a philosophical journey into understanding how … · philosophical journeys into oe and jewish...

Philosophical journeys into OE and Jewish Ethics

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A philosophical journey into understanding how outdoor education theories can be

instrumental in teaching Jewish ethics

Adrienne Winton Bellanich The University of Edinburgh Matriculation #: s0895021

DISSERTATION PRESENTED IN PART FUFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION

THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH MORAY HOUSE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

(2009)


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Preamble I have chosen this option for my dissertation: 3. dissertations can be submitted as a journal paper (taking either of the above methodological approaches) of around 6,000 words with an appendix covering methodological and theoretical issues in more detail (normally around 6,000 words). If this option is taken students should identify the target journal for the paper and follow the guidelines for contributors on format and presentation. This dissertation is written with the intention of submitting to the Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning (JAEOL). For the journal’s ten year anniversary they have chosen the theme of “journeys,”

The discourse of ‘Journey(s)’ may be interpreted from a diversity of theoretical, methodological and practice perspectives. For example, editors will consider papers which explore the changing paradigmatic research journey(s) in adventure education and/or outdoor learning, metaphorical journeys, the place of outdoor learning through significant life experience and so forth (Editors of JAEOL).

As such, the paper’s discourse is meant for an audience who may have a strong working knowledge of outdoor education theories and concepts. This gives a basis for what to expect and will hopefully clarify and give discretion to some terms mentioned in the following pages. I hope this is clear to those about to embark on a new sector of the field of outdoor education. The appendix should be read as a separate entity of the journal paper as the appendix is not being submitted for the journal.


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Table of Contents

1. Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….iv 2. Abstract……………………………………………………………………….v 3. Introduction…………………………………………………………………..1 4. Teaching Values Outdoors: VE and OE……………………………………3 5. The Concept of Jewish Journeys and Jewish Ethics………………………6 6. Personal and Social Outdoor Education and Jewish Ethics………………9 7. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..12 8. References…………………………………………………………………...12 9. Appendix…………………………………………………………………….15 10. Literature Review…………………………………………………………..15 11. Methodology………………………………………………………………...20 12. References…………………………………………………………………...24


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Acknowledgements Perhaps the most pleasant part of completing this article is having the opportunity to acknowledge those who have helped me. Having my researchers and practitioners as mentors and lecturers have opened a whole new perspective for me and it has been a true honour and privilege to work alongside them. Pete Allison, my mentor and dissertation supervisor was a great honour to work with as he was able to show how detail-oriented and meticulous one must be in citing references giving me a launching point to begin my research, I am truly indebted to you. In addition to these world-renowned scholars I also had the opportunity during my research to learn from a scholar, Gitty Weinmann who helped me to understand and delve into Pirkei Avos and interpret it as my own, for all these learned people who have imparted their knowledge unto me I am grateful. Of course last but not least my family and friends who have offered many suggestions and constructive criticism along the way. It has been an arduous yet enjoyable journey and the love and support from everyone have kept my heart uplifted throughout it all.


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Abstract This paper focuses on combining the often controversial issue of teaching Jewish ethics while justifying that values and morals can be integrated into the outdoor environment through personal and social outdoor activities. My main objective is to explore relationships on teaching outdoor education and Jewish education theories, which focus upon values initiatives, and how they can ultimately be put into practice. I will use examples in my exploration to reinforce that both outdoor and values education can be taught in a straightforward and theoretical model that can be implemented at a suitable level to appeal to younger audiences.


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Introduction

This paper introduces the often controversial issue of teaching Jewish ethics while justifying that values and morals can be integrated into the outdoor environment through personal and social outdoor activities. My main objective is to explore relationships on teaching outdoor education and Jewish education theories, which focus upon values initiatives, and how they can ultimately be put into practice. I use examples to illustrate that both outdoor and values education can be taught with a straightforward and theoretical model that can be implemented at a suitable level to appeal to younger audiences. In this section I introduce the three main concepts inherent in understanding the philosophical issues within the paper. They are: vernacular surrounding values and outdoor education (OE), the importance of teaching outdoors and Jewish ethical criticism.

It is valuable to clarify at this point the audience this paper is addressing. This paper is provided for Jewish Educators and Outdoor Educators alike. To approach the topic from a general perspective is integral to everyone understanding the analysis and research. After much thought and debate I believe that there is an exploratory relationship between the two fields of study. Thus, I am open to many different outcomes that may occur in the process. Therefore, one should approach the Jewish element within the research not as a religiously based subject for teaching outdoors but rather a fundamental and instrumental means in teaching values to students. On a side note I would like to make mention that there has been modest discussion and literature regarding teaching OE for Christian aims and purposes and that OE does venture into this area of thought.

Teaching ethics and morals within the outdoors is ultimately the outdoor educators’ decision of how to implement those lessons and make the lessons their own. In doing so, I believe these two areas – Jewish Ethics and Outdoor Education - are closely connected to one another. Unfortunately, Jewish ethics have very limited teaching resources. However, when outdoor education principles are introduced, the ancient text can be interpreted in a new light. Jewish Ethics and Outdoor Education have much potential for extensive research and exploration. This is only the beginning, I hope, in the future there will be further investigation into this field of study. Terminology for Values and Outdoor Education At this point it is important to note the terminology that will be central throughout the paper. Values, morals and ethics will be noted and utilised in this essay interchangeably. Values are “beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important in life” (Oxford University Press, 2005). Morals are “concerned with the principles of right and wrong behaviour” (Oxford University Press, 2005). Finally, ethics are defined as, “moral principles that control or influence a person’s behaviour” (Oxford University Press, 2005). Essentially, these terms all elude to the same ideology which I will use to explain how outdoor education can benefit from instilling all these aspects within the outdoor curriculum. The parallels that can be sought from all these terms are clear and concise. The terms values and morals are inherent within the definition of ethics, thus creating a system of belief. They all can be rendered to mean that which “ought to be taught to develop one’s moral character and ultimately how they are to make significant decisions throughout their lifetime”(Winton, 2010). According to Patten (in Haydon, 1997) though, “values are timeless: They are the very basis of our lives…Values are an expression of a deeper


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truth beyond, and less ephemeral than, our material lives. They provide ideals to live up to” (p. 7).

Evidence suggests that the state-government school system has taken the role of educating students regarding their moral and values education, when in theory it should be the integrity of the parents. Unfortunately, “many parents now depend on the schools to teach their children both skills and values. This underscores the need for schools to establish moral curricula” (Jacobson, 2002, p.37). This greater responsibility that teachers are now undertaking reflects the need for values and morals to be taught.

Importance of Teaching Outdoors What constitutes an outdoor classroom and how is it relevant for use as a resource for teaching? What are the benefits and outcomes of using the outdoor environment to teach? Finally how is the delivery of teaching outdoors different from an enclosed classroom? All these questions will be explored further and will hopefully give rise to the integral part that the outdoors play in values education.

The outdoors is an instrumental resource and teaching tool that has found open doors in almost every discipline. An “outdoor classroom” has had many beneficial elements and as such the “outdoor classroom” provides many windows of opportunities to explore and investigate our natural world on a variety of echelons. Thus according to a recent study by the National Foundation for Educational Research (Dillon, et al., 2005) on outdoor classrooms it is essential in the delivery of an effective school curriculum. They also observed through case studies that,

Outdoor education can involve working with others, developing new skills, undertaking practical conservation and influencing society. The intended outcomes of such experiences can encompass: knowledge and understanding, attitudes and feelings, values and beliefs, activities or behaviours, personal development and social development. (Dillon, et al., 2005, p. 1)

Jewish Ethical Criticism A notable aspect about Jewish educators is that the ideology assumed in a formal classroom setting (and informal as well) is that values and morals are taught both implicitly and explicitly. This notion of teaching implicitly and explicitly is due in part to the setting and context in which values and morals are taught. In a Jewish day school, camp or synagogue religious school, the same values are taught implicitly throughout daily or weekly activities. These ideals are instilled with the children early on and, when taught explicitly, reinforce the parallels or ingrained within students. My general focus is to use the outdoor environment as an outlet and teaching resource for delivering ethical concepts that outdoor educators and Jewish educators explore in their teaching. The text that I will use is called Pirkei Avos (Ethics of Our Fathers) and it emphasizes “proper conduct and moral discipline that would help people maintain the dignity, propriety and self control,” (Davis, 1998, p.xv) that they may toil with throughout their lives. In Jewish communities this text is paramount in teaching young students how to make the right moral decisions and ultimately to live a fulfilling and holistic lifestyle. The next section explores teaching values outdoors and presents the argument for and against values education vs. outdoor education.


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Teaching Values Outdoors: Values Education and Outdoor Education This section explores the connection between values education and outdoor education. The connection between these elements also gives rise to a variety of educational theories about each issue. Kohlberg (1986;1981;1971) and Haydon (2007; 2005) focus on values education while Nicol (2003) exemplifies the language surrounding outdoor education. It is Higgins (2000; 1997) and Yaffey (1993), however, who find the connection between the two issues and it is this connection which is highlighted in this section. Values Education The term values education (also commonly known as moral education) is the attempt to promote the development of children’s and adolescents’ moral cognitive structures (moral reasoning stages) in school settings (Kohlberg, 1971; 1976). From this definition Kohlberg was able to organise a moral curriculum for schools which in turn was deemed the hidden curriculum. The curriculum aims to show the latent meaning in moral curriculum while the hidden curriculum is rather implicit and inherent throughout the social relations and values that occur in everyday school situations. Thus, Kohlberg believed that the hidden curriculum, “is seen as extremely powerful, in particular regards to its impact on moral development” (Gordon, 1986, p. 264). From the hidden curriculum stemmed his conceptual ideology for the moral curriculum described in his later writings. The foundation upon which the moral curriculum was based was Kohlberg’s Moral Stages of Development. These stages were presented in three levels with two stages within each of them. He later added on another stage after the initial six were written which was described as the “factor of religion in morality” stage (Petrovich, 1986, p. 100). The first level, called the pre-conventional level, contains the first two stages. The first stage is known as Heteronomus Morality where one attempts “to avoid breaking the rules and punishment” (Kohlberg, 1986, p. 488). At this stage there is an underlying social perspective that is important to note. The child is only aware of their own actions and the consequences following. In this theory children are unaware of how their actions may affect others as well. Stage two is centered around Individualism. During this stage the child begins to understand obeying rules only “when it is in someone’s immediate interest” (Kohlberg, 1986, p. 488). It is evident that children become more aware with their surroundings and perceptive of the actions of others. The second level is known as the conventional level and contains stages three and four. It is stage three, Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, in which the child begins to evaluate what is expected of him/her and the role they play within their close personal relationships. They are “aware of shared feelings, agreements and expectations which take primacy over individual interests” (Kohlberg, 1986, p. 488). Stage four is called Social System and Conscience. The child begins to articulate the difference between their values and morals and what is expected of him/her within their culture and society. Lastly, the post-conventional level contains stages five and six. Stage five focuses on Social Contract and Utility. The adolescent at this stage “considers moral and legal points of view and recognises that they sometimes conflict and finds it difficult to integrate them” (Kohlberg, 1986, p. 488). The last and final stage is known as “Universal ethical principles.” This stage highlights the self-chosen ethical principles and how committed individuals are to fulfilling them.


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Heteronomous morality 1 Pre conventional Individualism Mutual interpersonal expectations 2 Conventional Social system and conscience Social contract and utility 3 Post Conventional Universal ethical principles

Factor of religion in morality

Kohlberg’s theories on moral development and the curriculum surrounding the issue may be somewhat dated but his theories were innovative and shed some light into a relatively new field of moral education. Haydon surfaced about two decades later with his theories on values education and discussed its’ place in the school curriculum. A controversial topic that has been debated for some time is: How can we teach values and where does it fit in with the mainstream curriculum? Haydon (2005) identifies three main subject matters that he believes ought to be expanded upon in schools: PSHE (Personal, Social and Health Education), Citizenship and Religious Education. Haydon comments that, “not only does PSHE recognise the salience of values to people’s decisions, it can also sometimes seem to be emphasizing one value above all others: the value of informed choice” (p. 14).

PSHE appears to be closely connected with outdoor education. From the examples that follow there are strong connections to one another. Therefore it can be concluded that PSHE – that focuses on values – are essentially connected to one another. The connection of PSHE (also known as PSD – personal and social development) to the field of outdoor education can easily be associated with one another. As described by Allison and Von Wald (2009), “PSD [PSHE] is often understood as developing confidence, cooperation, trust and teamwork. Talking with people working in the field of outdoor education suggests that self esteem is regularly identified as central to PSD [PSHE]”.

As such, according to their theories and a “2006 report from a two-year study of values and character formation in the 21st century” (Allison & Von Wald, 2009, p. 4), “Activities such as residential trips, the Duke of Edinburgh scheme and students organising their own clubs, societies and discussion groups are instrumental in developing character, virtue and values” (Arthur, Deakon-Crick, Samuel, Wilson & McGettrick, 2006, p. 113). The research between Allison and Von Wald (2009) and Arthur, Deakon-Crick, Samuel, Wilson and McGettrick (2006) demonstrates a link between personal and health education and outdoor education.

The last objective in this section of values education to discuss further is the concept of why values should be taught. In conjunction with this objective also derives the question of: why use the outdoors as a context to teach? Haydon (2007) believes teaching values is important in decision making, and outlines four ways in which values education is important. 1) values enter into our goals and purposes in action, 2) values put restraints on what we do in order to achieve our goals, 3) values may enhance our personal qualities, and 4) attributing our values to help lead others and continuing the cycle (p. 21-22). It is evident that teaching values can lead to young people exploring moral choices and the roles that they may be able contribute to our society.

Finally, values education is central to my paper because it promotes a sense of awareness and clarity that helps to further promote this area in school curricula. Understanding Kohlberg’s foundation and theories of moral education is a good representation of why we have values education in the first place. Defining them into levels of comprehension and conventional and


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non-conventional avenues of thought helps us to simplify a rather complex matter. I believe that Kohlberg (1971;1976), Haydon (2005;2007), and Allison & Von Wald (2009), all contributed successfully to the field of PSHE and values education. Allison and Von Wald (2009) were able to elaborate on the links between the two fields and provide examples to support their claims. Thus, they offer a new and holistic – even refreshing – way of approaching the topic of values education. Outdoor Education

Including outdoor education (or rather outdoor pursuits), within the school curriculum has long been debated (Nicol, 2004, p. 116). The term outdoor education is a term yet to be clarified but holds a variety of meanings such as: “an approach to teaching as opposed to a subject,” (Nicol, 2004, p. 115); “consists of personal and social development, and environmental education,” (Higgins & Loynes, 1997); and even, “a means of approaching educational objectives through guided, direct experience of the outdoors, using as learning material the resources of rural and coastal environments” (National Association of Outdoor Education, p. 37).

Outdoor education, as defined by Higgins and Loynes (1997) draws upon three aspects. By utilising these three areas of study, Higgins and Loynes (1997) believe that this may be the key to obtaining and training “good outdoor educators.” When the outdoor educator focuses their attention of one or more of these three aspects they made have a better overall picture of stimulating and enlightening young minds altogether, making personal safety their number one priority.

Outdoor education is now seen within the profession as drawing on three main areas of outdoor activities, environmental education and social and personal development. A good Outdoor Educator may well be focusing attention on one or other of these at any given time but will still be sensitive to opportunities to guide experience within the complementary areas. However, all experience must take place within a framework of safety. (Higgins & Loynes, 1997, p. 6)

This definition describes three components of outdoor education: outdoor activities, environmental education and personal and social development. The educational intention within this model is ultimately, “to stimulate personal and social development” (Higgins and Loynes, 1997, p. 6), which is the purpose behind this investigation.

Outdoor education is an often neglected area of study in the school system. It is sometimes neglected based on school funding or lack of interest. The benefits outweigh the need for outdoor education curriculum presented in schools. Not only is outdoor education beneficial for students’ physical well-being but their social and emotional well-being as well (Louv, 2008, p. 134). The outdoors and nature is a place to use all the senses and to explore and experience nature firsthand.

As an approach, OE can have varying levels of influence over the school curriculum and can serve many purposes from “vocational, educational, professional or health, survival and leisure related purposes” (Carr, Allison & Meldrum, 2006, p. 21). Outdoor educators may be able to ensure these facets among the educational curriculum because as outdoor educators their expertise allows them to use differentiated instruction and multiple intelligences to instruct the learner. “In addition to promoting such knowledge for its own sake, a respectable school curriculum is also likely to contain forms of knowledge, understanding and skill” (Carr, Allison & Meldrum, 2006, p. 20). How can we, as outdoor educators, promote this type of knowledge? These “forms of knowledge, understanding and skill,” (Carr, Allison & Meldrum, 2006, p. 20)


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that are mentioned directly pertain to the outcomes received from an outdoor education experience. These “forms of knowledge” provoke critical, logical and strategic thinking that students may not be able to experience if the curriculum is not differentiated and applied to various learning styles. For example, taking a part English curriculum or section of learning into a outdoor/natural context. If there is portion of the literature is set outside, have the students recreate this part of the story by utilising the outdoor classroom. Setting the scene outside may provoke different types of discussion surrounding the story. Had this same example been taught indoors it may not have had the same type of effect or discourse and therefore support the theory mentioned above. Teaching ethics and moral values have a set standard within outdoor education. They are deemed as “part of the practice” and are a paradigm within adventure and outdoor activities. However, when the moment may arise to understand situations from a values based perspective, “the moral virtues that are part of the practice of adventure education are not an option to practitioners. To leave out the moral virtues and attempt to practice adventure [outdoor] education as a purely technical enterprise is impossible” (Hunt & Wurdinger, 1997, p. 126). Even further regarding moral values in outdoor education and strongly proving a point in teaching values on outdoor expeditions was indicated in an article by Allison (2000) he concluded in his study that, “expeditions for young people can contribute to this process by facilitating the development of their values and therefore the values of society” (p. 167). Combining Values and Outdoor Education

Values education and outdoor education have more of a strong connection than it may first appear. Teaching these two approaches simultaneously may lead to positive changes and outlooks on a student’s personal, social and health education. In Yaffey’s (1993) article he states,

It is through meaningful activity, experience and knowledge that we develop our values, but values may also be experienced directly. It is because the outdoor situation confers greater opportunity for meaningful interaction with the world that the value experiences for an individual are greater and it is ultimately the interaction with the world’s values that is the education. (p. 9)

Indeed, the outdoor situation does confer greater opportunity for young adults and it is within these experiences that their values may thrive. Higgins highlights the notion that, “values education, like outdoor education is a process rather than an outcome. The process of deciding on a set of values and putting these forward as those which should be encouraged is prescriptive” (Higgins 2000, p. 58) Thus, we see from here that teaching values outdoors is one way to learn through an experiential approach. In this section I have summarized some current thought on the matters of values education and outdoor education. In the next section I introduce the notion of philosophical and ethical Jewish journeys. The concept of Jewish Ethics and Jewish Journeys

In this section I introduce the concept of Jewish ethics and how it is relates to the analogy of a philosophical or Jewish journey. Jewish Ethics, with a central focus upon a certain text –Pirkei Avos (Ethics of our Fathers) – have been interpreted by many philosophers and rabbinical scholars throughout many centuries. The book contains five chapters, with a sixth chapter that was later added to the writings by an anonymous author. Each of the chapters contains short passages called tractates or smaller lessons to be learned and taught. Pirkei Avos is about the ethics on living a morally “good” life. Fundamentally, it is written in a way that, today, has been


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quite obsolete in meaning. Therefore, there have been many commentaries written in order to interpret the moral messages according to the needs of today’s society. The inspirational passages from Pirkei Avos tell not only how to live a morally good life, but take the reader on a journey to becoming a morally “good” citizen. It explains how to conduct business properly, how to treat our fellow neighbours and simply how we can understand the etiquette of personal relationships. It discusses matters of judgement and pursuit, how to study and integrate the Torah (Bible) into our daily lives and how to properly seek out a mentor for oneself and a friend. All these small lessons are just a few of the many that are contained within Pirkei Avos. Jewish Journeys Jewish journeys can be perceived as a common theme in the Jewish religion. It relates to spiritual and life-cycle rituals, traditions passed down by many generations and even literal and metaphorical journeys through the desert to the Holy Land. From the time that a Jewish child is brought into the world, they automatically begin their Jewish journey through life. It is said that, parents bring their children into this world and teachers guide them to the world to come (the next world) (Talmud). Thus this concept of a Jewish journey is prevalent from the beginning so as to instil and impart wisdom to the next generation of Jewish young adults. From the time one enters the world, Jewish values and ethics are taught implicitly and explicitly. It is the journey, however, that is the central focus of this paper that one begins values education; and thus the integrity and determination to continue their practice developing values throughout a lifetime. The issues of Jewish ethics that I will discuss in this paper are pertinent to both Jewish and outdoor educators. As Breslauer (1985) states, Jewish ethics “looks at the interaction between Jewish thinkers and the modern world…[ethics] can provide insight into the dynamic relationships between tradition and modernity, religion and secular society, and ethics and a changing world society” (p. 3). Therefore it is essential to indicate the values that are “consistent with traditional religion and relevant to modern life” (Breslauer, 1985, p. 3). Jewish Journeys and Jewish Ethics The prominence of the Jewish journey theme when teaching ethics is highly exaggerated in order to obtain the full effect of how it can have an impact on one’s life (a young adult’s in particular). The wisdom literature gives insight into situations one may encounter during a lifetime and acts as an aid to the decision making process. For example it states, “Everything is foreseen, yet free will is given. The world is judged with goodness, and all is according to the majority of deeds” (Pirkei Avos 3:21) Basically, this lesson on free-will goes much deeper into a philosophical argument. It simply states, however, that we are given choices – free-will – to choose to do the morally right thing and G-d1 has no control over our actions, She only guides us on the path to a morally good life.

Moreover, it is important to note that Avos also contains some straightforward parables. One of my favourites is about tree branches and roots being compared to wisdom. “The parable of the ‘tree whose branches are many and its roots few etc’ describing the relationship between wisdom and deeds (3:17) (Lerner 1987, p.271).” These parables are appropriate examples and help young students to decipher some of the easier lessons rather than the philosophical debates.

1 I have used the term G-d (God) because I believe in not writing G-d’s name in vain, therefore I have put a dash in between the G and the D here. For educational and learning purposes one may write it out in full.


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This lesson is more tangible because - although it has symbolism within the lesson - younger students can appropriate the concept because it focuses on something they already understand conceptually. Rosenak (1987) suggests that it is through an understanding of the religious literature of the community that the individual can form an existential link to G-d and to the community (Sigel 2009, p.48). Once a connection is established between the individual and G-d and the Jewish community, their Jewish journey can continue on a virtuous path.

The first value-laden lessons children are taught are commonly based on the Ten Commandments. These lessons are comprehensible, easily understood and for the most part straightforward. For example, when a child enters primary school they are taught not to lie, cheat and steal and to respect their teachers. Children at that moral development stage are not at the point of questioning “why not?” but rather they listen and obey (with a few exceptional children who may question authority.) It is not until the sixth or even seventh stage of Kohlberg’s stages of development that students begin to question such commandments. However, I want to clarify that children who are not taught the Ten Commandments explicitly are implicitly taught these values through social interactions and societal norms. I believe that this may happen in most societies, not specifically to the Jewish faith.

Kohlberg’s seventh stage of development introduces the factor of religion in morality (Petrovich, 1986, p. 100). This stage was created as a later addition but followed the sixth stage of “Universal Moral Principles” (Kohlberg, 1981). Kohlberg tries to connect the two throughout the book and comes to the conclusion that is based on Fowler’s (1981) theory of faith development.

Paradoxically, Fowler became inspired by Kohlberg when he developed his theories on the stages of faith. It was only after his theories were published that Kohlberg decided to add another dimension of the seventh stage. The stages of faith that Fowler composed can be simply understood as: “faith may be characterised as an integral, centering process, underlying the formation of the beliefs, values and meanings” (Fowler & Dell, 2006, p. 36). He outlines four main points that faith draws upon:

1) Gives coherence and direction in a person’s lives; 2) Links them in shared trusts and loyalties with others; 3) Grounds their personal stances and communal loyalties in a sense of relatedness to a

larger frame of reference and; 4) Enables them to face and deal with the challenges of human life and death, relying on

that which has the quality of ultimacy in their lives. (Fowler, 1991, p. 56) If we look into the meaning of faith that Fowler describes above, it can easily be related to the ideology of outdoor education. The outdoor activities that we hope to teach follow some of these very ideas and thus build upon the concept of collaborating faith and values into outdoor education. My argument thus support the ideology of faith-based values education and in the ensuing pages will exemplify my theories.

This biblical text, Pirkei Avos, is commonly taught in Jewish Day Schools but has never been implemented in a way that incorporates the outdoors and the natural environment. In the next section I will discuss how Jewish ethics can be integrated into personal and social development activities but using outdoor education concepts. Afterwards, I will explain how outdoor education theories complement this practice.


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Personal and Social Outdoor Education and Jewish Ethics Teaching Jewish ethics by using the outdoor environment through personal and social outdoor activities is what I shall focus on in this section. I will discuss ways in which ethics can be taught from the values of Pirkei Avos into outdoor education theories. I will draw examples from outdoor education literature and the theories they utilise. I will use specific quotes from Pirkei Avos to present the connection between teaching these values through outdoor education. The methodological approach I chose for this paper took the direction of philosophical research. Through extensive readings and research in and out of outdoor education literature I was able to draw the conclusions and analysis which follows. In all I found it quite easy to connect the passages to the theories present in outdoor education as they seem to complement one another. I will examine theories from outdoor education literature and apply these concepts to my own professional practice.

“Appoint a teacher for yourself; acquire a friend for yourself.” (1:6) This first passage separates each lesson in order to better understand each concept. “Appoint a teacher for yourself” can be interpreted as “do not rely on your own reasoning, but seek to learn from a teacher who can properly hand down knowledge” (Rashi, cited in Davis, 1998, p. 16). Another way of looking at it can be, “even though you are wise or wiser than your teacher you will learn better and remember more of what you learn from a competent teacher than you will through self-study” (Rambam & Rabbeinu Yonah, cited in Davis, 1998, p. 16). Although I may not completely agree with the latter – that one may not learn through self-study – I agree that you learn more when you have someone to confide in and be your mentor.

In the outdoor field it is beneficial to be surrounded with different-minded people and to learn by doing through experience and instruction. Searching for an instructor and/or mentor will only enable one to acquire through hard and soft skills in their outdoor pursuits of choice. Indeed, many people in the outdoor field may simply learn these skills from friends (with the same knowledge basis) but in this argument I propose that having a mentor may speed the process of acquiring knowledge of the field.

Outdoor practitioners can turn to the current practices of their fellow instructors for guidance [in recognizing virtues]. To enter into a practice is to enter into a membership into a community of other practitioners. When I am deciding to install a belay system in a high ropes course that I use in my professional life, I consult other practitioners about the latest development in the ropes course belay techniques (Hunt & Wurdinger, 1999, p. 127)

In this passage Hunt and Wurdinger describe how outdoor practitioners can develop a close rapport and vanguard for helping people new in the field to succeed. There is a paradox present in this situation: should a person learn from their own experiences – experiential learning – or whether the person should consult a mentor on some matters? This may be done on a case by case issue and they should conclude on their own accord what they believe to be the best and safest practice. The paradox aside, once a student is able to seek out teachers and mentors in this field can improve their overall skills and practice. The value of acquiring teachers, mentors and friends is a very good lesson to learn in the outdoors. Be it just a walk in the hills or a leisurely day climbing, anyone who may be searching for a mentor can find someone to share the experience with.


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“Judge everyone favourably” (1:6)

Although this translation is commonly described as the one above, Telushin’s commentary suggests the passage be translated to mean, “Judge the whole of the person favourably”. In other words, when you assess another , do not reach a conclusion on the basis of one or two negative things you know, but make your judgement on the basis of the person’s behaviour as a whole. Therefore, if the person’s conduct in a particular instance is iniquitous, but her overall conduct is respectable, then that is the way you should think of her. (Telushin, 2006, p.77). Judging people is an inherent ability that we are culturally and morally predisposed to, whether we are making rationalizations about someone or something. In outdoor education, there are situations where character building, teamwork and communication work cohesively to establish a safe and trusting environment without non-judgemental assumptions. Small situations or activites that may exemplify this concept may be “helium stick”, “colour blind” or even “trust walks.” During these outdoor activities that include all these elements (teamwork, communication and trust), it is made known implicitly that participants work together in a group and not to judge anyone or their actions during the process. The game “helium stick” is a deceptively simple teamwork activity. The group form two lines facing each other. Then the facilitator lays a long, thin rod (usually a tent pole) on the group's index fingers. The goal is to lower the rod to the ground. Each person's fingers must be in contact with the “helium stick” at all times. Pinching or grabbing the pole in not allowed - it must rest on top of fingers. The group must use teamwork, communication and trust in order to work together on the activity.

Good judgement is not a generic skill that is applicable to any situation. Rather, good judgement resides within the scope of a range of activities with discernable boundaries. One does not teach judgement skills in mountaineering by putting students in hospital operating suites. (Hunt & Wurdinger, 1999, p. 123)

We set up certain challenges in the outdoors (and sometimes challenges occur naturally) that we all deal with differently. Our judgement during these situations is based on the idea of a safe and prepared journey and to always plan for the worst. Another important concept is that everyone in the group is capable of the challenge. There is almost always one person who may be weaker than the rest, but as instructors and facilitators it is our goal to make sure everyone is included and participates to the fullest extent possible. A theory in outdoor education that cites the value in the preceding paragraph that is central to an individual’s experience is the Full Value Contract (FVC).

Full Value Contract refers to three commitments each participant must make before beginning the experience. Each participant must agree to (a) work together as a group and to work towards individual and group goals; (b) adhere to safety and group behaviour guidelines; and (c) agree to give and receive feedback, both positive and negative, and to work towards changing behaviour when appropriate. (Newton, Sandberg & Watson, 2001, p. 486)

Thus, from this outline of the Full Value Contract one can better oneself and hopefully learn to judge everyone favourably and in a caring manner.

“Treat His will as if it were your own will, so that he will treat your will as if it were his will.” (2: 4)


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In Judaism there is a concept of being responsible for your actions and decisions. This concept is known in the Yiddish language as being a mensch. Literally a “mensch” is also “a person” in Yiddish. A mensch is also a “highly involved Jewish being.”

Menschlichkeit (the art of the mensch) has nothing to do with looks, with wealth, with success or with intellect. A mensch exudes a certain magnetism that attracts us, whether or not words or glances are exchanged. A person is a mensch because he/she simply makes others feel good. (Spiegler, 2006, p. 60)

This term that is used in and around the Jewish tradition is conveyed to mean different versions of being a good person and making the ‘right’ decisions in life.

This passage also points to a few themes that are relevant in outdoor education. One such theme is the theoretical model of challenge-by-choice. The passage also draws upon the decisions (if one is made) of how to go about physically and mentally pushing self-propelled limitations. While an FVC (described above) deals with group needs, challenge by choice meets the needs of an individual (Frank, 2001).

Challenge by choice means that as a participant I should be able to choose whether I want to take part in an activity; I should be able to choose how much or how little I want to share with other groups members in a discussion or activity; I should be permitted to decide the level of challenge I opt for in an activity. (Singh Wallia, 2008, p. 41)

This concept of challenge by choice is giving one autonomy and allowing one the chance to arrive at their own decisions. For example, a student would need to prioritise their actions in a challenge course or think about themselves and what decision is best for them. In this scenario one may prioritise their actions by thinking of how their actions may benefit the group and looking at the whole picture rather than the “self.”Then maybe they will think about the group dynamic and if, or how, it will affect the outcome. From personal experience and working with groups, once a decision is made and the action is performed most of the time the student will feel a sense of accomplishment and strong self-worth for successfully making a difficult and challenging decision. Thus, they were able to carry out the “will” and used their emotional, physical and cognitive abilities to do so.

“And in a place where there are no leaders, strive to be a leader.” (2:7)

Leadership is a critical element in any field of activity, but especially so in one like adventure programming where the safety of participants is of central concern (Priest & Miles, 1999, p. 235). If one makes hismself known as having leadership qualities within a group setting, that person may automatically be assumed to take on certain responsibilities. These responsibilities may vary from making the groups’ decisions to where to set up camp for the night or to keep on walking. It is not the leader’s actions that are commended though, it is being attuned to the overall needs and wants of the group and successfully concentrating on those priorities. This quote above can be interpreted in many ways. I believe one way to translate it can be that each person may have very different leadership styles. For example, a leader can be first among equals, or set apart from and above others; given the task of guiding to consensus, or seizing the power to arbitrarily decree; the seeker of order in apparent chaos, or the instigator of destruction and death (Uhlik, 2006, p. 138). While this may be an extreme interpretation of the of


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the value I still hold true to the notion that sometimes the quiet leaders tend to make the best leaders in certain situations. Nonetheless, it is clear that outdoor education teaches leadership and development. By creating outdoor experiences that embody the values of preservation and conservation of nature and promoting, through role modeling, a non-abusive relationship with one’s environment, and outdoor leader has a unique opportunity to shape the practices and attitudes of the public (Raiola & Sugarman, 1999, p. 245) Conclusion Evidence shows from the examples described above that outdoor education theories can be instrumental in teaching Pirkei Avos or Jewish ethics. Morals and values can be integrated into the outdoor environment through these personal and social theories described in the analysis and literature referenced. The theories and implications for practice that were described in the analysis section exemplify a clear connection between teaching outdoors and teaching ethics and values. Challenge-by-choice, Full-value Contract, leadership criterion or activities and finally acquiring a mentor or friend in the field are only some of the essential elements in beginning to understand the conceptual underpinnings and values associated with outdoor education. The concept of delivering outdoor activities with an ethical basis and foundational criterion is integral in integrating the issues of values/moral and outdoor education. To explain further, the simple ethical passages mentioned can be understood by participants as young as five or six years of age. It is the effective delivery of these theoretical models that is essential in getting the message across. I attempted to use concepts that were practical and fit the ideal that will be evident to anyone in their professional practice as an educator. My purpose in this philosophical research is that the concluding factors will aide outdoor educators and Jewish educators alike to make the connection between using values and ethics literature – specifically Pirkei Avos – and teaching outdoors. In my own professional practice in teaching outdoors I have found that connecting the two elements helps students to grasp the concept better on a whole new level. By addressing their questions and explaining the theories that correlate to these values opens a safe space for communication and provides endless ideas to hone leadership, communication, and team-building skills. Thus I have hopefully opened a new discourse on these two elements which I hope to expand upon and continue my research in similar areas. I believe that this topic has a lot of potential for expansion and reasoning as I begin my exploration and journey into this exciting aspect of outdoor education.

References

Allison, P. & Von Wald, K. (2010). Personal, social and health education and educational expeditions. In S. Beames (Ed.), Understanding educational expeditions. (pp. 55-65). Rotterdam: Sense Publishing.

Allison, P. (2000). Constructing values: An expedition case study. In P. Barnes (Ed.), Values and outdoor learning (pp. 159-167). Penrith: AfOL.

Arthur, J., Deakin-Crick, R., Samuel, E., Wilson, K. & McGettrick, B. (2006). Character education: The formation of virtues and dispositions in 16-19 year olds with particular reference to the religious and spiritual. Pennsylvania: The Templeton Foundation.

Breslauer, S.D.(1985). Contemporary jewish ethics: A bibliographical survey.

Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press.


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Carr, D., Allison, P. & Meldrum, G. (2006). In search of excellence: Towards a more coherent Scottish common school curriculum for the twenty-first century. Scottish Educational Review, 38(1), 13-24.

Davis, A. (1998). Pirkei avos: The wisdom of the fathers. New York: Noble Book Press Corp.

Dillon, J., Morris, M., O’Donnell, L., Reid, A., Rickinson, M., & Scott, W. (2005). Engaging and learning within the outdoors –the final report of the outdoor classroom in a rural context action research project. National foundation for educational research. Fowler, J. (1991). Weaving the new creation: Stages of faith and the public church. New

York : Harper Collins. Fowler, J. (1981). Stages of faith. New York: Harper Collins. Fowler, J. & Dell, M.L.(2006) Stages of faith from infancy through adolescence:

Reflections of three decades of faith development theory. In E.C. Roehlkepartain, P.E. King, L. Wagener & P.L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 34-45). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.

Frank, L. (2001). The caring classroom. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Experiential Education. Charleston, WV, November 1-4, 2001. Gordon, D. (1986). Kohlberg and the Hidden Curriculum, In S. Modgil & C. Modgil

(Eds), Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and controversy (pp. 263-274). Philadelphia, PA: The Falmer Press.

Haydon, G. (2007). Values for educational leadership. Sage: London. Haydon, G. (2005). The importance of PSHE: A philosophical and policy perspective on personal, social and health education. Impact, (10), 1-42. Higgins, P. (2000). Outdoor education and values education: Mission, mandate or expediency? In P. Barnes (Ed.), Values in outdoor education (pp. 50-59). Penrith: Association for Outdoor Learning. Higgins, P. & Loynes, C. (1997). On the nature of outdoor education. In P. Higgins, C. Loynes & N. Crowther (Eds), A guide for outdoor education in Scotland (pp. 6- 9). Penrith: Adventure education and Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage. Hunt, J. S. & Wurdinger, S.D. (1999). Ethics and adventure programming. In J.C. Miles &

S. Priest (Eds), Adventure programming (pp. 123-131). State College, PA: Venture. Jacobson, S. (2002). Toward a meaningful life: The wisdom of the rebbe. New York: William Morrow and Company. Kohlberg, L. (1986). Consensus and controversy (S. Modgil & C. Modgil, Eds).

Philadelphia: The Falmer Press. Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on moral development. Volume one: The philosophy of

moral development. New York: Harper and Row. Kohlberg, L. (1971). Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education, in: C.

Beck, B. S. Crittenden & E.V. Sullivan (Eds), Moral Education: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 15-98). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Lerner, M.B. (1987). The Tractate Avot. In S. Safrai & P.J. Tomson (Eds), The literature of the sages (first part): Oral Torah, Halakha, Mishna, Tosefta, Talmud and external tractates (pp. 263-281). Van Gorcum, Assen: Fortress Press.

Louv, R. (2008) Last child in the woods. Algonquin books of Chapel Hill: New York. McClellan, B.E. (1999). Moral education in America: Schools and the shaping of character

from colonial times to the present. New York: Teachers College Press.


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Newton, M., Sandberg, J. & Watson, D.L. (2001). Utilizing adventure education within the model of moral action. Quest, 53(1), 483-494.

Nicol, R. (2003). Pillars of knowledge. In B. Humberstone, H. Brown and K. Richards, (Eds). Whose journeys? The outdoors and adventure as social and cultural phenomena (115-130). Institute for Outdoor Learning.

Petrovich, O. (1986). Moral autonomy and the theory of Kohlberg. In S. Modgil & C. Modgil (Eds), Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and controversy (pp. 85-106). Philadelphia: The Falmer Press

Priest, S. & Miles, J.C. (1999). Adventure Programming. State College, PA: Venture. Raiola, E. & Sugerman, D.(1999). Outdoor leadership curricula. In J.C. Miles &

S. Priest (Eds), Adventure programming (pp. 241-245). State College, PA: Venture. Rosenak, M. (1987). Commandments and concerns: Jewish religious education in secular

society. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. Sigel, D. (2009) Was Issac sacrificed in the end? Reading midrash in elementary school.

Journal of Jewish Education, 75(1), 47-78. Singh Wallia, S. (2008) Challenge by choice :A sojourn at the intersection of challenge

and choice. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 12(2), 39-46. Spiegler, W. (2006). Sha’arei refuah: Gates of Jewish healing. Morrisville, NC: Lulu

Enterprises. Telushin, J. (2006). A code of Jewish ethics voume. 1: You shall be holy. New York: Bell

Tower. Twerski, A. (2001). Angels don’t leave footprints. New York: Artscroll. Uhlik, K.S. (2006). The “Nature” of leadership philosophy in outdoor and adventure education: Partnership or predation. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning,6(2), 135-142. Yaffey, D. (1993). The value base of activity experience in the outdoors. The Journal of

Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, 10(3) 8-15.

Appendix


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Introduction In my literature review I explored three different subject areas extensively and used the information and theories presented in my research to combine all three fields of study. I examined outdoor education literature, Jewish ethics through critics and commentators and teaching values in a formal/informal education setting. I was fortunate to have lots of access to journal articles and books for the outdoor education element. The Jewish ethics and values education literature was a bit harder to come by and I required more access to other areas outside Edinburgh University to find such resources. The means by which I found for my research was by means of internet searches and by utilising the many references in the outdoor education journals. The text format for the Jewish ethics literature was essentially all the same, however, I found a variety of different commentaries to support and clarify my arguments. I chose to include primarily articles about outdoor education in the UK rather than in mainstream schools elsewhere in the world. I thought that Curriculum for Excellence (a new curriculum being introduced in Scotland) fully supports the idea of multi-disciplinary instruction and it helped to bring together outdoor education and values education. The UK is also my target audience for this research and I wanted to present the research to this population initially. The Jewish ethics was a bit more challenging to choose which commentators and literature would best fit my arguments because there were just so many whose findings complemented my research. In the end, I chose the commentators who are very well known in their field and who were able to explain the text in a simple yet sophisticated manner. Lastly, I used published works and papers that have yet to be published from a variety of journal articles, books and chapters in books. I chose to use primary and secondary sources because I believe using this methodology produces the best analyses. In the following pages you will find the literature review (including a methodology) discussing the majority of the works I used for my research paper. Appendix 1 - Literature Review Outdoor Education Nicol (2004) and Higgin & Loynes (1997) offered a definition of outdoor education. Using the Venn diagram model to describe the elements that create outdoor education, Higgins and Loynes (1997) draw together three main areas of: outdoor activities, environmental education and social and personal development. These three areas are the essence of what constitutes OE. I particularly enjoyed reading this outline and model for outdoor education as it provided a foundation for understanding where the other outdoor literature derives from. It also allowed me to see how the current OE principles have now outdated this model and to not use this as a basis but as an understanding. Carr, Allison & Meldrum (2006) all give a thorough consensus about the curriculum for excellence in substitution for the traditional curriculum approach to diversify the academics to raise inquiries into other areas of thought. The paper generally argues that issues of curriculum structure and organization call for greater clarity concerning the diverse educational and other developmental aims of all the stages of schooling (Carr, Allison & Meldrum, 2006, p. 13). Central to all this is the concept of change in ways of teaching and advocating for a more wholesome UK school curriculum. Outdoor Education has a significant place in the Curriculum for Excellence and thus the Higgins and Loynes model exemplifies this very fact. We need to


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combine certain areas in order to provoke a purpose and understanding of how each discipline plays an even larger role within other disciplines. Hunt and Wurdinger (1997) focus on ethical issues and describe how some participants find themselves in certain situations that call for “ethical intervention” within the adventurous trips or activities. On the other hand Hunt and Wurdinger (1997) suggest that as adventure educators we find ourselves dealing with these ethical issues that we sometimes are not prepared for. In practice though, as an outdoor educator we are taught to “think on our feet” and “prepare for the worst.” It is from these situations that we learn to deal with many situations. (e.g. Smith & Allison, 2006). All these authors have provided me with a new insight into the field and I was able to implement their findings within my research. I believe that Hunt and Wurdinger (1997), although a bit dated, have a strong understanding about the vitality that is adventure programming and how we strive to enlighten young minds. Values Education The argument posed in my paper highlights the controversial issue of implicitly teaching/including moral development and values education in the classroom. I introduce the topic with a summary of Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1971) “Stages of Moral Development.” I also examine the relationship between where Values Education may play a role in the areas of Personal and Social Outdoor Education and Personal and Social Development. Lastly I explain the rationale behind teaching values in schools and what the students can benefit from the subject matter being integrated into the mainstream curriculum.

Values education literature and the surrounding vernacular are derived both from Lawrence Kohlberg (1971) and Jean Piaget’s (1932) research. Kohlberg was inspired by Piaget’s theory of cognitive development from which he created his own idea of the stages of moral development. The six stages can be identified in three levels as, “Heternomous Morality,” “Mutual Interpersonal Expectations,” and “Social Contract and Utility.” It was from Kohlberg’s research and analysis within these stages and levels that he was able to elaborate on the topic further. Gordon (1986) address Kohlberg’s hidden curriculum while Petrovich (1986) begins to focus her understanding of Kohlberg’s “factor of religion in morality.” The hidden curriculum aimed to be a basis for the moral curriculum but was not meant to highlight religious morality in any way. Meanwhile, Petrovich’s (1986) article on “Moral autonomy and the theory of Kohlberg” highlighted the role of religion and how much of an influence it plays when someone chooses to institute moral curriculum in a school environment. Haydon (2005, 2007) introduced Personal and Social Health Education which was previously known as Personal and Social Development. While Haydon (2005, 2007) draws more attention to the growing field of PSHE and what it is trying to provide for our current UK school system, Allison and Von Wald (2009) take the position that outdoor education can often have elements of PSHE values within the activities. I conclude my discussion in this section by again reinforcing the idea of teaching values because as Haydon (2007) stresses teaching values is important in decision making. I use Haydon’s model for PSHE, PSD and values education because I believe that he has a useful approach. He is able to articulate his findings in a broad and concise manner that is comprehensible and efficient. However, we find ourselves also trying to explain what the difference is between moral education and moral training. This is an issue I did not further develop in my research but does offer a good opportunity for further exploration.


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It is worth noting at this stage that for some moral education is, at best, a contentious issue. As such it is possible to identify two ends of a moral education curriculum. On the one hand moral education can be understood as teaching people what is right or wrong (we refer to this as moral training). On the other hand it can be understood as identifying, appreciating and acting on certain kinds of questions and situations from a principled or value base position ( we refer to this as moral education). It is moral education (rather than training) that interested teachers and thus our focus in the paper (Allison, 2009).

Thus we can see from this section that indeed, values free education is not an option in the UK education system. It finds a place in all aspects of teaching and cannot be avoided. Jewish Ethics

In this section of my paper I introduce the concept of Jewish ethics and how it is related in the analogy of a philosophical or Jewish journey. Jewish Ethics, with a central focus upon a certain text –Pirkei Avos (Ethics of our Fathers) – has been interpreted by many philosophers and rabbinical scholars throughout many centuries. It contains five chapters, with a sixth chapter that was later added to the writings by an anonymous author. Within each of the chapters it contains short passages called tractates or smaller lessons to be learned and taught. Pirkei Avos is about ethics on how to live a morally “good” life. Fundamentally it is written in a way that, today, has become quite obsolete in meaning. Therefore, there have been many commentaries written in order to interpret the moral messages according to the needs of today’s society. On a similar note, this paper is to be provided for Jewish educators and Outdoor educators alike. To approach the topic from a general perspective is integral to everyone understanding the analysis and research.

Although the element of Jewish journeys is prominent in the Jewish tradition I was not able to find very much literature on the topic. Journeys can be metaphorical or philosophical, created or embellished from reality or even spoken and written down.

It is by means of conceptualizing our experiences in this manner that we pick out the “important” aspects of an experience. And by picking out what is “important” in the experience, we can categorise the experience, understand it and remember it. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 83). Lakoff and Johnson (1980) present some insight into the idea behind the metaphorical

concept of “experiences” or in this case “journeys.” The “metaphor” as Lakoff and Johnson (1980) describe in something that “is the fundamental mechanism of the mind, one that allows us to use what we know about our physical and social experience to provide understanding of countless other subjects.”

Either way each and every person has their own life journey that they create and live by day in and out and as such we have rules we must live by as well. Pirkei Avos does just that – the literature is able to take one on a life journey and it does so in a subtle and non-judgemental way. I decided to use Pirkei Avos as the guiding literature and the messages it contains because essentially it is able to clarify how to make one’s life meaningful and fulfilling. Lerner(1987) article was interesting in that he was able to pull together many different ways to interpret the sacred text. He used parables to describe some of the passages to help the learner directly relate to the values and moral issues. His article was similar to Sigel’s(2009) in that she wanted figure out just how parables (or in Hebrew midrash) can be used to teach children to relate to these religious texts. These two articles were important for the basis of my research because they served as a guide in trying to interpret Pirkei Avos and its’ meanings.


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From these modern Jewish ethicists (specifically Sigel) it is possible to interpret the Jewish ethics text in an open-minded manner. It is relevant to note at this point that I tried to leave out the topic of G-d or a Higher Being out of my research as much as possible. Outdoors and Ethics In this last section of the paper, which doubles as the analysis, pinpoints the inclusion of teaching ethics by utilising the outdoor environment to teach. To support my theories I use the Pirkei Avos texts and specific passages that complement the outdoor education theories. It was during this investigation when every element of my research came to fruition. This was the culminating point and what I believe to be breakthrough research on the topic. From here, I use the majority of outdoor educators and their specific research in my findings. I will organise the literature review from this point with regard to each principle/ethic mentioned in my analysis. The major issues highlighted in this section are: finding a mentor/practitioner in the field, judging our peers, decision making and finally leadership. It was difficult to decipher which interpretations of Pirkei Avos to focus on because each one has a lot to offer and words of wisdom. I chose a few sages to quote during my analysis because I could not just concentrate on one. I did manage to find a common trend behind their theories and it certainly helped when I read each perspective and being open-minded to all of it. It was a difficult text to interpret and finding a commonality between each philosopher whether they were less direct or circuitous in their explanation. Everything came together when I had the help of a mentor to decipher it all, which brings me to the first lesson that I presented: assigning a mentor for yourself.

“Appoint a teacher for yourself; acquire a friend for yourself” The OE course at the University of Edinburgh helped me to understand experiential learning and how to implement the philosophy in our own instruction as outdoor educators. The ironic part of our experiential course was that it was telling us what experiential education was rather than letting us figure out what it is on our own. For example, when you tell a group “this is what I hope you accomplish by the end of the day: team-building and communication,” then the purpose of what you are about to present is pointless. You have stated your outcome and aim instead of having the group figure out the purpose on their own accord. This is similar to the assigning yourself a mentor. You can approach OE in two ways: figuring out the elements on your own or learning from someone knowledgeable in the field. Everyone has their different ways of learning and I am by no means trying to convince anyone that the latter is better. I am simply testifying to the fact that when someone is in the position to acquire a mentor for themselves they should take full advantage of the opportunity. This is because you can try an outdoor sport like rock climbing and try and teach yourself about the sport by reading, watching footage of a master climber and going to a climbing wall. These are the technical skills of the sport, but how does one learn the tactical aspects of it? This is the point where a mentor fits in well with continuing professional practice. Hunt and Wurdinger (1999) exemplify this aspect in their OE article, Ethics and Adventure Programming. They describe the importance of making a connection in the field and becoming part of a tight-nit community of practitioners. By observing others and hearing their stories about what to do and not to do can inspire many of us to go above and beyond our limits and try new things we did not know possible. In my own professional practice, I always tried to acquire a mentor in the field wherever I went because I knew the


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importance and integrity it can provide in the long run. Acquiring a mentor who will have our best interest in mind and not judge us on our abilities is the best gift we could ask (to acquire) for in the field. On that specific note we now turn to the concept of “judging people on their actions.”

“Judge everyone favourably”

Another aspect we are almost told to learn as one of the pre-requisites of being in the field is making good judgment calls (this also serves as a general life skill). The weather, the venue or group management can take a major toll on our judgment abilities but as outdoor educators we try and make the best judgement call for not only ourselves but for the group as well. Hunt and Wurdinger (1999) explain from their extensive knowledge on the topic of “Ethics and Adventure Programming” that our judgement skills differ in every situation. It should be our goal – as outdoor educators - to combine our experience and practical skills in making certain judgements calls.

I continue my discussion then to intoduce the Full-Value Contract. Newton, Sandberg and Watson (2001) discuss the individual goals and group goals that one should aspire to achieving/accomplishing, the safety and group guidelines we should follow and receiving and giving feedback on our actions during the activity. These three areas make up the crux of the Full Value Contract we are implicitly told to uphold when entering into a group outdoor activity. The guidelines that are established here complement the idea of “judging people favourably,” and I think that Newton, Sandberg and Watson (2001) give a useful summary of this issue. They believe in “utilising outdoor adventure within the model of moral action,” and this issue of the full value contract perfectly suits their theory with the Jewish ethical principle.

“Treat His will as if it was your own will…” The next issue that some instructors use as teaching and learning standard is the idea of

“challenge by choice.” We switch from the group theoretical objectives to the individual (Frank, 2001). At this point I present the idea of choosing how much someone will challenge themselves in these outdoor pursuits. Frank (2001) and Singh-Wallia (2008) have similar opinions in that they are able to portray in their articles why challenge by choice is important in our teaching outdoor initiatives.

Challenge by choice allows the learner autonomy and gives the participant a new sense of self. Frank (2001) and Singh-Wallia (2008) address character development within challenge by choice. Character development is a contested issue and one that is quite difficult to measure. Rather than saying challenge by choice develops one character and strengthens their overall demeanour they try and tackle the issue that gives them a sense of independence and, as stated earlier, a greater sense of autonomy.

“And in a place where there are no leaders…”

Leadership, like any other quality, can take many forms and while some are born to be natural leaders others learn to become leaders through observation and instruction. I chose to present this final Jewish ethics passage as the last observation because leadership principles is a much concentrated issue in OE. Although some people strive to become leaders this lesson says that everyone has the potential to be a leader we just need to find the right opportunity to present itself. Priest and Miles (1999) are sensitive to this issue of leadership and take the angle of risk


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assessment when a leader decides which direction to take when presented with a challenge. Uhlik (2006) on the other hand describes the qualities that one ought to possess if one chooses to lead a group. He gives a very strong interpretation and leaves little room for anyone to object to his point. I disagree with his strong notions and believe that although people should possess some of these qualities it is unlikely that they will possess all. Appendix 2 - Methodology The methodological approach I chose for this dissertation took the direction of philosophical research. I chose this particular methodology since I was aware that there is a significant amount of research completed in the field of outdoor ethics. There is not, however, a lot of investigation into teaching Jewish ethics and I wanted to combine the two schools of thought – outdoor education and Jewish ethics.

The philosophical and empirical approach allowed me to observe the foundational theories of the two fields and build upon and expand my research for the two fields. My research also had a philosophical component and I believe that “the relationship between research and philosophy is central to understanding and evaluating any of the claims made of outdoor education (Nicol, 2003, p. 115). This is the approach that I chose and believe that had the research been conducted in any other way I would not been able to understand the topic in such depth. Like all research methods there are limitations and these have been detailed in literature by, among others, Mehan (1979) and Silverman (2000) (in Woollven, Allison & Higgins, 2007, p. 8). The limitation that presented itself in my research was the lack of Jewish ethics materials that were available. Another aspect that made my research a bit more challenging was the fact that Pirkei Avos was originally published in Hebrew language. Various editions and commentaries, however, have been translated into English and after studying the Hebrew of it from years prior I made a conscious effort to understand the English translations on a different level. There are over 200 publications of translations of the works but I believe I chose the most simple and easiest to understand out of the majority of them. Working with a scholar helped to narrow down my search and to see different commentaries and translations that best fit my research objective. During our meetings we would look at a tractate in Hebrew and translate or analyse the English translation from various sources. Afterwards, since her strength was in Jewish ethics and I have a working knowledge of outdoor education theories I was able to apply the teachings to the already established OE theories. The pedagogical method of combining values education alongside outdoor education is one to be noted. One approach that interested me was the Scandinavian concept of “friluftsliv” – outdoor life. The carefree and simple nature that is friluftsliv is something that we can all learn something from. In this regard we turn to the elements that define nature life mentoring – a method developed and aimed toward a specific goal. Nature life mentoring has the ability to:

a) bring about a meeting with free nature that can give the individual an experience with life’s joys and quality.

b) Develop a relationship with free nature, which can create responsibility for the quality and variety of nature.

c) Broaden the ability to critically evaluate attitudes to todays’ way of living and to create knowledge of their consequences regarding the relationship between human and nature and between people.


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d) Inspiration to change our way of living – a richer ‘inner’ life, a more simple ‘outer one.

e) Develop the ability of the individual to cooperate and be responsible, and to create a base for personal growth and maturity (Tellnes, 1993, p. 13).

Although the list presented above describes just what nature mentoring attempts to achieve, I want to highlight points c) and e). I understand that this may be an environmental angle to this pedagogy, however, if you look closely it mimics the point I presuppose within my article and research. One aim of values education (but also associated with character and citizenship education) is to become a more well-rounded and morally sound citizen in today’s society. For example, when Carr, Allison and Meldrum (2006) outline the aims and goals of schooling they mention , “general civic and moral values and virtues: personally formative habits of self control, honesty, fairness, integrity, tolerance and respect for others; capacities for democratic leadership” (p. 21). This idea, they believe, should be promoted within the Curriculum for Excellence among a variety of other aims and goals. Creating a relationship between human and nature and developing personal growth are just some of the developments and outcomes of combining adventure education and values education. The argument to all of this is that there seems to be a trend in the field of outdoor education that supposedly “goes against the grain.” The paradox that I am referring to here is that, “providers of outdoor adventure are leaving behind the values of the social movement that give rise to the field” (Loynes, 1998, p. 35). While outdoor educators may try and instil values within outdoor adventure programming they are at the same time allowing the outdoor education market to, “disassociate people from their experience of community and place” (Loynes, 1998, p. 35). As we adjust to the trends in the field we also need to focus on the foundation upon which the field was established. At the same rate we need to focus on all types of participants that we as outdoor educators can inspire and teach others.

If learning is not occurring for everyone – and in out experience learning invariably is taking place for all involved – then we might sensibly ask questions regarding the philosophy of the leaders and the pedagogical (children’s learning theory), andragogical (adult’s learning theory), ethical and moral environment of the expedition (Allison & Von Wald, 2009, p. 2)

Allison and Von Wald (2009) discuss in their article the variants in teaching personal, social and health education within expeditions. An arduous, yet rewarding task when a leader is consistent and persistent in their teaching on expeditions. They look at not what the participants gain but how effective the teaching is. This is similar to Dewey and Gardener’s theories of experiential education and multiple intelligences. We need to address each participants learning style and attempt to engage every learner. It is the primary literature and methodology, however, that we always return to in the end. The great philosophers before out times that have exemplified this type of experiential education are: Dewey (1916), Maslow (1962), Aristotle (1963) and Rousseau (1979) just to name a few.

Aristotle’s, Rousseau’s and Dewey’s theoretical ideas can be found trickling throughout adventure education literature. Over time these individuals expanded upon the ideas of their predecessors, and in so doing, have added greater depth and meaning to the field of education as a whole. In adventure education they have helped clarify goals, make sense


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out of educational practices, and help build a strong theoretical foundation (Wurdinger, 2004, p. 12). From these ideas and resolutions stemmed the field of outdoor and adventure education

and derived from this were the mission statements and institutions that continue to thrive today (i.e. Outward Bound, Project Adventure, National Outdoor Leadership School, LEA Centres etc.). Although Kurt Hahn was an avid outdoor enthusiast and philanthropist, he became well known after these experiential education contributors/individuals in the field. But going back to the original question and argument, can we (outdoor educators)make a shift in the attitude of outdoor education and teaching values? What happens when the leaders of such programmes are not motivated and treat their daily outdoor tasks or jobs as if it was just another ordinary day in the field? How does this affect the participants and if/will they (the participants) get anything out of the experience?”There is a core value within the outdoor adventure movement that is not amendable to exploitation. The notion of leadership, of re-association, with place and with community, does not lend itself to the market” (Loynes, 1998, p. 37). Loynes refers to in this passage about outdoor education becoming a commercialised business. Cooper (1994) comments that,

It [outdoor education] demonstrates that good education is holistic; it is concerned with mind, body and spirit. Motivation and enthusiasm are essential ingredients of effective learning. Adventure is a great motivator. Time spent alone or in small groups in natural areas also motivates. Young people who under-achieve in the classroom may suddenly come alive and show a range of skills that have remained hidden in formal teaching. (p. 3).

While some instructors may obtain a business sense for outdoor education and become entrepreneurs in their own right, it should be understood at the same rate that “designing your own adventure” is merely impossible. Rather it should be seen as an adventure is an adventure and one cannot control their fate based on the itinerary they prepare. There are going to be significant elements in all these expeditions that presuppose leadership, community and self-reflection. One cannot shirk their responsibilities on these types of expeditions because it will take away from the experience as a whole. Reflecting on the answer above, we can see from these examples that the methodology and research that I have presented here complements many issues that outdoor education draws upon. I wanted to make a shift in thinking about what route OE and Values Education are taking a turn for. The ethics I suggest that complement OE, are in some ways universal but indeed are not timeless (Allison, 2002, p. 5) (which is a common argument amongst moral educators). To get into the discussion about values being timeless does not apply to my research so I will instead just casually mention it and note that it is an issue but not relevant to my research. The questions I attempted to address and answer in my paper were philosophical and profound questions in outdoor education, values education and Jewish ethics. The issues slowly unravelled as I began to see many connections in each academic discipline. Observing theories (in OE and VE) and ethical statements (Jewish ethics) separately helped to understand each one on a different level. In my research I tried to avoid “situation specific” (Allison, 2004, p. 215) analogies and wanted my readers to get a general perspective from the associations I made with regard to the three areas. My goal is to allow readers to come to their own conclusions on how to interpret the Jewish ethics passages and make them “come to life” so to speak.


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Another thing I wanted to highlight is how ever-changing OE is becoming. The trends that I read about and researched were extraordinary and some I found to be difficult to argue. I think that although this is a relatively new field, at the same time this field has been so ever present. So to “return to our roots” and explore the land and experience the outdoors is something our society has always been involved in. It was only until recently, during the industrial revolution when people became attached to the new technological resources available to them. This leads to the argument of postmodernism.

One aspect of postmodernism appears to be the theme of the fractious nature of all aspects of society. Nothing can be trusted to what it appears; we are permanently shifting sands in all aspects of what we see and do and what we are (Allison, 2000, p. 45).

I think this quote speaks volumes and it draws attention to the idea that we need to address the issues of today’s societies: outdoor education becoming more prominent within schools. Our society is constantly changing and in order to keep up with the trends outdoor education might slightly change as well. As outdoor education may change, so do our personal and social values too – but not drastically. I want to conclude my discussion now with a quote that collectively changed my way of thinking and feeling about this subject during my research and I only hope that it may change the way others think and feel about the field of outdoor education.

So why promote teamwork? On answer involves suggesting that teamwork is important. It is important because ‘society works better’ as a cooperative unit and many outdoor education contexts offer a micro community in which this can be explored in more detail. Thus, it could be argued that by creating opportunities for people to explore and practise teamwork these behaviours are often transferred, somehow, back to society and contribute to making a ‘better society’ (Allison, 2000, p. 44-45).

Personal reflection Through extensive readings and research in and out of outdoor education literature I was

able to draw complementary conclusions and analysis with the help of Jewish ethical theories. In all I found it quite easy to connect the passages to the theories present in outdoor education as they seem to complement one another quite nicely. I critically examined theories from outdoor education literature and I hope to apply these concepts that I present in the paper into my own professional practice.

My study allowed me to investigate further into the realm of outdoor education, values education and Jewish ethics. I had a positive experience with all three subject areas and the material was fascinating for me to work on. In the beginning it seemed like quite a significant endeavour to focus on all three but with the help of Dr. Allison and some peers I was able to narrow it down to a more focused and central research. References


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Allison, P. & Von Wald, K. (2010). Personal, Social and Health Education and educational expeditions. In S. Beames (Ed.), Understanding educational expeditions (pp.55 -65). Rotterdam: Sense Publishing.

Allison, P. (2004). Thoughts and reflections on the second annual symposium on experiential education research. Journal of Experiential Education, 26 (3), 214 – 218.

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Aristotle (1963) Nichomachean ethics, in R. Bambrough (Ed.) The philosophy of Aristotle. New York: The New American Library.

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the model of moral action. Quest, 53(1), 483-494. Nicol, R. (2003). Pillars of knowledge. In B. Humberstone, H. Brown and K. Richards, (Eds) (115-130). Whose journeys? The outdoors and adventure as social and cultural phenomena. Institute for Outdoor Learning.


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and choice. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 12(2), 39-46. Smith, T. & Allison, P. (2006). Outdoor experiential leadership: Scenarios describing

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Kendall Hunt.

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