregular computer users. Five responses werepossible: None, 1–25%, 26–50%, 51–75% andover 75%. The responses were then recodedinto three categories. Table 6.6.4 presents thedata.The fact that 89% of schools indicated thatmore than half of their administrative staff areregular computer users is not unexpected.Interestingly, more than 50% of the schools saidthat more than half of the managers are regularcomputer users. Equally interesting is the factthat 48% of schools said that more than half oftheir learners are regular computer users while34% of schools indicated that more than half oftheir teachers are regular computer users.

In the further analysis, it was decided toconcentrate on the upper half of the table, i.e.only those schools where more than 50% ofthe various groups were indicated as beingregular computer users. Table 6.6.5summarises the results for this group for thefour categories of users using the groupingvariables as before.

The frequent use of computers byadministrative staff is evident across all sub-groups. This is perhaps not surprising giventhat administrative and clerical functions arepart of all schools and should not be affectedby the level of schooling offered, geographicallocation, etc. Similarly, as far as computer useamong management is concerned, nosignificant differences are found across any ofthe subgroups.

More substantial differences become evidentwhen we look at the profile of computer useamongst teachers. There are quite largeprovincial differences: ranging from lowproportions in the North West province (16%)and Mpumalanga (21%) to higher percentages inthe Northern Cape (47%) and Free State (46%).

Also, there is a clear relationship between


Table 6.6.4: Computer usage

None < 50% >50%Management (computer usage)

Count 63 353 441% 7 41 51

Administration (computer usage)Count 16 79 801% 2 9 89

Teachers (computer usage)Count 28 559 303% 3 63 34

Learners (computer usage)Count 89 369 427% 10 42 48

Figure 6.6.2: Rank ordering of most important uses ofcomputers (First choice)

Table 6.6.3: Preferred priorities forcomputer use in schools

Yes NoUse computers in school management and administration

Count 798 164% 83 17

Computers for staff developmentCount 462 500% 48 52

Computer use for lesson preparationCount 460 502% 48 52

Computers as teaching and learning toolsCount 723 239% 75 25

To teach computer skillsCount 747 215% 78 22

To expose students to benefits of computers in everyday life

Count 726 236% 75 25

Computers for school As teaching and learning To teach computer skillsmanagement & admin tools

To expose students to Computers for staff Computer use for lessonbenefits development preparation

Other computer uses

2928

14

25

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

%

start-up date and computerusage amongst teachers.Those schools that startedusing computers before1990 have largerproportions (42%) ofregular users compared tothose who only startedmore recently (27% ofteachers in schools whichstarted after 1995).

Again, whether or not aschool offers ComputerStudies is also highlycorrelated with computeruse amongst teachers.Furthermore, the totalnumber of computers in aschool also clearly affectscomputer use by teachers.Well-resourced schoolshave higher proportions ofteachers using computersregularly (46%) whencompared to schools withfewer numbers ofcomputers (27%).

The biggest subgroup variation is evidentwhen one looks at the learners. Someprovincial differences are recorded: lowestproportions in the Northern Cape (31%),Free State (32%) and highest proportions inthe Northern Province (57% – but note thatthe sample was small), Gauteng (54%) andKwaZulu-Natal (53%). Whether ComputerStudies is offered as a school subject makes adifference: 55% of learners in such schoolsare listed as being regular users compared to44% of learners in schools which do not offerthe subject. Again, the total number ofcomputers in the school is the mostsignificant factor affecting computer usage. Inschools where there are more than 30computers 70% of learners are regular users

compared to only 21% of learners in schoolswith less than 10 computers.

Planned expenditure It is interesting to note that the item identifiedby the greatest percentage of schools (76%) isthe purchasing of teaching resources such astextbooks for the school. Similarly, 68% of theschools indicated that they would likely bespending money on building alterations duringthis time. Looking more specifically atcomputer resources, 64% of the schoolsindicated that they would use funds to upgradeexisting computer facilities and 52% indicatedthat they would be purchasing new computers.Surprisingly, only 39% of the schools identifiedteacher training as an envisaged cost over thenext two years and only 5% indicated the needto spend more on teacher salaries in the near


PAGE 103

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.6.5: Comparison of regular computer users

Management Admin. Teachers Learners TotalMore than 50% More than 50% More than 50% More than 50%Count Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 215 54 369 90 134 33 229 57 405Secondary 156 49 296 89 121 36 118 36 330Combined 54 50 105 91 40 35 65 57 115

ProvinceE/Cape 38 48 74 93 32 40 37 47 78Free State 38 57 69 95 32 46 23 32 71Gauteng 130 61 209 95 73 33 118 54 220KZN 58 40 130 81 48 30 84 53 159Mpumalanga 21 48 43 90 10 21 20 42 48N/ Province 5 36 12 92 5 36 8 57 14N/ Cape 15 47 26 87 14 47 9 31 29North West 20 53 32 84 6 16 17 45 38W/Cape 116 52 206 88 83 36 111 49 228

Geographical locationUrban/towns 381 52 698 90 260 34 369 48 761Peri-urban/semi-towns 11 48 16 70 4 17 11 42 26Rural 38 56 58 84 28 41 31 45 69

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 145 60 239 92 109 42 142 54 2621990 – 1994 172 52 310 91 117 34 151 45 3351995 and after 109 44 223 87 69 27 118 47 253

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 182 51 340 90 137 37 207 55 379No 239 51 434 89 153 31 208 44 476

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 116 46 207 82 67 27 50 21 243Between 11 and 29 148 47 307 90 103 30 173 51 33830 and more 170 62 274 96 130 46 200 70 286

Total 434 52 788 90 300 34 423 49 867

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

future. While teachingresources appear to be apriority for many schools,only 35% of the sampleindicated that they would bepurchasing new classroomequipment such as chalkboards and overheadprojectors.

Subgroup analyses re-vealed few differences exceptwhen the number ofcomputers per school wastaken into consideration. Ofthe schools with 10computers or less, 48%indicated that they would beupgrading existing computerresources and 48% indicatedthat they would be

purchasing new computers. Among the schoolswith 11 to 29 computers,67% indicated that theywould be upgrading their computers in the nexttwo years and 51% would be purchasing newcomputer resources.Of the schools that have 30computers or more,79% said that they would beupgrading existing computer resources and 61%

said that they would be purchasing newcomputers. It is interesting therefore to see thatwhere schools have a comparatively high level ofresources, upgrading and purchasing of newfacilities are still seen as a priority for theimmediate future. Among this latter group it isalso interesting to note that the purchasing ofteaching resources and alterations to schoolbuildings are still regarded as short-termpriorities for funding by a significant percentageof schools (72%).

There is also a clear relationship betweennumber of computers per school and thepriority given to expenditure on teachertraining. Schools with fewer computers tend tobe less likely to list teacher training as a priority(35% of the schools with 10 computers or less)compared to those schools with the highestnumbers of computers (48%).

While it is important to recognise that whatschools have identified as the items which theyare likely to spend money on may reflectparticular needs which must be met beforeother choices for expenditure can be made, itis worth noting that despite the level ofcomputer resources which the schools have,less than 50% of the schools in the threecomputer ownership categories feel thatteacher training will likely form part of theirbudget items over the next two years.

In a follow-up question, schools were askedto rank order the most important items thatthey will spend money on over the next twoyears (Figure 6.6.3).

In general, therefore, the priorities identifiedby most schools relate to basic resourcesneeded for teaching and learning to take place,i.e. adequate classrooms and facilities in theschool as well as necessary resources foreffective teaching. Although these two itemsdominate, it is also important to note that 18%of schools identified either the purchase ofnew computers or the upgrading of existingcomputers as a priority. The low percentage of


Table 6.6.6: Items that the school islikely to spend money on over thenext two years

Yes NoPurchase of classroom equipment

Count 332 630% 35 65

Alterations to school buildingCount 653 309% 68 32

Purchase of new teaching resourcesCount 730 232% 76 24

Purchase of new stationeryCount 516 446% 54 46

Upgrading of existing computer resourcesCount 612 350% 64 36

Purchase of new computersCount 503 459% 52 48

Teacher trainingCount 374 588% 39 61

Salary of teachersCount 45 917% 5 95

Figure 6.6.3: Rank ordering of expenditure items over nexttwo years

School alterations Teaching resources New computers

New stationery Upgrading computers Classroom equipment

Teacher training Other items

2927

9

5

108

57

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

%

schools which prioritised teacher training (5%)may reflect an attitude on the part of schoolsthat such training is primarily the responsibilityof the education departments. It may also bethat they do not have sufficient resources atthis stage to consider investing school fundinginto this area or, of course, that schools feelthat their teachers are adequately andappropriately equipped and skilled to providethe teaching that is required.

Professional development ofteachersIn this section we focus on the provision oftechnology-related development for teachers(Table 6.6.7), as well as the computer-relatedtraining needs that schools have found themost useful.

Table 6.6.7 shows that only 16% of schoolsindicated that no teachers at the school havehad access to any form of technology relatedprofessional development. The three mainproviders of training appear to be theuniversities or technikons, privateorganisations such as private colleges andgovernment education departments. Lookingcomparatively at the responses that weregiven, 44% of schools have accessed educationdepartment run training opportunities, 26%indicated that they had had access to coursesrun by universities or technikons and 30% hadbeen on courses offered by private institutions.If the three kinds of training opportunities areconsidered in relation to the grouping variablesused in earlier tables, some interesting trendscan be seen.

Among the primary schools in the sample,46%indicated that they had had access to trainingthrough the education departments. Incomparison only 18% of these schools hadreceived training through universities ortechnikons. However, among the secondaryschools, 43% indicated that their teachers hadreceived training through the education

departments, 35% indicatedthat they had receivedtraining through theuniversities or technikons.While this may suggest aslight tendency towards agreater percentage oftraining at primary schoolsby the education depart-ments, it seems clear thatsecondary school teacherslargely access training atuniversities and technikons.

Among the provinces,approximately a third of therespondents indicated havinghad access to each of thethree training providers.That is, in most of theprovinces approximately thesame percentage of schoolsindicated access touniversity/technikon training,as those of who had accessed courses fromprivate organisations and the educationdepartment.

However, there are some exceptions to thisthat are interesting to consider. In the EasternCape, 65% of the respondents indicated havinghad access to government department training,while 35% indicated access to university/technikon training or private organisationcourses. In the Western Cape, 67% of therespondents had received training through theeducation department. In comparison only 16%had received training through a university ortechnikon and 22% through private institutions.It is strongly hypothesised that thesedifferences are largely due to the extent ofprovision of training by the educationdepartments in these provinces. While theNorthern Cape respondents indicated that56% had had access to training through theeducation department, in all of the other sixprovinces, less than 38% of the respondents


PAGE 105

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.6.7: Technology-relatedprofessional development options

Yes NoNo teacher has access to computer development

Count 155 807% 16 84

Courses on basic introductionCount 544 418% 57 43

Courses offered by university/technikonCount 248 714% 26 74

Courses offered by private institutionsCount 287 675% 30 70

On-site visits to other schoolsCount 231 731% 24 76

On-line distance learningCount 34 928% 4 96

Professional mentoringCount 110 852% 11 89

Collaborative training opportunitiesCount 186 776% 19 81

Courses offered by education departmentCount 420 542% 44 56

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

had received training through the departmentsof education.

According to the data, the schools that havehad the most access to government trainingopportunities are those that acquiredcomputers before 1990. However, while 47% ofthe schools that started using computers priorto 1995 indicated that they had had access totraining provided by the governmentdepartments, only 39% of those who startedafter this time had had access to this type oftraining. It is also interesting to note thatamong those schools that started usingcomputers prior to 1990, 40% indicated thatthey had had access to training through privateinstitutions. In contrast, only 28% of schoolsstarting between 1990 and 1994 had accessedopportunities of this nature and only 25% ofthe schools that started after 1995 had doneso.

Of further interest withrespect to the differenttypes of computer trainingis what respondentsidentified as the most useful(Figure 6.6.4). Here thecourses provided by thevarious educationaldepartments together withcourses on basicintroduction to computersreceived by far the mostsupport (26% and 25%).Courses provided by thehigher educationinstitutions and privateinstitutions were next inline with support from 11%of the schools. Theresponses regarding themost useful type of trainingoverlap strongly with thetypes of training mostrespondents identified asthose which teachers at

their school had had access to. It is particularlyimportant to note the positive response givento the training given by the provincialdepartments. It appears to have been welltargeted and relevant to teacher’s needs.However, it should also be remembered thatthe responses reflected in Figure 6.6.4 refer tothe usefulness of courses and therefore toissues of quality. However, if one takes intoconsideration the fact that less than half of theschools from the sample had had access tocourses offered by the education departments,the extent of training remains quite limited.Theimportant implications of this are addressed inmore depth in Section C.

Table 6.6.9 provides an overview of what therespondents felt were the most importanttraining needs for teachers. The greatestpercentage of respondents (84%) wantedtraining on how to incorporate computers into


Table 6.6.8: Courses offered by different types of institutions

Univ./Tech Private institutions Educ. dept TotalYes No Yes No Yes NoRow %Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 18 82 25 75 46 54 446Secondary 35 65 36 64 43 57 350Combined 27 73 28 72 39 61 127

ProvinceE/Cape 35 65 35 65 65 35 82Free State 31 69 35 65 32 68 77Gauteng 30 70 33 67 37 63 235KZN 28 72 34 66 26 74 168Mpumalanga 10 90 24 76 26 74 50N/Province 26 74 32 68 21 79 19N/Cape 25 75 19 81 56 44 36North West 38 62 40 60 18 82 45W/Cape 16 84 22 78 67 33 250

Geographical locationUrban/towns 27 73 31 69 44 56 808Peri-urban/semi-towns 18 82 32 68 18 82 28Rural 20 80 22 78 45 55 87

School started to use computers activelyBefore 1990 31 69 40 60 47 53 2661990 – 1994 26 74 28 72 47 53 3531995 and after 21 79 25 75 39 61 277

Computer studies as a school subjectYes 35 65 33 67 39 61 388No 21 79 28 72 48 52 522

Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 20 80 24 76 42 58 280Between 11 and 29 27 73 31 69 48 52 35330 and more 31 69 36 64 42 58 288

Total 26 74 31 69 44 56 921

the learning process.Training about the basics ofcomputers and their applications also received alot of support. Of less importance, were areassuch as the use of computers for administrationand information acquisition. From theseresponses, it seems clear that training which isorientated towards building capacity andcompetence to use computers in the teachingand learning process and thus to improveteacher’s confidence in this area is regarded asvery important by the respondent schools.

Conditions underlying the use ofcomputers in the schoolWe asked schools to list the factors thatprevent the school from maximising the use ofcomputers. Table 6.6.10 summarises theresponses for the question as a whole.

The item which the greatest percentage ofschools identified as limiting the use ofcomputers was the lack of staff trained to usecomputer equipment and software. Morethan half the schools indicated that thisremained a hindering factor for them. Despitethis, many schools do not regard teachertraining as a priority item for school

expenditure in the next twoyears (as shown earlier in Figure6.6.3).

Another factor identified byover a third of the sample wasthe lack of classrooms suitablefor computers. This concern canbe linked to the identification ofalterations to the school buildingas the most important fundingpriority for 29% of the schoolsover the next two years (seeFigure 6.6.3).

The rank ordering of factorshindering the continued use ofcomputer facilities at schools ispresented in Figure 6.6.5.

Factors limiting access tothe InternetSchools were asked to specificallyconsider the area of Internet useand to identify the factors thatprevented them from makingmore effective use of this facility.

By far the most frequently


Table 6.6.9: Computer-relatedtraining needs

Yes NoBasic introduction to computers

Count 675 287% 70 30

Introduction to applicationsCount 797 165% 83 17

How to incorporate computers intolearning process

Count 812 150% 84 16

Computers for administrative functionsCount 693 269% 72 28

Computers for information acquisitionsCount 693 269% 72 28

Using computers for communicationCount 327 635% 34 66

Table 6.6.10: Conditionspreventing maximum use ofcomputers

Yes NoLimited classrooms

Count 372 590% 39 61

Poor ventilation and lightingCount 59 903% 6 94

No electricityCount 7 955% 1 99

Inadequate electricity supplyCount 34 928% 4 96

No phone lineCount 39 923% 4 96

Vandalism of equipmentCount 107 855% 11 89

Poor security at schoolCount 108 854% 11 89

Obsolete computer equipmentCount 317 645% 33 67

Lack of available staffCount 523 439% 54 46

Financial constraintsCount 110 852% 11 89

Figure 6.6.4: The most useful professional developmenttraining (First choice)

26

25

11

5

11

9

6

34

Dept. of education Basic introduction Universities Private training

Collaborative course Mentoring No access On-site visits

Distance learning Other

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

U (F )

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

identified factor is the cost of Internet access –49% of the respondents identified the cost factor.Another 23% noted that their computers do nothave the capacity and facilities for Internet access.10% of the respondents identified the problem ofno phone line connections in classrooms. Otheritems such as security and concern by parents andteachers regarding abuse of the Internet wereindicated by only 13% of the respondents.

When schools were asked to identify the factorthat most limits their use of the Internet (Figure6.6.6) the overwhelming majority of respondentsindicated that the costs involved in accessing theInternet presented the greatest barrier to using theInternet more effectively. Thus the evidencesuggests that whatever the level of resourcesamong schools the relatively high costs involved inmaking use of the Internet limits its effective useamong the school sector.


Figure 6.6.6: Rank ordering of factors limiting Internet accessat the school (First priority)

49

23

810

5 40

10

20

30

40

50

60

Internet costs Inadequate computers No phone connections

Security/facilities Concerns of parents Other

Figure 6.6.5: Factors hindering the maximum use ofcomputers

34

20

6

18

6

3

10

Lack of staff Limited classrooms Obsolete computers

Poor security Vandalism Poor ventilation

No phone line Inadequate power Other

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40


Summary• The attitudes of teachers towards the use of computers in education are generally positive with few concerns being

expressed regarding possible negative effects such as extra workload for teachers or that computers have little value inteaching and learning.

• The evidence shows that in general the greatest number of the schools in the sample started to use computers between1990 and 1994, with slight variations to the trend being seen across the different provinces.The most interesting variation tothis trend is evidenced when the respondents were grouped according to their location as urban, peri-urban or rural. Amongthe latter group of schools, most started to use computers after 1995.

• In general, the evidence shows that schools that are now comparatively well-resourced have been using computers for alonger period of time. Among the schools that have 30 or more computers, 81% indicated that they started before 1995.Whereas among the schools with 10 computers or less, only 62% started prior to 1995.

• The evidence suggests that schools started to use computers with potential benefits to learners very much in mind. However,most respondents appear to now also regard school administration and management as a priority for the use of computers.

• A comparison of priorities for computer use also show a distinct tendency towards management, administration and learnersupport above the support which computers can offer teachers in terms of lesson preparation and access to further training.

• In identifying the items that they are likely to spend money on in the next two years, 29% of schools indicated that alterationsto the school premises would be the most important priority for them over the next two years.This was closely followedby 27% of the respondents indicating the purchase of new teaching resources such as textbooks. 10% of the schoolsprioritised new computers and 8% indicated that they would prioritise the upgrading of existing computer resources.Thepurchase of computer resources (new purchases or uprgrading) appears to become increasingly important as the number ofcomputers in the school increases.

• Although there is a strong indication that schools feel the need to prioritise the acquisition of basic resources necessary foreffective teaching and learning (adequate classrooms, teaching resources, etc.) of particular interest is the fact that only 5% ofschools indicated that a priority for their budget over the next two years would be teacher training.While this may reflect afeeling on the part of schools that this remains a Department of Education responsibility and/or they do not have sufficientfunds to invest in this area, it is interesting to note that in identifying conditions hindering effective computer use, the greatestpercentage of schools (54%) indicated that the lack of available staff trained to use computers was the biggest problem.

• Despite the stated need for more staff with computer skills, at least 84% of the respondents indicated that some teachers attheir school have had access to technology-related professional training opportunities of some kind. Although this indicatesa relatively high level of access to training it is important to note that this does not necessarily mean that all teachers at theschool have had access to such training, but rather that some of the teachers at the school have had access to training.

• In listing who has provided training opportunities for teachers, the responses from the schools show that the greatestpercentage of respondents have had access to courses run by the Department of Education (44%). In comparison, 26% havehad access to courses run by universities or technikons and 30% to those offered by private institutions.

• While approximately a third of the respondents in most of the provinces indicated that they had had access to Departmentof Education training initiatives, the Eastern Cape (65%) and Western Cape (67%) stand out strongly as the provinces wherea greater number of schools have had access to these initiatives.

• Although, as has been stated, the lack of adequately trained staff was identified by the greatest percentage of schools ashindering computer use (and noted by 34% of the schools as the most important hindering factor), limited classrooms suitablefor computer use and obsolete equipment also feature strongly as hindering factors for many schools (39% and 33%respectively).

• Looking specifically at Internet access, the greatest percentage of respondents identified the costs associated with Internetuse as the most important factor limiting its effective use.

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Optimising computerresources: after hours useIn this section, the use of computers after

school hours by learners, teachers and other

groups is discussed. An attempt is made to

explore ways that schools are able to

generate additional income through the use of

school computers beyond the normal

teaching day.

Learners at approximately 59% of schools

that have computers make use of this

equipment after school hours. Analysing this

information in terms of the grouping variables

used throughout this study, it can be seen that:

• Slightly more secondary schools (65%)

than primary schools (56%) have students

who make use of their computers after

school hours.

• Schools in the Eastern Cape show a

greater inclination to use computers after

school hours.

• Schools that started using computers

before 1990 appear to make more

extensive use of computers after school

hours

• Almost three-quarters (74%) of schools

that offer Computer Studies as a school

subject have learners who use the school

computers after school hours, compared

to 47% of learners where Computer

Studies is not a curriculum subject.

• There is a strong association between the

number of computers at a school and the

degree to which learners use these

computers after hours. 31% of schools

that have 10 or less computers have

learners that use the machines after

hours. This increases to 61% of schools

that have between 11 and 29 computers

and to 84% for schools that have 30 or

more computers.


Table 6.7.1: Use of school computers after school hours bystudents

Are school computers used after hours? TotalYes NoCount Row % Count Row % Count

Type of schoolPrimary 232 56 183 44 415Secondary 218 65 118 35 336Combined 63 53 56 47 119

ProvinceE/Cape 53 69 24 31 77Free State 41 60 27 40 68Gauteng 141 62 85 38 226KZN 84 51 80 49 164Mpumalanga 23 50 23 50 46N/Province 8 57 6 43 14N/Cape 15 44 19 56 34North West 20 51 19 49 39W/Cape 141 59 97 41 238

Geographical locationUrban/towns 462 60 304 40 766Peri-urban/semi-towns 13 52 12 48 25Rural 33 42 46 58 79



Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 78 31 176 69 254Between 11 and 29 211 61 137 39 34830 and more 232 84 45 16 277

Total 521 59 358 41 879

Figure 6.7.1: Groups that make most use of school computersafter hours

51

41

6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Learners Teachers Community

Parents Local businesses Other schools

Only at 10%–4% of schools do the majorityof learners across all grades make use of theschool’s computers after school hours. Aminority of learners across all grades at theremaining schools make use of schoolcomputers after school hours. With regardsto gender, it appears that at the primary level,slightly more girls are using the computers,while at secondary level more boys use thecomputers after hours; this is particularly truein Grades 11 and 12. Further investigationshows that there are infrastructure (e.g.computer laboratories) and organisationalpreconditions (teacher supervision afterschool hours, safe environment, etc.) thatfacilitate the extended use of schoolcomputers by learners after school hours.

Even though the numbers are small, Figure6.7.1 shows that the groups that make themost use of school computers after hourstend to be learners and teachers. Learnersmake use of school computers after hours at51% of schools, and teachers do so at 41% ofschools.

Extending the inquiry into the use of schoolcomputers by groups after school hours inrelation to the number of computers that aschool possesses, a number of interestingobservations emerge. After school use ofcomputers by learners increases in tandemwith an increase in the number of computersa school possesses. In schools with 10 or lesscomputers, 23% of learners make use ofschool computers after school hours. Inschools with between 11 and 29 computersthis ratio increases to 49% of learners. Itincreases further to 72% in schools that have30 or more computers.

An inversion of this is evident for the use ofcomputers after hours for teachers. Atschools that have 10 or less computers, ahigher proportion of teachers make use of thecomputers after hours compared to schools

that have between 11 and 29 computers andschools that have 30 and more computers.This suggests that in schools with fewercomputers, these are used more as managerialand administrative tools after school hoursthan schools that have more than 10computers where the opposite occurs.

Only a small percentage of schools offertheir facilities for use by outside groups.However, schools with 30 or more have ahigher proportion of outside groups makinguse of their computers (7%).

About two-thirds of schools (63%) whichallow for outside groups to use its computers,charge a fee. This data highlights twointeresting features.

• Schools in the Eastern Cape and NorthWest provinces tend more often to chargefees. This may represent a potentialopportunity for a partnership with outsidegroups in a way that enhances anddevelops resources.


PAGE 111

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Table 6.7.3: Number of computers and use of computersafter school

Total number of computers (categories) Yes No Total10 and lessAfter hours use – Students Count 64 216 280

% 23 77 100After hours use – Teachers Count 127 153 280

% 45 55 100After hours use – Community members Count 1 279 280

% 0 100 100

Between 11 and 29After hours use – Students Count 172 181 353



% 5 95 100

30 and moreAfter hours use – Students Count 208 80 288



% 7 93 100

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

• The likelihood of schools to charge feesfor computer use by outside groupsincreases according to the number ofcomputers that a school possesses.Schools with 30 and more computers aremore likely to charge a fee to outsidegroups for the use of computers,compared to schools which have between11 and 29 computers and schools whichhave 10 and less computers.


Table 6.7.5: Does the school charge a fee for the use of itscomputers by outside groups?

Yes No Total

Count Row % Count Row % CountType of school

Primary 91 64 52 36 143Secondary 82 63 49 37 131Combined 26 49 27 51 53


Geographical locationUrban/towns 171 61 108 39 279Peri-urban/semi-towns 8 73 3 27 11Rural 20 56 16 44 36



Total number of computers (categories)10 and less 15 26 42 74 57Between 11 and 29 86 67 43 33 12930 and more 104 75 34 25 138

Total 205 63 119 37 324


PAGE 113

SECTION B CHAPTER 6

Summary• At two thirds of schools, learners make use of school computers after school hours.This is being done to a marginally

greater extent at secondary schools. Learners at schools that started using computers before 1990 appear to make moreextensive use of computers after school hours than learners based at schools that introduced computers at a later date.Schools where Computer Studies is taught also tend to have a significantly higher proportion of learners who use schoolcomputers after school. However, it is interesting to observe a dramatically opposite trend in the use of schoolcomputers by teachers after school hours. At schools that do not offer Computer Studies as a school subject, a higherproportion of teachers use computers after hours.

• At a very basic empirical level, a relatively positive association is shown to exist between the number of computers aschool possesses and the propensity of learners at the school to make use of these computers after school hours.

• It is important to note that at about 90% of the schools where learners make use of school computers after school hoursthere are only a minority of learners who actually use the computers.At only 10% to 14% of schools do the majority oflearners across all grades use computers after hours. Usage of school computers by learners after hours is accompaniedby after hours use by teachers as well.

• The use of school computers after school hours by learners increases, as the number of computers that a schoolpossesses increases. However, after hours use of computers by teachers is higher at schools with 10 or less computers.

• Outside groups make use of schools’ computers at only a small proportion and this mainly happens at schools that have30 or more computers.Two-thirds of schools (63%) charge a fee for outside groups.

1. Educator to learner ratios have

been divided into two categories

against which the data is compared.

These are schools with, or less than

an educator:learner ratio of 1:33,

and those with an educator:learner

ratio greater than 1:33.

2. Although Questionnaire B was

intended for schools without

computers, 21 schools indicated that

they did in fact have computers.This

is discussed in more detail in

Chapter 2. However, given that they

still chose to fill in the questionnaire

for no computers, it is assumed that

the computers that they do have are

used purely for administration

and/or management purposes.

SECTION B CHAPTER 7

This chapter provides a detailed overview of thefindings from the questionnaires received fromschools that have no computers. Like theprevious chapter it provides an overview of allthe questions asked in the questionnaire andpresents the data in tables followed by adescription of the most pertinent findings. Thechapter presents the analysis of the data usingspecific grouping variables against which the datais compared. The grouping variables used aretype of school, province and ratio of educatorsto learners where relevant.1 The findings fromthis part of the survey are integrated into theanalysis presented in Section C.

ProfileGiven the importance of power supply,telephone lines and adequate space forcomputers, the first set of questions inQuestionnaire B aimed to establish whetherschools had acquired these three resources after1996 – i.e. since the HSRC’s School Register ofNeeds Survey had been done.

Nearly half of the schools have acquired eitherelectricity (48.8%) or telephone lines (44.4%) andnearly one quarter (22.6%) have acquiredadditional classrooms over the past three years.There are no great differences across types ofschools, but significant variation does occuracross provinces. The Eastern Cape andNorthern Province have not fared as well asother provinces as far as provision of electricityand telephone lines are concerned. This is atrend that reconfirms the status of these twoprovinces as being the least well-resourced in the

country. There seems to be more variationregarding additional classrooms but the smallnumber of returned questionnaires, makes acomparison rather risky.

Schools were also asked to complete achecklist of technological resources thatincluded computers, television sets, overheadprojector,s etc.The data in Table 7.1 shows thatthe majority of schools do not have thetechnologies listed. In a follow-up question,schools were asked to indicate what theirpriorities are in terms of items of expenditureover the next two years. The results aresummarised in Table 7.2.

It is evident from Table 7.2 that basicinfrastructure (school buildings) and equipment(classroom equipment, stationery) areregarded as more urgent than, for example,teacher training. This could, of course, eitherbe because teacher training has received someattention in the past or that it is regarded, ashas been the case in the past, as primarily theresponsibility of the Department of Educationand not schools themselves.The rank-orderingof priorities is summarised in Figure 7.1.

Attitudes towards theacquisition and use of computersA number of questions were included in thequestionnaire to assess the attitudes ofteachers towards the acquisition of computerfacilities, their intended use and the conditionsthat are required before computers couldideally be acquired. Respondents were first

‘7’Schools without computers

asked to indicate – from a list of items – which factors prevent schools from

acquiring computer facilities (Table 7.3). In a follow-up question, the most

important factors had to be rank-ordered (Figure 7.2).

Although we saw in the previous section that nearly half of the schools in thesample had acquired electricity over the past three years, slightly more than halfdid not.This is identified as the most important factor preventing computer usein 28% of schools; followed by lack of funding (22%), inadequate classrooms(14%) and lack of available staff trained in computer use (13%). It is interestingto note that as is evident in Table 7.3, when schools identified the range ofinhibiting factors, 44% noted inadequate staff as preventing them from acquiringcomputers (although only 13% identified this as the most important factor).

In order to establish general perceptions and attitudes about the use ofcomputers in education, schools had to indicate which of the attitudeslisted in Table 7.4 best describe the views of the teachers in the schools.

SCHOOLS WITHOUT COMPUTERS SECTION B CHAPTER 7

Table 7.1: Technology resources bytype of school2

Type of school (recoded) No Yes TotalPrimary

TVs Count 230 51 281% 82 18 100

Computers Count 272 9 281% 97 3 100

VCRs Count 238 43 281% 85 15 100

Radios Count 258 23 281% 92 8 100

Wind-up radios Count 274 7 281% 98 2 100

OHPs Count 208 73 281% 74 26 100

Slide & tape recorders Count 269 12 281% 96 4 100

Tape recorders Count 236 45 281% 84 16 100

SecondaryTVs Count 70 31 101

% 69 31 100Computers Count 94 7 101

% 93 7 100VCRs Count 76 25 101

% 75 25 100Radios Count 86 15 101

% 85 15 100Wind-up radios Count 99 2 101

% 98 2 100OHPs Count 74 27 101

% 73 27 100Slide & tape recorders Count 92 9 101

% 91 9 100Tape recorders Count 85 16 101

% 84 16 100

CombinedTVs Count 29 19 48

% 60 40 100Computers Count 43 5 48

% 90 10 100VCRs Count 32 16 48

% 67 33 100Radios Count 39 9 48

% 81 19 100Wind-up radios Count 47 1 48

% 98 2 100OHPs Count 26 22 48

% 54 46 100Slide & tape recorders Count 44 4 48

% 92 8 100Tape recorders Count 38 10 48

% 79 21 100

Table 7.2: Items schools are likely to spend money on overthe next two years

Type of school (recoded) No Yes TotalPrimaryPurchase of classroom equipment Count 143 138 281

% 51 49 100Alterations to school building Count 216 65 281

% 77 23 100Purchase of non-computer resources Count 130 151 281

% 46 54 100Purchase of new stationery Count 101 180 281

% 36 64 100Teacher training Count 100 181 281

% 36 64 100

SecondaryPurchase of classroom equipment Count 54 47 101





% 18 82 100

CombinedPurchase of classroom equipment Count 22 26 48





% 38 63 100

SECTION B CHAPTER 7

A follow-up question(Figure 7.3) asked fora rank ordering ofthe most commonfeelings listed.

The results inTable 7.4 suggestthat most of thepositive statementsreceived high levelsof support. Indescending order,these are:

• Teachers stronglysupport the use ofcomputers in edu-cation as they see

computers as important in helpinglearners to think and work independently(86% agree).

• Teachers feel computer skills will providelearners with greater job opportunities (79%agree).

• Teachers see computers as an importantsource of information to access resourcesnot available to them in schools (77%agree).

Conversely, teachers are not concerned thatthe introduction of technology will requirethem to do further training (only 7% agreed) orwould increase their workload (only 18%agreed). When pressed to indicate which ofthese perceptions are most widely held in theschool (Figure 7.3), the view that computersare important tools in helping learners to thinkand work independently, received the highestproportion of support.

What are the main factors that wouldmotivate schools to start using computers?Schools were asked to select reasons from alist and then indicate which of these reasonsthey would rate as the most important (Figure7.4). The results show that the single mostimportant reason is that such a step would helpprepare students for the future (60%).

In related questions, schools had to indicatewhether they would prioritise certain grades ifthey were to introduce computers in schools(Table 7.5) and for what purposes computerswould be used (Figure 7.5).

Table 7.5 shows that, among primaryschools, there appears to be greater supportfor the use of computers from Grades 4–7(74%). Among the secondary schools, Grades8–10 receive the most support as the focus ofcomputer use (70%).

The evidence shows that the majority ofrespondent schools would use computers for anumber of difference purposes. The purposethat is given the most support relates toexposing learners to the benefits of computers

SCHOOLS WITHOUT COMPUTERS

Table 7.4: How teachers feel about the use of computers

Yes No TotalComputers important in helping learners to work independently?

Count 391 62 453% 86 14 100

Little value in using computers?Count 7 446 453% 2 98 100

Computers as important source of information?Count 351 102 453% 77 23 100

Other needs should receive greater priority?Count 44 409 453% 10 90 100

Computers useful in lesson preparation?Count 325 128 453% 72 28 100

Computer skills provide learners with greater job opportunities?Count 359 94 453% 79 21 100

Computers will require further training?Count 30 423 453% 7 93 100

Computers used for interaction?Count 288 165 453% 64 36 100

New technology will increase workload?Count 83 370 453% 18 82 100

Table 7.3: Factors that prevent schoolsfrom acquiring computer facilities

No Yes TotalLimited classrooms Count 233 220 453

% 51 49 100Poor ventilation and lighting Count 65 388 453

% 14 86 100No electricity Count 190 263 453

% 42 58 100Inadequate power supply Count 38 415 453

% 8 92 100No phone line Count 154 299 453

% 34 66 100Vandalism of equipment and facilities Count 119 334 453

% 26 74 100Poor security at school Count 204 249 453

% 45 55 100Obsolete computer equipment Count 42 411 453

% 9 91 100Lack of available staff Count 253 200 453

% 56 44 100Lack of funds Count 113 340 453

% 25 75 100

in everyday life. This indicates a clearperception on the part of the respondentstowards the potential benefits of computersfor learners in and outside the formal learningenvironment. Significant support is also given tousing computers as a teaching and learning toolin all subjects, including the teaching ofcomputer skills as well as the use of computersin school administration.The item that receivedthe least support from schools is the use ofcomputers for educator development. Whenschools were requested to rank the mostimportant purposes of computer use (seeFigure 7.5), school administration received themost support (36%) followed by the use ofcomputers as a teaching and learning tool.

Human resources required todevelop and managecomputer facilitiesA significant proportion of schools indicatedthat the lack of suitably trained teachers is oneof the factors that prevent schools fromacquiring computer facilities. Three questionswere included in Questionnaire B to get abetter idea of the human resource basepresent in schools. Firstly, schools were askedwhether there is a person or personsinterested in developing and managing the useof computers in the school.As Table 7.6 shows,the large majority of schools (of all types and inall provinces) answered positively.

In a follow-up question, schools had toindicate the gender of the person(s) referredto in Table 7.7 as well as the position held bythe person(s). The evidence showed that themajority are male (75%) and most are either asubject teacher or a subject teacher with

management responsibilities (such as thedeputy principal).

Schools were then asked to list the factorsthat prevent this person from developing theuse of computers at the school.The results aresimilar to those previously given with lack ofelectricity, problems with space and lack offunding being the main factors.


PAGE 117

3. Other in the figure refers to

categories which received less than

5% support and were therefore

included together into one category.

This is distinct from schools who

identified ‘other factors’ as a

specific item.

SECTION B CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.3: Feelings that teachers have about theuse of computers in education (First choice)

Useful in lessons 10%

Help learners 57%

Figure 7.4: Reasons why schools start usingcomputers

Other reasons 5%

New learning forms 10%

Prepare students for the future 60%

Improve learning 17%

Curriculum up-to-date 7%

Figure 7.5: Purposes for which computers would beused (First choice)

Teaching tool 27%

Computer skills 14%

School admin. 36%

Other feelings 9%

More jobs 14%

Info source 10%

Everyday life 18%

Other purposes 4%

Figure 7.1: Items that schools are likely to spendmoney on in the next two years

Other items 18%

School alterations 50%

Teacher training 4%

Class equipment 16%

Figure 7.2: Factors that prevent schools fromacquiring computer facilities (First choice)3

Limited space 14%

Poor security 6%

Lack of funding 22%Other resources 10%

New stationery 3%

Lack of trainedstaff 13%

Other factors 8%

No electricity 28%

Other 9%

SECTION B CHAPTER 7

Another way of addressing the issue ofcomputer provision is to shift the focus from the individuals responsible to the underlyinginfrastructure that is required beforecomputers can be used in schools. Schoolswere asked to list the three most importantconditions and resources that have to be inplace before they could start using computers.The results are summarised in Table 7.7.

It is important to note that the majority ofschools, by indicating the need for at least oneteacher to be in place who has sufficienttraining to run and manage the computers(71%), show a clear concern with the presentlevel of educator skills in this area. Of almostequal importance is infrastructure expressedthrough 66% of the schools indicating a needfor classrooms suitable for computer use as aprerequisite. The absence of electricity and itseffect on computer use is also highlighted inthis table, with 58% of the schools indicating aneed to have access to electricity beforecomputers can be used. Very few schools (6%)feel that no specific conditions need to be inplace before the introduction of computers.

Schools, outside funding andthe communityTable 7.8 reveals that schools have received verylittle from businesses or other organisationsregarding computer provision at their school.The evidence shows that only 13% of therespondents have been approached in thisregard. Although the small number of schoolsthat responded must be borne in mind, whenthese responses are considered in relation tothe grouping variables some interestingobservations can be made. As would beexpected, schools in Gauteng,where there is thegreatest concentration of capital, appear to havereceived the most attention (65%).On the otherhand, in KwaZulu-Natal, one of the poorestprovinces, only 3% of schools indicated that they


Table 7.6: Is there a person interested in developingand managing computers in the school?

Yes No TotalCount Row % Count Row % Count

Type of school (recoded)Primary 245 87 36 13 281Secondary 85 84 16 16 101Combined 44 92 4 8 48


Table 7.7: Conditions and resourcesthat must be in place before schoolsare able to start using computers

Yes No TotalNo specific conditions are required

Count 27 426 453% 6 94 100

Suitable room for computersCount 300 153 453% 66 34 100

Access to electricityCount 265 188 453% 58 42 100

Teacher with adequate trainingCount 320 133 453% 71 29 100

All teachers must have some computer trainingCount 105 348 453% 23 77 100

Sufficient funding for maintenanceCount 203 250 453% 45 55 100

Parental supportCount 178 275 453% 39 61 100

Table 7.5: Grades that would receive priority when computersare introduced

G1–G3 G4–G7 G8–G10 G11–G12 Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes NoRow % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row % Row %

Type of school (recoded)Primary 37 63 74 26 4 96 4 96Secondary 3 97 3 97 70 30 48 52Combined 23 77 46 54 50 50 17 83

had been approached.

Of even greater concern however is the picture thatemerges when schools were requested to specify thenature of what had been offered to them by outsideorganisations.Table 7.9 shows that within the small group ofrespondents who have been approached, 4% indicated thatthis approach had been in the form of the option of aleasing agreement between a school and a specific company.Such an arrangement is different from donations ofhardware or software, which had only been offered to 3%and 2% of the schools respectively. Similarly, despite theneed expressed earlier by schools for educatordevelopment in this area, only 4% of the schools indicatedthat training courses had been offered to their teachers.

In attempting to assess the extent to which access tocomputer resources may be available to schools in thesurrounding community, schools were requested to indicatewhether any of the groups in schools had access tocomputers at home, at another school, at another resourcewithin the community or anywhere else.The responses areshown in Table 7.10.

The table shows that, in general, access outside schools isextremely limited, particularly for learners. Only 5% oflearners have access to computers at home and only 1% areable to make use of computers at another school in thecommunity. A slightly higher percentage of school managersand teachers have access to computers at home (17% and15% respectively) and at another school (6% and 5%respectively). Access to ICTs at community centres is alsolimited, with teachers having the most access (7%).

Throughout this chapter issues have been highlightedwhich point to the problems which schools have, or arelikely to have in acquiring and developing ICTs at theirschool. An analysis of what can be regarded as the mostimportant issues for consideration in facilitating effective‘start-up’ in schools is addressed in Section C.


PAGE 119

SECTION B CHAPTER 7

Table 7.10: Access to computers outside of schools

Yes No TotalManagement – Access at home Count 78 375 453

% 17 83 100Management – Access at another school Count 27 426 453

% 6 94 100Management – Access at community centre Count 29 424 453

% 6 94 100Management – Other access Count 12 441 453

% 3 97 100Admin – Access at home Count 22 431 453

% 5 95 100Admin – Access at another school Count 16 437 453

% 4 96 100Admin – Access at community centre Count 15 438 453

% 3 97 100Admin – Other access Count 5 448 453

% 1 99 100Learners – Access at home Count 21 432 453

% 5 95 100Learners – Access at another school Count 6 447 453

% 1 99 100Learners – Access at community centre Count 10 443 453

% 2 98 100Learners – Other access Count 3 450 453

% 1 99 100Teachers – Access at home Count 67 386 453

% 15 85 100Teachers – Access at another school Count 24 429 453

% 5 95 100Teachers – Access at community centre Count 32 421 453

% 7 93 100Teachers – Other access Count 7 446 453

% 2 98 100

Table 7.8: Approaches by the private sector or otherdonors

Yes NoCount Row % Count Row %

Type of school (recoded)Primary 36 14 225 86Secondary 9 10 81 90Combined 6 14 38 86

ProvinceE/Cape 3 9 30 91Free State 7 18 33 82Gauteng 15 65 8 35KZN 3 3 87 97Mpumalanga 4 11 34 89N/Province 8 8 93 92N/Cape 3 30 7 70North West 3 7 38 93W/Cape 9 29 22 71

Ratio of learners to educators (categories)33 and less 31 16 163 84More than 33 21 11 178 89

Total 52 13 341 87

Table 7.9: What have donors offered schools?

Yes No TotalDonation of computer hardware

Count 14 439 453% 3 97 100

Donation of computer softwareCount 8 445 453% 2 98 100

Teacher training coursesCount 16 437 453% 4 96 100

Leasing of computersCount 19 434 453% 4 96 100

SECTION B CHAPTER 7 SCHOOLS WITHOUT COMPUTERS

Summary• Nearly half (48%) of all schools in the sample without computers acquired electricity over the past three years; while

nearly one quarter (23%) acquired additional classrooms during the same period. However, in respect to theseimprovements and acquisitions, schools in the Eastern Cape and Northern Province rated below the national average.Such an indicator reinforces the notion that these two provinces have the least resources in the country.

• Generally, schools that do not have computers also experience deficiencies in complementary technologies. Less than20% of schools have VCRs, radios, tape recorders and slide and tape recorders.An exception were schools with overheadprojectors (28%) and TVs (24%).

• The most important factors preventing schools from acquiring computers are an absence of electricity (28%), lack offunding (22%), insufficient building space (14%), a lack of available staff (13%) and poor security (6%).

• Positive feelings about the value of computers at schools without computers overwhelmingly overshadow the negativefeelings. The positive feelings are associated with the provision of an environment for independent work and thinkingamong learners (86%) as well as giving them greater job opportunities (79%). Teachers also see computers as animportant source of information to access resources not available to them in school (77%).The most prominent negativefeature was the belief that the introduction of computers would increase teacher workloads (18%).

• The most popular reason given about why a school would start using computers was because it would help preparestudents for the future (60%). Primary schools believed that computers would be most beneficial to learners in Grades4 to 7 (74%). In secondary schools it was suggested that learners in Grades 8 to 10 would receive priority if computerswere introduced at schools (70%).

• At least one or more teachers at just over 80% of schools in the sample would be interested in developing and managingthe use of computers at schools if they became available.The majority of these individuals are male (75%). Most are eithera subject teacher or subject teacher with additional management responsibilities (such as the deputy principal). However,schools nonetheless expressed a need for necessary conditions and resources to be in place before they would be ableto start using computers. A teacher with adequate training was one of these prerequisites.

• Private sector initiatives to assist schools without computers have been marginal and only 52 out of 393 schools (13%)reported being approached for this purpose.Though numerically few, schools in Gauteng (65%), Northern Cape (30%)and Western Cape (29%) witnessed proportionately more overtures along these lines. These included donations ofcomputer hardware (3%), donations of software (2%) and leasing of computers (4%). Only 4% of schools indicated thattraining courses had been offered to their teachers (this aspect is explored in more detail in Chapter 9).

• Within the sample population, access to computers by school managers, teachers and learners at places other than theschool are extremely limited.

This chapter discusses the survey of the NGOenvironment1. It provides an overview of thenature and scope of NGO contributions to thegrowth and development of ICTs in SouthAfrican schools.The impact of the work of 17NGOs is then outlined along with issuesaround the funding and sustainability of theseprojects. By the end of the chapter, a pictureemerges of the factors that assist and thosethat hinder NGO work. Details about theindividual NGOs are included in Appendix C.

Overview of NGOinvolvement in the promotionof ICTs in schools

Scale of workTable 8.1 shows the geographic scale ofoperations undertaken by the 17 NGOs thatwere identified as the main ones contributingto the use of ICTs in schools. Eight of theseNGOs aim to operate nationally, but theiractual involvement differs markedly fromprovince to province; five of the NGOs focustheir work on a specific region or province andthe remaining four work in very localised areas.

There seems to be a more significant NGOpresence in Gauteng and the Western Capethan in other provinces.The Eastern Cape andKwaZulu-Natal are next in line, while NGOinitiatives in the remaining provinces appear tobe in the infancy stages. While this picture isnot unexpected, it is interesting to note that

greater NGO involvement in the WesternCape and Gauteng mirrors the better ICTresource levels in these provinces as indicatedin Chapter 6.

Nature and scope of workThe nature of NGO contributions to the use ofICTs at South African schools can be groupedinto the following broad categories, with the firstthree receiving slightly more emphasis:

• provision and maintenance of physicalinfrastructure and networks.

• development and maintenance of contactsbetween interested individuals.

• professional development of teachers.

• resource development.

• research and consultancy.

Provision and maintenance ofphysical infrastructure andnetworksThis category includes provision of equipment toschools, repair and maintenance (on a technicalor advisory level), and involvement in extendingcomputer networks. The latter may involvenetworking computers in a school to form alocal area network or connecting schoolcomputers to the Internet. NGOs have differentfocuses and approaches in this area.For example,Netday Association concentrates on advisingschools on the steps involved in setting up acomputer laboratory. It aims to act as anintermediary and advisory body that coordinatesbusiness sponsorship or contributions, theservices of volunteers and the school’s PAGE 121

1. This chapter is based on a report

prepared by the South African

Institute for Distance Education

(SAIDE) for this EPU study.

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

‘8’NGOs and the

use of ICTs at schools

in South Africa

2. The National Science and

Technology Trust have been classified

as a local initiative. Although it

works in Bloemfontein and Soweto,

its work is directed to local centres

and networks and is not located

within a regional or national

framework.

3. ORT-STEP, National Science and

Technology Trust, SEIDET, and

Stutterheim Education Trust all run

teacher training courses from

specially designed centres.

4. SchoolNet ran some teacher

training courses between five and

seven days in length.

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

educational technology needs. The WesternCape Schools Network, on the other hand, actsas an Internet Service Provider for schools. Itassists schools to get connected to the Internet,and hosts their web sites on its server.

Development and maintenance ofcontact between individualsThis focuses on sharing ideas and informationon projects with people involved in promotingthe use of ICTs in schools. This is done boththrough meetings and personal contact andusing electronic distribution lists andinformation services. Major networking NGOinitiatives include Edufax, the Telematics forAfrican Development Consortium, theNational Information and Technology Forum,and the Computer Society of South Africa. Allof these have a focus that is broader than, butrelevant to, the use of ICTs in schools.SchoolNet South Africa is the main national co-ordinating body. It plays a key role in assistingand monitoring regional school networks, aswell as co-ordinating business sponsorship andliaising with government departments.

Professional development ofteachersNGO involvement in the professionaldevelopment of teachers is mostly focused on

teacher training. Thisincludes short courses andworkshops on the use ofICTs generally, as well asways of integrating thesetechnologies into theclassroom. Many NGOsfocus on training teachersabout the basics of how touse computers. This mayinclude very basic skills likeword processing, usingcomputers to supportadministration andmanagement or how to usethe Internet for

collaborative projects. Other training coursesdo not have a specific computer focus. Forexample, ORT-STEP’s teacher training is donein the context of teaching Technology as alearning area. Its module on ICTs is thus part ofa larger course framework.This is also the onlyNGO that offers accredited courses toteachers. Like ORT-STEP, the Media inEducation Trust (MiET) does not focusspecifically on computers. Its training workdeals with the use of a variety of media in theclassroom.

A lot of teacher training is done throughcomputer courses that are run at specialtraining centres.3 It is, therefore, very difficultto assess the extent to which skills learntthrough such courses are used and integratedinto the teaching environment at schools.SchoolNet South Africa has recognised thelimitations of isolated short training coursesfor teachers,4 and now aims to emphasiseintegration of technologies into the classroomenvironment. Malati is offering support toteachers at their schools rather than at trainingcentres, although this is on a very small scale.The integration of ICT skills and resources intothe curriculum is a key goal for this NGO.

The MiET develops materials for teacherswith a focus on supporting the use of ICTs at

NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS

Table 8.1 Geographic scale of NGO operations

OrganisationNational (Intention)Computer Society of South Africa ! ! ! ! !

Media in Education Trust ! !

Netday Association ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Networking initiatives (TAD, Edufax, and NITF) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

ORT-STEP ! ! ! !

SchoolNet South Africa ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

South African Schools Directory ! !

South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE) ! ! ! ! ! ! !

RegionalEastern Cape Schools Network !

Gauteng Schools Network !

Mathematics Learning and Teaching Initiative (Malati) ! !

Mpumalanga Schools Network !

Western Cape Schools Network !

LocalNational Science and Technology Trust 2 ! !

Mamelodi MPCC !

Siyabuswa Educational Improvement and Development Trust (SEIDET) !

Stutterheim Education Trust !

E/Cap

e

Free S

tate

Gauten

g

KZNMpu

malang

a

N/West

N/Cap

e

N/Provinc

e

W/C

ape

schools. A recent example of this was theprinting and distribution of materials to schoolson the use of audio and video resources in theclassroom that formed part of the teachersupport materials for SABC School TV. Malati,like MiET,5 is developing resources to be usedby teachers to encourage integration of ICTsinto the school curriculum.

A number of the web sites of regional schoolnetworks (notably the Western Cape, EasternCape and Gauteng) include ideas for teachers onusing the web environment in lessons. Similarly,Netday produced a, ‘How To’ guide for teachers asanother professional development resource.

Resource developmentFrom the above discussion, it is clear that theresource development overlaps to someextent with professional development.Resource development focuses on resourcesdeveloped for use by learners or by learnersand teachers.

Resource development remains a major gapin the activities of NGOs that are supportingthe use of ICTs in schools.Within this sphere,the issue of the local content of resourcedevelopment has become a key issue.6 Malatihas produced a rich resource of mathematicsteaching and learning materials. This has beendone through the work of South Africaneducators who worked in topic groupings tocollate resources from around the world anddevelop some of their own materials.The focusis specifically on the South African mathematicssyllabus, and, as such, the resource developed isrelevant and useful to the South African schoolcommunity. SchoolNet South Africa, theWestern Cape Schools Network, GautengSchools Network and Eastern Cape SchoolsNetwork have also compiled or developedsome web-based materials.

On a different tack, the South African SchoolsDirectory has had a broad resourcedevelopment focus, assisting schools to developweb sites for themselves. Information about the

school and its activities is compiled in a template,and hosted in a web-based database at the SouthAfrican Schools Directory. In principle, this NGOaims to give South African schools a webpresence, through which the school communitycan communicate and network. The public canaccess information relating to specific SouthAfrican schools through this site. In practice,however, the South African Schools Directory issimply a subset of information stored in anAmerican School Directory database. As such,local information is scant and informationpertaining to the ‘local’ community for eachschool (such as weather and news) is limited tothe United States of America and does notincorporate South Africa.This is a clear exampleof unbalanced local content development:minimal local information is collated ordeveloped, and then simply appended to existingforeign material.

What is outlined here shows up the lack oflocal materials development and the fact thatthere is a clear need for investment in this area.Despite this however, NGOs are filling animportant niche in this area, providing servicesand support to schools that would nototherwise be provided. The work of theorganisations mentioned has clearly played acritical role in raising awareness about theimportance of integrating ICTs into schools inSouth Africa and developing models forachieving this.

Research and consultancySome NGOs offer advice to schools about bothtechnical and educational issues relating to theuse of ICTs. Such advisory services may be donethrough telephonic or electronic commun-ication, site visits, or on a more formalconsultancy basis.The regional school networks,the Computer Society of South Africa andNetday Association all offer such advisoryservices.With regard to research, some NGOssimply track involvement and document theirprogress and experiences. Others have more


PAGE 123

5.Whereas MiET materials are

printed, the Malati materials are

web-based.A number of the web

sites of the regional school networks

(notably Western Cape, Eastern

Cape and Gauteng) include lesson

ideas for teachers on using the web

environment in classrooms.This

could be seen to be contributing to

professional development.

6. Some organisations outside the

NGO sector have started some

resource development for schools, but

an analysis of these fell beyond the

scope of this study. It is, however,

interesting to note that many of these

resource development initiatives are

based at universities, or individual

schools. See SchoolNet SA, 1998.

Overview of Online Teaching and

Learning Resources for a preliminary

scan of online resource development

projects.

http://www.school.za/overview/tlr.htm.

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

rigorous research activities. For example, the

Siyabuswa Educational Improvement and

Development Trust, in partnership with the

University of Pretoria, researches activities at the

centre on an ongoing basis. Similarly, Malati

conducts research into the effectiveness of its

methods of using information technology in

teacher education.The regional school networks

also aim to include a research component to

their activities.

A few NGOs conduct systematic research

that is then shared with an external audience.

For example, SchoolNet South Africa compiled

an analysis of Internet connectivity at schools

based on the School Register of Needs, and has

categorised a compilation of online materials

developed in South Africa.

Table 8.2 summarises the objectives of

NGOs surveyed, in terms of five categories

described. It is important to note that this

reflects what NGOs aim to do, but is not

necessarily a representation of what is actually

currently being done.

The matrix above provides some indication

of the geographical distribution of the

organisational activities discussed.The numbers

in each cell represent the number of NGOs

engaged in particular organisational activities in

each respective province. For example, there is

one NGO contributing to physical

infrastructure and ICT networking in the

Eastern Cape, while one focuses on this

explicitly in the Northern Cape and none in

the Northern Province. Most NGOs aim to


Table 8.2 Summary of NGO objectives

National (Intention)Computer Society of South Africa ! ! ! !

Media in Education Trust !

Netday Association !

Networking initiatives (TAD, Edufax, and NITF) !

ORT-STEP !

SchoolNet SA ! ! ! ! !

South African Schools Directory !

South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE) ! !

RegionalEastern Cape Schools Network ! ! ! !

Gauteng Schools Network ! ! !

Mathematics Learning and Teaching Initiative (Malati) ! ! !

Mpumalanga Schools Network ! ! !

Western Cape Schools Network ! ! ! ! !

LocalNational Science and Technology Trust ! !

Mamelodi MPCC !

Siyabuswa Educational Improvement and Development Trust (SEIDET) ! !

Stutterheim Education Trust ! ! !

Physic

al Inf

rastru

cture

and I

T Netw

orking

Human

Netw

orking

Professio

nal

Developm

ent o

f

Teach

ers

Resourc

e Deve

lopmen

t

Researc

h and

Consulta

ncy

Table 8.3 Geographical distribution of organisational activities

ActvityPhysical Infrastructure and ICT Networking 1 4 3 4 2 2 1 3Human Networking 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 3Professional Development of Teachers 1 4 2 6 3 1 1 3Resource Development 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 3Research and Consultancy 2 1 2 1 2TOTAL 8 14 8 15 8 7 3 3 15

E/Cap

e

Free S

tate

Gauten

g

KZNMpu

malang

a

N/West

N/Cap

e

N/Provinc

e

W/C

ape

work in all five categories identified above, butthen admit to having focused only on one ortwo areas. This tends to create the unjustifiedimpression that NGOs are not having thedesired impact, as the actual scope of theirwork is narrower than their articulatedobjectives. More collaboration betweenorganisations with clearly focused objectivesmay result in more balanced partnerships,ultimately having a greater effect.

NGO involvement in school ICTnetworksCurrently, there are four provincial schoolnetworks under the umbrella of SchoolNet SA.These are in the Western Cape, Gauteng,KwaZulu-Natal, and the Eastern Cape. Theschool networks of both the Western Capeand Gauteng are considered to be wellestablished, with the Western Cape SchoolsNetwork (WCSN) being viewed as a model forother provinces.

The Western Cape Schools Network(WCSN) has the highest levels of Internetconnectivity for its schools. Initially, the WCSNfocused primarily on the provision andmaintenance of physical infrastructure and ICTnetworking. It functions as an Internet ServiceProvider and offers technical support andadvice to schools. More recently, its attentionhas turned to issues of content development,professional development of educators, andresearch and evaluation. It has a strong workingrelationship with the provincial educationdepartment. Its success has been attributed toa number of factors.These include: the relativedensity of schools around several urbancentres; relatively high levels of resourceswithin schools and communities; and aprovincial education department that activelypromotes the use of ICTs in schools.

The Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, theNorthern Province, and North West areconsidered to have emerging school networks.

SchoolNet SA anticipates that, in the remainingprovinces – the Free State, Mpumalanga, andNorthern Cape – it will soon have to establishschool networks and relationships with provincialeducation departments and other NGOs.

Relationship between NGOs and theStateIn general, relationships between NGOs and theState are healthy in the ICT sphere. Many factorsappear to contribute to this, including theexistence of facilitative policy frameworks, pro-active and generally inclusive activities by theDepartment of Education, and awareness on thepart of NGOs of the importance of cultivatinghealthy relationships with government.

The Department of Education hasendeavoured to create an enabling environmentfor any organisation supporting the use oftechnologies in schools.The policy documents ofthe Technology-Enhanced Learning Initiative(TELI) create a policy framework within whichsuch initiatives can take place.The Department ofEducation does not see itself as implementingprojects on a large scale (either in terms ofinfrastructure, content or professional develop-ment). Instead, it has sought to support allorganisations engaged in implementation and toplay a coordinating role for different initiatives.

On a national level, there is a well establishedrelationship between the National Centre forEducational Technology and Distance Educationand SchoolNet SA. The Department ofEducation has been involved in the conceptualdevelopment of this national co-ordinatingNGO and participated in its launch. As many ofthe NGOs work with or through SchoolNet itis encouraging that this state-NGOrelationship is well established.

At the provincial level, once again the WCSNprovides evidence of a highly co-operativeworking relationship with the provincialdepartment of education. The WCSN officesare housed in provincial government buildings


PAGE 125

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

and the provincial network of teacher centresis used for training initiatives. Programmes andactivities offered at teacher centres have aclear focus on the development of ICT skillsand, more recently, have included theintegration of ICTs into the curriculum. TheWestern Cape Education Department’scommitment to the use of ICTs in schools isseen to be a contributing factor to the successof the regional school networks in thisprovince (this becomes more evident throughthe rest of the survey findings).

Other regional networks seek to work withprovincial departments but these relationshipsare still emerging and are less established thanin the Western Cape.The survey showed thatprovincial departments are playing animportant role in helping to identify schools forpilot projects (like the World Links project ofSchoolNet SA) and in communicating ICTdevelopments to districts and schools.

While relationships between NGOs and theDepartments of Education are, therefore,generally regarded as valuable, some problemswere identified. For one organisation, thestate’s lack of funding and support for trainingteachers in technology education is seen as acritical problem. Government projects andprogrammes are generally slow to get startedresulting in frustration by both NGOs and theschools themselves. These examples provide areminder, therefore, that some improvementsin the relationship between NGOs and thegovernment can still be made in this area.

Evaluating the impact ofNGO involvement in ICTsDespite an interesting diversity of activity andwealth of developing experience in the NGOsector, it is painfully clear that NGOs have, todate, reached very few schools. Estimates ofschools reached reflected in the case studiessuggest that no more than four hundred

schools have benefited from collective effortsof NGOs. With similar caveats, one canestimate that approximately one in 500teachers have received some teacher trainingeither in basic computer literacy or inintegrating ICTs into the curriculum via NGOs.These rough estimates can be compared withestimated national figures of 27 000 schoolsand 400 000 teachers.

NGO initiatives therefore remain very muchat the margins of educational social activity andseem quite limited in impact.

There may be a number of reasons for thisamong which would probably be limitedfunding for NGOs and lack of resources inschools. These problems are compounded bythe fact that most initiatives are in their infancyand NGOs seeking to provide or support theuse of ICTs in schools are still, in the main,relatively new in South Africa. Paucity ofreliable information suggests that, for NGOs tohave greater reach, more systematicmonitoring of impact and effectiveness ofinitiatives is crucial.This might help in planningstrategically for future interventions that aremost likely to have the greatest impact, bothwithin and beyond the NGO sector.

Financial sustainability As has been indicated above, comparison of thestated objectives of many NGOs with actualaccomplishments suggests that many have setunrealistically ambitious objectives. Anexamination of NGO budgets confirms thatthey are not sufficient to ensure thesustainability of initiatives. Most NGOs citefunding as the key factor hindering their work.Often the amount of money set aside forrecurrent costs and for the professionaldevelopment of staff is inadequate. Planningwith modest targets and realistic deadlines arean urgent priority for NGOs working in thisarea. Some NGOs have already begun tosuccessfully undertake such planning.


The problem of financial constraints is,however, not limited to the budgets of theNGOs themselves because a significantproportion of NGO work seeks to initiateprocesses in disadvantaged communities wherethey would not otherwise exist. The challengeof identifying or creating strategies that willenable these communities to take over andsustain these processes emerges. This is verydifficult to achieve in areas where localeconomies are either defunct or very small.Expensive and unsustainable initiatives candeplete the limited resources of suchcommunities leaving a negative impact.This candisempower and dishearten local communities.These problems are not easily resolved, andcontinue to create ongoing tensions for NGOsworking in this field.

Sources of NGO fundingThe vast majority of NGOs that promote theuse of ICTs at schools rely on money fromdonor agencies or earmarked finances for theirfunding. Because such funding is not reallysustainable over the medium to long term, thefuture of such projects can be quite fragile.

What is possibly more disconcerting thanthe current dependence on soft funding is thatvery few NGOs seem to be trying to findalternative forms of income, let alone buildingor exploiting them. This raises seriousquestions about sustainability.

Having said this, some other strategies ofgenerating income emerged from the casestudies, though they are still marginal. Thesealternative income streams are worthexploring because, although they may notcurrently be solutions, they may at least offersome lessons. Below are some examples:

• Siyabuswa Education and ImprovementDevelopment Trust (SEIDET) seek fundingfrom the surrounding community andschool parent body. SEIDET operates as amulti-purpose community centre, andcharges users (students and members of

the community) for its services and use offacilities.7 In this example, the school parentbody is willing to contribute financially tothe educational improvement of theirchildren.

• SEIDET also gets funding from researchgrants derived from its partnership withthe University of Pretoria. Monies availablefor research and evaluation projects canpotentially be tapped to benefit the schoolsstudied.8

• The South African Schools Directory(SASD) has recently been incorporatedinto New Africa Technology Holdings andplans to use this private company’sinfrastructure, ICTs expertise, and socialresponsibility budget to cover itsexpenditure. In addition, SASD is planningto generate income through corporatesponsors for individual schools.

• Other NGOs also look to corporatesponsorship or ‘adoption’ of schools as asource of income,9 yet only SASD hasmentioned investigating online advertisingfor this relationship. Schools on the SASDsite can choose to offer companiesadvertising space or a logo presence on theschool web site. This could potentially beextended to hyperlinks or e-commerceopportunities, which may entice sponsorsto establish long-term relationships withsponsored schools. Such use of theeducational online environment will,however, need to be carefully planned,conceptualised, and monitored to avoidunsuitable commercial advertising orexploitative exposure for learners who usethe site as an educational resource.

Organisational sustainability Many NGO initiatives rely strongly on thecommitment and energy of individuals for theirexistence. In fact, most NGOs cite thecommitment and enthusiasm of staff as a


PAGE 127

7. The Mamelodi Community centre

generates funds in a similar manner.

8. An additional example of using

research partnerships as potential

sources of income is the SABC

Education Television pilot study. In

1999, a number of South African

primary schools were given television

sets and video recorders, through a

partnership with Discovery Channel,

and will participate in an evaluation

of the new Schools Television Service.

9. For example, SchoolNet SA,

Netday SA, Computer Society of

South Africa.

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

primary factor contributing to theorganisation’s ability to work effectively. Thisdependence on the skills of particularindividuals can affect the growth anddevelopment of an organisation when suchindividuals leave the organisation or when theybecome overloaded with work. In small NGOs,this can be disastrous because many initiativesin such organisations are built through personalrelationships between an individual in theNGO and an individual in particular schools.Such relationships are seldom concretised orformalised, and are often lost when individualsleave organisations or projects.

Obviously, limited funding exacerbates thisproblem. However, reliance on the energy of afew individuals also reflects the paucity of skillsin South Africa in this field. What is of someconcern, however, is that this trend shows littlesign of changing.

Strategic partnershipsMany NGOs cite funding agents as partnersof their projects. Where one ‘partner’ issimply viewed as a source of funding and theother as recipient, the nature of therelationship is generally one of dependence.This is particularly true where relationshipswith the private sector have been established.While there is nothing intrinsically wrongwith entering into such partnerships,motivations for setting these up seemgenerally to have been established somewhatuncritically, resulting in relationships that areunbalanced and unsustainable. Partnershipsneed to be carefully planned and considered,with the contributions from each partnerclearly articulated and, wherever possible, ofmutual benefit to both parties.

Relationships with business have beenestablished for some projects, and these tendto be based on donations (financial or inkind). The Western Cape Schools Networkhas, for example, negotiated a relationshipwith MWeb in which its member schools are

given reduced ISP rates. This enables the

WCSN to generate some income from

school membership (which includes ISP

charges), while offering a competitive rate.

Sustainability of NGO activities requires

systematic planning and sound decision-making

approaches, yet many projects seem not to be

underpinned by such planning.This is reflected in

the wide discrepancies between stated

objectives and achievements. More effective

planning might, however, help to overcome or

avoid some of these problems.

Factors that influence NGOworkNot all NGOs responded to the questions

regarding the factors that hinder and enable

their organisations to work effectively.

However, those that did so, placed much

emphasis on the role of staff, in particular the

contributions of dedicated individuals. Staff

commitment, enthusiasm, and knowledge of

ICT issues were all mentioned as important

factors contributing to the ability of NGOs to

function effectively.

The interest and involvement of people at

schools and from the community in general

were also seen to be enabling factors. Some

NGOs referred to this as the services of

volunteers, while others cited teacher

involvement or having identified and responded

to community needs.

Many NGOs also viewed support from

government through working relationships

with the national and provincial Education

Departments as well as the enabling

environment created by national policy to be

contributing factors. It is interesting to note

this response emanates primarily from school

networks, and some other NGOs noted it as a

hindering factor.


Hindering factorsFunding is both the most frequently mentionedand most highly prioritised factor identified asinhibiting the functions of NGOs in this area.Skill and competence is another factor oftenmentioned.This relates, in part, to observationsabout the lack of national and sustainedteacher development programmes for ICT use.The observation nevertheless refers to thescarcity of ICT skills in general.

Also mentioned was physical infrastructure,in terms of lack of ICTs and networking inschools.This is seen to have been exacerbatedby a historically unequal distribution ofresources, which has contributed to starkdifferences in access to such technologies.While this refers to access to physicalinfrastructure, it also relates to the previouspoint in terms of access to skilled people andfinancial resources.

Two NGOs, SchoolNet SA and the WesternCape Schools Network both mentioned thatthe rising costs of Internet connectivity andcharges for Internet traffic were hinderingschools’ ability to use ICTs, and this in turn wasinhibiting the work of NGOs. Anotherimportant point relating to infrastructure andaccess was highlighted by organisations in theEastern Cape. Stutterheim Education Trust andEastern Cape Schools Network both cited thewide dispersion of schools and poor roads inthe province as hindering factors.

NGOs mentioned lack of governmentsupport primarily through the inability of

various education departments’ inability tocommit resources to ICT-related initiatives.Specifically mentioned were the slow pace ofgovernment bureaucracy and its lack ofsupport for teacher training.

Some NGOs claim that teachers areunreceptive to the use of ICTs in schools.Thisis particularly apparent when the intention is toshift teaching methodologies andsimultaneously integrate the use of ICTs intothe curriculum. Where this is the aim, aparadigm shift in terms of teaching and learningapproaches is required.This is far more difficultto achieve than simply training teachers in basiccomputer use.

Theft, vandalism, and security of ICTequipment were also identified as problems.This does not seem to be a pervasive issue, butis nevertheless a critical consideration for theimplementation and sustainability oftechnology infrastructure in schools.

ConclusionThis chapter has provided a brief overview ofthe nature of NGO contributions tosupporting the use of ICTs at schools inSouth Africa. It provides some generalindication of key areas in which NGOs areproviding support to schools. A number ofchallenges have been identified that NGOs inthis sector will have to confront in order tostrengthen their role in supporting the use ofICTs in schools.


PAGE 129

SECTION B CHAPTER 8

1. This chapter reflects the findings

of an investigation undertaken by

Jonathan Miller of Miller Esselaar &

Associates for the purposes of the

study.

SECTION B CHAPTER 9

This chapter explores the role of the privatesector in meeting the demand for ICTs atschools and for the professional developmentof teachers.1 Commercial suppliers in SouthAfrica were approached via telephone and astructured interview guide to find out whatthey provided to schools and some of thedynamics and characteristics of that market. Itshould be noted that it has been difficult togather relevant data. In part this is because theschools market appears to be veryfragmented, and not very significant in size.This is therefore not intended to be anexhaustive survey and the results reportedhere are not necessarily representative of allcomputer product and service providers toschools. Nonetheless, we believe the resultsare instructive and provide a context withinwhich to evaluate the main body of resultsprovided by this research project.An overviewof the feedback received from the suppliersinterviewed is provided in Appendix F.

Overview of the marketIn other parts of the world the private sectorshow intense interest in the contribution thatcomputers exert on education in schools andthe preparation of schoolchildren for theinformation society. Examples in othercountries such as the United States (whichhas the Schools Technology and ReadinessChart, ThinkQuest, etc.), Australia (theAustralian White Paper on IT in schools), NewZealand (the New Zealand national survey ofcomputers in schools) and Malaysia (the

Malaysian Multimedia Super Corridor leadproject on Smart Schools), illustrate thetangible actions that are being undertaken indeveloped and developing countries alike tomonitor the role of ICTs in schools.

In South Africa, the main studies on the issueof computers in education have been led by thegovernment and NGO sectors. Initiatives ofnote include the national TELI initiative, theWestern Cape Telecommunications Project,Cyberschool, SchoolNet SA and the regionalschools networks.

By contrast, our investigations showed thatSouth Africa’s private sector has only justbegun grasping the opportunities afforded byin schools. Software suppliers such asMicrosoft, Corel, Symantec and Adobe are inthe forefront, offering attractive deals toschools. As regards networking products,Novell and Cisco offer school licensing atreduced rates.

We have, however, not found any majorsuppliers, distributors or retailers ofcomputers that have specifically targeted theprimary or secondary schools educationalmarket. Nor have they devised creative waysof exploiting this market. This may be due tothe low profit margins associated with thesale of PCs and negative perceptions aboutthe school environment as a viable market.

The lack of knowledgeable personnel inclient organisations creates some difficultiesfor suppliers. This lack of skills, coupled withlimited budgets, seems to discourage theinvolvement of commercial suppliers.

‘9’Supply of ICTs

to schools by the

private sector

As is noted is Chapter 6, school fees,computer levies and fundraising events are themain sources of funding for computers. Schoolstherefore have to rely on small and possiblyuncertain cash flows. The frequent commentfrom computer suppliers and some of the largerretailers is that schools seek out the cheapestdeals, relying where they can on parents,governing bodies, friends of friends etc., to maketheir limited funds go as far as possible.

In many cases this is of course shortsighted.There is no continuity in branding andsupport policies, inadequate provision madefor maintenance, there is over-reliance on aparticular subject teacher for ongoingmanagement of the computing facility and soon. One supplier of sophisticated communi-cations equipment noted that he had to dealwith teachers who might be adept atwordprocessing but had insufficient trainingto make effective networking decisions fortheir schools.

The role of governing bodies was oftenmentioned. In some cases schools benefitfrom knowledgeable and far-sighted governingbodies that provide excellent guidance andsupport for the ICTs effort. In others theyrely on one or two parents who may regardthemselves as ‘talented amateurs’ and perhapshave a contact in the computer business.There could be many opinions on a governingbody. As one supplier said, some governingbodies are from heaven and others from hell!Problems also arise when the children of thecomputer champion at the school graduateand leave the school. These champions areinclined to change the orientation of theirinterests as new issues confront their childrenin different situations.

This highlights the need for teacher training.While the interviews indicate thatComputers4Kids, Futurekids, K-Net and NewHorizons all offer teacher training in one formor another, as do some education

departments, the training appears to belimited in scope and focused on basicapplications training.2

As shown in Chapter 6, the lack of availablestaff to use computer equipment and softwareis the most important inhibitor to moreeffective use of computers. Since 73% ofschools in this study with more than 10computers have networks and file servers andare now also connecting to the Internet,special efforts will be needed to upgradeteacher skills in those areas.

The outsource optionA model used by some schools is tooutsource some or all of the computerplanning, installation and maintenance inschools, together with teacher and studenttraining. For the great majority of schools thathave very limited human capacity incomputers and cannot afford to have full-timestaff managing their computer operations, thisis an attractive model, largely adopted byFuturekids and other players likeComputers4Kids and K-Net. However, it toohas disadvantages. It is not easy to delegatelocal responsibility for integration ofcomputers into the learning process. Nor is iteasy for external agencies to tailor theirparticular philosophy and recommendationsto the specific plans and evolutionarytrajectory of particular schools. This isparticularly the case with organisations suchas Futurekids that use models developedelsewhere in the world. Futurekids are,however, developing a curriculum to cater forthe needs of the local market.

Many of the larger business organisationsapproached are also active in the socialresponsibility arena. NGOs like NetDay, theComputer Society, SchoolNet SA, TheLearning Channel, etc. all receive donations incash or kind to fund their operations.International donors interested in helping

THE PRIVATE SECTOR AND ICTS

PAGE 131

2. The Western Cape Education

Department moved away from

applications training some time ago

and concentrates on the use of the

computer as a tool in subject

teaching, and the integration of

applications into specific subject

areas.

SECTION B CHAPTER 9

SECTION B CHAPTER 9

education, target NGOs rather than individualschools or commercial suppliers and thenhold the NGO accountable for effectiveapplication of the donations. This model maybe a valuable one for the great majority ofschools struggling to build capacity in generaland computer capacity in particular.Also sinceNGOs are working with several schools atonce, they are in a position to negotiate bulkorders with dealers and suppliers.

Provincial education departments throughdistrict structures also seem be in a goodposition to act on behalf of schools andencourage business interest. For instance theFree State Department of Education has awell-worked out set of procedures forbuilding partnerships with commercialventures. With the notable exception of theWestern Cape, the major problem is the lackof substantial allocations from the provincialeducation budgets to computer-relatedfacilities and professional development.

Possible models for flows ofproducts and servicesFigure 9.1 brings together some of theelements to consider in relation to the

provision of ICT facilities to schools.The twomajor sources of equipment are the retailchain and local and overseas donors. Thelatter could be individual businesses providingfunding or disposing of redundant equipment,or donor agencies such as the World Bank,IDRC, etc. As mentioned above donoragencies tend to work via NGOs.

The retail chain starts with suppliers ofequipment and software, either locallymanufactured or imported products. Wherethere are special discounts applicable toschools they are applied through thedistribution chain. Distributors such as FSAfor example are able to offer academicdiscounts on software that are passed on topurchasers. Depending on the supplier andproducts concerned, certain conditions mayapply, such as being registered as an academicuser before the special deal is applicable. Atthis stage, most of this retail business appearsto be directed to schools. Some NGOspurchase equipment for deployment toschools, and with the exception of theWestern Cape Telecommunications Project,there appears to be no direct acquisition ofICTs for schools by provincial departments.

The role of the provincial departments


Figure 9.1: Possible flow of products and services

Retail value chain:suppliers, distributors,resellers

ProvincialDepartments

NGOs

Donors

Schools

Norms andstandards forschool funding

School funds:fees, levies,fund-raising

Retail value chain:suppliers, distributors,resellers

appears to be to offer advice through subjectadvisors, pass on information as to preferredsuppliers nominated at the national level,communicate with NGOs and run teachertraining centres. One respondent to this studyhas, however, noted that ‘the efforts ofprovincial departments are haphazard at bestand really non-existent at worst.’ In duecourse, the provinces should play another rolein ensuring that the Norms and Standards forSchools Funding (1998) are observed in theICTs arena as in others.

The schools ICT market appears to be veryfragmented as illustrated in the diagram.Whileacademic discounts and pricing based onnational tender approvals are available to allschools, not all schools in all provinces havethe relevant information. Even if they do,individual schools are presented with adilemma. Do they ‘buy into’ such nationalarrangements and make application viaretailers who are part of a nationaldistribution chain, or do they take advantageof local knowledge and suppliers. Often, in theshort term, local costs could be even lowerthan those available from a national supplier,who has to build in contingencies for followup support. At least one local supplier wespoke to assembles PCs at a very good price.There is also a case to be made for supportinglocal commerce and industry rather thanseeing schools’ funds flow to a national firmheadquartered far away. A relationship with alocal supplier should, at least in theory, goalong with a support relationship. Thedisadvantage is the relatively higher risk ofsmall local suppliers going out of business, or‘cutting corners.’ Also a large national ‘brandname’ supplier is, again in theory, in a betterposition to offer special academic deals.

It seems that there is an opportunity,however, for the provinces to play a muchstronger role as intermediaries in the supplychain. One of the important gaps that needsto be filled is more accurate and ongoing

estimation of the total market for hardware,software, services and training.The provinces,through their district structures, should be ina good position to assess the nature and sizeof demand for ICTs in their schools and put avalue on that demand over, say, the next threeyears. (They should also be able to assess andadvise on the decision-making processes thatschools use to choose suppliers and buyequipment.) They can then invite proposalsfrom suppliers at a provincial level, includingprice, support terms and conditions, localreseller chains, etc. All schools in therespective districts should thus be in a betterposition, perhaps with the assistance of theICT advisors where they exist, to get the bestpossible deals, with greater assurance ofcompatibility with other schools andcontinuity of support.

ConclusionThis chapter briefly explored the supply chainfor schools’ hardware and software. Whilethere are many ‘good deals’ for business-oriented software packages, there are veryfew for hardware, telecomm equipment andconnectivity. Where there are specialarrangements for software, they tend to bebased on a minimum number of ‘users,’ andthat number can be large by South Africanstandards. (There is some indication, however,that major suppliers are now structuring dealsthat suit this market in particular.) The generalimpression of the schools market for ICTproducts and services is that it remains veryfragmented and individual schools act ‘on theirown’. Given very limited budgets, they tend totake a short-term view of ICT acquisitionsand go for the best local deal rather thanbuying branded products with maintenanceand support bundled in.

Based on a simple model of the supplychain, it is noted that the provincialdepartments could play a strong role in


PAGE 133

SECTION B CHAPTER 9

SECTION B CHAPTER 9

negotiating with suppliers who are willing tomake longer-term arrangements for schoolsat competitive prices. This is along the lines ofexisting national procurement policies forschools, which presently do not target ICTs inparticular. In similar fashion, schools couldorganise themselves into local consortia toincrease their buying power. The ICT subjectadvisors in provincial education departments

could play an important part in such a

structure. In addition to price and quality

benefits to individual schools and educational

authorities, an organised approach would have

other benefits such as standardisation of

hardware and software platforms, enabling

more effective sharing of educational

resources across schools.


As stated in the introduction, Chapters 1 to 13provide a synthesis of the main findings of thereport.

The aim of this chapter is to provide anaccount of the various material conditions andinfrastructural concerns that are linked toeffective startup of ICTs in schools. A detailedcomparison of schools with and withoutcomputers shows how the latter group isdisadvantaged in several ways that makeeffective start-up nearly impossible.

One of the key findings of this study, perhapsnot surprisingly, is that there is a strongcorrelation between the location of schools inthe broader social and economic context andthe level of resources they have. This locationtends to shape the provision of educationalmaterials, the available ‘human capital’ and thepropensity to provide education adequately,including effective use of ICTs. Poorer schoolstend to be overcrowded with insufficienteducational resources and little prospect ofescaping this position. Schools that havesuccessfully acquired ICTs for teaching andlearning appear to enjoy more favourableconditions in this regard.

Schools that are unable to acquire the basicmaterial resources for learning are not likely tobe successful in acquiring ICTs for use inteaching and learning. Similarly, schools thatmeet the necessary conditions for the use ofICTs in the teaching and learning process do

not show the capacity to do so withoutsupport and intervention from outsideagencies. These agencies include the nationaland provincial departments of education,businesses and NGOs as well as other schoolsthat can provide material and conceptualassistance. Such schools include those that havesuccessfully adopted ICTs and use them to amaximum capacity in the classroom.

Favourable conditions encompass amultitude of enhancing conditions andcapacities. The most prominent appear to berelatively smaller class sizes, the ability ofparents to meet the additional financialdemands involved in acquiring and maintainingICTs and the ability to integrate ICTseffectively into the school routine, therebycreating a viable and sustainable culture aroundthese new technologies.

In the discussion that follows we comparethe situation of schools with and withoutcomputers in an attempt to reach a moredetailed picture of the conditions that enableor restrict the startup and use of ICTs.

Schools without computersIt is important to examine the profile ofschools without computers in some depth as itprovides us with an important minimumbenchmark against which to compare otherstages in ICT provision and use. Given the PAGE 135

SECTION C CHAPTER 10

‘10’Material and infrastructural

factors that enable or

restrict the start-up

of ICTs in schools

1. Throughout Section C a number of

diagrams are used which provide a

visual representation of the

correlations between different

variables or indexes. The diagrams

show the relationship that exists when

specific clusters of schools (e.g.

schools with high or low pupil to

teacher ratios) are compared with

other clusters (e.g. schools with high

or low levels of technology resources).

The diagrams show this relationship

plotted on a graph. To read the graph

it is important to look at where the

shapes (circles and diamonds) that

represent a cluster are found in

relation to the other shapes. Focus

either on the horizontal or vertical

axes that separate the graph into

upper or lower quadrants or left or

right quadrants. If two shapes are

located close together on the same

side of the graph this tells us that

there is a strong correlation between

these two clusters, i.e. that schools

which fall into the cluster of those

with a low teacher to pupil ratio also

tend to fall into the cluster with higher

levels of technology. So these graphs

should be read by looking at the

proximity of the different clusters to

each other.


limited data on these schools in the HSRCdatabase (1996), with regard to resources, itwas decided to use learner to teacher ratios asthe best proxy variable of general levels oflearning and teaching infrastructure.

Among the schools with no computers, twogroups were generated through clusteranalysis: schools where learner to teacherratios are relatively high (43:1) and thosewhere the ratio is substantially lower (26:1).Most of the sample (60%) were classified in thelow ratio group; the remaining (40%) in thehigh ratio group.

In making use of learner to teacher ratios, itis important to note that, as discussed inChapter 5, ratios within and between provincesmay differ considerably. The figures used in thestudy reflect the average learner to teacherratio for that particular group of schools.

Through cross-tabulating the ratio groupingswith other resource indicators, the followingresults were obtained. Schools in the highlearner to teacher ratio group (43:1) are:

• less likely to have power supply or wiring inthe schools.

• less likely to have acquired electricity after1996.

• less likely to have acquired a telephoneconnection recently.

• less likely to have built additionalclassrooms recently.

• tend to be primary schools rather thansecondary schools.

From the survey, it was possible to create a(rough) index of technology resources (i.e. thelevel of technology resources which schoolshave). Schools had to indicate which of anumber of ‘technologies’, such as TVs, VCRs,OHPs etc. they had. Again, through clusteranalysis, two ‘technology clusters’ wereproduced: high and low clusters. The vastmajority of schools in the sample (80%) wereclassified as the low-tech cluster, i.e. where notmore than one of these items was available.Theremaining 20% of schools were classified as thehigh-tech cluster. These schools on averagehave more than four of the items in thetechnology list. The next step was to look atthe cross-tabulation of the ratio groups withthe technology clusters. Figure 10.1 presentsthis correlation.

The diagram shows clearly that:

• Schools with higher learner to teacherratios (hence larger classes) feature nearer

ICT START-UP

Figure 10.1: Technology resources (levels) byratio groups1

◆

●High 43:1

Low 26:1

Poorly

Well

●

●

◆

◆

Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

Ratio groupings Technology clusters

Figure 10.2: Ratio groups by school type

◆

●High 43:1

Low 26:1

Combined

Primary

●

●

◆

◆

Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2.0 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

2.0

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3

Ratio groupings Type of school

Secondary

◆

to schools that have poor resources.

• Schools with low learner to teacher ratios(hence smaller classes) feature nearer toschools that have comparatively betterresources.

Further analysis reveals that a comparison oflearner to teacher ratios at schools by theschool type (primary, combined or secondary)shows that among schools that do not havecomputers, large class sizes and high learner toteacher ratios predominate in primary schools.In secondary schools, class sizes and learner toteacher ratios tend to be lower.The results ofthe correlation are shown in Figure 10.2.

By combining the information on thetechnology clusters and the learner to teacherratio clusters an Index of Resources wasconstructed with three levels: low, medium andhigh. When schools in the sample wereorganised into these three levels, the picture isshown in Figure 10.3.

The Index of Resources was subsequentlycross-tabulated with a two-level grouping offactors that inhibit the acquisition of computerfacilities in the school. This grouping, dividedinto those schools that listed a few inhibitingfactors (slightly more than 2) and those thatidentified many inhibiting factors (more than 5).

From Figure 10.4, it is clear that schoolswhich are classified as poorly resourcedidentify a greater number of factors asinhibiting their acquisition of computerfacilities. The opposite is also true: schoolsthat are categorised as highly resourced, onaverage identify a few factors inhibiting theircapacity to acquire computer facilities. Thegraph provides an interesting correlation andone which would be expected since schoolsthat are located in the middle with regard tothe Index of Resources also show an equivalentnumber of hindering conditions (i.e. betweenfew and many) that prevent them fromacquiring computer facilities.

Schools with computersA similar process was followed with the sampleof schools with computers. In this case moreinformation was available. An Index of ICTResources was constructed through a clusteranalysis on selected variables (i.e. Pentiumprocessors and laser printers). Clusters forsecondary and combined schools werecombined to create smaller clusters. In anattempt to create another proxy variable forresourcing levels of schools, the ratio oflearners to educators was selected once again.

Two categories of schools were generated:Group 1 with an average ratio (or mean) of 30learners to educators (high ratio group;n = 231)2 and Group 2 with a mean ratio of 19

ICT START-UP

PAGE 137

2. n = the number of schools which

fall into this group.


Figure 10.4: Factors preventing school from acquiringcomputer facilities

◆

●Medium

Low

Many (5+) Few (2+)

●

●

◆

◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Index of resources Inhibiting factors (categories)

High

●

Figure 10.3: Distribution of resourcing groups

Missing 17/4%Medium 196/43%

High 91/20%

Low 149/33%

3.A highly significant Chi-Square

(Chi-Square = 108.077; p<.000; phi

coefficient = 0.371)


learners per educator (low ratio group; n=446). This newly created variable was thencross-tabulated with the Pentium clusters.

The results showed that there was amoderately strong correlation between thePentium clusters and the ratio groupings.3 Itwas therefore decided to re-code the resultantcategories into a new variable. A regrouping ofthe variables produced a fourfold classificationthat we have termed ICT Sophistication Indexwith four categories: low, low/medium,medium/high and high. The mean number ofPentiums and Laser Printers for these fourcategories is presented in Table 10.1.

The table shows that there is a clearrelationship between level of ICTsophistication and the mean number ofPentiums in use in a school, but also betweenlevel of ICT sophistication and mean number oflaser printers in use. When the ICTSophistication Index was compared to otherindicators of sophistication such as access tothe Internet, a similar picture emerged.

Figure 10.5 shows a strong correlationbetween ICT sophistication and Internetaccess.

Figure 10.5 also shows that there is a strongcorrelation between low ICT sophisticationschools and the absence of Internet access.Furthermore, moderately strong correlationswere obtained between ICT sophistication, theuse of file servers and computer networks, aswell as the proportion of teachers with e-mailfacilities at home. In order to simplify theIndex, and because visual inspection has shownthat the low/medium and medium/highcategories sometimes cluster close together, itwas decided to combine the two middlecategories with a resultant 3-category index:low, medium and high levels of ICTsophistication.

From the results presented it is clear thatthere are a range of conditions that havecontributed to the accumulation of ICT-related

ICT START-UP

Figure 10.5: ICTs sophistication by Internet access

◆

●High

Low

Yes

●

● ◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2.0 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1

2.0

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

ICT Sophistication Internet Access?

No

◆

●Low/Medium

●Medium/High

Table 10.1: ICT sophistication by Pentiums and laserprinters

IT sophistication Pentiums in use Number of laser printers

Low Mean 5.09 1.76N 296 174Std. deviation 4.46 1.47

Low/Medium Mean 8.99 1.86N 226 134Std. deviation 7.48 1.47

Medium/High Mean 29.84 2.22N 68 55Std. deviation 11.54 1.42

High Mean 43.80 3.66N 87 77Std. deviation 13.26 2.50

Total Mean 13.85 2.18N 677 440Std. deviation 15.67 1.82

resources that have enabled schools in

particular instances to maintain a relatively high

level of ICT sophistication. Schools have been

able to retain these resources by constant

renewal and upgrading. These appear to have

been generated largely through parental

contributions and fundraising initiatives.

Schools with higher levels of ICT sophistication

also tend to offer Computer Studies as a

curriculum subject with a dedicated Computer

Studies teacher.

As is to be expected, given the first level of

analysis presented in Chapter 6, the level of

ICT sophistication correlates strongly to the

date when schools started using computers.

Schools that started using computers before

1990 generally tended to be associated

with high levels of ICT resources and therefore

with a comparatively high level of ICT

sophistication.This is shown in Figure 10. 6.

An interesting correlation confirms that

schools which have many constraining

conditions also have less success in

generating funds, while schools that recorded

having fewer constraining conditions achieved

reasonable success in generating outside

funds as is shown in Figure 10.7.Where these

funds are generated from, i.e. the primary

sources of funding, will be discussed in the

next section.

FundingThe ICT Sophistication Index was also

correlated with the sources and levels of

funding schools were able to generate.

Because the original questionnaire did not

contain precise categories around which the

funding sources of schools could be grouped,

these had to be created. Schools that selected

donation from parents, allocation from school

fees or computer levy were grouped together

and classified as ‘Contributions from Parents’.

This group was cross tabulated with ‘school

funding-raising activities’. Three new

ICT START-UP

PAGE 139


Figure 10.6: ICT sophistication by start-up date

●High

Low

1990 – 1994

●

●

◆

◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2 1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

New index of IT sophistication Schools started using computers

1994 and after

◆

Before 1990

◆

Medium

●

Figure 10.7: Constraining conditions by success ingenerating funds

●Many

Some

1990 – 1994

●

●

◆

◆

Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-3 -2.5 -2 1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

3

2

1

0.0

-1

-2

-3

Constraining conditions Success in generating funds

Not very successful

◆

Reasonably successful

◆

●Few


categories were therefore selected fromthis, i.e.:

• schools that selected fundraising only (86 cases).

• schools that selected parents only (375 cases).

• schools that selected both, i.e. parents andfundraising (334 cases).

The results reveal that in schools that have alow index of ICT sophistication, fundraisingplayed a more significant role as a source offunding for ICTs. However, schools within thiscategory were also dependent to varyingdegrees on funds obtained from parentalcontributions. In schools that have a medium tohigh index of ICT sophistication, financialcontributions from parents constituted themore important source of funding for new ICTresources at the school.

Other correlations showed the following:

Start-up date of schools• Overall, funds that were obtained from

both parents and fundraising were evenlyspread across schools irrespective of theirstart-up date.

• Schools that started before 1994 weremore reliant on contributions from parentsfor financing new ICT resources.

• Schools that started from 1995 onwardsdepended to a greater degree onfundraising activities.

Type of school• Funding obtained through fundraising

activities was generally prevalent in primary

schools. However, in primary schools a largepart of the funds that were used for new ICTresources were obtained from both parentaland fundraising contributions.

• Funding obtained largely from parents wasgenerally the norm in secondary schools.

It was argued in Chapter 5 that there is agrowing tendency within schools for parents toshare a greater burden of educationexpenditure. It was also pointed out that suchexpenditure is largely directed towards non-personnel expenditure where cuts in realterms have been most significant over the pastthree years.The recognition that this situationplaces poorer families at a disadvantage andreinforces a growing division between schoolswhich are able to supplement their incomefrom parent’s contributions and those whereparents cannot afford to contribute has beenrecognised and noted by the government.Thesources of funding for ICTs and the linkbetween parent contributions and higher levelsof resources suggest that the provision of ICTsfollows the same pattern as other non-personnel expenditure items.

Although the area of educator skill for theteaching of computer skills will be discussedlater, it is important to note here that thesurvey also showed, particularly through theinterview process, that where schools have adedicated computer teacher, these were largelyprovided for through ‘Governing Body posts’ inthe school. In this way, school fees are not onlyused to provide for the purchase andmaintenance of computers but also for theprovision of the necessary educator skills foreffective computer use.

One school explained their situation asfollows:

‘At the moment we've actually only got 22government teachers, and 15 governingbody teachers…. but that's the extent towhich I believe that you can't have bigclasses and the governing body go along

ICT START-UP

Table 10.2: Sources of funding

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulativepercent percent

Valid Fundraising 86 8.9 10.8 10.8Parents 375 39.0 47.2 58.0Parents and fundraising 334 34.7 42.0 100.0Total 795 82.6 100.0

Missing System 167 17.4

Total 962 100.00

with that, so – our fee structure is R370 amonth. But I think I've convinced theparents that it's money well spent, becauseyou can have every facility in the world, butput 50 kids in a classroom and you're notgoing to teach very well’.

There is no doubt then that while theprovision, maintenance and teaching ofcomputers remains an area of expenditurewhich is largely dependent on parentcontributions, existing inequalities in theprovision of ICTs will not only deepen but willalso serve as a mechanism for increasing thedivide between schools. The implications ofthis are enormous, particularly as ICTs developas a means of accessing information and as avital support mechanism for both educatorsand learners. These concerns were expressedopenly by some of the more disadvantagedschools interviewed in the survey. They arguedthat even if they were able to raise money orreceive a donation for new ICT resources,parents would be unable to pay for anymaintenance that may be required and theirteachers lacked the skills to be able to use thecomputers effectively.

What is heartening to see, however, is that, asnoted above, schools which have a low index ofICT sophistication appear to have explored theroute of fundraising in order to secure ICTs. It

is also evident that this is a growing trend,particularly among those schools that startedusing computers after 1995.

ConclusionThe aim of this chapter has been to provide adescriptive account of the various materialconditions and infrastructural concerns thatare related to effective ICT startup.Through acomparison of schools without and withcomputers, we have shown how the formergroup is disadvantaged at a multitude of levelsthat make effective start-up nearly impossible.

The most basic infrastructural conditions(electricity, inadequate classrooms, insufficientsecurity) are not present in large numbers ofschools. Added to this are large classes, lack offunding to acquire computers and finally, a lackof available staff to manage ICTs.

The fact that larger proportions of schools donot meet these basic minimum conditions is anindication of the huge challenge that SouthAfrica faces if it wishes to bring its learners intothe information age. This challenge is coupledwith the reality that where relatively high levelsof ICT resources exist, these have largely beenpaid for through parents’ contributions.This hasimportant implications not only for the start-upof ICTs but also for the creation of equity.

ICT START-UP

PAGE 141



One of the most important objectives of thissurvey was to investigate and describe howICTs are presently being used in South Africanschools and the key factors that affect theiruse. Using this information, policy around ICTsin schools can specifically address the barriersand strengthen support for effective use.

The chapter begins by briefly reiterating thekey issues that need to be considered whenevaluating the effectiveness of ICTs. Then, inorder to develop a picture of the context inwhich, and the different ways that, ICTs areapplied in South African schools, four areasinvestigated by the survey are described andanalysed in relation to the issues around effectiveuse.The four areas are: the domains of ICT use;the purposes for which ICTs are applied inteaching and learning; types of software andfrequency of use; and modes of application.

Following this an Index of Usage is developedto further analyse and synthesise the findings ofthe survey in relation to factors such as learnerto teacher ratios; start-up date; Internet and e-mail access; etc.

What effective use of ICTsmeansWhile the concept of ‘effectiveness’ in the useof ICTs is contested and clearly has differentmeanings for different people, in this study wehave taken the position that effective use ofICTs adds value to the process of teaching andlearning. As discussed in the earlier chapters,the value of ICTs ranges from equipping

learners with skills and knowledge through ICTuse, to enhancing the process of teaching andlearning in the classroom. Effective use meansmaking use of ICTs in such a way that theircapacity to contribute positively to the processof teaching and learning is facilitated andsupported.

‘We feel very strongly about not using acomputer for the sake of using a computer.There’s no particular value in using acomputer in a particular subject unless ithelps you educate, get better in whatever itis you might be doing’. (ICT co-ordinator,private school, Cape Town, 1998).

It was shown earlier in Section A thatinternational experiences of ICT use ineducation do not provide sufficient evidencethat ICTs improve teaching and learning. Onthe one hand there are those who argue thatICTs are in fact the most important andeffective mechanisms available in the modernworld for teaching and learning. On the otherhand, others are more circumspect suggestingthat the capacity of ICTs to add value to theeducational experience is dependent not onICTs in themselves, but rather on the contextin which they are used and the kinds of learningprocesses they are used for.

While the context is obviously affected byfactors influencing the education systembroadly, one of the most important concernsabout the context of ICT use is whencomputers take the place of teachers or areseen as more effective mechanisms forteaching. It is claimed that effective ICT use

‘11’Effective use of ICTs

requires a teaching and learning contextcharacterised by high levels of innovation andcommitment from educators who are willingto learn and develop insights as they moveahead. A teacher from a secondary school inCape Town most aptly expresses thesesentiments. In identifying the most crucialfactor in ‘getting it right’ the teacher says:

‘It’s innovative staff, you’ve got to haveinnovative staff who are willing to do thingsin a different way and willing to learn alongthe way, and willing to turn round and say,well that did work, or that didn’t work.’ 1

The context in which ICTs are usedinfluences the kinds of learning processes forwhich they are applied. A distinction isconsistently made in the literature betweendrill and practice type learning and morecritical evaluative learning. It is argued inSection A that ICTs can be effectively used tofacilitate both forms of learning. Problems arisehowever when ICTs are used solely forrepetitive learning and opportunities for criticalevaluation are not grasped.

The domains of ICT useThe ‘domains of use’ refer to the areas in whichICTs are used at schools, i.e. in teaching andlearning in classrooms, and in streamliningadministrative and management functions. Atleast 30% of the schools that have computerslisted administration and management as themost important use for computers in theirschool. At schools without computers, 37%indicated this area of use as their priority, whenthey acquire computers.

At the level of teaching and learning, thedomain of ICT use can best be described byfocusing on the learning areas in whichteachers are presently using computers.Among the respondent schools, both primaryand secondary, language and mathematics arethe learning areas in which computers are

most predominantly used. This focus isparticularly evident in primary schools buttogether with a focus on technology, alsodominates computer use in the secondaryschools. In comparison, relatively few schoolsappear to be using computers in learning areassuch as the Human Sciences, Arts and Culture, Life Orientation or even the NaturalSciences.

Differences in domains of ICT usage can alsobe seen from the kind of skills that form partof computer literacy training at schools. Basiccomputing principles and word processing tendto dominate the computer skills taught at mostschools. At secondary level however, theseskills combine with those that largely form partof the Computer Studies curriculum as thedominant focus areas.

The purposes for which ICTsare applied in teaching andlearningWhen schools were asked to indicate thepurposes for which computers are used intheir school, a picture emerged that showed adominance of drill and practice type activities,particularly in the areas of language andmathematics.

The dominance of computers as a tool forrepetitive learning processes is especiallyevident in primary schools where 55% of theprimary schools in the sample identified drilland practice as the most important purposefor which computers were used (see Chapter6). Other possible uses such as presentation ofassignments, researching projects, simulationexercises and problem-solving activities allreceived relatively little support in comparison.

Although 32% of secondary schools thatresponded identified problem-solving as the mostimportant purpose for which computers areused, drill and practice was still identified as mostimportant by 22% of the schools. Thus overall,

EFFECTIVE USE OF ICTS

PAGE 143

1. Interview with secondary school

teacher, Free State, April 1998


2. A brief explanation of how best

to read the cluster analysis graphs

appears in Chapter 10, page 136.


80% of all the schools in the sample chose drilland practice as the most important use.

These findings reflect current usage.However, it is important to recognise thatwhen schools were asked to prioritise thepotential uses for computers in their school, asignificant proportion of the schools stressedtheir use as a teaching and learning tool in allsubjects.This purpose was also prioritised by athird of the respondents that did not havecomputers. It would seem therefore that whiledrill and practice type activities tend todominate at present, there is an increasingawareness and wish on the part of schools toexpand their computer use.

Software in useThe findings on the types of software usedmost in schools reinforces the picture alreadypresented of the importance of ICTs inadministration and management of schools, inbasic computer skills development and in drilland practice type work. The survey shows howword processing and administrative software isused frequently in most schools withspreadsheets and programming languages alsodominating the range of software at secondaryschools. Presentation software andprogrammes that enable ICTs to be used asinformation resources (e.g. CD-Roms) are also

used by a substantial number of schools.

While the survey data provides anindication of the scope and frequency ofsoftware used at schools, a number ofrespondents suggested that, even wherecomputers are being used in specific learningareas, there is a tendency to rely on softwarethat is orientated towards drill and practiceactivities as opposed to a more problemorientated approach. In discussing a popularmathematics programme used by a number ofschools one ICT Co-ordinator at anindependent school in Cape Town explainedwhat he saw the limitations of this particularkind of software to be:

When you sit there, the computer asks youa question, you give an answer and thecomputer says right or wrong. This you cando with a textbook, quite frankly. Themaths textbook will have the answer at theback, why pay thousands for software. Andthen it gives you final answers, and you geta multiple choice – that's the answer, thereit is. Look, there's always scope for a kid byaccident getting the right one right, but theymight have done them incorrectly…There’sno substance in that. Here is a differentmaths package, as an example, which is farmore of a tutoring thing. It takes youthrough problems and in a basic way triesto identify where you're making a mistakeand tries to help you in that way.We usethat as a backup not as a substitute.’

Modes of application ICT use is very much affected by the manner inwhich learners engage with ICTs. In thequestionnaire, schools were requested toindicate whether computers are primarily usedfor group work, individual work or both. Theevidence from the survey indicates that acrossall the grades, a higher proportion of schoolsuse computers for individual work withsignificantly less using it for group work or a


Table 11.1 Index of usage by averagenumber of computers and printers2

◆●High 30:1

Low 19:1Low

High

●

●

◆

◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Ratio groupings Index of ICT usage

Medium

◆

combination of individual and group work. As

will be indicated in the next section, the mode

of use is also strongly related to number of

computers available in each school.

Critical issues in the‘effective’ usage of ICTsIn 1996 it was noted by the Technology

Enhanced Learning Initiative that, in general,

initiatives using technology to support

learning and teaching within the education

system tended to focus on traditional

pedagogic approaches with limited innovation

(TELI, 1996:13).The survey findings presented

here tend to support this claim.There is little

evidence of what can be regarded as ‘effective

usage’. If we return to an earlier point, i.e. that

‘effective’ usage is directly related to the

context of use as well as the kinds of uses to

which ICTs are put, then it is important to

focus more specifically on those factors that

influence the context of ICTs in South African

schools and thus define the manner in which

they are used.

An Index of ICT Usage was constructed on

the basis of the survey data.3 According to this

index, schools were grouped into three

distinct categories of usage. On one end we

find ‘high usage’ schools which demonstrate a

relatively high degree of sophistication in the

range and depth of uses to which their ICTs

are put. At the other end of the scale there

are those schools that, despite having access

to ICT resources, display a much lower level

of usage. In between these two extremes we

can determine a medium level group

displaying characteristics of both. By

correlating this index with a number of other

factors that might be related to ICT usage, we

begin to get a more systematic and clearer

picture of the characteristics of a ‘typical’ high

usage school or a ‘typical’ low usage school.

Learner to teacher ratioICT usage is obviously related to the generallevels of resources in a school. One indicator ofsuch levels of resources (in the absence ofmore direct measures) is the ratio betweenlearners and teachers. Using cluster analysis,the schools with computers were found togroup into two categories: a high learner toteacher ratio group (30:1) and a low learner toteacher ratio group (19:1). Using multi-dimensional scaling techniques, the relationshipbetween ICT usage and learner to teacherratio groupings is presented in Figure 11.1.

Although the correlation between these twovariables is rather weak (contingencycoefficient = 0.128), it is highly significant andintuitively very plausible. High and mediumlevels of use cluster closer with low ratiogroups; whereas low ICT use is clearly groupedtogether with the high ratio groups. Stateddifferently: the levels of use of ICTs (whichincludes the domains of software applicationsand number of learning areas covered) areclearly related to the size of classes, i.e. thelearner to teacher ratio.

Start-up dateUsing similar techniques, the Index of ICTUsage was correlated with the period duringwhich schools indicated that they had startedto use computers.The evidence (Figure 11.2)shows that schools that started usingcomputers prior to 1990 are more likely tofall into the high usage category than thoseschools that started later. Similarly, amongthose schools that started to use computersafter 1995 there is a greater propensity to fallinto the low usage group (contingencycoefficient = 0.118; Chi-square significant).This evidence suggests that the longer aschool has had computers the more likelythey are to make more use of their resourcesand display a greater degree of innovation andsophistication.


PAGE 145

3. The first step in constructing the

index of ICT usage was to add the

total number of learning areas in

which ICTs were being used and run

K-means cluster analysis on these by

school type. Schools clustered into

two groups – those with a high

number of learning areas and those

with a low number of learning

areas.The second step involved

doing exactly the same procedure

for software. Here frequency of

usage of all thirteen types of

software was summed and K-means

cluster analysis was done by school

type.The low group clustered around

a mean of 11 (types of software

used) and the high group clustered

around a mean of 25. By combining

the results of the first and second

steps noted above, a fourfold

classification with high face validity

was produced. It showed high and

low learning areas to be in opposite

poles. It also showed high and low

software usage to be in opposite

poles.The cross-tabulated results

were combined for the two levels of

each variable to create a four level

Index of ICT Usage.



Use of ICTs inschools is influen-ced by the degreeto which bothlearners andteachers develop alevel of familiaritywith the resourcesand in so doingcontribute to thedevelopment of aculture of ICT use.Although thislatter area will bediscussed furtherin this chapter, anumber ofteachers inter-viewed in the studyemphasised the‘trial and error’nature of ICTdevelopment andstressed that it is aslow process and‘not a quick thing’.Obviously, thelonger a school hashad access to ICTsresources themore oppor-tunities they havehad to be creativeand learn fromexperience. Asdiscussed in

Chapter 4, this observation is mirrored by theexperiences of ICT development in schools inother countries.

The impact of ICT resource levelsand usageOne of the most important factors thatimpacts on effective usage is the level ofresources to which a school has access. A

comparison of the average resources(computers and printers) for each of the threelevels of the Index of ICT Usage reveals a clearcorrelation between usage and ICT resources(Figure 11.1). The correlation between thecombined index of ICT resources (ICTSophistication Index used in Chapter 10) and theIndex of ICT Usage is moderate. Thus despitethe importance of other factors in influencingICT innovation, the evidence from the studyshows that schools which are better equippedwith regard to their ICT resources have agreater propensity and capacity to make moreeffective use of ICTs in the teaching andlearning process.

If the average number (mean) of Pentiums inuse is considered, the table shows that schoolswhich fall into the high usage group have onaverage 23 Pentiums. On the other hand, thoseschools in the low usage category have onaverage 8 Pentiums with the medium grouphaving 16 Pentiums. A trajectory of increasingresources and higher usage can also be seenwith 486s and laser printers.

If access to the Internet and e-mail facilities arerecognised as central to building aninfrastructure around ICTs, then resource levelsand usage are even more closely aligned. Figure11.3 shows that there is a clear correlationbetween Internet access and use of ICTs. Morespecifically, the diagram shows that schools withhigh and medium levels of usage fall within thesame half of the graph as those schools withInternet access. On the other hand no Internetaccess clusters closely to low usage.

This picture is further strengthened by Figure11.4, which shows a clear correlation betweenthose schools where more than 50% of theteachers have their own e-mail address and ahigh level of usage. On the other hand the graphshows an even stronger correlation betweenlow usage and no teachers having their own e-mail addresses. A similar picture is evidentwith student e-mail facilities.


Figure 11.2: Index of ICT usage by periodin which schools started to use computers

◆

●Before 1990

1990 – 1994

High

●

● ◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Schools started usingcomputers actively

Index of ICT usage

Medium

◆

◆Low

1994 and after

●

Figure 11.3: Index of ICT usage by Internetaccess

◆●Low

High

No

●

● ◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Index of ICT usage Internet access?

◆Yes

Medium

●

The use of e-mail and Internet facilities byteachers implies a minimum level of computerliteracy among these educators. Thus, byrecognising that high levels of usage can becorrelated directly with the presence ofeducators who tend to make use of e-mailfacilities, who have access to the Internet, andoperate in a learning environment where theyhave been able to familiarise themselves withICTs over a relatively long period of time, wecan begin to isolate a number of key factorswhich appear to contribute to thedevelopment of an ‘ICT culture’ in schools.

Over and above, the factors alreadydiscussed high usage also correlates withgreater after hours usage by learners andteachers and access by a greater percentage oflearners to computer resources at home.

While other factors also need to beconsidered in influencing effective ICT usage, thepattern emerging suggests that having access torelatively high levels of resources substantiallyinfluences the nature and extent of ICT use.Having said this, it is interesting to note thatwhen the usage and resource indexes werecompared, the findings also showed that therewere a greater percentage of high usage schoolsin the low resources category than there werelow usage schools in the high resources category.Stated more simply, there are proportionatelymore higher resourced schools using their ICTresources less effectively than there are lowerresourced schools doing the same.

This suggests that despite resourceconstraints some schools are able to overcomesome of these barriers and move towardseffective usage. It also shows however thatthere are schools that are relatively wellresourced that are not using ICTs effectively.Although it is difficult from the findings of thestudy to postulate why this is the case,inferences from the data and the interviewprocess point to the presence of one or moreof the following factors in those schools which

have low levels of resources but which showhigh levels of innovation.

• The presence of a ‘champion’ among theeducators, parents or members of thesurrounding community.

• A supportive network among educators inthe same area.

• Strong support from the provincialeducation department.

These three factors are emphasised inChapters 3 and 4 as central elements tosuccessful ICT development.

Computer Studies as a schoolsubject As indicated in Chapter 6, schools were askedto indicate whether they taught ComputerStudies as a subject at the school and whetherthey had a dedicated teacher employed toteach the subject. Given that Computer Studiesis only taught at secondary school level, theresults presented in Figure 11.5 are confined tothese schools. The graph shows that amongthose schools with low levels of usage a greaternumber do not teach Computer Studies. Onthe other hand among the high and mediumlevel users, a greater number indicate that theydo teach Computer Studies and have adedicated teacher for this purpose. Thissuggests that teaching the subject of ComputerStudies in the school has contributed to theICT culture mentioned earlier.


PAGE 147


Figure 11.4: Index of ICT usage byteacher e-mail facilities

◆High

● ◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

e-mail – teachers Index of ICT usage

Medium

◆

◆ Low

More than 50

●

Less than 50

●

None

●


Moving beyond drill and practiceFigure 11.6 shows the comparison between theICT Usage Index and the main purpose forwhich computers are used in schools. As canbe expected, those schools that indicated thatdrill and practice was the most importantpurpose for which ICTs were used in theirschool fall mainly into the low usage group. Onthe other hand those schools that fall into thehigh usage category also show a preference forproblem solving, project work andpresentations. It is worth noting, however, thatdrill and practice still features prominentlyamong this group of schools. This serves toemphasise the domination of this type of workwithin the use of ICTs in schools.

ConclusionThe findings and discussion presented in thischapter show that ‘effective ICT usage' is amulti-dimensional construct. It is related to arange of software applications and scope ofsoftware integration, to different modes ofapplication in the classroom and to differencesin purposes of application. The number andsophistication of computer equipment and thegeneral level of school resources (such aslearner to teacher ratio's) have an impact onthe effectiveness of ICTs. In the final analysis,only a small proportion of schools withcomputers (approximately 13%) have attainedhigh levels of usage. This has far-reachingimplications for policy, as we will discuss inChapter 13.


Figure 11.5 Index of ICT usage bythe presence of Computer Studiesas a subject

◆Yes

● ◆

Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

Index of ICT Usage Computer studies asa school subject

◆No

More than 50

●

Low●

High

●

Figure 11.6: Index of ICT usage by computer users (First choice)

50

36

25

1215

28

11

25

20

28

139

60

10

20

30

40

50

60

Drill & practice Presentation Projects Simulation Problems Other

Low Medium High

In the previous chapter it was shown thatcertain critical factors contribute to thedevelopment of an ‘ICT culture’ in schools andthat this culture is strongly related to effectiveuse of ICTs. Drawing on the insights gainedfrom international experience we argue thatthe notion of an ICT culture links to what hasbeen called ‘ICT capability’. More specifically,the international literature shows thateffective use of ICTs takes place in contextswhere a number of critical conditions havebeen met or where opportunities exist forthese conditions to develop. Once theseconditions are in place, schools appear to beable to move towards effective use of ICTs.

The key conditions are not unlike theconditions and concerns that confronteducation systems generally. In the SouthAfrican context, as with many developingcountries, it seems that the conditionsnecessary for the development of ICTcapability revolve around access to basicresources and the presence of educators whohave the skills, knowledge and confidence toengage creatively with ICTs in the process ofteaching and learning. While these can beregarded as necessary conditions, thepotential for them to become sufficientconditions for effective ICT use, revolvesaround how they are mobilised and applied.

In this chapter we provide an outline ofwhat appear to be the central components ofthe human resources necessary for ICTcapability. In doing so we evaluate the natureand extent of what exists currently and its

impact on ICT practices and levels ofprovision in schools.

Educator attitudes towardsICT use Beginning to use ICTs in education, like anyprocess of fundamental change, involves aparadigm shift in educator thinking and practice.The attitudes towards the use of ICTs inteaching and learning, as well as perceptions ofwhat the changes may mean for educators, areespecially important to consider in developingthe capacity of a school to use ICTs effectively.

The survey findings presented in Chapters 6and 7 reveal the responses of teachers fromschools that have computers and schools thatdon’t. Respondents were asked to comment on:

• whether they see ICTs as beneficial forlearners both in the learning process and inthe post school environment.

• what the envisaged benefits may be.

• the potential of ICTs to assist them withtheir teaching.

• the concerns they may have about the useof ICTs in their school.

While the responses received from both theschools with computers and those withoutshow an overwhelmingly positive response byeducators towards the use of ICTs, a moredetailed analysis shows that among the schoolswith computers, particular kinds of attitudescorrelate with different levels of usage.1

Responses received towards teacher attitudes PAGE 149

1. The Index of Usage used in this

analysis is the same as that used in

the previous chapter.


‘12’ICTs and

human resource capacity


were categorised into the following five groups:

• Positive attitudes towards computers as asource of information.

• Positive attitudes towards computers astools to help learners think and workindependently.

• Positive attitudes towards computers astools to help teachers prepare lessons.

• Positive attitudes towards learners gainingskills that will give them greater jobopportunities.

• Negative attitudes towards the use ofcomputers.

When these categories were correlated withthe Index of ICT Usage, the findings (see Figure12.1) show that high level usage schools areclustered closer to positive teacher attitudestowards computers as sources of informationand tools for independent work and thinking.Medium level usage schools correlated stronglywith attitudes that saw the benefits of usingcomputers to provide students with better jobopportunities.

Of particular interest is the high correlationfound between low levels of usage and negativeattitudes towards computer use. From thesefindings it is clear that teacher attitudes are clearlyrelated to the practices surrounding usage. Onecould even venture the following hypothesis: thegreater the degree of sophistication in the use ofICTs the more positive the attitudes of teachersare towards computers.

Although it is difficult to categorically assertthat positive attitudes are necessary amongeducators for ICT start-up and effective usage,both the findings of the survey and theinternational literature point towards aminimum level of confidence and awarenessamong teachers as a key factor necessary forboth the start-up of ICT use and effectiveapplication.The evidence also seems to suggestthat increased exposure to ICTs increasesconfidence and commitment from educators.Therefore positive attitudes appear to be botha pre-requisite for ICT development and anatural ‘spin off ’ of ICT use.

The findings also show that where numerousbarriers prevent the use of ICTs in a school(e.g. lack of funds, etc.) it is more likely that theteachers’ attitudes towards ICT usage will benegative. In Figure 12.2 the negative attitudescategory correlates most closely with the‘disadvantaged’ group of schools (i.e. schoolswhich have listed numerous factors preventingeffective ICT usage). The advantaged groupshows higher correlation with positiveattitudes expressed by teachers.

HUMAN RESOURCE CAPACITY

PAGE 150

Figure 12.1: ICT usage and teacherattitudes to computers

◆●Info source

Prepare less

Low

High

●

●

◆

◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

3

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Teacher attitude Index of ICT usage

Medium◆

●Help learner

Negative attitude

●More jobs●

Figure 12.2 Teacher attitudes andfactors preventing use of ICTs

◆

●Info source

Prepare less

Advantaged groupDisadvantage●

●

◆

◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-1

-2

-3

Teacher attitudeFactors preventingcomputer usage

●Help learner

Negative attitude

●

More jobs●

While these findings seem to suggest thatnegative attitudes are linked to the presence ofbarriers to ICT development, it is important torecognise that in schools that have nocomputers, teachers are overwhelmingly infavour of ICTs and clearly recognise theirpotential benefits.

It seems that negative attitudes amongteachers may operate as key barriersthemselves or they may arise from thefrustrations involved in overcoming thebarriers to ICT development.Thus cultivating apositive attitude towards the use of ICTs ineducation is an important component ofbuilding capability for effective use.

This claim is reinforced when the attitudes ofteachers are compared to the range of learningareas in which ICTs are used at a school.Schools where ICTs are used in a large rangeof learning areas cluster closer to teacherattitudes that emphasise independent thinkingand learning. On the other hand, negativeattitudes correlate strongly with those schoolswhere few learning areas feature in ICT use.Other factors, such as access by teachers to e-mail, appear to follow a similar pattern to theone described above (i.e. where over 50% ofteachers have access to e-mail there arepositive attitudes, where there is no access,there are negative attitudes).This also suggeststhat exposure to ICTs has the effect of creatingmore positive attitudes towards their use.

Levels of skill and access totrainingIt is vital to note that positive attitudes to ICTsarise not only through exposure to theequipment but also through access to training.Correlating teacher attitudes with the degreeof access that teachers have had to training inthe use of ICTs reveals a significantrelationship. Schools where teachers have had arelatively high level of access to training

showed a correlation with positive attitudestowards helping learners think and workindependently. As can be expected, negativeattitudes correlated strongly with limited orlow access to training opportunities.

‘One problem at our school is that very fewpeople know anything about computers.Wedepend on one teacher who doesn’t havemuch time to assist children …if ourteachers knew more about computers wecould use them more efficiently. This is thefault of an education department that hasdone little to promote staff development …Teacher training is a major issue – none ofour teachers are qualified to teachcomputer skills’ (Principal of a state school,1998).

In the review of international experience ofICTs in education (Chapter 4) it was shownthat educator development is one of the mostcritical factors in building and sustaining ICTcapability in schools. International experiencealso shows that when teachers areinadequately trained they lack the confidenceto move beyond drill and practice work tomore problem orientated approaches.Education policy from developed countriessuch as the USA and the UK stronglyemphasises the importance of training in thearea of ICTs. Furthermore, strategies forteacher training in the use of ICTs form a keycomponent of these education policies and asubstantial amount of funding is allocated for it.

The fact that educator development is soimportant in ICT development tends to putdeveloping countries at a disadvantagebecause lower levels of skill exist amongeducators generally. This is very apparent inSouth Africa where, as described in Chapter 5,the historical legacy of inadequate,inappropriate and unequal provision oftraining for educators has resulted in asituation where many teachers are under-qualified for the tasks they have to perform.


PAGE 151



While the Minister of Education hasprioritised the development of the ‘professionalquality of our teaching force’ in the immediatefuture, the low levels of skills continue to impactnegatively on ICT use in schools. Not only is lackof educator skills a key barrier to equity in ICTprovision, but it also impacts significantly on howeffectively ICTs are acquired and applied.

The data presented in Chapter 6 showsclearly that while some teachers have hadopportunities for training, access to suchopportunities are extremely limited. Theconcerns that arise from this are deepenedwhen access to training is correlated to ICTstart-up and use. The survey findings indicateclearly that extensive access to training in ICTsis significantly correlated with more effectiveuse and more positive attitudes amongteachers. It seems therefore that the threeareas of; positive teacher attitudes, access totraining and effective ICT use all operatetogether in generating ICT capability. This canbe illustrated in the following way:

Access to training is obviously related toresources and the more privileged schoolshave had more opportunities for teachertraining. Similarly, the longer schools have hadaccess to ICTs the more opportunities appearto have been taken for training in this area.

To develop a deeper understanding of this,the Index of Professional Development wasdeveloped. From the responses given byschools about the training their teachers hadreceived, two categories were developed. Thehigh ccess category signifies an average accessto more than four of the training opportunitieslisted (this applies to approximately 17% ofschools).The low access category implies thatteachers had access on average to slightly morethan one and a half training opportunities (thisapplies to the remaining 83% of schools). ThisIndex of Professional Development was thencorrelated with several other factors asdescribed below.Figure 12.3 shows the relationship betweenprofessional development and the Index of ICTUsage. As noted earlier access to trainingcorrelates strongly with resource levels.

In Figure 12.5 the Index of ProfessionalDevelopment is correlated with the ICTSophistication Index (level of ICT resourcing).The graph shows clearly that there is a strongcorrelation between access to training and highlevels of resources while low access to trainingclusters closer to low resource levels.A similar picture is evident when access by

teachers to e-mail facilities was correlated toprofessional development.That is, high access totraining correlates closely with access to e-mailfacilities (especially where more than 50% of theteachers have access to such facilities) and lowaccess with schools where teachers have noaccess to e-mail facilities.The patterns presentedhere suggest that access to training in ICTs forteachers is an equity issue and that it affects howwell ICTs are used in schools.In terms of equity, both schools withcomputers and those without identify the lack


Figure 12.3 Access to training and ICT usage

◆High

● ◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Professional development Index of ICT usage

Medium

◆

◆Low

High access

●

Figure 12.4: Factors shaping ICT capability

Positive attitudes Access to training

Effective ICT use

Low access

●

of teacher training around ICTs as a criticalconstraint to the start-up and expansion ofICTs. Among schools with no computers, 56%said lack of available staff prevents them fromacquiring ICTs. Similarly, when requested toidentify conditions and resources that they feelmust be in place before the school can startusing computers, 71% cited the need for ateacher with adequate training to facilitate theuse of ICTs.

Among schools that do have computers, themajority of respondents prioritised lack ofadequately trained staff when asked about whatthe factors were that prevent maximum use oftheir computers.Thus it seems that despite thepresence of a comparatively good resourcebase, the lack of skills among educators to usecomputers effectively remains a key concern.

Quality of existing trainingAs indicated by the high professionaldevelopment cluster, some schools have hadaccess to professional training around ICTs.Opinions differ on the effectiveness of thetraining. The survey data indicates that whereteachers have had access to ICT trainingprovided by their provincial departments (thisis particularly evident among schools in theWestern Cape) the training has been wellreceived and appropriately targeted. On theother hand some respondents complain thatmuch of the training that is available,particularly by private organisations, takesplace ‘in a vacuum’ and has little relevance tothe education terrain. One provincial advisoron ICTs had this to say regarding the type oftraining available to teachers:

‘Let me tell you quite a lot of teachers havebeen to such courses.Well what Idiscovered is that those people are justgiving those courses for the sake of gettingmoney.Teachers come out there notknowing a thing about the computer in aschool situation because they are trainingvarious types of people for various

organisations. They don't look at – saywhat a teacher is and how can they usethis equipment in their situations? Thatthing has not been addressed. That is whatthe department is now trying to do. In aschool situation, how can this machineryassist you with this and that.’

Lack of clear curriculum guidelinesOther stakeholders argue that low levels ofteacher skill and capacity is exacerbated by a lackof ‘guidelines’ or appropriate ‘curriculum’ for theteaching of computer skills and most importantlywith integrating computers into the teaching andlearning process. The following concernsexpressed by teachers point to this problem:2

‘It is imperative that computers be taughtwithin an integrated fashion and that setguidelines be provided. This will go a longway in allowing learners to appreciatecomputers as a tool. Although we use theresource extensively to improve studentskills we don’t really know what toemphasise’;

‘It would help a lot if we got help fromsomewhere as we have a computer, buthave difficulty operating it… Somecomputers are used for non-educationalpurposes because we don’t know what toteach children…’


PAGE 153

2. Interviews with teachers, Northern

Province, Free State and Western

Cape, 1998.


Figure 12.5: Index of professional developmentby Index of ICT Sophistication (ICT resourcing)

◆High

● ◆Dimension 1

Dim

ensi

on 2

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1

2

1.5

1

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Professional development Index of ICT resourcing

Medium

◆

◆Low

High access

●Low access

●


‘The lack of guidance from provincialeducation departments limits initiative andacceptance by both teachers and parents.’

‘We need clarity on the Department ofEducation’s position on computer issues.The absence of clear guidelines makes itextremely difficult to plan and to knowwhether we are teaching learnersappropriate computer skills.’

While these concerns were more prevalentamong the respondents it is also heartening tonote the progress made by some schools indeveloping their own models for ICTintegration.

‘What we are involved with is what wecall IT integration, where we work withsubject teachers to see how they caninvolve IT in a constructive manner insubjects. It’s always got to be driven byeducation, not by IT.’

‘We are very happy. We developed thesyllabus ourselves. There is no set syllabusanywhere. I phoned and phoned andphoned about a year and a half to twoyears ago to say ‘where is a computerliteracy syllabus, what do we teach them,how do we teach them?’And I got ‘You’reon your own.’ We have developed our ownsyllabus.We have our own programme andwe’re quite happy with it at the moment.We’re very pleased with our efforts, withwhat we’ve done.’

While the picture presented above shows areal need for teacher training and effective ICTuse, schools themselves do not generally

indicate that teacher training will be a significantpriority for their budgets over the next fewyears. There are a number of reasons whyteacher training may not be seen as a prioritybudget item. These may include, among otherreasons: that this item cannot be prioritisedabove other more pressing needs; educatordevelopment is too costly for the school, orthat, as has been the situation historically, in-service teacher training is provided for throughthe departments of education and may beregarded by schools as being clearly theDepartments’ responsibility.

The lack of clarity on this means that SouthAfrica falls short of necessary conditions for ICTdevelopment if international precedent indeveloped countries is taken into consideration.As pointed out in Chapter 3, both the UK andUSA argue that the most important componentof their ICT budget is dedicated to educatordevelopment – both in-service and pre-service.Moreover, recent initiatives have tended toincrease funding for training rather thandecrease it. As in many other developingcountries, the lack of educator development inthis area remains a key weakness in building anICT capability in schools.

Although the information collected throughthe survey refers primarily to in-servicetraining for teachers, a limited investigation intoexisting provision for ICT development amongteachers at higher education institutionsshowed limited pre-service trainingopportunities as well. Having said this, however,some institutions do have a number of excitinginitiatives in the early stages of developmentthat have the capacity to improve skills at thepre-service level.

Gender and ICT educators Although the survey was only able to providelimited information regarding the genderprofile of educators involved in ICT use,respondents were asked to indicate the gender


Table 12.1: Ratio of male to female ICT educators in SouthAfrican schools

Type of school National ratio, Teaching of Teaching of male to female computer skills, Computer Studies,

ratio of male to ratio of male to female teachers female teachers

Primary 1:2.8 1:2.2Secondary 1:1.8 1:1.1 1:1.3

of the person who taught computer skills atthe school and, in secondary schools inparticular, the gender of the person responsiblefor the teaching of Computer Studies wasasked. Although a first reading of the datashows that there are more women teacherscurrently teaching in both these areas, whenthe ratios are compared to the nationalaverage a slightly different picture emerges.Table 12.1 summarises the ratio of male tofemale teachers in the two areas as well as thenational average for both primary andsecondary schools.

The table shows clearly that the ratio ofmales to females is slightly higher in this areacompared to the national average of men towomen educators.This suggests that, as in therest of the world, there is a high proportion ofmale teachers in this area. So, while there aresignificantly more women educators in thiscountry, certain subject areas, and mostmanagement positions, are dominated by men.

ConclusionEffective use of ICTs is tied to a number of

‘softer' issues namely: positive attitudes

towards computers and their use, sufficient

knowledge and skills acquired through

sustained professional development and,

perhaps most importantly, an appreciation of

the intrinsic value of ICTs.The latter point, we

believe, is a crucial finding of the study: teachers

who appreciate that ICTs are valuable in

themselves, as vehicles of learner

empowerment, independent thinking and

sources of strategic information, tend to use

ICTs more effectively. In other words they use

a larger range of software applications and

show a more integrated approach to learning

areas. ICTs are seen, not only as a means for

learners to pursue career options or primarily

as tools to facilitate lesson preparation, but

also as essential to learner development.


PAGE 155


For Office Use

National Survey on

Computers in Education in

South African Schools

Questionnaire A

Schools that have one or more computers

Sponsored by the

International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

‘A’Questionnaire A

Page 163

Instructions

1. Only complete this questionnaire if the school has at least one ormore computers used for administration purposes and/or for teachingand learning.

2. Please answer all the questions as fully as possible.

3. Where the particular question is not applicable to the school, pleasemark ‘N/A’ (not applicable) and proceed to the next question.

4. Please note that the following abbreviations have been used throughoutthe questionnaire:

G = GradeNGO = Non-governmental organisation

5. Enclosed with your questionnaire is a self-addressed envelope for thereturned questionnaire. This envelope requires no additional postagecosts and can be sent to the EPU from any postage point.

6. Please return the questionnaire to the EPU by the 23 November 1998 toenable the researchers to process the information as quickly as possible.

Education Policy UnitUniversity of the Western CapePrivate Bag X17Bellville 7535 Page 164

Name of School:

Physical address

Number and street:

Suburb/area:

Town/City:

Postal code:

Fax. Number (if applicable):

Email address (if applicable);

Website address (if applicable):

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Page 165

For Office Use

Section A : Audit of Resources

A1 Tick which of the following technology items the school hasavailable for teaching and learning purposes.

TV(s)

Computer(s)

Video Machine(s)

Electric Radio(s)

Wind-up Radio(s)

Overhead Projector(s)

Slide & Tape Projectors(s)

Projector(s) linked to a computer

Tape recorder(s)/CD player(s)

Other. Specify _____________________________________

A2 In the table below please indicate the number of computers that theschool presently has.

Older than 486 486 type Pentium type

Number in Use

Number not in Use

A3 How many of the above computers have a CD-ROM drive?

A4 What operating system do the computers in use have?

Dos Windows 3.1 Windows 95/98

Number

A5 Does the school have access to the Internet?

! Yes ! No

A6 How does the school mainly gain access to the Internet?

! Dial-up modem (14.4 to 56k)

! Integrated services digital network (ISDN)

! Leased line

! Other. Specify __________________

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

For Office Use

(9-19)

(20-25)

(26)

(27-29)

(30)

(31-32)

A7 Which is the main Internet Service Provider (ISP) for the school(e.g. Western Cape Schools Network (WCSN))?

A8 What is the approximate cost per month for the school to accessthe Internet?

Telkom or cellular provider costs: R __________Internet Service Provider (ISP) costs: R __________

A9 Does the school have a computer network?

! Yes ! No

A10 If yes, how many computers are linked to the network?

A11 Does the school have a file server?

! Yes ! No

A12 What type(s) of printer(s) are available at the school?

Type of Printer Number

Laser

Ink/Bubble Jet

Dot Matrix

(33)

(34-35)

(36)

(37)

(38)

(39-44)

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For Office Use

For Office UseA13 In the table below indicate the software that the school uses andthe frequency of use.

Type of Software Availability Frequency of Use(Yes/No)

Not at all Infrequently Frequently

Problem-Solving/ Creativity (TreasureMaths Storm)

Drill and Practice(Number Munchers)

Word Processing (Student Writing Centre,MS Word etc.)

Spread Sheets(The Cruncher, Excel etc)

Presentation Software (Print Shop, PowerPoint)

Drawing Software(Kid CAD, Corel Draw)

Internet Browsers(Netscape, Explorer)

Programming Languages (Logo, Pascal, C++)

School Administration/Finance

Simulation Software (ADAM, SimCity, etc.)

Database(MS Access)

Web Publishing(FrontPage)

Information Resources(CD-ROM encyclopaedias)

A14 Estimate the proportion of the following groups who have their ownpersonal e-mail address?

Groups None 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% Over 75%

Management(e.g. Principal, Deputy Principal,HOD)

Administration (e.g. Secretary)

Teachers

Learners

(45-70)

(71-74)

A15 Estimate the proportion of the learners at the school that haveaccess to a computer at home?

G1-G3 G4-G7 G8-G10 G11-G12

None

1-25%

26-50%

51-75%

Over 75% (75-78)

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Section B: Teaching Computer Literacy

B1 Tick which of the following computer skills are taught to thelearners at the school.

Computer Skills G1-G3 G4-G7 G8-G10 G11-G12

Basic Principles ofcomputers

Word processing

Spreadsheets

Presentation graphics

File management

Using the Internet

(e-mail, world-wide web)

Database

Information Skills (research on CD-ROMS, Internet)

Desktop Publishing

Web design

Programming skills

Systems analysis

and design

Ethics (acceptable use, plagiarism,hacking)

Other. Specify

B2 For G8-G12 indicate, in order of priority, the three most importantskills. (Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(79-138)

(139-141)

For Office Use

B3 Indicate the proportion of male learners at the school that aretaught computer skills.

Proportion of Learners G1-G3 G4-G7 G8-G10 G11-G12

None

1-25%

26-50%

51-75%

Over 75%

B4 Indicate the proportion of female learners at the school that aretaught computer skills.


None

1-25%

26-50%

51-75%

Over 75%

B5 How many hours per week do learners spend learning computerskills?

Hours of Learning G1-G3 G4-G7 G8-G10 G11-G12

0-1 hour

2-3 hours

4-5 hours

6-7 hours

more than 7 hours

B6 Who mainly teaches computer skills at the school?

! A permanent member of the teaching staff in a full post for this purpose

! A contract teacher employed by the school governing body for thispurpose

! A full-time person working for a commercial provider

! A permanent member of the teaching staff who teaches computer skills in addition to another full-time responsibility

! More than one permanent teaching staff member on a part-time basis

! Other. Specify ______________________________________

(142-145)

(146-149)

(150-153)

(154-155)

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For Office Use

For Office UseB7 Indicate the gender of the person who mainly teaches computerskills.

! Male ! Female

B8 Tick one item that should be emphasised to extend the teaching ofcomputer skills at your school.

! Offering teaching in a greater range of computer skills

! Improving the depth of knowledge around the computer skills already taught

! Increasing the time available for learners and teachers to learn computer skills

! Other. Specify _____________________________________

(156)

(157-158)

Section C: Integrating Computers in Teaching and

Learning

C1 Tick the learning areas in which computers are used in teachingand learning.

Language Literacy and Communication (e.g. English)

Mathematical Literacy and Mathematical Sciences (e.g. Mathematics)

Natural Sciences (e.g. Biology)

Technology (e.g. Computer Studies)

Human and Social Sciences (e.g. History)

Economics and Management Sciences (e.g. Business Economics)

Arts and Culture (e.g. Music)

Life Orientation (e.g. Life Skills)

Other. Specify _________________

C2 Indicate in order of priority two learning areas where learners makethe most use of computers. (Indicate the choices by using thenumbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

C3 For Choice 1 above, indicate the purposes for which computers areused, if at all, in the different grade groups.

Purpose of Computer use G1-G3 G4-G7 G8-G10 G11-G12

Drill and Practice

Presentation of Assignments

Researching Projects

Simulation Exercises

Problem Solving

Other. Specify

C4 Indicate in order of priority the two most important purposes forwhich computers are used in this learning area. (Indicate the choicesby using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

6

5

4

3

2

1

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(159-168)

(169-170)

(171-198)

(199-200)

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For Office Use

For Office UseC5 Tick the one item that best describes the way in which computersare used by learners in the relevant grade.

Computer use by learners G1-G3 G4-G7 G8-G10 G11-G12

For individual work

For group/collaborative work

For both

Other. Specify

C6 Tick the factors that prevent the school from using computers as ateaching and learning tool.

Lack of a dedicated computer teacher

Lack of computer literacy among subject teachers

Lack of subject teachers with training on how to integrate into specific learning areas

Insufficient number of computers

Lack of suitable space in school for computers

Absence of a properly developed curriculum for teaching computer skills

Fear by teachers that computer use may take over from theteaching role

Insufficient funds

Other. Specify _________________

C7 Indicate in order of priority the three main factors that prevent theschool from using computers as a teaching tool. Indicate the choicesby using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(201-208)

(209-218)

(219-221)

Section D: The Subject of Computer Studies

D1 Does the school offer a subject that focuses on computer studies?

! Yes ! No

If yes, please complete the rest of Section D. If no, please proceeddirectly to the questions in Section E.

D2 Tick for which grades this is offered

Below G8

G8-G11

G11-G12

D3 Tick the areas of work covered in the subject for the gradesindicated below.

Areas of Work Covered G8-G10 G11-G12

Introduction to computers

The basics of programming

Programminglanguages (C++, Pascal)

Using spreadsheets and databases

Authoring packages

Systems analysis and design

Other. Specify

D4 Does the school have a specific teacher responsible for teachingcomputer studies?

! Yes ! No

D5 If yes, please indicate the gender of the person who teachescomputer studies.

! Male ! Female

3

2

1

(222)

(223-225)

(226-241)

(242)

(243)

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For Office Use

For Office UseD6 Tick the reasons why the school believes that computer studies isimportant.

! Will provide the students with skills that are necessary for the country’s economic development

! Makes the school more attractive compared to other schools

! Provides a career option for the learners

! Provides skills that learners will be able to use in any of their career options

! Other. Specify _________________(244-249)

Section E: Funding and Maintenance

E1 Does the school have a specific budget for computers?

! Yes ! No

E2 If yes, tick the items the computer budget of the school has beenspent on for the last two years?

Purchase of new computers

Upgrading of existing computers (e.g. addition of CD-ROM drives to 486 machines)

Purchasing of new software

Teacher training to use computers for teaching and learning

Maintenance of computers

Purchasing the necessary hardware and software to get the school connected to the Internet/e-mail

Other. Specify ___________________

E3 Indicate, in order of priority, the two items that received the mostfunding. (Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the listabove.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

E4 Tick the source(s) of funding responsible for new computerresources at the school.

Donation from parents

Provincial Government allocation

Private Sector (eg. Business & National and International Donor Agencies)

NGOs

Allocation from school fees

Computer levy

School fund raising activities

Other. Specify ___________________8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(250)

(251-258)

(259-260)

(261-269)

Page 177

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For Office UseE5 Indicate in order of priority, two most important sources of fundingand state whether the contribution was a financial donation or adonation of equipment (e.g. computers, modems, software) (Indicatethe choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Source Financial Donation Equipment

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

E6 Tick the sources of financing for supporting the maintenance anduse of computers at the school

Donation from parents

Provincial Government allocation

Private Sector (eg. Business & National and International Donor Agencies)

NGOs

Allocation from school fees

Computer levy

School fund raising activities

Other. Specify _________________

E7 Indicate in order of priority the two most important sources offunding. (Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the listabove.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

E8 Tick the person/group who mainly provides the maintenance andtechnical support for the school’s computers.

Principal

Responsible teacher(s)

Private professionals/ commercial providers

Learners

Parents

No specific person or group

Other. Specify _________________7

6

5

4

3

2

1

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(270-273)

(274-282)

(283-284)

(285-292)

E9 Tick the person/group who is mainly responsible for managing thecomputers in the school. (For example, the person who undertakestasks like planning, budgeting, acquiring equipment and software)

Principal

Responsible teachers(s)

Private professionals/ commercial providers

Learners

Parents

No specific person or group

Other. Specify _________________7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(293-300)

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Section F: School Computer Context

F1 Tick which of the following statements best describe the way mostteachers at the school feel about the use of computers ineducation.

Teachers feel computer skills will provide learners with greater jobopportunities

Teachers feel that there is little value in using computers for learning

Teachers feel that other needs should be given greater priority in the school

Teachers strongly support the use of computers in education as they see computers as important in helping learners to think and work independently.

Teachers are concerned that any new technology will increase thework level of teachers

Teachers are worried that computers will require them to do further training

Teachers feel that computers can be of use in preparing lessons and administrative tasks

Teachers see computers as an important source of information to access resources not available to them in the school

Teachers believe that computers can be used to allow learners and teachers to interact with other schools through e-mail or joint projects.

Other. Specify ______________________________________

F2 Indicate in order of priority the three most common feelings thatteachers have about the introduction of computers in education.(Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

F3 When did the school first begin to actively use computers?

Before 1976 1977-1980

1981-1984 1985-1989

1990-1994 After 199565

43

21

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(301-311 )

(312-314)

(315)

For Office Use

F4 Tick the reason(s) why the school began to use computers.

To prepare students for the future

To attract students to the school

To improve student learning

To keep the curriculum and methods up-to-date

To facilitate new forms of learning

To offer the surrounding community access to computers for adult learning

Other. Specify______________________________________

F5 Tick the items below that the school believes should be prioritisedregarding computer utilisation at the school.

Use of computers in school management and administration

Computer use for staff professional development

Computer use for lesson preparation

Use of computers as a teaching and learning tool in all subjects

To teach computer skills

To expose students to the potential benefits of computers in everyday life

Other. Specify ______________

F6 Indicate in order of priority, the two most important uses ofcomputers for the school. (Indicate the choices by using the numbersfrom the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

F7 What percentage of the following groups are regular computerusers at the school?

None 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% Over 75%

Management(e.g. Principal, Deputy, HOD)

Administration(e.g. Secretary)

Teachers

Learners

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(316-323 )

(324-331)

(332-333)

(334-337)

Page 181

For Office Use

For Office UseF8 Tick the items below that the school is likely to spend money onover the next two years.

Purchase of classroom equipment (eg. Overhead projectors, blackboards)

Alterations to school building (eg. building maintenance, more classrooms, toilets, repairs to windows)

Purchase of teaching resources (eg.text books)

Purchase of new stationery (eg. pens, pencils, writing books)

Upgrading of existing computer resources (eg. Purchasing modems or buying more memory)

Purchase of new computers

Teacher Training

Other. Specify _________________

F9 Indicate in order of priority the three most important items theschool is likely to spend money on over the next two years.(Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

F10 Tick the type(s) of technology-related professional developmentteachers at the school have had access to.

No teacher at the school has had access to professional development in computers

Courses or workshops on basic introduction to hardware / word processor applications

Courses offered by a university or technikon

Courses offered by private training organisations (e.g. Damelin, Microsoft)

On-site visits to other schools where computers are being used

On-line distance learning professional development courses

One-to-one professional mentoring at schools (e.g. Computers4Kids, FutureKids)

Collaborative training opportunities under the guidance of a technology proficient instructor

Courses and workshops offered by an education department (e.g. a teachers’ centre)

Other. Specify _____________________________________10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(338-346)

(347-349)

(350-360)

F11 Indicate in order of priority the two most useful types ofprofessional development training the teachers at the school havehad access to. (Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the listabove.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

F12 Tick the type(s) of in-service computer related training that theschool believes teachers need.

Basic introduction to computers

Introduction to applications like word processing, database and spreadsheets

Training in how to incorporate computers into the learning process

Using computers for the administrative functions of their work

Using computers for information acquisition for their subjects

Using computers for communication between teachers

Other. Specify ____________________________________

F13 Indicate in order of priority, the two most important types ofcomputer related training that the school believes teachers need.(Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

F14 What conditions prevent the school from maximising the use ofcomputers.

Limited classrooms that are suitable for computers

Poor ventilation and lighting of rooms for computer use

No electricity

Power failures due to poor electricity supply

No phone line

Vandalism of equipment and facilities

Poor security on school premises

Obsolete computer equipment, which cannot be used for classroom instruction or educational purposes

Lack of available staff trained to use computer equipment and software

Other. Specify _____________________________10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(361-362)

(363-370)

(371-372)

(373-383)

Page 183

For Office Use

For Office UseF15 Indicate in order of priority the three most important factors thathinder the continued use of computer facilities at the school.(Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

F16 If the school has Internet access, what are the limiting factors tomore effective use?

Security and facilities

Costs for Internet access

Computers that do not have the capacity and facilities for Internet access

Concern from parents and teachers that learners will use the Internet inappropriately (e.g. playing games, accessing inappropriate material).

Absence of telephone connections in classrooms

Other. Specify _____________________________

F17 Indicate in order of priority the two most important factors that limitInternet access at the school. (Indicate the choices by using the num-bers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

6

5

4

3

2

1

(384-386)

(387-393)

(394-395)

Section G: Optimising Computer Use

G1 Do students use the school’s computers after school hours?

! Yes ! No

G2 If yes, indicate the proportion of male learners that use thecomputers after school hours.


1-25%

26-50%

51-75%

Over 75%

G3 If yes, indicate the proportion of female learners that use thecomputers after school hours.


1-25%

26-50%

51-75%

Over 75%

G4 Tick the one group that makes the most use of the school’scomputers after hours.

! Parents

! Other schools

! Students

! Teachers

! Local businesses

! Members of the community

! Other. Specify _____________________________

(396)

(397-400)

(401-404)

(405-406)

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G5 Tick the most important reason why outside groups make use ofthe school’s computers.

! To attend regular computer classes run by the school during school hours

! To attend computer courses/classes run by the school after school hours

! To attend computer courses conducted by outside organisations and groups

! For outside groups to access computers for e-mail and Internet use

! Other. Specify ______________________________

G6 Does the school charge a fee for the use of the computers byoutside groups?

! Yes ! No

G7 Indicate below any aspect of computers in education that you feelhas not been covered in the questionnaire and/or the schoolbelives should be elaborated upon.

Thank you very much for yourassistance.

Copyright: Education Policy Unit, UWC

(407-408)

(409)

(410)

Page 186

For Office Use

National Survey on

Computers in Education in

South African Schools

Questionnaire B

Schools that have no computers

Sponsored by the

International Development Research Centre (IDRC)Page 187

‘B’Questionnaire B

Instructions

1. Only complete this questionnaire if the school has no computers usedfor administration purposes and/or for teaching and learning.

2. Please answer all the questions as fully as possible.

3. Where the particular question is not applicable to the school, pleasemark ‘N/A’ (not applicable) and proceed to the next question.

4. Please note that the following abbreviations have been used throughoutthe questionnaire:

G = GradeNGO = Non-governmental organisation

5. Enclosed with your questionnaire is a self-addressed envelope for thereturned questionnaire. This envelope requires no additional postagecosts and can be sent to the EPU from any postage point.

6. Please return the questionnaire to the EPU by the 23 November 1998 toenable the researchers to process the information as quickly as possible.

Education Policy UnitUniversity of the Western CapePrivate Bag X17Bellville 7535 Page 188

Name of School:

Physical address

Number and street:

Suburb/area:

Town/City:

Postal code:

Fax. Number (if applicable):

Email address (if applicable);

Website address (if applicable):

Page 189

For Office Use

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

For Office Use1. Indicate below whether the school has acquired any of thefollowing new resources since the School Survey of Needs wascompleted in 1996.

Resource Yes No

Electricity

Telephone line/s

Additional classrooms

Other. Specify

2. Tick which of the following technology items the school hasavailable for teaching and learning purposes.

TV(s)

Computer(s)

Video Machine(s)

Electric Radio(s)

Wind-up Radio(s)

Overhead Projector(s)

Slide & Tape Projectors(s)

Tape recorder(s)/CD player(s)

Other. Specify _____________________________________

3. Tick which of the following the school is likely to spend money onover the next two years.

Purchase of new classroom equipment (e.g. overhead projectors,chalkboards etc)

Alterations to school building(e.g. maintenance of building, more classrooms, toilets, repairs to windows etc)

Purchase of non-computer related teaching and learning resources (e.g. text books)

Purchase of new stationary (e.g. pens, pencils, writing books etc)

Teacher training

Other. Specify ________________________________________

4. Indicate in order of priority the three most important items theschool is likely to spend money on in the next two years. (Indicatethe choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

6

5

4

3

2

1

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(9-13)

(14-23)

(24-30)

(31-33)

5. What factors prevent the school from acquiring computer facilities.

Limited classrooms that are suitable for computers

Poor ventilation and lighting of rooms for computer use

No electricity

Power failures due to poor electricity supply

No phone line

Vandalism of equipment and facilities

Poor security on school premises

Obsolete computer equipment, which cannot be used for classroom instruction or other educational purposes

Lack of available staff trained to use computer equipment and software

Other. Specify ________________________________________

6. Indicate in order of priority the most important factors that preventthe school from acquiring computer facilities. (Indicate the choicesby using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

7. Tick which of the following statements best describe the way mostteachers at the school feel about the use of computers in education

Teachers strongly support the use of computers in education as they see computers as important in helping learners to think and work independently.Teachers feel that there is little value in using computers for learningTeachers see computers as an important source of information to access resources not available to them in the schoolTeachers feel that other needs should be given greater priority in the schoolTeachers feel that computers can be of use in preparing lessons and administrative tasks Teachers feel computer skills will provide learners with greater jobopportunities Teachers are worried that computers will require of them to do further trainingTeachers believe that computers can be used to allow learners and teachers to interact with other schools through e-mail or joint projects.Teachers are concerned that any new technology will increase thework level of teachersOther. Specify _______________________________________10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(34-44)

(45-47)

(48-58)

Page 191

For Office Use

(59-61)

(62)

(63)

(64)

(65-72)

(73-75)

Page 192

For Office Use8. Indicate, in order of priority, the three most common feelings thatteachers have about the introduction of computers in education.(Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

9. Does the school have a mission statement/ school plan ?

! Yes ! No

10. If yes, does the mission statement/school plan refer to technologyin education?

! Yes ! No

11. If yes, please attach a copy of the mission statement/school plan orwrite out below the section which refers to technology ineducation.

12. If the school were to start using computers, why would it do so?

To prepare students for the future

To attract students to the school

To improve student learning

To keep the curriculum and methods up-to-date

To facilitate new forms of learning

To offer the surrounding community access to computers for adult

learning

Other. Specify ____________________________________

13. Indicate in order of priority the most important reasons why theschool would start using computers. (Indicate the choices by usingthe numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

14. Is there anyone at the school who is interested in developing andmanaging the use of computers in the school?

! Yes ! No

15. If yes, please indicate who the person is by ticking the appropriatecolumn.

Position Male Female

Subject teacher

Subject teacher with additional management responsibilities (e.g. deputy principal)

Administrative member of staff (e.g. secretary)

Principal

Senior student

Other. Specify

16. Indicate in order of priority the factors listed in Question 5 whichprevent this person from developing the use of computers at theschool. (Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the list above.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

Choice 3:

17. What are the three most important conditions and resources whichmust be in place before the school is able to start usingcomputers?

No specific conditions must be in place before the school is able to start using computers

The school must have a suitable room for computers

School must have access to electricity and have a phone line

At least one teacher must have sufficient training to run and manage the computers

All teachers must have some training in the use of computers

The school must be able to raise sufficient funding to maintain thecomputers

Parents must be informed about the use of computers and support their use in the school

Other problems in the school must first be resolved (e.g. absenteeism, classrooms in poor conditions)

Other. Specify _______________________________________9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

6

5

4

3

2

1

(76)

(77-78)

(79-81)

(82-85)

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(86)

(87-94)

(95-96)

(97)

(98-103)

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For Office Use18. If the school introduced computers which grades would receivepriority?

G1 – G3 G4 – G7

G8 – G10 G11 – G12

19. If the school introduced computers, for what purposes would theybe used?

Use of computers in school management and administration

Computer use for staff professional development

Computer use for lesson preparation

Use of computers as a teaching and learning tool in all subjects

To teach computer skills

To expose students to the potential benefits of computers in everyday life

Other. Specify ______________

20. Indicate inorder of priority the purposes for which computers wouldbe used. (Indicate the choices by using the numbers from the listabove.)

Choice 1:

Choice 2:

21. Has the school ever been approached by a member of the privatesector or any other source (e.g. NGO) about thedonation/leasing/loan of computer resources to the school?

Yes No

22. If yes indicate who has approached the school.

A private sector company

NGO

The provincial education department

Another educational institution in the community (e.g. university)

Other. Specify ________________________________________5

4

3

2

1

21

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

43

21

23. If yes indicate what they have offered to the school.

A donation of computer hardware

A donation of computer software

Teacher training courses/classes on computers

Leasing of computers to the school with contract to provide teaching and training in the use of computers

Other. Specify _________________________________________

24. Indicate below whether any members of the school communityhave access to computers outside of the school

Groups Access Access Access Other at home at another at a community (specify)

school resource(community centre,internet cafe)

Management(e.g principal)

Administration(e.g. secretary)

Learners

Teachers

25. Indicate below any aspect of computers in education that you feelhas not been covered in the questionnaire and/or the schoolbelieves should be elaborated upon.

Thank you very much for yourassistance.

Copyright: Education Policy Unit, UWC

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4

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(110-129)

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APPENDIX C

General1. When and why did your school first start

using computers?

2. Describe the process of developmentwhich has lead to the situation that youare at now with regard to your presentcomputer facilities?

3. Describe how the school uses thecomputers which it has? That is:

• Who uses them?

• In what way are they used?

4. How effectively do you feel the school isusing the computer resources which ithas? Give reasons for your answer.

5. What, in your opinion, have been themain reasons why you have been able tosuccessfully integrate computers into thelearning and teaching process in theschool (enabling factors)?

6. What has been the most significantbenefit to your school arising from theintroduction of computers?

7. What, if any, are your concerns about theimpact which computer use may have onteaching and learning?

8. How supportive are the governing bodytowards the use of computers at theschool?

9. If computers are only being used forschool administration, what have thereasons been for not integrating theminto the curriculum?

10. What in your opinion have been the main

hindering factors to the provision and useof computers in the school?

11. How do you see the school overcomingthese problems in the future?

12. What is your vision for the use ofcomputers in your school in the future?

13. Do you feel that teachers and learnershave benefited from the use of computersin the school?

14. Have you received any support from anyof the following groups in setting up andmaking effective use of the computers?

• Provincial Education Department

• NGO• Governing body members• Other members of the community• Other schools• Other

15. Do you offer access to computer facilitiesor support to any other school ormember of the community (e.g.Twinning,adult education centre)?

Computer Studies as a subject16. When and why did you first introduce

Computer Studies as a subject at theschool?

17. Are the computers also used for teachingand learning in other subjects/learningareas?If yes, in what way and to what extent arethey used?If no, why have you decided to limitcomputer use to the subject of computerstudies?

‘C’Interview schedule

18. What curriculum do you use for

computer studies?

19. Who teaches the subject?

20. What are their qualifications and what

path did they follow in developing the

expertise to teach this subject?

Provisioning21. Does the school own the computers

which it uses?

22. If yes, where has the bulk of your funding

for computers come from?

23. How do you maintain your computers?

24. Who is responsible for managing the

computers and their use at your school?

25. Are they employed in a full-time or part-

time post?

26. Do they have any other teaching

responsibilities at the school or is this

their main responsibility?

27. If yes, what are their other

responsibilities?

28. If they are in a permanent post set up for

this purpose, is this a government or

governing body post?

29. If contracted out to a service provider, (e.g.

Future kids), what is the nature of the

contract which you have entered into with

the service provider (duration, cost, etc.)?

30. What services do they provide?

31. Why did the school decide to go for this

option?

32. How is the contract managed and to

what extent is the school’s management

involved in the development and

implementation of the

programme/service?

33. How is the contract funded?

34. Thus far have you found this form of

provisioning effective? If yes, why?

35. If no, what problems have been identified?

36. Do you see this form of provisioning as a

viable option for the future or does the

school see the need to change in the

future (e.g. buy its own computers).

State responsibilities

37. What do you see the role of the

provincial and national education

departments as being in relation to ICT

use in the schools?

Regional dynamics

38. Do you see the school as having a role to

play in contributing to effective ICT

development within all schools in the

region?

39. If yes, explain how you see this role and

what would be the potential challenges to

you being able to play this role?

PAGE 197

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX D

National survey on computers in education in South African schoolsWe would very much appreciate it if you could give us your perspective as a key role-player ingovernment by offering brief notes according to the following guide. All your responses will beconfidential. Only summary comments will be given in the final report.

1. What does your organisation sell to schools? Please tick all that are applicable.

2. Of those you ticked, which aspects generate the most revenue for your firm? Do theyrepresent a minor, equal, or large part of your overall revenue stream? Please describe anytrends you perceive towards growth or decline in these markets.

3. Who are the major suppliers in these sectors of the market?

4. What is the nature of the marketing channel (distributors, wholesalers, retailers, governmentdepartments, schools)?

5. Do you win orders via tenders for schools equipment/services? Please describe the process.

6. Do you win orders via direct sales to schools? Please describe the process.

7. If you are a ‘preferred supplier’ to a provincial or the national Department of Education howdid you achieve this position?

8. In addition to a sales and marketing relationship, how else do you interact with schools (e.g.,assisting with needs analysis, special donations, supporting the learning process)? Pleasedescribe any particular examples.

9. Do you have any international connections you use to develop the market for IT in schools?Please describe.

10. In what ways is IT in schools important in this country? Please comment.

11. What recommendations do you have for schools and education departments to help improvethe use of IT in South African schools?

‘D’Interview guide for

commercial firms

HardwareComputersPeripherals (printers, scanners, etc.)Refurbished equipmentMaintenance services

ConnectivityLANs/WANsModemsProvides internet service Leased lines

Content Subject softwareAdmin softwareLearning tools (simulations, drill & practiceroutines)Tailor-made courseware Radio and TV broadcast materialPublishing of material for general releaseWeb-based content

Professional developmentTraining for schoolchildren and/or teachersCertification via recognised authoritiesSupply training software

IT Consulting services

Services as an outsourcer

National survey on computers in education in South African schoolsWe would very much appreciate it if you could give us your perspective as a key role-player ingovernment by offering brief notes according to the following guide. All your responses will beconfidential. Only summary comments will be given in the final report.

1. Does your department allocate funds to schools in your province for ICT infrastructure(computers, peripherals, software, Internet connections, etc)? (Yes/No)

2. If yes, how do you go about determining the amounts involved and their allocation to schools?

3. Do you look for matching funds from other sources?

4. Please describe the tender process you employ?

5. Over and above the basic requirements for hardware, software, etc., please describe any otheradded value you seek from the successful tenderer (e.g., implementation support, training,maintenance, etc.).

6. What else should education departments be doing to ensure the best long-term deploymentof ICTs in schools?

7. Please list some IT-related firms with whom you have done business, or you know to besupplying equipment or services to schools in your province.

8. Do you have a technology policy or plans relevant to computers in your schools? If so, canyou please forward it to me or advise whom I should speak to about it?

PAGE 199

APPENDIX E

‘E’Interview guide for

provincial education

departments

APPENDIX F

Organisation Contact people Products/services supplied

IBM Alf Kale,Yvette Hitler, ComputersRichard Vernon

Main sales revenue from schools is from PCs but this is a minor part of overall revenue stream.Works through reseller chain.Through themoffers a 10% discount to schools. Sees a decline in demand as government subsidies decline. Helps schools with tender process. A preferredsupplier to Nat Educ. Dept., and Northern, North West and Western Cape provinces. Donations through Reach and Teach,ACE. Helps withTechnical Support Plans and capacity building, e.g., offers concession rates to government.

Hewlett Packard Henry Sabata ComputersVery diffident about schools market. Is in partnership with Gauteng Educ. Dept. and TechEd on their schools project.Via Africare has alsopartnered with Microsoft on ‘Digital Villages’ in Soweto and Kimberley. No special deals reported.

Apple Brian Seligman ComputersContrary to USA and elsewhere, and given tiny market share in SA, has minimal involvement with schools, but some activity at tertiary level.

Compaq Nicholas Griffin ComputersHardware to schools a minor part of overall revenue stream, but a definite growth trend seen. Responds to tenders at provincial and nationallevel. Also works directly with private schools. Mentioned the I CAN Foundation as a not-for-profit initiative through which they channelsocial responsibility activities. Another source reported major schools discounts for Compaq equipment but this was not confirmed.

Nova Computers Steve Perret ComputersA company of five people in the Western Cape who supply computers, communications equipment, peripherals and software to variousbodies, like municipalities, institutes,Armsco, and schools.They supply several schools with their ICT needs, that aspect making up about halftheir business.They note that the schools sector is difficult to handle, with the expected funding problems, and a strong need for ongoinghands-on maintenance and repair.

Brother Business Machines Daan Coetzee ComputersThey are on the National Educ. Dept.’s list of preferred suppliers.They respond to tenders but say they do not know whether the end pointof the equipment is schools or not.They state that they only supply to the national and provincial depts. of education for administrative uses.

Business Mann Attie Kriel ComputersA local PC dealer in Western Cape. Say they do very little with schools because they emphasise quality and schools tend to purchase ‘cheapand nasties’.

3Com Alex de Jager Communications equipmentOffers hubs, switches, network cards, modems, etc. Deals with schools on a case-by-case basis, but guarantees better discounts than to anycommercial client.

CISCO EPU Communications equipmentCISCO is in active partnership with others in social responsibility projects like NetDay. In line with CISCO’s schemes worldwide they alsooffer special educational discounts through the reseller chain, provided those outlets are classed as ‘educational partners’.The company hasstarted to roll out ‘CISCO Networking Academies’ in the USA, and is aiming to set up 30 in South Africa next year.These will be insecondary and tertiary institution.The first has been established at Houwteq in Grabouw, and the second will be launched at the Universityof Pretoria in August 1999. Institutions require an Internet Lab and will then receive support in cash and kind to develop curriculum andinstall equipment like routers.

Novell Mandy Booysen Networking softwareOffer special deals for their networking products to educational institutions worldwide. However, they stated a lower limit for costing as 2500 students.

Symantec Mohammed FSA SoftwareAll Symantec products at about 1/3 retail prices.

‘F’Summary feedback

from ICT suppliers

in the private sector

Organisation Contact people Products/services suppliedCorel Ernest Rampete SoftwareThe Corel License for Learning (CLL) allows a school to use Corel Draw, Corel WordPerfect Suite, Corel Office Professional, Corel Ventura,Corel Webmaster Suite and lastly Corel PrintHouse on as many computers as they have. CDs can be put into the library for learners to takehome and install on their home computer.The school will have to purchase the Academic Package of each of the products they want to use.The cost for a secondary school is R6 000.00 every 3 years.The cost for primary schools is R2 400.00

Interware Pieter Waker SoftwareCape-based national supplier of software to schools. Represents USA and UK software publishers in SA. Has noticed a 50% p.a. growth indemand for software in recent years with an emphasis on application packages. Deals directly with schools rather than through educ. depts.Microsoft products by far the largest segment with Borland, Symantec and Corel minor players.

Adobe Bernice FSA Software10-pack educational licenses at same price as single retail license.

Microsoft Leanne Steer SoftwareSchools represent a minor but growing part of overall business.Works through 300 resellers. Range of software at about 1/3 retail price.Works with overseas principals to share experiences and what works. Makes donations of software to schools. Provides a comprehensive(USA-developed) Technology Roadmap to help schools plan and implement computer technology in schools.Will shortly announce theMicrosoft School Agreement which will license PCs for a whole list of Microsoft products on an annual basis (including upgrades and homeuse for teachers).

Telkom Lulu Letlape ConnectivityOffers dialup and leased line connectivity to schools at commercial rates. Also, through the Telkom foundation has supplied nearly 1 000schools with one computer each, a year’s free connectivity to the Intekom service provider and up to R150 a month in free Telkom usage.TheInternet 1 000 project is being enhanced in two ways. First, 100 of the 1 000 schools will be selected to establish computer centres ofapproximately twenty computers each, to be used as local resource centres for other schools. Second, teachers in those schools will receiveadvanced training after the July holidays.Thintana, the consortium of Telkom shareholders is funding a parallel project, Internet 2000, whereby2 000 computers will be deployed in 200 schools. Further implementation in both these projects is through SchoolNet SA.

Internet Solution Alison Wright Leased lines and Internet servicesDirect supply of Diginet lines to schools, but this is a minor part of their overall business. Lots of growth expected. Sales reps approachschools, initiate an order, handle Telkom for the connection and complete domain registration, etc. Have a social responsibility project withSchoolNet, sponsoring the line and traffic on four 64kb lines for SchoolNet operations. Now have a long-term relationship that is extendinginto schools and communities.

Futurekids Michael Plumstead,Thys du Preez Technology syllabus and methodology forstudents; teacher training

Primarily based on US syllabus and learning methods. Currently developing localised outcome-based curriculum and lesson plans for schools.Futurekids is now licensed in 108 countries, has signed up 70 franchisees and are in about 200 schools in SA—mainly, public, rural andprimary. Pricing is per student per month. Also sell/rent hardware and software but encourage hardware rental by schools. Have sole rights toteach FDE (Computer Assisted Education) on behalf of University of Pretoria. Seeking accreditation with SAQA and wants to be an approvedsupplier endorsed by national department. Methodology based on technology learning via academic themes. Believes the countries makingbest use of computers are: Israel, Brazil,Argentina and USA.

Computers4Kids Charmaine Roynon Student and teacher trainingOutsourcing of facilities and services

Western-Cape based company, expanding nationally.About 15 schools using proprietary syllabus and methods for learning ICT skills. Strengthsare integration with school curriculum, SA orientation, employment and ongoing training of fully qualified teachers, personal service, flexibilityin offerings.

K-Net Transcribed interview by EPU Skills trainingAn SA company offering technology skills training. K-Net Partner Schools Programme.Also offers complete networking service. Helps schoolsassess needs for technology training and quotes to do full job. Has offered to provide list of client schools.

New Horizons Valerie TrainingOffers a full range of applications training courses. Has a Club offer including a discount for training completed in six months or a year. Aboutto launch an offer for students and teachers. Accredited by the CSSA for the ICDL.

Tecor Transcribed interview by EPUComputer-based education and training and Internet access for students and teachers. Sec 21 company: Imfundo Yesizwe launched with St Alban’s and CSIR. Planning to set up 20-PC labs with Internet access and use Cybis and Virtual Campus system to access many on-linecourses. Focus is much broader than just ICT training. This is a computer-based training initiative for disadvantaged communities: schools aswell as communities.

PAGE 201

APPENDIX F

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