a morphological study of foreign origin plural …
TRANSCRIPT
A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF FOREIGN ORIGINPLURAL ENGLISH NOUNS WITH GREEK AND LATIN
SUFFIXES
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
PRASANTHI
Student Number: 064214011
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMMEDEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERSSANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA2010
i
A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF FOREIGN ORIGINPLURAL ENGLISH NOUNS WITH GREEK AND LATIN
SUFFIXES
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
PRASANTHI
Student Number: 064214011
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMMEDEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERSSANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA2010
iv
Not to do evil, to do good deeds,and to purify the mind.These are the Buddhas’ instructions.(Dhammapada, Pannyavagga: 127)
A person who lives one day of makinghis utmost effort is better than anotherwho lives a hundred years of lazinessand without effort.(Dhammapada, Viriyavagga: 200)
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This undergraduate thesis is dedicated to
My Beloved Parents
My Dearest Sister
My Beloved Family
All Human Beings
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to dedicate my thesis for all who had supported me from the
beginning until I graduated from Sanata Dharma University on this year. First of
all, I would like to thank Tiratana, Buddha Dhamma, and Sangha, who always
bless and guide me. I am really grateful for the path they have showed me;
therefore I can reach this stage.
Second, I also would like to say my gratitude to my advisor Dr. Fr. B.
Alip, M.Pd, M.A., who has led and guided me to write this thesis patiently, and
for his time and energy to have discussion to solve the problems I had. Without
guidance from my advisor, I hardly finished this thesis. My gratitude also goes to
Dra. Bernadine Ria Lestari, M.S. as my co advisor who read and gave a lot of
suggestion and correction for this thesis.
Third, my deepest gratitude is indebted to my beloved parents, who always
give their support, many lessons about life, advice, guide me with huge patient,
and give a lot of care, love to me. And for my beloved sister Luis Lotussia
Susanti, I thank her for the suggestion, challenge, and wonderful love to me. I
love them so much.
Fourth, for my best friend Yenni Christina, I address my gratitude to you
because of your support and advice for me since we met four years ago. To
Luciana Marlin Soriton for being my friend since in Junior high school, I thank
her for many moments we passed together with smile, laugh, cry, and hard effort.
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Fifth, I am also thankful for my lovely friends in Sanata Dharma
University, from English Letters Faculty 2006, “CC Fans Club” (Nana, Luci,
Yuniar) my best class mates from the first semester, “BFI” (Vina, Elok, Esther,
Julie, Meme, Sella, Arum, Marcel) this is the best futsal team I ever have, the A
class 2006 Atom, Dhika, Sanam, Denal, Acong, Adit, and Via, thanks for being
my friends.
Sixth, I want to say thanks to my boarding house friends, who really care
and support like my family, Magda, Siska, Santi, Lolik, Sumi, Yona, Yuli. I
would like to thank Mba Marsih, Pak’e, Tole, and Huda that make my boarding
house always clean, comfortable, and become so colorful with their (Tole’s and
Huda’s) voices.
Seventh, I thank all my best friends in Vidyasena who always support and
encourage, give knowledge and experience in many occasion, Mba Aci, Ce Een,
Ce Fei, Ko Boe, Ko Hansen, Ko Hansun, Ko Apin, Ko Ian, Ko Anton, Vita, Lisa,
Eka, Sari, Evina, Indah, Awie, Nirwan, Fengki, Hendra, Novi, Indah, and so on.
And the last but not least for all human beings, I thank them for supporting
me to finish my thesis. Hopefully they are always happy.
Prasanthi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………………. iAPPROVAL PAGE ………………………………………………………… iiACCEPTANCE PAGE …………………………………………………….. iiiMOTTO PAGE …………………………………………………………….. ivDEDICATION PAGE ……………………………………………………… vLEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ………………………………... viACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………….. viiTABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………. . ixLIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………. xiABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………… xiiABSTRAK ………………………………………………………………….. xiii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………….. 1A. Background of the Study……………………………………………… 1B. Problem Formulation ………………………………………………… 5C. Objective Study ……………………………………………………... 5D. Definition of Terms …………………………………………………. 61. Suffix ………………………………………………………………… 62. Loan Words and Borrowing …………………………………………. 63. Morphology …………………………………………………………. 74. Morphophonemic Process …………………………………………… 75. Noun …………………………………………………………………. 86. Plural …………………………………………………………………. 8
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ………………………………. 9A. Review of Related Studies …………………………………………… 9B. Review of Related Theories …………………………………………. 11
1. Historical Approach ……………………………………………... 111. Theories of Morpheme …………………………………………… 152. Theories of Allomorph …………………………………………… 173. Morphophonemic Process ……………………………………….. 194. Theories of Affixation …………………………………………… 225. Theories of Suffixation ………………………………………….. 246. Phonology………………………………………………………… 257. Pluralization ……………………………………………………… 27
C. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………… 28
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ………………………………………. 30A. Object of the Study ………………………………………………….. 30B. Method of the Study …………………………………………………. 31C. Research Procedure ………………………………………………….. 321. Data Collection ………………………………………………………. 322. Data Analysis ………………………………………………………… 34
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CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULT ….…………………………………. 35A. Foreign Origin English Plural Suffixes ……………………………… 35B. Analysis of Foreign Origin English Plural Suffix Distribution …........ 41
1 The effect of borrowing Other Languages ……………………........ 432 Allomorphs of the Foreign Origin Plural Suffix …………………… 47
2.1 The a /-ə/ for word with ending with –um ……………………… 472.2 The -i /-i/, -era /- ərə /, -ora /- ərə / word with ending with –us 482.3 The -ae /-e/ or /i/ for word with ending with –a………………… 492.4 The –ices /sez/ for word with ending with –ex, -ix ……………. 502.5 The -es /-sez/ for word with ending with –is …………………… 512.6 The –a /ə/ for word with ending with –on ……………………… 522.7 The –ies /ez/ for word with ending with –ies …………………… 522.8 The - antes /antəz/ for word with ending with –as ……………. 532.9 The –ta /tə/ for word with ending with –ma …………………… 53
C. Morphophonemic Process Occurring in the Suffixation of ForeignOrigin English Plural Suffixes ……....................................................... 53
1. Stress Shift …………………………………………………… 542. Consonant Change …………………………………………… 583. Vowel Change ………………………………………………… 614. Deletion ………………………………………………………. 635. Addition ……………………………………………………… 65
BAB V: CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………. 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………….. 70
APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………. 731. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix –us ………………………………. 732. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix –on …………………………….. 753. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix –ies ……………………………… 754. Data Collection of Latin/ Greek Word with Suffix –a ……………………… 765. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix –um ………………………….. 776. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix -ex,-ix ……………………….. 797. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix –is …………………………… 808. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix -as ……………………………… 829. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix –ma …………………………….. 82
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Foreign Foreign Origin Plural Words taken from Longman Dictionary ofContemporary English …………………………………………………… 36
Table 2 Nouns from Foreign Languages have both English and Foreign Plural 38Table 3 Nouns Taken from Foreign Languages without Change Generally
Original Plurals ……………………………………….…………… 39Table 4 Nouns from Foreign Languages have an English plural ……………. 40Table 5 Common Plural Form ………………………………………………. 46Table 6 Original Plural Forms …………………...…………………………. 47Table 7 Example Words of Latin -um …………………………………………… 48Table 8 Example Words of Latin -us ……………………….…………………… 49Table 9 Example Words of Latin -us ………………………….………………… 49Table 10 Example Words of Latin -a ………………….………………………… 49Table 11 Example Words of Latin -a ………………….………………………… 50Table 12 Example Words of Latin -ex or -ix ………………………………... … 51Table 13 Example Words of Latin -ex or -ix ………………………………... … 51Table 14 Example Words of Greek -is …………… ………….…………….. 51Table 15 Example Words of Greek -on ……………………………………….. . 52Table 16 Example Words of Latin -ies ………………………………………... . 52Table 17 Example Words of Latin -as ………………………………………….. 53Table 18 Example Words of Greek -ma ……………………………………….. .. 53Table 19 The Process of Consonant Change /k/ for the Word Focus ………… 59Table 20 The Process of Consonant Change /k/ for the Word Appendix …… 60Table 21 Stem and Root of Singular and Plural Word from Latin and Greek 60Table 22 The Process of Vowel Change for The Word Caesurae …………… 62Table 23 The Process of Vowel Change for The Word Nebulae ……………… 62Table 24 The Process of Vowel and Consonant Change for The Word Radii 63Table 25 The Process of Vowel Change for the word Theses ………………… 63Table 26 The Process of Deletion [m] for the word Bacteria ………………… 64Table 27 The Process of Deletion [n] for the word Phenomenon……………… 65Table 28 The Process of Addition [ta] for the word Stomata………………… 66Table 29 The Process of Addition [ta] for the word Dogmata ………………… 66
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ABSTRACT
Prasanthi (2010). A Morphological Study of Foreign Origin PluralEnglish Nouns With Greek And Latin Suffixes. Yogyakarta: Department ofEnglish Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
When people are studying about words, they also find some parts of theword such as: root, stem, base, morpheme, syllable, prefix, and suffix. There aremany English words that are formed by foreign origin English plural suffixes.English vocabulary has been enriched not only by borrowing and adopting fromforeign sources but also by word formation, a method of forming a new word bycombining existing elements either foreign or native. There are three languagesthat are going to be analyzed in the thesis namely English, Latin, and Greekconsidering that they all have involved in significant contacts in the pastespecially for suffixes part. Therefore, this research has been designed to analyzewords formed with foreign words plural suffixes and still used in English word.
This study was designed to answer the problems from the research. Therewere three problems proposed in this study: (1) What are foreign origin pluralEnglish suffixes? (2) What are their distributions? (3) What are themorphophonemic changes in pluralization?
The researcher used a dictionary survey by collecting data of the loanwords that comes in the certain period and the suffixes of Latin and Greek origin.The researcher used three kinds of dictionaries, Longman Dictionary ofContemporary English 2005, Random House Webster’s College Dictionary 2001,and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2005. An empirical method is chosenbecause the analysis depends on primary data to find the words borrowed fromother languages and identify plural suffixes, their distribution, andmorphophonemic process. The primary data that were used in this field wereforeign English plural words with suffixes.
From the analysis for foreign English plural suffixes, there are 226 wordsto which foreign plural suffixes attached, from Greek and Latin. All of the wordsare classified as a noun. They are divided into nine groups, words with base formof foreign plural suffixes Latin -{us, -a, -um, ex, ies} dan Greek {-is, -on, -ies, -as, -ma}. It is possible for one word to have more than one plural form, native(English) plural, foreign plural, or both of them. Adopting foreign nouns withtheir inflectional morphemes has resulted of the plural morpheme. It means thatborrowing words from other languages can affect the structure of recipientlanguage at that level of meaning, pronunciation, grammar (morphology andsyntax). The morphophonemic process or changes happened in internal structurewhen they receive suffixation of foreign plural suffixes, it can be stress shift,consonant change, vowel change, deletion.
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ABSTRAK
Prasanthi (2010). A Morphological Study of Foreign Origin Plural EnglishNouns With Greek And Latin Suffixes. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris,Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Ketika orang belajar tentang kata, mereka akan menemukan beberapa bagiandari kata tersebut, seperti: kata dasar, morfem, suku kata, awalan dan akhiran.Banyak terdapat kata-kata dalam bahasa Inggris ynag terbetuk dari akhiran jamakyang berasal dari luar bahasa Inggris. Kosakata bahasa Inggris bukan hanyameminjam atau mengadopsi kata yang berasal dari sumber luar, tetapi daripembentukan kata, metode pembentukan kata baru dengan mengkombinasikanelemen yang ada dari luar maupun elemen yang asli. Disini akan ada tiga bahasayang akan dianalisa, yaitu Bahasa Inggris, Latin, dan Greek, dikarenakan tigabahasa tersebut berkontribusi terutama pada bagian akhiran. Oleh karena itu,penelitian ini telah didesain untuk menganalisa terbentuknya kata oleh akhiranjamak yang berasal dari luar bahasa Inggris dan masih digunakan dalam kosakatabahasa Inggris sampai saat ini.
Tesis ini disusun untuk menjawab rumusan masalah pada penelitian ini.Terdapat tiga permasalahan yang diajukan, yaitu: (1) Apa sajakah akhiran jamakyang berasal dari luar bahasa Inggris? Apakah distribusi dari akhiran tersebut?Apa sajakah perubahan morfofonemik yang terjadi pada proses pluralisasi?
Peniliti menggunakan pemeriksaan kamus dengan mengumpulkan datadari kata-kata yang dipinjam saat periode tertentu dan yang berasal dari bahasaLatin dan Greek. Peneliti menggunakan tiga jenis kamus, Longman Dictionary ofContemporary English 2005, Random House Webster’s College Dictionary 2001,and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2005. Metode empirik dipilih karenaanalisa tergantung pada data utama untuk mencari kata-kata yang dipinjam daribahasa lain, dan mengidentifikasi akhiran jamak, distribusinya, dan prosesmorfofonemik. Data primer yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah kata-kataplural diluar bahasa Inggris dengan akhirannya.
Dari analisis akhiran jamak diluar bahasa Inggris, terdapat 226 kata yangmemiliki akhiran jamak diluar bahasa Inggris, yang berasal dari bahasa Greek danLatin. Semua kata tersebut diklasifikasikan sebagai kata benda. Akhiran pluralyang berasal dari luar bahasa Inggris dibagi menjadi sembilan kelompok, katadasar yang berasal dari akhiran jamak Latin, {us, -a, -um, ex, ies} dan Greek {-is,-on, -ies, -as, -ma}. Satu kata dapat memiliki lebih dari satu bentuk jamak, bentukjamak bahasa Inggris, luar bahasa Inggris, atau kedua bentuk jamak. Kata asingyang diadaptasi dengan bentuk morfem telah menghasilkan morfem jamak. Ituberarti kata yang dipinjam dari bahasa lain dapat mempengaruhi struktur bahasapenerima pada tingkat arti, cara baca, struktur (morfologi dan sintak).Morfofonemik proses atau perubahan terjadi pada sturktur internal saat terjadisufiksasi pada akhiran jamak dilluar bahasa Inggris, dapat perubahan penekanan,perubahan konsonan, perubahan vocal, dan penghilangan.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Language is one important aspect in the world for human life. People
realize that every communication always use language as verbal communication
to express themselves. English as an important language or international language
is undeniable although it is not the largest language in the world.
According to R.E. Asher, English is a language spoken by more or less
300 million people who are considered as ESL (English as Second Language)
users and a further 100 million fluent EFL (English as Foreign Language) users
(1994; 1120). Based on Quirk et al (1972; 2), English in modern era is the world’s
important language because there are many people speaking English as their
native language and also replacing Latin and Greek that have achieved a
superiority of being a lingua franca of different nation in the past, the extent to
which a language is geographically dispersed, its ‘vehicular load’ of science,
literature, or other cultural manifestation, economic and political influence.
When people study about words, they also find some parts of the word
such as: root, stem, base, morpheme, syllable, prefix, and suffix. People can send
their messages to other people through the language. All of them are included in
morphology as the branch of linguistic which studies the nature and arrangement
of morpheme to form words. Morphology discusses the process of the formation
of words, the ways different classes of word are formed namely morphological
processes.
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Most of the English words are formed by affixes (prefix, suffix, and infix)
to the root of the words. And affixes are the most frequent method to produce
morphologically complex words. The commonest type of affixing found is
suffixation. The description of suffixation is a process of adding suffix in final
position after the root or it is attached after it base. There are many suffixes in
English word that we can find like {-ion, -ity, -ment, -ance, -age, -ness, etc}.
As we can see there are many English words that are formed by foreign
origin English plural suffixes. There are three languages that are going to be
analyzed in the thesis, namely English, Latin, and Greek considering that they all
have involved in significant contacts in the past especially for suffixes part.
Obviously, the contact have the consequence to enriching English vocabulary and
some linguists have tried to count the percentage of Latin and Greek loan words
whose results may vary but they are not far from more than fifty percent. For the
example, into literary works some writers (Greek and Roman) change the spelling
of the previously borrowed Latin words.
Baugh and Cable in their work entitled A History of the English Language
(1978; 77) explain that the change occurred in English in the course of the seventh
century. Latin is one of the high civilization languages because it was not the
languages for English of a conquered people. Latin is one of the languages that
give large contribution to the English word. The first Latin words to find their way
into the English language owe their adaption to the early contact between the
Romans and the Germanic tribes on the continent. Intercommunication between
the different Germanic tribes was frequent and made possible the transference of
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Latin words from one tribe to another. The second period Latin influence English
word was the Christianization of Britain.
Alip (2001) in Historical Perspectives in Learning English said Latin
words is not limited to new vocabulary but the nature of English words, where
English words are now more varied in terms of the number of syllables. And most
of the English words are of one or two syllables, but with the loan words from
Latin many English words consist of three syllables or more. Introduction of Latin
has also drastically changed English morphology because it has brought into
English various prefixes and suffixes. Many Latin suffixes have also enriched
English morphology, such as {-ion}, and {-ity}. The latter is competing with an
originally English suffix {-ness}.
Almost at the end of the old English period, English underwent a third
foreign influence, the result of contact with another important language, the
Scandinavian. The Scandinavian influence on the English language just on the
imitate mingling of the two tongues upwards of two centuries. Scandinavian
words commenced to enter in numbers into the language, after the Danes begun to
settle down peaceably in the island and enter into the ordinary relations of life
with the English.
Greek has also exerted some influence to English in the from of mostly
words related to science and arts, as well as new prefixes like meta- and para-, as
observed in metalanguage and paramedics. Words borrowed from Greek are often
stubborn enough to retain their original plural forms: phenomena and theses for
phenomenon and thesis. Such is also observed in some later loan words from
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Latin: syllabi and appendices for syllabus and appendix (Alip, 2001).
Frederick Bodmer (1961:16) gives the opinion that English is a mixed and
intermingled language. It has enriched its vocabulary with loan words from other
major languages namely Greek and other Romance languages such as Italian,
Spanish, and Portuguese, and the Scandinavian languages. In fact, Greek has
made a great influence to scientists in European countries and America by
offering its enormous vocabulary for element of compounding when they look for
name for their latest invention beside Latin.
Since the end of Old English period, English vocabulary has been enriched
not only by borrowing and adopting from foreign sources but also by word
formation, a method of forming a new word by combining existing elements
either foreign or native.
This research has been designed to analyze words formed with foreign
words plural suffixes and still used in English words. The aim of doing this is to
find out their distribution and morphological processes which occur in foreign
plural suffixes words. It is helpful for English learners to recognize plural suffixes
and use the right form of the words with the right meanings, because some
problems usually appear when people are using foreign origin plural suffixes. For
example one rule of thumb is foreign plural often occur in technical usage,
whereas the {-s} plural is the most natural in English everyday language; cf:
formulas (general) – formulae (in mathematics), antennas (general and in
electronics) – antennae (in biology) (Quirk, 1972; 181). It means the words that
have different ending in plural form have different meaning and function.
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Another problem is the inconsistencies in English that make people
confused how to learn English appropriately. There are some inconsistencies in
English such as pronunciation, grammar, and word meaning.
I.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
In order to develop understanding about the topic, three main problems of
foreign origin plural suffixes borrowed from Latin and Greek were formulated in
the study.
1. What are foreign origin plural English suffixes from Latin and Greek?
2. What are their distributions?
3. What are the morphophonemic changes in pluralization?
I.3 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
From the problems, the purposes of the research were formulated as
follows: The first objective of this study was to find the words borrowed from
other languages to identify plural suffixes. In this study, the writer identified the
words that come from other languages and other languages which have a different
type of suffix pluralization words used in English word.
The second objective from this study was to identify the distributions of
the foreign origin plural English nouns suffixes. From their distribution we can
know about the function and their contribution of the English words.
The third objective of this study was to discover the process of
morphophonemic changes in pluralization. The same form of pluralization might
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have different representation when it is in different environment.
1.4 DEFINITION OF TERMS
There are some terms used in this study. They are suffix, loan words,
morphology, morphophonemic process, plural, and noun.
1. Suffix
According to Victoria Fromkin, et al (1991:68), a suffix belongs to part of
words that are called bound morphemes, which distinct from free morphemes. A
suffix always occurs following other morphemes. According to Quirk, et al
(1972:1520), suffixation is a process to put suffix after the base, sometimes with,
but more usually without, a change of word class, e.g. friend + less becomes
friendless. According to Carolyn McManis, et al (1987:119), a suffix is one kind
of affixes which attached to the end of a word or morpheme. When suffixes are
attached to other morphemes they change the meaning or grammatical function of
the word in the some way.
2. Loan words and borrowing
The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistic vol. 4 (Asher, 1944: 2273)
defines a loan word as a word that enters a language through borrowing from
some other languages. Loan words can be distinguished from native words in that
native words derive from earlier historical stages of the language.
David Crystal (2003:126) in his book entitled The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of English and Language: Second Addition defines loan words or
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borrowing is a word that is created when one language takes lexemes from
another, the new items, though neither term is really appropriate as the receiving
language does not give them back. English, perhaps more than any other language
is an insatiable borrower.
Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language
defines borrowing as a result of the process of borrowing, something borrowed, as
a word, phrase, etc., taken from a foreign language and used colloquially
(1989:172).
3. Morphology
According to Akmajian, et al (1984:55), morphology is the subfield of
linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and the relationship among
words. For example, the word organ cannot be broken down into any meaningful
parts. In contrast, the words organize seems to be made up of two parts: the word
organ as the root form and an additional element of suffix {-ize}.
4. Morphophonemic Process
In Katamba (1993:34) morphophonemic refers to the rules that account for
the realization of phonologically conditioned allomorphs of morphemes. A
morphophonemic process is the describable morphological and phonological
changes of stem and root under stable conditions (Aronoff, O’Grady,
Dobrovolsky, 1989: 116).
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5. Noun
According to Quirk et al (1972:1520), a noun is an element in the
sentence, which typically functions as a subject, an object, and a complement.
Nouns have certain characteristics that set them apart from other word classes. For
example, they can be plurals form (book-books) and take articles (the book – a
book). It is important both for semantic and grammatical reasons, to distinguish
between different subclasses of nouns.
Radfor, Atkinson, Britain (1999:147) in their book Linguistic An
Introduction explain that nouns often refer to types of concrete objects in the
world (e.g. cake, engine, moon, water). Furthermore, most nouns have special
form for the plural (engine, engines).
6. Plural
According to Quirk et al (1972:1520), nouns have two forms: singular and
plural. The vast majority of nouns are variable in this way and normally fully
predictable both in pronunciation and spelling by the same rules as for the –s
inflection of verbs, they form the regular plural. If the plural cannot be predicted
from the singular, it is an irregular plural.
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CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
This chapter is divided into three parts. The first is a review of related
studies that discuss the other studies previously done by another researchers or
writers, on the same topic, work, and author. The second one is a review of related
theories that discuss related and necessary theories. And the last is theoretical
framework that explains about contribution of the theories and reviews in solving
problems of the study.
II.1 REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
In order to support the analysis, the writer uses some related studies which
more or less have the same topic or theme. Those related studies, are taken from
some undergraduate theses which have almost the same research with the writer
topic, and it will be helpful for additional understanding of the writer.
The most frequent kind of affixation of English words that is used seems
to be suffixation. Some kinds of suffix have already been discussed by any other
researchers, like: {-ize}, {-al}, {-ion}, {-ing}, {-ic}, {-ity}. For example, Claudia
Theresia Enny Sasanti (1986) has discussed adjective suffixes in her thesis “The
Meaning of some Adjective Suffixes.” The thesis analyzes some meaning of
adjective suffixes that has about eight meaning from each suffix like, {-like}
(positive points or favorable impression), {-able} (easily to cause the noun),
{-ish} (negative points or unfavorable impression), {-ed} (completely action), -ate
10
(showing or having), {-ly} (following the noun), {-ful} (means full of the noun),
{-y} (resembling the noun).
Dalan Mehuli Perangin- Angin (2000) has discussed suffix -ion in his
thesis “A Morphological Study of the English Noun Suffix {-ion}” The thesis
analyzes that suffix {-ion} has nine allomorphs like {-ion}, {-ation}, {-ition},
{-cation}, {-action}, {-ution}, {-iation}, and {-sion}. The grammatical meaning
of suffix {-ion} has a structural function to change the word category of the stems
of verb into noun. That is why it is called a noun suffix.
Maria Setyorini (2005) has discussed suffix {-al} in her thesis “A
Morphological Study of the English Adjective Suffix {-al}.” The thesis analyzes
that the suffix {-al} has function to form the adjectives form nouns. Some words
entering English vocabulary have already contained Latin suffix {-al}. In order to
adopt English vocabulary, the suffix is anglicized into {-al}. As a result, Modern
English has the suffix {-al} as one of the English suffixes. The distribution of
allomorphs of the suffix {-al} is not totally phonological conditioned but, the
distribution is more lexically conditioned since the phonological explanation
sometimes is insufficient to describe the distribution. There are some processes
that follow the process suffixation of suffix {-al}, a morphophonemic process, an
insertion process, a deletion, vowel changes, and consonant changes.
The other example Adisti Herliningtyas (2008) has discussed suffix {-ize}
in her thesis “A Morphological Analysis on English Derived Verbs using the Suffix
{-ize}. The thesis analyzes that suffix {-ize} has a function to change a noun or
adjectives into verb. The change of the class of word from noun or adjective into
11
verb, the process can be called verbalization. Verbalization is the process of the
formation of a verb from a noun or an adjective. Therefore, suffix {-ize} can be
called as verbalizer. The meaning of suffix {-ize} is caused to become or to make
into. The suffix {-ize} does not have allomorphs. The Suffix {-ize} has the
morphological change in which the morphophonemics occurs. She explains that is
not only morphological change that occur in suffix {-ize}, but also the
phonological change. The example is a stress shift, consonant change, vowel
change and insertion.
Actually the example of related studies has some differences from this one
because this thesis analyzed about the foreign origin English plural suffixes which
have functions as a noun. This research just discussed about noun plural suffixes
which are borrowed from Greek and Latin. The pluralization and
morphophonemic process will be analyzed in the next chapter. Each word (noun
phrase) either singular or plural is determined in general by its head, which is
typically a noun.
II.2 REVIEW OF RELATED THEORIES
This chapter will discuss some theories which are required in this study.
They are the historical approach, theories of morpheme, allomorph,
morphophonemic process, affixation, suffixation, noun, and pluralization.
1. Historical Approach
Baugh and Cable in their work entitled A History of the English Language
(1978; 2) explained that the English language has undergone many centuries of
12
development. Some political and social events in the course of English history
profoundly affected the English people in their national life of using English
language. One example of events that affected English people was Roman
Christianization of Britain in 597. This event brought England into contact with
Latin civilization and also made significant additions to English vocabulary.
It is normal for a language to get through various means, including
borrowing from other languages, the words that it needs. English, French,
German, and Spanish are important languages because of the history and
influence of their populations in modern times. A country which gave the great
influence to the world of the literature was Greek, but now Greek was not used
anymore for a wider communication except in Greece.
Another language that has given great influence is Latin language. Latin
was not the language of a conquered people. It was the language of a highly
regarded civilization, one which the Anglo-Saxon wanted to learn. For several
hundred years, while Germanic tribes who later became the English were still
living in their continental homes, they had various relations with the Romans
through a considerable number of Latin words (1978; 77).
There were thus three distinct periods of borrowing words from Latin that
occurred before the end of the Old English period. There were differences periods
when Latin influences the English language. The first process was Continental
borrowing, this period usually called Latin influence of the Zero Period. Latin
found their way into the English language owing to their adoption to the early
contact between Romans and Germanic tribes. Several hundred Latin words were
13
found in the various Germanic dialects; the intercommunication of Germanic
tribes was frequent and made possible the transference of Latin words into another
tribe (1978; 77).
The second was when Latin was through Celtic transmission or this period
usually called a first period. Celtic exerted on Old English for the slight influence,
as the Latin influence began from the period of Roman occupation. From Roman
occupation there was a Roman rule in Britain that the country was extended and
Latin words were used by some population. Those Latin words still appear until
today. For the example are: port (harbor, gate, town), munt (mountain), wic
(village), etc (1978; 81).
The third is when Latin was influencing Christianizing of Britain or the
second period. This period was a greatest influenced of Latin upon the Old
English in 597. Rome attempted to make England become one of Christian
country. The introduction of Christian religion started from the building of
churches and the establishment of monasteries and the language that they used
was Latin. Schools also were established in most of the monasteries and larger
churches. The Church can be said as a carrier of Roman civilization influenced the
course of English life in many directions, one of the influences can be seen in the
vocabulary of Old English. The Latin influence of the second period was not only
extensive but thorough. This period was the real beginning of the English habit of
foreign elements into its vocabulary (1978; 82).
About 500 years Latin words have made their way into the English
language. Some factors that gave a big effect for the Latin word importation into
14
English vocabulary were the intense activity in church building and establishment
of monasteries. The influence of Latin to the English language as can be seen
through the church and the state of learning that affected the lives and thoughts of
the English people. Latin was known used for literary activity, but actually Latin
also expressed ideas of scientific and learned character (1978; 89-90).
Winfred P. Lehmann on his book Historical Linguistics: an Introduction
(1962; 211-213) divides that the vocabulary and grammatical patterns into two
categories: native elements and borrowed elements. A native element is a
language which is taken from the earliest known stages. Borrowed elements are
those which were imported at some time from a different language. A borrowed
form is also subject to such change, like phonological, morphological, and
semantic change but has differences with native forms in their mode of entry into
a language.
Any linguistic item may therefore be identified either as native orborrowed. At the phonological and morphological degrees virtually allelements of any language are native. Borrowings may, however have aneffect on the phonological structure of a language, as /ž/ in English orsome phonemes are /h/. In dealing with borrowings it is of interest to knowwhat the several of types, to attempt, and to understand the processes bywhich borrowings are made into any given language.Some of borrowing word knows as loan words, or as a mirror of thephonemes of the foreign language. Most recent borrowings are of thistype, words like oxygen, hydrogen, telephone are made up of entitiesborrowed from Greek. Borrowings of a different type reproduce themorphemes of a foreign language, using native material. (1962; 212).
These are some examples from English language based on Historical
Linguistics: an Introduction (1962; 213) gospel has meaning ‘good story’ in
which the Greek components eu and aggelion are reproduced by a translation.
15
That example is known as loan-shifts, loan translations, or as calques. For other
examples are German loan-shift wasserstoff for hydrogen, Fernsprecher for
telephone.
Another case happened on morphological modifications that are similarlybrought by the structure of the borrowing language, for borrowinggenerally take on the patterns of native elements. To make sure, thatforeign inflections may occasionally be maintained, especially bysophisticated speakers. Many nouns were imported into English fromLatin or Greek plural inflections, such as datum: data, skeleton: skeletal,maximum: maxima, etc. (1962; 215)
The effect that we can see from various situations in the English history is
instances of cultural diffusion and acculturation like borrowing words.
Furthermore, type of borrowing is changing the meaning of a linguistic entity.
Changing the meaning under the influence of a foreign language is known as
extensions.
2. Theories of Morpheme
In his book titled Morphology (1993:19), Francis Katamba explains that
morphology is the study of word structure, and morpheme is the smallest units of
meaning. There are many words which are morphologically simple. These are
some example: the, desk, fierce, boot, eat. Those words cannot be segmented into
smaller units that themselves are meaningful. Morphologically complex happened
when there is a complex word. They can be broken down into smaller units that
are meaningful. The example is desk-s, for instance desk refers to one piece of
furniture, while in case the {-s} serve the grammatical function of indicating
plurality.
16
According to Joan L. Bybee in his writing Morphology (1985:3), the
concern of morphological study has been the identification of morphemes:
dividing words into parts and assigning meaning to the parts. This is a descriptive
enterprise which assumes that words are indeed divisible into parts. However,
words are not always uniquely divisible into discrete parts: at the same time there
are semantic units that seem to have no expression in the word or zero morphs.
The semantic relevance of an affix to a stem is the extent meaning of the
affix that directly affects the meaning of the stem. On the other hand morphemes
do not always have the same shape in the different environments when they occur.
Most morphological study seeks to offer means of describing these derivations
from the one to one correspondence between sound and meaning.
A morpheme is an important part of word arrangement, and it consists of
phoneme. H. A Gleason in An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics said that:
A morpheme is the unit on the expression side the language which entersinto relationship with the content side. A morpheme is typically composedof one to several phonemes. The morpheme differs fundamentally fromthe phoneme, which has no relationship content. That is, the phonemeshave no meaning; the morphemes have meaning (Gleason, 1955:11).
The content aspect of language means meaning and function of language.
In other words, a morpheme has meaning and phoneme has no meaning.
Morphemes are in the higher level of organization. Therefore, they also belong to
morphology which is a branch of the linguistic study of words building. A
morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language because it cannot be
broken into smaller units without destroying its meaning. H. A Gleason in An
Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics said that:
17
Some morphemes can be usually described as the smallest meaningfulunits in the structure of the language. The smallest meaningful unit meansa unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically alteringthe meaning. For example, the words strange recognizes as a morphemewhich is the smallest meaningful unit in the structure of the language(Gleason, 1955:53).
Generally, a morpheme is a short sequence of phonemes. In other words, a
morpheme consists of phonemes. A morpheme has to participate in the higher
level of organization. So a phoneme is arranged to form a morphemes. Besides it,
a morpheme also has some demonstrable relation with some element in the
structure of the content of aspect of language. The symbol of a phoneme is places
between slashes / / (Gleason, 1955:51-52).
A morpheme is also different from a syllable. A syllable is simply a group
of phonemes which consists of one vowel, diphthong, or syllable nucleus with or
without a consonant before and after it (Gleason, 1955:53-54). A word must have
a morpheme but morpheme is not always a word. A word may consist of one or
more than one morphemes. The meaning of a word depends not only upon the
morphemes that are present but also on the order of their occurrence.
3. Theories of Allomorph
Allomorph represents the same meaning of different morphs that grouped
together. Morphs are listed as allomorphs of the same morpheme if they are in
complementary distribution. The distribution of allomorphs are phonologically
conditioned, grammatically conditioned, lexically conditioned, and suppletion. A
single underlying form is postulated and the phonetic representation of the various
allomorphs is derived from it using phonological rules. Phonologically
18
conditioned morphological alternations tend to be very general. Often allomorphs
are representing different morphemes will display the same phonological
environments. Thus, for example the –s third person singular present tense suffix
in verbs shows exactly the same alternations, wash washes, read reads,
jump jumps (Katamba, 1993; 39).
The choice of the allomorph may be lexically conditioned, like the use of
particular allomorph may be obligatory if a certain word is present. The plural
word for ox is oxen, not oxes, although words that rhyme with ox take the
expected /z/ plural allomorph. The choice of the allomorph -en is lexically
conditioned. In the other hand, allomorphs may be grammatically conditioned that
it may be dependent on the presence of a particular grammatical element. The past
tense form of weep, sweep, shake are wept, swept, and shook is grammatically
conditioned. Sometimes there is suppletion where allomorphs of a morpheme are
phonetically unrelated (Katamba, 1993; 30-31).
The concept of allomorphs is one of the most basic in descriptive
linguistics. An allomorph is a variant of a morpheme which occurs in certain
definable conditions. All of them are implied when they occur together in some
way; therefore it can be predicted from the other (Gleason, 1961: 61).
Gleason in his book An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics defined the
three allomorphs of plural morpheme, /z/, /s/, /iz/ are conditioned. The
conditioning factor is the phonetic nature of the preceding phonemes, /z/ only
occurs after voiced consonant, /s/ only occurs after voiceless sounds, and /iz/
occurs after groove fricatives and affricates. Therefore, the first conditioned is
19
called phonologically conditioned, second is morphologically conditioned. The
condition is determined by the specific morpheme or morphemes which is
forming the contexts rather than by any phonologic feature. The plural of ox is
oxen /aksin/. The /in/ is an allomorph of the plural morpheme which is used only
with this one root /asks/ (1961; 62).
4. Morphophonemic process
A morphophonemic process is related to morphophonemic rules. The rules
which come into the alternations among the allomorphs in the morphophonemic
process are called morphophonemic rules (O' Grady et al, 1989; 116). The
morphophonemic rule is a rule that determines the phonetic form of morpheme.
The alternation is by both the morphological and the phonological rules. Fromkin
and Rodman et al, (1988; 146) state that a morphophonemic rule is “a rule that
determines the phonetic form of morpheme. Its application is determined by both
the morphology and phonology”. A morphophonemic process is obviously related
to phonologically conditioned allomorphs because the phonological processes
happen as a result of morphological process.
Morphemes may appear in different phonological forms because of the
effects of general processes, for example the English regular plural suffix [s], [z],
and [-iz]. So, phonological rules are allowed to influence with the phonological
forms of morphemes (Spencer, 1991: 53-57).
The rule that determines the phonetic form of the plural morpheme has
been called a morphophonemic rule because it combines both morphological and
20
phonological changes. When a morpheme has alternative phonetic forms, these
forms are called allomorphs. The sounds [z], [s], and [∂z] would be allomorphs of
the regular plural morpheme, and determined by rule. The sound [z] occurs only
after voiced sound in the words bugs. The sound [s] occurs only after voiceless
sound in the words carts. The sound [∂z] occurs which a schwa [∂] is inserted
before the plural ending when a regular noun ends in a sibilant as in fishes.
Clark and Yallop (1990:146) explain that “some allomorphs belong within
a general pattern of phonemic alternation. In this case allomorphs may be said to
be in morphophonemic alternation with each other”. According to Joan L. Bybee
in his writing Morphology (1985:6), a morphophonemic alternation is understood
as an alternation, which, when described in terms of features present on the
surface (that is without reference to abstract phonological units) requires reference
to morphological, syntactic or lexical information, and cannot be described using
only phonological information.
Gleason (1961:82) described morphophonemic changes as changes of
“based form under certain stable condition.” It means that a base form is the most
frequent form of an allomorph”. A base form may change under certain condition.
The condition which changes the base form can be explained or defined. There are
some criteria should be fulfilled to decide the base form. For example, the English
noun plural morpheme {-z}, has three common allomorphs /-z, -s, -iz/. One of
these forms can be selected as the base form.
Gleason mentioned that there are two commonest morphophonemic
processes. They are assimilation and dissimilation. Assimilation is used to
21
characterize a situation “where some phoneme is more nearly like its environment
than is the phoneme sound in the base form” (1961; 83). The phoneme sound of
the base form becomes similar to the environment distribute feature of a strung
phoneme causing the two phones or similar.
Winfred P. Lehmann in his book Descriptive Linguistics (1976; 131-132)
described the examples of morphophonemic process:
a. Assimilation
Assimilation is a type modification that substitutes the phonemes. In
assimilation one or more sounds come to be articulated like another
sound. To note characteristic features of sounds, for the modification
of one or more characteristic features, is useful. The example is when
the base ends in a voiceless element other than a sibilant, /s/ is the
allomorph, when the base ends in a voiced element, /z/ is the
allomorph to indicate a plural noun.
b. Dissimilation
Dissimilation is a type modification that substitutes two phonemes
become less like each other. Dissimilation is generally affects complex
phonemes in word formation such as the aspirates or the resonant.
When dissimilation leads to loss of an entire syllable, it is called
haplology (the simplifying of a word), for example, English adverbs
ending in –ly. From slow we may make an adverb slowly. But if the
base end in [liy] like lively and friendly we do not keep the form
*livelily but we use lively (1976; 132).
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c. Addition and Deletion
Addition is widespread in inflected and derived forms when two non
favored sequences come to stand together. For example when the two
participles were formed from the verb emo ‘buy’ in Latin, a p was
added, yielding emptus. (1976; 133)
The example from English word for consonant addition is drama /
’dra:mə/ become dramatize /’drǽmətaiz/. (2008; 48) Consonant
addition is /t/. This is an example for consonant deletion physics
/’fIzIks/ become physical /’fІsІkl/. The /s/ is deleted because triple
consonant on the final position is inapplicable in English. (2005; 57)
5. Theories of Affixation
Affixation is the most common morphological processes for modifying
root which occurs in English words. The definition of affixation is the addition of
an affix occurring before, after, inside of, or around the root. This process needs
an affix as a grammatical morpheme which must be bound to a root. A root is
morpheme that can not be analyzed into smaller parts. When a root morpheme is
combined with affix morphemes it forms a stem or word. An affix can be
classified into four kinds based on the position of affixation:
Affixes which attach to the right, or end, of a base are called suffixeswhich attach to the left, or front, of a base are called prefixes. In additionto prefixes and suffixes, some languages make use of infixes, a kind ofaffix that is inserted inside a lexical root. Infixation is less common thansuffixation or prefixation across the world’s languages. Another unusualkind of affixation is cicumfixation, in which a two-part or discontinuous
23
morpheme surrounds a root (Fasold et al, 2006:66-67).
Affixation can be divided into three types: prefixation, suffixation, and
infixation. Prefixation is the process of giving a certain affix before the root, such
as: unhappy, disorder, enlarge, and so on. Infixation is the process of giving the
certain affix inside the root. English has very limited kinds of infixes. Suffixation
is the process of giving the certain affix after the root, such as: generation,
sadness, government, and so on.
According to H. A. Gleason in An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics
(1955; 59) the broadest and most comprehensive classes of morphemes in English
and the most nearly universal in the language of the world are roots and affixes.
Affixes may be added directly to roots, or constructions consisting of a root plus
one or more other morphemes. All these may be called stems. A stem is any
morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.
According to Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers and Robert M.
Harnish, Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication (1988:80)
based on function affixes can be classified into inflectional and derivational, and
both of them are different. Inflectional affixes never change the part of speech of
the base morpheme to which they are attached. In contrast, derivational affixes
often change the part of speech of the base morpheme.
Francis Katamba in his book Morphology (1993; 44) explains there are
three types of affixes. An affix is a morpheme which only occurs when attached
to some other morpheme or morphemes such as a root or stem or base. In other
word affixes are bound morphemes. No word may contain only an affix standing
24
on its own, like -s and -ed. The types of affixes are:
a. Prefixes
Prefix is an affix attached before a root or stem or base like re-, un-, and
in-.
b. Suffixes
A suffix is an affix attached after a root (stem or base) like –ly, -er, -is, -s,
-ing, and –ed.
c. Infixes
An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. The only infix that occurs
in English morphology is /-n/ which is inserted before the last consonant
of the root in a few words of Latin origin, on what appears to be an
arbitrary basis. This infix undergoes place of articulation assimilation. For
example [m] is infixed before that same root in some words like
incumbent, succumb, and decumbent.
6. Theories of Suffixation
Fasold et al (2006:66-67) explain that suffixation is the commonest
affixation occurring in English. Suffixation has two principal of building word
processes, they are derivation and inflection, that one of them always occurred
while suffixation process. Suffixation is the process of giving certain affix after
the root. Suffixes are not only changing the meaning of the word which they are
attached, but also changing grammatical status of word, for example, the {-ify}
ending turns the noun beauty into the verb beautify and the {-ing}ending turns the
25
concrete noun farm into the abstract one farming.
For instances of suffixation, the suffix {-s} in noun or verbs indicates that
it is plural noun or third person without changing the part of speech from that
words, while another example suffix {–ize} is used to form a verb from noun or
adjectives in which there is a change of the part of speech from the root. The
suffix {-s} belongs to inflectional affixes while suffix {–ize} belongs to
derivational affixes.
According to Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers and Robert M. Harnish,
Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication (1988:81)
inflectional and derivational suffixes occur in a certain relative order within
words, so inflectional suffixes follow derivational suffixes. For example in
modernize-modernizes the inflectional {-s} follows derivational {-ize}. If an
inflectional suffix is added to some verbs, as with modernizes, then no further
derivational suffixes can be added. And English has no form for modernizesable,
with inflectional {-s} followed by derivational {-able}. For, this reason it is often
noted that inflectional affixes mark the outer layer of words and derivational
affixes mark the inner layer. So, there is a certainty condition to decide whether
the word can be added with both of inflectional and derivational affixes or one of
them.
7. Phonology
Based on O’Grady and Dobrovolsky in their book Contemporary
Linguistics: An Introduction (1989; 54) phonology is a study of the sound
26
changes. Sometimes sound changes occur when borrowed words must deal with
phonology. The principle and component of a grammar determine how sound
patterns in a language.
English Phonolog an Introduction by Heinz J. Giegerich (1992; 179)
explains about the word stress formation as one of phonological rule. English is
said to be a stress language: every (lexical) word- noun, verb, adjective, or adverb
has a stressed syllable, and where more than one syllable bears stress (‘sequence,
pho’nology), one of stress will be the main stress and the others subordinated.
There is no discussion about the interaction of phonology and
morphology; indeed morphology has not even been mentioned. Yet the
morphological structure of the words, that is, in which words may be made up of
morphemes (prefixes, roots, and suffixes) – plays a major part in the regularities
that govern stress placement in English (1992; 190).
English Phonolog an Introduction by Heinz J. Giegerich (1992; 191) on
the phonological side, suffixes can be divided into two classes: stress shifting and
stress natural. The stress shift is the stress pattern of their base which differ
radically from that of the base word then it occurs without a suffix: compare
‘atom and a’tom(ic), ‘Newton and New’ton(ian) etc. There are further differences
between the phonological form of the base and that of the corresponding isolated
word. Stress shifting differs from stress-neutral one in that they can bear the main
stress of the word, for examples: ette (usherette, launderette). The words
containing stress shifting suffixes behave like morphologically simple words in
that their stress patterns.
27
However, stress natural suffixes never make any differences to the stress
pattern of their base, for example, the third person singular -s is added to be the
verb tally the final syllable becomes heavy tallies, and the stress remains on the
initial syllable. Stress natural suffixes are always unstressed – even where they
constitute heavy syllable and even where several suffixes are stacked together, as
in pennilessness. Stress neutral suffixes are simply followed as unstressed material
to an entirely unmodified base. (1972; 191)
8. Pluralization
Nouns of foreign origins have adopted the regular plural ending. However
some nouns have borrowed from foreign languages pose a particular problem,
because they have different rules. People have to learn which form to use as they
meet the words for the first time, and must be aware of variations in usage.
Quirk et al (1972; 127-128) describe that noun is that element in the
sentence which typically functions as subject, object, and complement. Nouns
have certain characteristics that set them apart from other word classes. For
example, they can form plurals (book-books) and take articles (the book – a book).
It is important both for semantic and grammatical reasons, to distinguish between
different sub classes of nouns.
According to Quirk et al (1972; 172), nouns have two forms: singular and
plural. Plural for the vast majority of nouns are normally fully predictable both in
pronunciation and spelling by the same rules as for the {-s} inflection of verbs,
they form the regular plural. If the plural cannot be predicted from the singular, it
28
is an irregular plural. The plural suffix is written {-s} after most nouns: hat-hats,
including nouns ending in silent {–e} (college-colleges). But there are also several
expectations in this rule that: nouns ending in –o have plurals in {-os} or {-oes},
noun is written with a silent {-e} the plural suffix is spelled {-es} after nouns
ending in sibilant in sibilant which are spelled {-s} (gas-gases), {-z} (buzz-
buzzes). Irregular plurals are by definition unpredictable.
In many cases where foreign plural words are involved, it is helpful to
know about pluralization in the relevant languages, particularly Latin and Greek.
Thus, on the pattern of analysis- analyses we can construct the following plurals:
axis-axes, crisis-crises. Besides that we can always rely on etymological criteria.
Also plurals like areas and villas do not conform to the Latin pattern. (Quirk et al
1972; 183)
C. Theoretical Framework
This study uses the empirical analysis. It means that this study tries to
describe and explain everything about what can be found in foreign origin English
plural suffixes. In this study most discussion relates to plural nouns, morphemes,
morphophonemic process, and pluralization. To answer question number one and
two from problem formulation on chapter 1, researcher did not use any theory but
used an empirical data from field research, to find and describe their distribution
of percentage and environment. And for answering question number three
researcher used one theory of morphophonemic process from Gleason.
Morphophonemic process as a primary theory will be used to analyze
29
morphological process.
The writer uses some other theories to support main theory and to make an
analysis more understandable. There are theories of morphemes; pluralization,
affixation, noun, and suffixation are used as additional theory of morphological
analysis. Nouns relate to express a contrast between 'one' and 'more than one'.
Morphemes relate to morphological analysis, while morphophonemic processes
combine both of them. And pluralization relate to the property which holds for a
number entities belonging to one collection.
The morphophonemic system is one of the ways which the morphemes of
a given language are variously represented by phonemic shapes that is used as a
kind of code. It is also used to describe the phonological process. Therefore, the
morphophonemic process is always occurred in the forming of the words in every
language.
30
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the researcher gives the description on the methodology
used in conducting this study in order to do a systematic research. There are three
parts of this chapter: the object of the study, the method of the study, and the
research procedure. In the object of the study, the researcher describes what the
object of the study is and where they are coming from. In the method of the study,
the researcher describes the method to collect the data. And the last part is
research procedure, which is divided into two parts data collection and data
analysis. For data collection, the researcher uses some trustable and accurate
sources to get a data. For the data analysis the researcher conducts to find the
answer of the problems.
A. Object of the Study
This study has the main object of English origin foreign plural suffixes,
such as: criterion-criteria, appendix-appendices, fungus-fungi, etc. As we know
there are many English words that are formed by foreign origin plural suffixes.
The foreign origin language suffixes that are going to be analyzed are Latin and
Greek, because they are involved in significant contacts in the past with English
and given many contributions to the English word especially for suffixes part. The
plural word class is a noun. Based on the problems in the previous chapter this
31
study focus on the data of the English plural suffixes itself, their distribution, and
morphophonemic changes occurred in pluralization with plural suffixes.
In gathering the data, the researcher used a dictionary survey by
collecting data of the loan words that come in the certain period and the suffixes
of Latin and Greek origin. The researcher used three kinds of dictionaries,
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2005, Random House Webster’s
College Dictionary 2001, and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2005.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2005 is used to find the list of
word origin and plural suffixes of English foreign origin plural suffixes. Random
House Webster’s College Dictionary is used to give explanation from the first
dictionary to find etymology of word, origin, and plural form. Oxford Advance
Learner’s Dictionary 2005 is used to find the phonetic transcription from those
words.
B. Method of the Study
This study used an empirical method. An empirical method was chosen
because the analysis depends on primary data. The primary data were very
important for the research of this study because it was clarifying its structures, i.e.
the forms of thinking, such as the processes of logical analysis. Descriptive
approach as one approaches of empirical study was used primarily to describe and
explain about the object of study but does not wish to modify the object.
The target is to find out how things are, or how they have been. The
primary data that were used in this field were plural foreign words with suffixes.
32
The data have been taken from Cambridge Encyclopedia of English and Language
Second Addition 2003 as a form of foreign origin plural suffixes. The other
sources are Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2005, Random House
Webster’s College Dictionary 2001, and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
2005 to get the list of word, the etymology, and the phonetic transcription.
Therefore, empirical method is used to describe the issues that are related to
foreign origin plural suffixes, the researcher listed word that contained of foreign
origin plural suffixes, their function and contribution to the English word, the
morphophonemic processes.
In order to collect the data the researcher conducted a dictionary research.
The primary data were words from foreign languages but has become English
words that also contain foreign origin plural suffixes. The collected data were
words derived with use foreign origin plural suffixes. The primary data as the
example for analysis chapter is taken randomly from dictionary. The secondary
data is the review of related studies, which concern with study of morphological
analysis of another type of suffixes.
C. Research Procedure
1. Data Collection
To collect the data, first of all, the researcher decided to take the data from
primary source that were trustable and accurate and list the words that were
containing foreign suffixes and stems. The data analyzed in this study were taken
from Cambridge Encyclopedia of English and Language Second Addition 2003
33
and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2005. Those dictionaries were
chosen as main sources to get the data because Cambridge Encyclopedia of
English and Language Second Addition 2003 was the appropriate and
comprehensive book for finding the list form of foreign origin plural suffixes and
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2005 was the most available and
appropriate one using in Indonesia, support with international phonetic
transcription.
The other sources were taken from Random House Webster’s College
Dictionary 2001, to get the complete data for foreign origin plural suffixes,
support the other dictionaries, and provide information about foreign words,
which have foreign plural form. The writer was using electronic dictionary
(installed CD) from Merriam’s Webster Collegiate Dictionary Electronic Edition
1994 version 1.5, to get list of word easier. Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary 2005 uses an International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to see the phonetic
transcription and to analyze phonological changes.
This study focused on analyzing the various type of foreign origin plural
suffixes form from Latin and Greek which have already become part of English
vocabulary. Latin nouns with suffix {–um} become {-a} in plural form: agendum-
agenda, datum-data, and medium-media. Latin nouns with suffix {-us} become
{–i} in plural form: alumnus-alumni. Latin nouns with suffix {-a} become {-ae}
in plural form: formula, formul-ae. Greek nouns with suffix {-is} become {-es} in
plural form: analysis, analys-es. Greek nouns with suffix {-on} become {-a} in
plural form: criterion, criteria.
34
2. Data Analysis
Some steps were taken to analyze this subject. Three problems are going
to be analyzed, first is the list of the foreign origin plural suffixes form, second is
their contribution to the English vocabulary, and last is the distribution of foreign
origin plural suffixes through morphophonemic process.
The first step is to identify the words that contain the foreign suffix or
stem. The second step was making the classification of foreign origin English
plural suffixes especially plural form especially from Greek and Latin. The third
step was to find their distribution to the English vocabulary. There were two ways
to see their distribution, first through percentage and second through environment,
which was determined from each foreign plural form.
The fourth was the identification of morphophonemic processes occurring
when a word receives foreign English plural nouns with Greek and Latin suffixes.
Some steps were taken for analyzing this subject. For this step the researcher
found the phonetic transcription both for the stem and the word that is in a form of
plural. This step used dictionaries which provide with IPA (International
Phonetics Alphabet). IPA proposes one symbol for one sound so it is helpful in
the analysis on morphophonemic process. The last was to analyze and identify the
morphophonemic process for the foreign origin plural suffixes either
morphologically or phonologically. Morphophonemic processes were found by
analyzing the stem and the derived words.
35
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULT
In this chapter the researcher will explain about the answer of the problem
formulation in chapter one. Based on the problem formulation, the researcher will
discuss the list form and word of foreign origin plural suffixes, their distribution,
and the morphophonemic changes in pluralization. From foreign plural word, we
can learn and analyze the strata of loan words in the English language. Sometimes
the word in English language has lexical problem to name a certain object, ideas,
concepts, and operations because the word has not already provided.
4.1. Foreign Origin English Plural Suffixes
Many of the words in English are derived from Latin and Greek
morphemes. In many cases words taken from Latin or Greek retain the inflectional
characteristics and gender from their original languages. Thus, the masculine
singular form of "alumni" is "alumnus," while the feminine singular form is
"alumna”. The word "alumni" has come to be a singular noun as well as a plural
one.
From Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English there are 236 words
to which foreign origin plural suffixes attached, especially from Greek and Latin.
All of the words are classified as a noun. Since, it is a plural it must be a noun.
They are divided into nine groups, words with base form of foreign origin plural
suffixes Latin -us, -a, -um, -ex, -ies and Greek -is, -on, -as, -ma. Classification of
36
foreign origin plural suffixes form is based on Cambridge Encyclopedia of
English and Language Second Addition and others forms are taken from Joanna
Crump’s webpage on English grammar, English irregular plural forms.
Table 1 Foreign Origin Plural Words taken from Longman Dictionary ofContemporary English
From the table above we know there are some plural form suffixes from
Latin and Greek (-us, -a, -um, -ix/-ex, -is, -on). Latin has five plural forms for their
No. Suffix WordsEnds with
Letter
ForeignPluralForm
Examples ForeignPlural Words
Occur--rences
Percentage
1. Latin -us -i, -ora,-era
Alumni, Corpora,Genera, Gladioli,Nuclei, Stimuli
55 21.68 %
2. Latin/ Greek-a
-ae Alumnae, Algae,Larvae, Ulnae,Vertebrae
38 15.94 %
3. Latin -um -a Atria, Bacteria,Curricula, Data,Errata, Ova, Phyla
62 26.99 %
4. Latin-ex,-ix -ices Codices, CorticesApices, LaryngesPharynges, Vertices
13 5.75 %
5. Greek -is -es Analyses, Bases,Crises, Ellipses,Neuroses, Oases
46 20.35 %
6. Greek -on -a Automata, Criteria,Phenomena
9 3.54 %
7. Latin -ies -ies Series, Species 2 0.89 %
8. Greek -as -antes.-es
Atlantes, Atlases 1 0.44 %
9. Greek -ma -ta Stigmata, Stomata,Schemata
10 4.42%
Total 236 100 %
37
nouns and Greek has four plural forms. They have the same function as plural
form of noun. But the application is different.
Latin words that have the suffix -us have a plural form –i, -era, or -ora, for
example alumnus-alumni, corpus-corpora, opus-opera and genus-genera. Latin
suffix -a has a plural form –ae, but in some cases there are some words that have
different plural form. The examples are drachma-drachmai, piazza-piazze. Latin
suffix –um has a plural form –a. Based on the data from Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English this form is the most form that contains a plural words.
The suffix Latin –ex and –ix has a plural form –ices. And the Latin last suffix is –
ies that has –ies as a plural form, for example series-series.
The Greek suffix –is has –es as plural form. This form is the most frequent
form contains of plural form from Greek words, for example crisis-crises, basis-
bases. The Greek suffix –on has –a as plural form, for example criterion-criteria.
But some words have same form for both singular and plural, like canon-canon.
The Greek suffix –as has –es as plural form. This form is rarely occurred, just in a
word atlas. And it has two different plural from atlas atlantes atlases. The
last is suffix –ma, which has –ta as a plural form. For example are dogma-
dogmata, stigma-stigmata.
It is possible for one word to have more than one plural form. This process
happened for some plural suffix. For example the word focus has two plural form,
native (English) plural and foreign plural. Plural form for native plural is focuses
and foreign plural is foci. Other examples are fungus-funguses-fungi, octopus-
octopuses, octopi.
38
Most of English words are taken from Latin and Greek. Therefore, the
plural forms for Latin and Greek words are usual and popular in the English
world. But, sometimes people do not recognize that the word that they use has a
different plural form than usual. Especially for plural form that comes from Latin
and Greek.
In general, usually people do not recognize the differences between plural
English and plural Latin which already becomes English word. For the words with
both plural forms, English and foreign, that phenomenon does not matter, but
when the words just have one plural form, language users can choose the wrong
forms.
There are many nouns especially from Latin which retain their original
plurals for some time after they are introduced. Other nouns have been become
Anglicized taking on the normal “s” ending. Anglicization is naturalization of
loan words. In some cases, both forms are still competing.
Table 2 Nouns from Foreign Languages have both English and ForeignPlural.
No. Source/ ending ForeignPluralForm
EnglishPluralForm
Occurrences Percentage
1. Latin -us -i -es 23 18.25 %2. Latin/ Greek -a -ae -s 26 20.63%3. Latin -um -a -s 47 37.3 %4. Latin-ex,-ix -ices -es 10 7.94 %5. Greek -ma -ta -s 10 7.94 %6. Greek –is -es -es 5 3.97 %7. Greek -on -ta -s 5 3.97 %
Total 126 100 %
39
The choice of a form often depends on context. For example for a
librarian, the plural of appendix is appendices (following original language); for
physicians however the plural of appendix is appendixes. Similarly, a radio
engineer works with antennas and an entomologist deals with antennae. The
choice of word also depends on the level of discourse. The traditional Latin
plurals are found more often in academic and scientific contexts, while the
anglicized forms are more common for daily speech.
The final –us becomes –i, but in some case it becomes –era, -ora, or just –
es. The examples are alumnus alumni, corpus corpora, opus opera, and
virus viruses. In other condition, octopus becomes octopuses or octopi, but
octopi is strictly speaking unfounded, because actually this word is not coming
from Latin, but Greek. The theoretically correct form is octopodes that are rarely
used. Another example is platypus, which has a plural word platypuses, platypi
(etymologically incorrect), platypodes (technically correct but rarely used).
Table 3 Nouns Taken from Foreign Languages without Change GenerallyOriginal Plurals
The words that come from Latin and Greek not only have an original
plural form, but some words have their plural forms the same as other original
No. Source/ ending ForeignPlural Form
Occurrences Percentage
1. Latin -us -i 27 27 %2. Latin/ Greek -a -ae 9 9 %3. Latin -um -a 14 14 %4. Latin-ex,-ix -ices 3 3%5. Latin -ies -ies 2 2 %6. Greek -is -es 41 41 %7. Greek -on -ta 4 4 %
Total 100 100 %
40
English word. The determination of using plural form is based on the frequency of
using word, time the word entering the English vocabulary. Therefore, we have to
deal with any single word of loan words. We generally want to know when they
were borrowed and their classes. For getting more information about it we have to
learn much more about the nature of the cultural impact of the language, through
the English thought and life as upon the English language.
The following table is Greek and Latin words that have English plural
form and do not have any foreign plural form. These words become English
words that people use everyday. These words have been assimilated to English, so
they do not have a foreign plural form any more. When a foreign word used in
high frequency and the society has familiar with the word, so they use English
plural form for foreign word.
Table 4 Nouns from Foreign Languages have an English plural.
No. Source/ending English PluralForm
Example Words
1. Latin -us -es Apparatus apparatuses,campus campuses, circuscircuses.
2. Latin/ Greek -a -s Area areas, dilemmadilemmas, drama dramas,saturnalia saturnalias.
3. Latin -um -s Album albums, museummuseums, premium premiums.
4. Latin -ex,-ix -es Suffix suffixes, prefixprefixes.
5. Greek -is -es Metropolis metropolises,clitoris clitorises, glottisglottises.
6. Greek -on -s Electron electrons, protonprotons, neutron neutrons.
41
4.2. Analysis of Foreign Origin English Plural Suffix Distribution
A significant number of words borrowed into English from Latin (as well
as a small number borrowed direct from Greek) preserve some of the pluralization
patterns of their original language. For example, Latin nouns from the second
declension in the nominative case end in -us in the singular and -i in the plural.
English preserves this pattern for many words: -us/-i plurals in English:
Alumnus alumni
Stimulus stimuli
Nucleus nuclei
Latin feminine nouns of the first declension in the nominative case end for
-a in the singular and -ae for the plural. Many of these are preserved as well:
-a /-ae plurals in English:
Alumna alumnae
Larva larvae
Vertebra vertebrae
Although there are many words derived from Latin retain these patterns,
other words with the same origin have lost them, such as arena, census, and
album. They show that no predication can be made from the form of a Latin-
derived word about whether it will use the Latin plural suffix in contemporary
English. Similar alternations occur with a few words borrowed from Greek, such
as criterion (plural criteria) and phenomenon (plural phenomena).
English has borrowed word extensively from other languages and there is
no purely linguistic reason for borrowing. Whenever the need of a word arises
42
following contact with another culture, people could just make one up. There are
direct borrowing and indirect borrowing. Direct borrowing happened when a
language takes a word directly from another, for example word omelette from
French. Indirect borrowing of language takes from one language to another
language and to another, like a relay. For example: kahveh (Turkish), kahva
(Arabic), koffie (Dutch), coffee (English). Therefore, English word for coffee has
been changed four times from the original word form Turkish. Phonologically
modification is less than indirect modification for direct borrowing word, because
each time a word passes from one language to another language its pronunciation
is adjusted to make it fit into the phonological system of the recipient language
(Katamba, 2005).
They are two types of borrowed words: loanwords and loan shift. The
differences between them are loanword belong to one language which is imported
or adopted by another (shopping has been imported into French as la shopping).
The loan shift is also called as loan translation involves taking on board the
meaning represented by a word in a foreign language. For example the Latin word
spiritus, sanctus ‘spirit’ ‘holy’ is rendered in English by the translation Holy Spirit
or Holy Ghost.
In the case of the word data, the singular form datum has been rejected by
most English speakers as not sounding right. Hence “data is” and “data are”.
When the study of Latin was standardized in the curriculum of English, no one
thought twice about using datum as the singular form of data. Datum sounds
foreign and has been abandoned in general usage. The distinction between Latin
43
singular and plural is still observed for some English words in some contexts–
scientific or academic, but for the most part either the singular or plural Latin
form, depending upon which sounds “less English”, tends to be dropped.
Other examples are Alumna/alumnae; alumnus/alumni. Literally “foster
daughter” and “foster son,” these words refer in American usage to graduates of
an educational institution. Most universities tend to use the masculine forms only.
Alumnus is still in use as a singular, but I have heard people use alumni as if it
could be either singular or plural. The word formulae is the Latin plural persists in
scientific contexts, but one often hears formulas. For the word encyclopedia the
English plural encyclopedias is more common than the Latin encyclopediae. For
the word index the Latin plural indices is used in academic contexts, but one
commonly hears indexes.
In the other hand there is a word that clearly has a singular and plural
form. Both the singular and plural forms of the word phenomenon/phenomena are
alive and well. Memorandum and memoranda are still in used, but memorandums
usually appeared. Some people still use cacti the Latin plural of Cactus, but one
says cactuses as a plural form. Both forms Fungus/fungi are in used, but one also
says funguses as plural form.
4.2.1 The effect of borrowing Other Languages
The introduction of words from other languages or borrowing can affect
the structure of recipient language at that level of meaning, pronunciation,
grammar (morphology and syntax). Adopting foreign nouns with their inflectional
44
morphemes has resulted of the plural morpheme. Latin and Greek are both
languages of the inflectional type. They use a lot of bound morphology to indicate
much of the grammatical information in the language. Latin had grammatical
systems in which both the nouns and the verbs (and to a certain extent the
adjectives) fell into classes. The class of word belonged to determine the
particular inflectional endings it occurred with. It means that borrowing has a
grammatical effect. As mentioned above English not only has -s plural, but also
other plural suffixes especially from Latin and Greek that already adopted for
English word. Many Latin loans ending in -um (stratum) take -a as their plural
suffix (strata). Those ending in -us (fungus) take –i as their plural suffix (fungi).
Greek loans also have some plural suffixes. Nouns ending in -is in singular take –
es in the plural thesis-theses. Those ending in –on in the singular take -a as their
plural phenomenon-phenomena. So, the plural form gives a grammatical effect to
the word of a considerable number of allomorph.
Latin had two simultaneously operative noun class systems: gender
(masculine, feminine and neuter) and also what are called declensions. There were
five different noun declensions, and the declensions were more important for
determining the endings on nouns than the gender.
Borrowing words also have semantic effects, which can give an effect for
the structure of lexicon when the meanings of words are imported and put side by
side with the meanings of words which are already in a lexicon. Adding a new
word may change the equilibrium of the words already in a language, causing
semantic narrowing. So, the meaning of words becomes more specific. For
45
example, when the new borrowed word might take over part or most of the
meaning of original word and the original word might survive with restricted
meaning. A word borrowed from a foreign language may have a more restricted
meaning in the recipient of language than it does in the source language. For
example: stigma, a word whose original plural has taken on a different meaning
with the result that stigmata and stigmas mean different things.
A stigma is some kind of negative mark. It is usually used figuratively. Ex.
In the 1950s a woman was ruined by the stigma of an illegitimate child. The
politician was never able to overcome the stigma of having embezzled state funds.
The plural of stigma is stigmas. The original plural stigmata refer to the
crucifixion wounds of Christ and to the marks of these wounds as they have
appeared on the bodies of certain Christian mystics. Ex. Mystics known to have
experienced stigmata include Francis of Assisi and Catherine of Siena. Another
example is medium/media. The parts of this pair have taken on different
meanings. The plural, media, has come to mean methods of communication such
as newspapers, television, radio, and film. Medium can mean the material used by
an artist to produce an artistic creation. It can also mean any method for
accomplishing something.
Beside semantic effects, phonological effects can happen in borrowing
words. In old English the fricative [f, v] and [s, z] were not distinct phonemes.
They were allophones of the phonemes /f/ and /s/ respectively. The voiced
allophones occurred in voiced environment. Therefore, they were found where
these phonemes intervened between stressed vowel and another vowel, for
46
example: appendix appendixes appendices, phonetic form are /ə-‘pen-diks/
/ə-pen-də,sez/ (Katamba, 2005). For the word axis/axes there is no one say
“axises.” It’s not a word that commonly comes up in conversation. For the word
crisis/crises there is a plural form “crisises” but in this case the Latin plural crises
[kraisi:z] is easier to say and will probably persist.
Some words of foreign origin are much better known in the plural; usage
of the original singular may be considered pedantic or actually incorrect or worse
by some speakers. In common usage, the original plural is considered the singular
form.
Table 5 Common Plural FormsNo.
Original singularOriginal plural/common singular
Common plural
1 agendum agenda agendas2 alga algae algae3 candelabrum candelabra candelabras4 datum data data (mass noun)5 insigne insignia insignias6 opus opera operas7 Lira lire liras
For example an agenda commonly is used to mean a list of agenda. A
single piece of data is sometimes referred to as a data point. From the table we
can see that the singular form is rarely used. And some people do not know that
agenda is plural form of agendum or opera is plural form of opus.
Another phenomenon is the confusion of using a foreign plural for its
singular form. When the user does not know about the singular of plural form user
consider that the words do not have another form. Therefore, it can make a
47
different meaning or interpretation for other people who read it. These are some
examples:
Table 6 Original Plural FormsNo. Original singular Original plural1 criterion criteria2 phenomenon phenomena3 consortium consortia4 symposium symposia
4.2.2 Allomorphs of the Foreign Origin Plural Suffix
According to Lehmann (1976; 128-129) allomorphs are morphemes that
vary widely in shape, in accordance with their environment. When allomorph can
be determined by phonological criteria, it called phonological conditioned.
Consistency of phonological conditioning is rare. Sometimes some verbs follow a
different pattern from that describe previously. The example is auxiliary can,
phonologically identical with the verb can, makes its third singular present with
no ending. The situation is called zero allomorph. Zero allomorph only can be
determined with the type of verb. Therefore, it is called morphologically
conditioned. When allomorph happened in Greek and Latin plural suffix there are
some words that have zero allomorph.
4.2.2.1 Suffix a /-ə/ for word ending with -um
The [-ə] is the commonest form of plural suffixes from Latin. The words
with the [-ə] cover 61 out of 236 words or about 26.99 %. It occurs when the final
sound is ending with -um. All of Latin words ending with -um have a plural form -
a /-ə/. The [-ə] plural form occurs in varied environments especially before the
words ending with -um. It also occurs in a voiced or voiceless consonant vowel,
48
and double consonant /-tr, -cr/. The voiceless consonants found in this study are
/t/. The voiced consonants found in this study are /d/, /n/, /m/, /r/, and /v/. The
plural suffix {a} is attached to vowels /i/, /u/, and /e/ before ending with -um.
Table 7 Example Words of Latin –umNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words ending with -a
(Derived Words)1. Arboretum Arboreta2. Datum Data3. Erratum Errata4. Ovum Ova5. Optimum Optima6. Serum Sera7. Bacterium Bacteria8. Continuum Continua9. Plectrum Plectra10 Rostrum Rostra
Auditoria
4.2.2.2 Suffix -i /-i/, -era /- ərə /, -ora /- ərə / for word ending with -us
The [-i] is second common form of plural suffixes from Latin. The words
with the [-i] cover 49 out of 236 words or about 21.68%. Suffix -i, -era, and -ora
occur when the final sound is ending with -us. All of Latin words with ending
with -us have a plural form -i /-i/, -us /-əs/, -era /- ərə /, and -ora /- ərə/. But the
commonest plural form is ending with -i.
The [-i] plural form occurs in varied environments especially before the
words ending with -us. It also occurs in voiced or voiceless consonant, nasal,
liquid, and vowel. The voiceless consonants found in this study are /t/, /s/, /p/. The
voiced consonants are found in this study /b/, /d/, and /g/. The nasal consonants
are found in this study /n/ and /m/. The alveolar liquid consonants are found in
this study /l/, and /r/. The plural suffix [a] is attached to vowels /i/, /u/, and /e/
before ending with -us.
49
The [-era] plural form occurs in voiceless consonant /p/ and nasal /n/. The
[-ora] plural form occurs in voiceless consonant /p/. The [-us] plural form occurs
in voiceless consonant /t/ and voiced stop consonant /g/.
Table 8 Example Words of Latin –usNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words ending with -i
(Derived Words)1. Alumnus Alumni2 Cumulus Cumuli3. Focus Foci4. Fungus Fungi5. Nucleus Nuclei6. Radius Radii
Table 9 Example Words of Latin –usNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words ending with -a
(Derived Words)1. Corpus Corpora2. Genus Genera3. Opus Opera
4.2.2.3 Suffix -ae /-e/ , -e /ə/, -a /ə/, or -i /i/ for word ending with -a
The words with the [-a] consist 36 out of 236 words or about 15.94%.
Suffix –ae, e, or –i occurs when the final sound is end with -us. All of Latin words
ending with -a have a plural form -ae /-e/ or /-i/. The commonest plural form -a
end with -ae. The [-ae] plural form occurs in varied environments especially
before the words ending with -a. But there is different form for some word with
has ending or plural form –e, -i, and –a.
Table 10 Example Words of Latin –aNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words ending with -ae
(Derived Words)1. Alumna Alumnae2. Alga Algae*3. Formula Formulae4. Larva Larvae
50
Table 11 Example Words of Latin –aNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived Words)
1. Piazza Piazze2. Lira Lire3. Drachma Drachmai4. Insignia Insignia
That plural form can occur in voiced or voiceless consonants and vowels.
The voiceless stop consonants are found in this study /t/ and /p/. The voiced stop
voiced labio dental consonants are found in this study /g/ and /v/. the liquid
alveolar consonants are found in this study /l/ and /r/. The nasal /n/ is found in this
study. The plural suffix [-a] is also attached to vowels /i/ and /e/. The [-e] plural
form occurs in voiced alveolar and liquid alveolar /z/ and /r/. The [-a] plural form
occurs in nasal alveolar /n/ and vowel /i/. The [-i] plural form occurs in nasal
bilabial consonant /m/.
For the word Alga according to Longman Contemporary English
Dictionary it is an uncountable word, but in Merriam Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary Electronic Edition there is a plural form for alga. The writer uses a
Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary Electronic Edition for this case.
4.2.2.4 Suffix –ices /sez/ for word ending–ex, -ix
The words with the [-ex, -ix] cover 13 out of 236 words or about 5.75%.
Suffix -ices occurs when the final sound is either ending with -ex or -ix. Some of
Latin words ending with –ex or -ix have a plural form –ices /sez/. This plural form
can occur in voiced or voiceless consonant. The stop voiceless consonants are
found in this study /t/ and /p/. The voiced stop consonants and voiced fricative
51
consonant are found in this study /b/, /d/, and /v/. The liquid alveolar also are
found in this study /l/ and /r/, There is no plural suffix [–ex, -ix] attached to
vowels. The others have a plural form -es /əs/. This plural form can occur after
/x/.
Table 12Example Words of Latin –ex or -ixNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived Words)1. Appendix Appendices2. Cervix Cervices3. Index Indices4. Matrix Matrices5. Vertex Vertices
Table 13 Example Words of Latin –ex or -ixNo. Singular words (Stems) English Plural words1. Ibex Ibexes2. Rex Rexes
4.2.2.5 Suffix -es /-sez/ for word ending with –is
The words with the [-is] cover 46 out of 236 words or about 20.35%.
Suffix –es occur when the final sound is ending with –is. All Greek words ending
with –is have a plural form –es /sez/. This plural form can occur in voiced or
voiceless consonant. The voiceless alveolar and voiceless fricative consonants
found in this study are /t/ and /s/. The voiced consonants found in this study are
/b/, and /v/. The nasal consonant found in this study is /n/. The liquid alveolar
consonants are found in this study /l/ and /r/.
Table 14 Example Words of Greek –isNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived Words)1. Analysis Analyses2 Basis Bases3. Genesis Geneses4. Hypothesis Hypotheses5 Metamorphosis Metamorphoses
52
6. Neurosis Neuroses7. Prosthesis Prostheses8 Sepsis Sepses9. Stasis Stases
4.2.2.6 Suffix –a /ə/ for word ending with –on
The words with the [-on] cover 8 out of 236 words or about 3.54%. Suffix -a
occurs when the final sound is ending with –on. Greek words ending with -on
have a plural form –a /ə/, except word canon that has same plural form usually is
called zero allomorph. This plural form can occur in voiced or voiceless
consonant. The voiceless consonants found in this study are /t/ and /s/. The nasal
consonants found in this study are /m/, /n/ and liquid alveolar consonants /l/, and
/r/.
Table 15 Example Words of Greek –onNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived Words)1. Automaton Automata2. Canon Canon3. Criterion Criteria4 Lexicon Lexica5. Phenomenon Phenomena
4.2.2.7 Suffix –ies /ez/ for word ending with –ies
The words with [-ies] cover 2 out of 236 words or about 0.89%. Suffix
–ies occurs when the final sound is ending with –ies. All Latin words ending with
–ies has a plural form –ies /ez/ same form as singular. Therefore, it called zero
allomorph. This plural form only finds two words occur in this study.
Table 16 Example Words of Latin –iesNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived) Words)1. Series Series2. Species Species
53
4.2.2.8 Suffix - antes /antəz/ for word ending with –as
The words with [-as] cover 1 out of 236 words or about 0.44%. Suffix -
antes occurs when the final sound is ending with -as. One Greek words with
ending with –as has a plural form -antes. This plural form only finds one words
occur in this study Atlas or Atlantes (statues of the hero).
Table 17 Example Greek word ending in –as
No. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived)1. Atlas Atlantes
4.2.2.9 Suffix –ta /tə/ for word ending with -ma
The words with [-ma] consist 10 out of 236 words or about 4.42%. Suffix
–ta occurs when the final sound is ending with –ma. All Greek words with ending
with -ma have a plural form –ta /tə/. This plural form can occur in voiced
consonant is /g/.The plural suffix {ma} is attached to vowels /o/, /u/, and /e/
before ending with –ma
Table 18 Example Words of Greek -maNo. Singular words (Stems) Plural words (Derived) Words)1. Carcinoma Carcinomata2. Dogma Dogmata3. Stigma Stigmata4. Stoma Stomata5. Schema Schemata6. Trauma Traumata
4.3 Morphophonemic Process Occurring in the Suffixation of Foreign Origin
English Plural Suffixes
There are phonological processes that occur as the effect of morphological
process, this process is called morphophonemic process. A morphophonemic
54
process is another process that happens in phonological process, beside
allomorphs. Allomorphs occur in variant environment already discussed in the
previous part. There are four morphophonemic processes will be discussed in this
study. They are stress shift, consonant change, vowel change, deletion and
addition. Each process will be discussed separately.
4.3.1 Stress Shift
Stress shift is one of the morphophonemic processes that mostly occur in
word form using the suffix. In other words, stress shift is the most frequent
morphophonemic processes that occur in suffixation. Stress shift shows the
changes position of a stress in a new word. The data taken from two dictionaries
because there are some differences between English’s American dictionary and
English’s British dictionary, from Random House Webster’s College Dictionary
and Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary. The differences are the phonetic
transcription; Random House Webster’s College Dictionary does not use an IPA
(International Phonetic Transcription) and pronunciation. But, researcher used
IPA for phonetic transcription from both dictionaries, to get the same
standardization.
We can look at the following example, the word using suffix Latin -ex, -ix,
Latin -us, Greek -is, Latin/Greek –a, for the words appendixes and indexes, we
can know that the stems from these words are index, appendix. We also can look
at the position of the stress from the following examples:
A. Latin -ex, -ix
(1) Singular Index / 'ndeks/
55
Plural Indexes or indices /'ndəsi:z/
(2) Singular Appendix /ə'pendiks /
Plural Appendixes or appendices /ə'pendsi:z/
(3) Singular Codex /'kədeks/
Plural Codices /'kədəsi:z/
(4) SingularMatrix /'metrks/
PluralMatrixes or matrices /''metrksi:z / /'metrsi:z/
For the words with two syllables, the primary stresses are on the first and
second syllable. After the suffixation of plural suffix the stress is moved to the
first and third syllable. However, for the words which have third syllable, the
primary stress is on the second syllable. After the suffixation the stress is moved
to the second and fourth syllable. The stress change is determined under some
condition or environment, vowel strengthen or week, consonant strengthen or
week. The example Codex /'kədeks/ Codices /'kədəsi:z/ the stress is
changed from voiced consonant into the voiceless consonant and vowel
strengthen.
B. Latin –us
(1) Singular Alumnus /ə'lmnəs/
Plural Alumni /əlmna/
(2) Singular Cactus /'kktəs/
Plural Cacti /'kakta/
56
C. Latin –is
(1) Singular Analysis /ə'nləss/
Plural Analyses /ə'nləsi:z/
(2) Singular Crisis /'krass/
Plural Crises /'krassi:z/
D. Latin/ Greek -a
(1) Singular Alumna /ə'lmnə/
Plural Alumnae / ə'lmni:/
(2) Singular Alga /'lgə/
Plural Algae /'lgi:/
From those examples, we can see, after being attached to suffix -ix,-ex the
position of the stress is changing from the words with suffix -s/-es. Besides Latin
-us, Greek -is, and Latin/ Greek -a are also changing for their stress shift after
process of suffixation. Most of the words above add stress after the suffixation
and for the form is following the foreign plural form. To explain the stress shift
for plural form is plural suffix attached to stem, from one stress into two after the
suffixation. For the word Analysis /ə'nləss/ Analyses /ə'nləsi:z/ there is
stress shift addition before voiceless consonant and tense vowel. Alumna
/ə'lmnə/ Alumnae / ə'lmni:/ there is stress shift addition before tense vowel.
However, based on Random House Webster’s College Dictionary for the
word in Latin --um, Greek -on, and Greek -ma consist of two and three syllables
before or after attaching to the plural suffixes, the stress is not changed or still in
57
the same place. It means that the stress of the new derived word is the same as the
stress of the stem. Look at the following example:
A. Latin -um Plural Latin -a
(1) Singular Stadium /'steidiəm/
Plural Stadiums, stadia /'steidiəm / /' steidiə /
(2) Singular Consortium / kən's:tiəm/
Plural Consortiums, consortia /kən's:tiəm/ /kən's:tiə/
(3) Singular Labium /'leibiəm /
Plural Labia /'leibiə/
(4) Singular Datum /'deitəm/
Plural Data /'deitə /
B. Greek -on
(1) Singular Phenomenon /fə'nmnən/
Plural Phenomena /fə'nmnə/
(2) Singular Criterion /kra'təriən/
Plural Criteria / kra'təriə/
(3) Singular Ganglion /'gæŋgliən/
Plural Ganglia /'gæŋgliə/
C. Greek -ma
(1) Singular Dogma /'dgmə/
Plural Dogmata /'dgmətə/
(2) Singular Stigma /'stgmə/
58
Plural Stigmata /'stgmətə/
(3) Singular Trauma /'tr:mə/
Plural Traumata /'tr:mətə/
Based on other data Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary all of plural
suffix has same phenomena based on IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), the
stress shift based on the environment of the words. There is no stress shift for
every suffixation in the foreign English plural form. The stress is the same, but
there are vowel and consonant changing for them based on this dictionary. In
other condition, for some cases if there is vowel tense after suffixation, stress shift
or stress addition will appear. For example:
(1) Singular Fungus /'fŋgəs/
Plural Fungi /'fŋgi/
(2) Singular Crisis /'krass/
Plural Crises /'krassi:z/
4.3.2 Consonant Change
Consonant change is one of the morphophonemic processes, where the
consonant of the stem changes after suffixation. There are some consonant
changes in the suffixation of foreign origin plural suffix.
4.3.2.1 Consonant /k/ /s/
(1) Singular Focus /'fəkəs/
Plural Foci /'fəsa/
(2) Singular Locus /'ləkəs/
59
Plural Loci /'ləsa/
(3) Singular Appendix /ə'pendks/
Plural Appendices /ə'pendsi:z/
(4) Singular Cervix /s:vks/
Plural Cervices /s:vsi:z/
(5) Singular Codex /'kədeks/
Plural Codices /'kədsi:z/
The words ending with -us have the sound /k/, but after being attached to
the plural form the sound /k/ change into /s/. And the words ending with -ix/ -ex
after being attached to the plural form the consonant sound is also changing from
/k/ into /s/, because it follows English pronunciation of the Latin word. For
example, the word foci consonant /c/ is pronounced as [s], though Latin
pronunciation the letter /c/ is pronounced [k]. There are some English words from
Latin and Greek which follow English pronunciation. Therefore, the English
spelling change. These are following tables that show the consonant change that
occurs in foreign plural suffixation.
Table 19 The Process of Consonant Change /k/ for the Word Focus
Underlying form /'fəkəs/ + //
Consonant change k s
Phonetic transcription ['fəsa]
60
Table 20 The Process of Consonant Change /k/ for the Word Appendix
Underlying form /ə'pendks/ + / si:z/
Consonant change k s
Phonetic transcription [ə'pendsi:z]
Every Greek and Latin word has a suffix to show its case, which is in line
with the grammatical function of the word. The root is identified by taking away
the singular suffix from a word. From the following table we can see that every
Latin and Greek word has their own suffix for each word. Therefore, the word has
similarity for their root. This system is also applied for the plural form. From each
form of singular form has similar plural form.
Table 21 Stem and Root of Singular and Plural Word from Latin and Greek
Singular PluralNo.Root Stem Suffix
SoundsRoot Stem Suffix
Sounds1. Addend Addendum əm Addend Addenda ərə2. Bacteri Bacterium əm Bacteri Bacteria ə3. Foc Focus əs Foc Foci a
4. Gen Genus əs Gen Genera ərə5. Alumn Alumna ə Alumn Alumnae i:6. Formul Formula ə Formul Formulae i:7. Append Appendix iks Append Appendices si:z8. Cerv Cervi iks Cervic Cervices si:z9. Analys Analysis s Analys Analyses i:z
10. Bas Basis s Bas Bases i:z
11. Criterion Criteri ən Criteri Criteria ə12. phenomen Phenomenon ən Phenomen Phenomena ə13. Seri Series i:z Seri Series i:z14. Atla Atlas əs atla Atlantes antəz15. dogma Dogma - dog Dogmata tə16. Stigma Stigma - stig Stigma tə
61
The word ending with –us has the sound /s/, but after attaching to the
plural form the sound /s/ change into /r/. There are some environments that make
for the word ending with –us has some consonant change. The consonant stem of
word determines consonant change. These are following tables that show the
consonant change that occurs in foreign plural suffixation. The word ending with -
is has the sound /s/, but after attaching to the plural form the sound /s/ change into
/z/. All of plural form ending with -is has the same changing from /s/ /z/.
4.3.3 Vowel Change
In the vowel change, the vowel must be changed. Vowel change is also one
of morphophonemic process where the vowel of stem is changed after suffixation.
This changing is rather similar with consonant change. The examples of the
process of vowel changes are seen in the following words
(1) Singular Cicada /s'k:də/
Plural Cicadae /s'k:di/
(2) Singular Formula /'f:mjələ/
Plural Formulae /'f:mjəli/
(4) Singular Nebula /neb'jələ/
Plural Nebulae / neb'jəli'/
(5) Singular Antenna /n'tenə/
Plural Antennae /n'teni/
The process of vowel change in plural can be described in the following tables:
62
Table 22 The Process of Vowel Change for The Word Cicadae
Underlying forms /s'k:də/
Vowel substituion ə i
Phonetic transcription [s'k:di]
Table 23 The Process of Vowel Change for The Word Nebulae
Underlying forms /neb'jələ/
Vowel substitution ə i
Phonetic representation [neb'jəli']
From those examples we know that the vowel is changed. In the word
formulae, nebulae and antennae the vowel [ə] is substituted into vowel [i] after
the suffixation the plural suffixes. In the word caesura the vowel [ə] is reduced in
the suffixation the plural suffixes.
(6) Singular Radius /'rediəs/
Plural Radii /'redia/
(7) Singular Basis /'bess/
Plural Bases /'besi:z/
(8) Singular Thesis /'i:ss/
Plural Theses /'i:si:z /
Now, we know that the vowel is changed in various environments (various
plural forms). In the word radii the vowel [ə] is substituted into vowel [a]. Beside
63
that there is a consonant change; consonant [s] is reduced. Usually tense vowel is
followed by voiced consonant. For the word basis vowel [] is reduced into vowel
[i:] after the suffixation the plural suffixes. The consonant [s] is also substituted
into [z] for the word basis. For the word thesis vowel [] is substituted into vowel
[i:] and consonant [s] is also substituted into [z] after the suffixation the plural
suffixes. Usually a tense vowel is followed by a voiced consonant
Table 24 The Process of Vowel and Consonant Change for The Word Radii
Underlying form /'rediəs/+ /- a/
Vowel substitution ə a
Consonant deletion s
Phonetic transcription ['redia]
Table 25 The Process of Vowel Change for the word Theses
Underlying form /thē'ss/ + /-i:z/
Vowel tensing i:
Phonetic transcription [thē'sez]
4.3.3 Deletion
Deletion shows a deleted vowel or consonant in the middle or end of the
new derived words as a result of morphophonemic process. These are some
examples of the words which have the process of deletion in foreign plural suffix.
(1) Singular Bacterium /bk'təriəm/
64
Plural Bacteria /bk'təriə/
(2) Singular Serum /'sərəm/
Plural Sera /'sərə/
(3) Singular Addendum /ə'dendəm/
Plural Addenda /ə'dendə/
(4) Singular Phenomenon /fə'nmnən/
Plural Phenomena /fə'nmnə/
(5) Singular Criterion /kra'təriən/
Plural Criteria / kra'təriə/
(6) Singular Caesura /si'zjərə/
Plural Caesurae /si'zjrə/
The examples from number one until number three are the words with
plural suffix -a. After pluralization process consonant [m] was deleted because
plural form of Latin -um is -a. Number four and five are word with Greek -on also
deleted the last consonant [n] when it was attached with plural form.
Table 26 The Process of Deletion [m] for the word Bacteria
Underlying form /bk'təriəm/+ /ə/
Consonant deletion m
Phonetic representation [bk'təriə]
65
Table 27The Process of Deletion [n] for the word Phenomenon
Underlying form /fə'nmnən/+ /ə/
Consonant deletion n
Phonetic representation [fə'nmnə]
4.3.4 Addition
Addition shows an added vowel or consonant in the middle or end of the
new derived words as a result of morphophonemic process. These are some
examples of the words which have the process of addition in foreign plural suffix.
(1) Singular Dogma /'d:gmə/
Plural Dogmata /'d:gmətə/
(2) Singular Stigma /'stgmə/
Plural Stigmata /'stgmətə/
(3) Singular Stoma /'stomə/
Plural Stomata /'stomətə/
There are the words with plural suffix -ta. After pluralization process [-ta]
was inserted in the derived words, because plural form of Latin end with word
-ma is -ta.
66
Table 28 The Process of Deletion [m] for the word Stomata
Underlying form /'stomə/ + /tə/
Addition tə
Phonetic representation ['stomətə]
Table 29 The Process of Deletion [n] for the word dogmata
Underlying form /'d:gmə/ + /tə/
Addition tə
Phonetic representation ['d:gmətə]
In conclusion, the introduction of words from other languages or
borrowing can affect the structure of recipient language at that level of meaning,
pronunciation, grammar (morphology and syntax). The attachment of the plural
suffixes results morphological change and phonological change, it is usually
called morphophonemic process. The morphophonemic processes occurring in the
phonological level are stress shift, a consonant change, a vowel change, deletion
and addition.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The last chapter for this analysis presents conclusion of the foreign origin
English plural noun especially Latin and Greek suffixes. There are some plural
foreign suffixes that have been used or adopted as English vocabulary, Latin -i, -
ae, -a,-ices, -ies, Greek -es, -ta, -antes, -a. Latin has five plural forms for their
nouns and Greek has four plural forms. They have same function as plural form of
noun. Besides using an original plural form, some of foreign origin English plural
nouns also use English plural form. We can find some words belonging to Latin
words bacillus-bacilli, larva- larvae, curriculum- curricula, codex- codices, and
series- series. Those examples do not have English plural form, just an original or
foreign plural form.
For Greek words we can find crisis- crises, criterion- criteria, atlas-
atlantes, dogma- dogmata. Some of those examples have English plural form, for
-ta, and -antes. It is possible for one word to have more than one plural form.
Some words that have two form of plural because of a frequency of occurrences
are more than other words and to make a pronunciation become easier. On the
other hand, some Greek and Latin words that have English plural forms, and do
not have any foreign origin plural form anymore. The words have become English
words that people use everyday. The words are apparatus, area, album, suffix,
metropolis, and electron.
68
Borrowing words from other languages can affect the structure of the
recipient language at the level of meaning, pronunciation, and grammar
(morphology and syntax). Adopting foreign nouns with their inflectional
morphemes has resulted of the plural morpheme. It means that borrowing has a
grammatical effect. Phonology effect can also happen in borrowing words. In old
English the fricative [f, v] and [s, z] were not distinct phonemes. They were
allophones of the phonemes /f/ and /s/ respectively. The voiced allophones
occurred in voiced environment. So they were found where these phonemes
intervened between stressed vowel and another vowel.
Allomorph processes happen for all of foreign plural form. The [-ə] plural
form occurred in varied environments (voiced or voiceless consonant, vowel, and
double consonant) especially before the words ending with -um. The [-i] plural
form occurred in varied environments (voiced or voiceless consonant and vowel)
especially before the words ending with -us. The [-i] plural form occurred in
varied environments (voiced or voiceless consonant and vowel) especially before
the words ending with -us. The [-ae] plural form occur in varied environments
(voiced or voiceless consonant and vowel) especially before the words ending
with -a. But there is a different form for some word which has ending or plural
form -e, -a, and -ens.
Latin words ending with -e or -ix have a plural form –ices /sez/ or the
same form with the singular form. All Greek words with ending with –is have a
plural form –es /sez/. All Greek words ending with -on have a plural form –ta /tə/.
All Greek words ended with -ma have a plural form –ta /tə/. All of those
69
conditions can occur in voiced or voiceless consonant. Other plural forms are
Latin words with ended with –ies has a plural form –ies /ez/ and Greek words
ended with -as has a plural form -antes.
The morphophonemic processes that occur in this study are stress shift,
consonant change, vowel change, and deletion. Those processes are part of
phonological change, because morphophonemic process is not only about
morphological change but also phonological change. From British English
dictionary there is no stress shift for the words attaching to the plural form.
However, from the American English dictionary there is stress shift for some
plural forms, Latin -ex, -ix, Latin -us, Greek -is, Latin/Greek -a. Most of the words
above add stress after the suffixation and for the form follow the foreign plural
form.
For consonant change, the consonant stem of word determines the
consonant change. We can see from the words, foci, appendices, genera, opera,
and analyses. On the other side there are vowel changes for the pluralization
process. Vowel is changed in various environments (various plural forms). In the
word nebulae the vowel [ə] is reduced into vowel [i] and in the word antennae the
vowel [ə] is reduced into vowel [ē] after the suffixation the plural suffixes. In the
word radii the vowel [ə] is reduced into vowel [a]. The process of deletion in this
study is to delete /m/ and /n/ from derived words. Examples of words are bacteria,
phenomena. For the last process in this study is adding /ta/ into derived words.
Examples of words are stomata, dogmata.
70
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APPENDICES
Data Collection of the Foreign Origin Plural Suffix from Longman Dictionaryof Contemporary English
1. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix –us
No Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Alumnus - Alumni
2. Asparagus - Asparagus
3. Abacus Abacuses Abaci
4. Bacillus - Bacilli
5. Cactus - Cacti
6. Calculus Calculuses Calculi
7. Colossus - Colossi
8. Cumulus - Cumuli
9. Cirrus - Cirri
10. Citrus Citruses Citrus
11. Cunnilingus - Cunnilinctus
12. Colossus - Colossi
13. Corpus - Corpora
14. Crocus Crocuses -
15. Detritus - Detritus
16. Discus Discuses -
17. Emeritus - Emeriti
18. Esophagus - Esophagi
19. Eucalyptus Eucalyptuses Eucalypti
20. Focus Focuses Foci
21. Fungus Funguses Fungi
22. Genus - Genera
23. Genius Geniuses Genii
24. Gladiolus - Gladioli
74
25. Hippopotamus Hippopotamuses Hippopotami
26. Humerus - Humeri
27. Ignoramus Ignoramuses Ignorami
28. Incubus Incubuses Incubi
29. Locus - Loci
30. Modus operandi - Modi operandi
31. Narcissus - Narcissi
32. Nexus Nexuses Nexus
33. Nimbus Nimbuses Nimbi
34. Nucleus - Nuclei
35. Octopus Octopuses Octopi
36. Opus Opuses Opera
37. Papyrus Papyruses Papyri
38. Platypus Platypuses -
39. Radius Radiuses Radii
40 Phallus Phalluses Phalli
41. Plexus Plexuses -
42. Prospectus Prospectuses -
43. Rhombus Rhombuses Rhombi
44. Sarcophagus Sarcophaguses Sarcophagi
45. Succubus - Succubi
46. Stimulus - Stimuli
47. Status Statuses -
48. Stylus Styluses Styli
49 Syllabus Syllabuses Syllabi
50. Tarsus - Tarsi
51. Terminus Terminuses Termini
52. Thesaurus Thesauruses Thesauri
53. Tumulus - Tumuli
75
54. Uterus Uteruses Uteri
55. Viscus - Viscera
2. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix –on
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Automaton Automatons Automata
2. Canon Canons Canon
3. Criterion - Criteria
4 Lexicon Lexicons Lexica
5. Phenomenon - Phenomena
6. Ganglion - Ganglia
7. Polyhedron Polyhedrons Plolyhedra
8. Salmon Salmons -
9. Venison Venisons Venison
3. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix –ies
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Series - Series
2. Species - Species
76
4. Data Collection of Latin/ Greek Word with Suffix –a
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Alumna - Alumnae
2. Alga - Algae
3. Amoeba Amoebas Amoebae
4. Antenna Antennas Antennae
5. Area Areas -
6. Caesura Caesuras Caesurae
7. Cicada Cicadas Cicadae
8. Cochlea Cochleas Cochleae
9. Diploma Diplomas -
10 Drachma Drachmas Drachmae/
11. Fascia Fascias Fasciae
12. Fibula Fibulas Fibulae
13. Formula Formulas Formulae
14. Hernia Hernias Herniae
15. Hyena Hyenas Hyena
16. Insignia Insignias Insignia
17. Lacuna Lacunas Lacunae
18. Larva - Larvae
19. Lira Liras Lire
20. Nebula Nebulas Nebulae
21. Nova Novas Novae
22. Patina Patinas Patinae
23. Piazza Piazzas Piazze
77
5. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix –um
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Addendum Addendums Addenda
2. Alluvium Alluviums Alluvia
3. Aquarium Aquariums Aquaria
4. Arboretum Arboretums Arboreta
5. Atrium Atriums Atria
6. Auditorium Auditoriums Auditoria
7. Bacterium - Bacteria
8. Cerebellum Cerebellums Cerebella
9. Colloquium Colloquiums Colloquia
10. Condominium Condominiums -
24. Penumbra Penumbras Penumbrae
25. Placenta Placentas Placentae
26. Pupa Pupas Pupae
27. Retina Retinas Retinae
28. Saturnalia Saturnalias Saturnalia
29. Scapula Scapulas Scapulae
30. Tibia Tibias Tibiae
31. Trachea Tracheas Tracheae
32. Ulna - Ulnae
33. Uvula - Uvulae
34. Vertebra - Vertebrae
35. Veruca - Verucae
36. Vagina Vaginas Vaginae
37. Vita - Vitae
38. Vulva - Vulvae
78
11. Compendium Compendiums Compendia
12. Continuum Continuums Continua
13. Consortium Consortiums Consortia
14. Crematorium Crematoriums Crematoria
15. Cranium Craniums Crania
16. Curriculum - Curricula
17. Candelabrum - Candelabra
18. Datum - Data
19. Desideratum - Desiderata
20. Dictum Dictums Dicta
21. Duodenum Duodenums duodena
22. Erratum - Errata
23. Emporium Emporiums Emporia
24. Fulcrum Fulcrums Fulcra
25. Gymnasium Gymnasiums Gymnasia
26. Honorarium Honorariums Honoraria
27. Interregnum Interregnums Interregna
28. Labium - Labia
29. Maximum Maximums Maxima
30. Medium Mediums Media
31. Memorandum Memorandums Memoranda
32. Millennium - Millennia
33. Moratorium Moratoriums Moratoria
34. Momentum Momentums Momenta
35. Mausoleum Mausoleums Mausolea
36. Ovum - Ova
37. Optimum Optimums Optima
38. Podium Podiums Podia
39. Phylum - Phyla
79
40. Planetarium Planetariums Planetaria
41. Plectrum Plectrums Plectra
42. Presidium Presidiums Presidia
43. Pudendum - Pudenda
44. Quantum - Quanta
45. Rectum Rectums Recta
46. Referendum Referendums Referenda
47. Rostrum Rostrums Rostra
48. Sanctum Sanctums Sancta
49. Sanatorium Sanatoriums Sanatoria
50. Scrotum Scrotums Scrota
51. Serum Serums Sera
52. Simulacrum Simulacrums Simulacra
53. Solarium Solariums Solaria
54. Spectrum Spectrums Spectra
55. Sputum - Sputa
56. Stadium Stadiums Stadia
57. Sternum Sternums Sterna
58. Stratum - Strata
59. Symposium Symposiums Symposia
60. Terrarium Terrariums Terraria
61 Trapezium Trapeziums Trapezia
62. Ultimatum Ultimatums Ultimata
6. Data Collection of Latin Word with Suffix -ex,-ix
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Apex Apexes Apices
2. Appendix Appendixes Appendices
3. Cervix Cervixes Cervices
80
4. Codex - Codices
5. Cortex - Cortices
6 Helix Helixes Helices
7. Index Indexes Indices
8 Ibex Ibexes Ibexes
9 Latex Latexes Lattices
10. Matrix Matrixes Matrices
11 Rex Rexes Rexes
12. Vertex - Vertices
13. Vortex Vortexes Vortices
7. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix –is
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Analysis - Analyses
2 Antithesis - Antitheses
3 Apotheosis - Apotheoses
4 Arthritis - Arthritides
5 Axis - Axes
6 Basis - Bases
7 Catharsis - Catharses
8 Cirrhosis - Cirrhoses
9 Clitoris - Clitorides
10 Crisis - Crises
11. Chassis - Chassis
12. Chrysalis Chrysalises Chrysalides
13. Diagnosis - Diagnoses
14 Dialysis - Dialyses
15. Ellipsis - Ellipses
16. Emphasis - Emphases
81
17 Encephalitis - Encephalites
18. Genesis - Geneses
19. Hypothesis - Hypotheses
20. Ibis Ibises Ibis
21 Iris Irises Irides
22 Lexis - Lexes
23 Mantis Mantises Mantes
24 Meningitis - Meningitides
25 Metamorphosis - Metamorphoses
26. Neurosis - Neuroses
27 Nemesis - Nemeses
28. Oasis - Oases
29. Osteoporosis - Osteoporoses
30 Paralysis - Paralyses
31. Pelvis Pelvises Pelves
32. Penis Penises Penes
33. Parenthesis - Parentheses
34. Periphrasis - Periphrases
35. Proboscis - Probosces
36. Prognosis - Prognoses
37. Prophecy - Prophecies
38. Prosthesis - Prostheses
39 Sepsis - Sepses
40 Stasis - Stases
41. Synopsis - Synopses
42. Synthesis - Syntheses
43. Testis - Testes
44. Thesis - Theses
45. Thrombosis - Thromboses
82
46. Tuberculosis - Tuberculoses
8. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix -as
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1. Atlas Atlases Atlantes
9. Data Collection of Greek Word with Suffix -ma
No. Singular English Plural Foreign Plural
1 Carcinoma Carcinomas Carcinomata
2 Charisma Charisms Charismata
3 Dogma Dogmas Dogmata
4 Enema Enemas Enemata
5 Melanoma Melanomas Melanomata
6 Miasma Miasmas Miasmata
7. Stigma Stigmas Stigmata
8. Stoma Stomas Stomata
9. Schema Schemas Schemata
10 Trauma Traumas Traumata