a master’s project - adler graduate school logas... · 2017-02-10 · increasing eudaimonia using...
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Running head: SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST 1
Supported Social Interest:
Increasing Eudaimonia Using Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention
A Master’s Project
Presented to
The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School
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In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Master of Arts in
Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy
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By:
Linnea Marie Stirratt Logas
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Chair: Nicole Randick
Reader: Liza Finlay
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September 2016
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Abstract
Encouraging clients to become more socially minded is an important step in increasing tolerance,
social connection, and overall well-being. Research demonstrates this connection, and suggests
volunteerism can be used as an effective tool for increasing social interest and thus overall well-
being, yet few tools exist to practitioners to capitalize on this relationship. The following paper
identifies the variables involved in the relationship between volunteering, well-being, and
resilience. This information will be used to create a proposal for a business that capitalizes on
the interest people have in volunteerism to provide liaison services between individuals or
families and volunteer opportunities.
Keywords: Eudaimonia, social interest, voluntourism
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Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Theoretical Background .................................................................................................................. 5
Individual Psychology ................................................................................................................. 6
Development Theory ................................................................................................................... 7
Family Systems Theory ............................................................................................................... 8
Gestalt Theory ............................................................................................................................. 9
Review of the Literature ............................................................................................................... 10
Well-being and Social Interest .................................................................................................. 10
Community Connection ............................................................................................................ 12
Family Connection .................................................................................................................... 13
Limitations and Future Considerations ......................................................................................... 15
Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention .................................................................................. 18
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 19
References ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 27
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Supported Social Interest:
Increasing Eudaimonia Using Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention
Psychotherapy is not an easy profession, and ‘Therapist’ is not a title one takes on lightly.
This title comes with the responsibility for caring deeply for (potentially) hundreds of people
over one’s career. Some people are drawn to psychotherapy because they have a profound need
to be listened to; others take on the role because it brings a sense of significance to be seen as an
expert. Many of us, I suspect, go through the emotional trials to become a therapist because we
have a deep desire to compassionately give-back to our community. We see something valuable
and worthwhile in serving the individuals hurting in our world, often believing that by increasing
the well-being of a single individual, that individual will go forth and benefit others with whom
s/he has contact. We sacrifice time, energy, and comfort in order to fulfill this calling, because
we find a higher purpose in doing so.
One of the challenges we face as therapists, is helping our clients become more socially
minded so that they really do impact their communities in a positive way. Although we might
wholeheartedly believe in the importance of this mission, the number of tools available to
practitioners to increase a client’s motivation for community involvement and tolerance of others
is limited. High levels of anxiety and depression stemming from hidden traumas and hurts keep
people from becoming more involved outside their home, while a fear of their own emotions
keeps them from connecting to their authentic self and the values that might provide the intrinsic
motivation to communally connect (van der Kolk, 2014). The irony is that increased social
connectedness and connection to the authentic self are often the antidotes needed to combat the
very struggles the individual is in therapy for (Lantz, 1981; Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p.
156).
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When considering the platforms for community involvement, volunteerism is a natural
prospect. Research suggests there is a significant correlation between volunteering and overall
physical and mental wellbeing, and that those who volunteer demonstrate increased levels of
social interest values than non-volunteers (Hettman & Jenkins, 1990, p. 300). Volunteerism
provides the opportunity for an individual or family to find a sense of belonging within a group,
practice skills that can contribute to a sense of safety within that group, and to find a sense of
meaning outside of the self which contributes to an individual’s sense of significance within the
community, all of which are protective factors that increase an individual’s overall resilience to
life stressors (Wong, Fong & Lam, 2015).
Although some therapists encourage clients to volunteer as a part of treatment, there is
little support for therapists on specific techniques and interventions to capitalize on the
relationship between wellbeing and social interest. The purpose of this paper is to review the
literature regarding volunteerism, specifically as it is used as a social interest intervention within
a therapeutic setting, explore the research correlating volunteering and better mental health and
wellbeing, and the specific variables for obtaining the most benefit from volunteering. Major
terms will be defined and explored, such as volunteerism, Eudaimonia (or wellbeing), and social
interest. This information will be used to inform a business proposal to provide liaison services
between clients and volunteer opportunities.
Theoretical Background
Early Influence
To understand the cultural and individual importance of social interest, we must
understand the history of where it originated. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who lived around
300 BC, had an important influence on our understanding of ethics, morality, relationships, and
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virtues. His work was adapted by Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic saint from around 1250 AD, who
is still considered one of the church’s greatest theologians, and who heavily influenced the
medieval Christian church in the West. In turn, Rome and the church heavily influenced the
modern western world (Mclerny & O’Callaghan, 2014). Much of what Aristotle wrote about has
become incorporated into basic western culture. For example, the idea of a government led by a
group of civilians who work towards that which is best for the population as a whole, a value
system adopted by The United States of America, stems from the work of Aristotle and his
teacher Plato (Mclerny & O’Callaghan, 2014). Cultural values are often at the root of our own
individual values, which make up our authentic selves. Harmony with one’s authentic self is at
the root of well-being. This important concept will be defined and explained next.
In Aristotle’s work titled Nicomachian Ethics, he asserted that Eudaimonia, which might
be best translated as well-being, life-satisfaction, or resilience (contrary to the popular translation
of ‘happiness’; Wong, 2011) depends on the cultivation of virtues, the knowledge of which are
not innately possessed by individuals, but must instead be learned and perfected through habit
(Aristotle, trans. 1996, p. 1103a:25). One such virtue is the pursuit of friendship. In his book
Politics, Aristotle wrote that human beings are social animals, and that, “he who is unable to live
in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must either be a beast or a
god” (Aristotle, Ed. 2008, p. 1243a25-29). Without connection through relationships,
eudaimonia is unattainable.
Individual Psychology
Alfred Adler, an Austrian medical doctor and psychotherapist practicing in the early
1900’s, is known as the founder of Individual Psychology, and as one of the most influential
individuals on modern psychology (Alfred Adler, 2016). One of the defining tenants of
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Individual Psychology is that all people strive to belong, feel significant, and feel safe within a
community. When individuals attempt to achieve these things without cooperating with her/his
community but instead work against the other individuals also striving for these three needs,
Individual Psychology deems the individual unwell. Individual Psychology asserts that wellness
is achieved through social cooperation, or what Adler termed social interest (Alfred Adler,
2016).
The belief that social interest must be learned, and that Eudaimonia depends on its
acquisition, shows up over 2,000 years after Aristotle in the writings of Alfred Adler. In The
Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, a collection of Alfred Adler’s works edited by Heinz
Ansbacher and Rowena Ansbacher (1956), Adler is quoted as saying, “The ability to identify
must be trained, and it can be trained only if one grows up in relation to others and feels a part of
the whole” (p. 136). Further, he explained that one’s ability to identify with people is the
necessary basis for friendship and social interest, “and can be practiced and exercised only in
conjunction with others” (p. 136). Adler taught that the root of mental illness is a failure by the
individual to be socially interested through what he believes is an erroneous (but correctable)
attitude (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 91). To this end, he recommended therapists practice
being socially interested with clients in order to encourage the development of social interest in
clients, with the end goal of obtaining holistic wellness.
Development Theory
Moral Cognitive Developmental theory, a modern theory developed by Lawrence
Kohlberg, understands individual development as an attempt to interact competently within one’s
environment and maintains that well-being (Eudaimonia) and psychological health are dependent
on an individual’s ability to connect and relate to oneself and others through each stage of
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development (Brown & Gilligan, 1993; Romer, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The act of relating
or connecting to others must be done in conjunction with maintaining one’s own voice and sense
of autonomy, or well-being cannot be achieved (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 75). Furthermore, a
failure to maintain this balance between self and others results in a decreased ability to bounce
back from adversity. Current research shows that the resilience of the individual depends on the
learned ability to find the “free-flowing connections with oneself, with others and the world”
(Brown & Gilligan, 1993, p. 13); to see the future ideal held by our larger community,
understanding that we must each individually add our voice to that ideal in order to make it a
reality. According to Carol Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development theory, when we do our
part to live up to that ideal within our authentic self (not the perfectionistic ideal that our
inauthentic-self strives for) we find wellness and resilience within ourselves, leaving little room
for illness (Brown & Gilligan, 1993).
Family Systems Theory
Family Systems theory maintains that all people are influenced by the systems of which
they are a part. Families establish rules and expectations of individual family members while
larger community systems influence the rules and expectations of families (Broderick, 1993).
Each individual therefore responds to the individuals around them in the attempt to maintain
homeostasis, or the status quo of those rules and expectations.
Family Systems theory sets the framework for understanding family patterns. By
understanding the status quo the family members are attempting to maintain, the purpose of their
behavior can be better understood (Broderick, 1993, p. 8). Understanding the purpose of the
behaviors in relation to the family then allows the practitioner to bring awareness of the current
homeostasis to the family, allowing the therapist to align with the family in the shared goal of
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changing the status quo and thus changing the individual behaviors maintaining it (Broderick,
1993).
Because family systems theory believes all families are a part of a wider community, it
maintains that the vertical ordering of power and privilege within the society not only affects the
family, but affects the power and privilege dynamics of each individual within the family
(Broderick, 1993). By connecting the family to the wider community, a therapist can help the
family find a place within the community, helping to eliminate the vertical ordering negatively
affecting family dynamics (p. 51).
Gestalt Theory
Gestalt therapy is based on the belief that an individual’s reflection on her/his
experiences from moment to moment are crucial for the development and understanding of the
authentic self (Gilsdorf, 1997). Gestalt theory maintains that a therapist can help a client gain a
deeper understanding of an issue through experiential contact with the presenting problem or
access their subconscious through the use of creative, and often spontaneous, therapeutic
activities (p. 135). Experiential therapy conducted outside an office setting draws heavily on the
influence of Gestalt theory, believing in the power of spontaneous interactions to provide the
setting for developing a deeper awareness of the authentic self and of an individual’s subjective
understanding of her/his relationship to the past, present, and future world (p. 136).
Wilderness Therapy is one such out-of-office model for psychotherapy that has roots in
Gestalt theory and family systems theory. Both Gestalt and family systems theories maintain
that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. In relation to families, this refers to the
interconnection between individuals and all the various systems the individual is a part of. In
Gestalt theory, this phrase refers to the interconnection between all the systems (thinking,
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feeling, sensing, needing etc) within a single individual (Gilsdorf, 1997, p. 137). Wilderness
therapy integrates these two approaches to holism, incorporating bodily and mental experiences
for the individual and group with emotional awareness of the experiences. This might include
rope courses, spelunking, or hiking with a focus on teamwork and problem solving, with time to
process the experience as a group or individually afterward (New Vision Wilderness, n.d.).
Review of the Literature
Well-being and Social Interest
Research shows a strong correlation between the act of volunteering and increased well-
being. Fewer studies show causation, although several studies have been conducted on the basis
that by measuring self-reported well-being in conjunction with a social interest activity, the value
of that activity can be assessed. For example, James Lantz (1981), an Adlerian therapist,
explored depression levels between clients suffering from depression who were exposed to social
interest interventions as a part of their treatment, and clients suffering from depression who were
not exposed to social interest interventions in treatment. Lantz (1981), used 32 clients from a
mental health clinic seeing the same therapist for each of these groups. 16 were asked to
volunteer 2 hours per week at a volunteer site of their choice as a part of their treatment (p. 114).
The other 16 randomly assigned clients were not asked to volunteer. The clients rated their
depression before the treatment and after seven sessions. Lantz found a 38% variance between
the volunteer group and the non-volunteer group, indicating a causal relationship between
volunteering and decreased levels of depression when used as a therapeutic intervention (1981,
p. 115).
In one of the few longitudinal studies exploring the relationship between volunteerism
and well-being, Pillemer, Fuller-Rowell, Reid, and Wells, (2010) monitored the physical and
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mental health of close to 7,000 individuals over a 20 year period of time. The volunteer
activities focused on those with an environmental focus, and over the 20 year period found that
those individuals engaged in volunteer activities were 50% less likely to report depressive
symptoms 20 years after the start of the study as non-volunteers and were more likely to report
themselves in good health. Even in comparison to other volunteers, environmental volunteers
reported experiencing fewer depressive symptoms, possibly because being in nature added
additional health benefits to volunteering (Pillemer et al., 2010, p. 599).
Many other studies and reports exploring the relationship between volunteerism and well-
being have found similar correlations. The health benefits most often found to be correlated with
intrinsically motivated volunteering include: development of a better understanding of the
authentic self, improved self-concept, increased social capital, self-efficacy, happiness, life-
satisfaction, self-esteem, sense of control over life, physical health; and decreased depression,
mortality, work-life conflict and burnout at work (Miller, Schleien, Rider, Hall, Roche, &
Worsley, 2002, p. 247; Ramos, Brauchli, Bauer, Wehner, & Hammig, 2015, p. 165; Miller,
Schleien, Brook, Frisoli, & Brooks, 2005, p. 20). Although none of these studies or reports
managed to show a causational effect between these benefits and volunteerism, the fact that so
many independent studies and reports have found similar findings as to the benefits associated
with volunteering, provides compelling reason to encourage volunteerism amongst individuals
and families as a means of increasing overall well-being. While the Lantz (1981) study presented
the benefits of volunteering as multidimensional, explaining that the increased social contact is
good for individuals struggling with depression, the act of volunteering is distracting from
symptoms, and that the act of volunteering allows the client to stay active in the ongoing “fight”
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against depression (p. 114), other studies attribute the benefits of volunteering to increased social
capital (Hall et al., 2014; Miller et al., 2005).
Social capital, the resource provided by social connections, continues to be strongly
correlated with well-being. In a research article written by researchers Helliwell and Putnam
(2004), the authors found that more contact with people tends to increase an individual’s trust in
people, and that trust in people is strongly associated with higher levels of subjective well-being
(Helliwell & Putnam, 2004, p. 1441). This correlation holds true even when using suicide rates
in a given population as a measure of well-being, since life-satisfaction questionnaires may
reflect temporary state of affairs or different adaptation of conditions to different populations (p.
1444). This trust is the basis for a sense of belonging in a group, a factor that has been proven to
be important for subjective well-being (Brown, Hoye & Nicholson, 2012, p. 473).
Community Connection
Volunteering is an opportunity to be a part of a group of individuals with similar values, a
quality which helps bridge the individual members and create a sense of cohesion and belonging.
Since the group is founded on a social interest activity, the group reinforces the importance of
social interest, and additionally has the opportunity to provide important emotional and tangible
supports to individuals during challenging moments in life (Haski-Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009, p.
63). In a research study conducted by Haski-Leventhal and Cnaan (2009), researchers found that
when volunteers are trained together and given the opportunity for self-disclosure throughout the
initial building of the group, an emotional intimacy is built which additionally helps to bridge the
volunteers and help them feel close (p. 72). The researchers concluded that this process helped
counter the otherwise common effects of new volunteers experiencing anxiety and a feeling of
social ineptitude, both of which lead to a suppressed sense of belonging (p. 72).
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Using volunteering as a therapeutic tool within a structured therapy format would give
clients the opportunity to build emotional intimacy through verbal processing in the group
therapy as well as through the initial training for the volunteer activity (Haski-Leventhal &
Cnaan, 2009). Additionally, some research suggested that clients from various SES and cultural
backgrounds volunteering together builds trust and tolerance amongst the volunteers
(Manatschal, 2015, p. 234). These factors are important for increasing an individual’s or
family’s support network, which as a whole increases their resilience.
Family Connection
Research on the effects of volunteering on well-being has not been limited to individuals.
Several small studies have looked at how volunteering increases the well-being of families as
well. In addition to the benefits of volunteering to the individual (increased self-esteem,
increased sense of meaning in life and increased social connection and social skills), families
who volunteer together benefit from building experiences together and increasing the number of
positive interactions they share, both of which strengthen family relationships (Lewton & Nievar,
2012, p. 696). In an exploratory study conducted by Littlepage, Obergfell and Zahin (2003), for
The Center for Urban Policy and the Environment at Indiana University-Purdue, families
reported that volunteering together contributed to feeling more like a team, realizing the
importance of each member towards their success as a family, and a higher sense of respect for
one another. Additionally, in a qualitative study done by Palmer, Freeman, and Zabriskie
(2007), the authors found that more intense family volunteer experiences had increased benefits,
including a positive effect on the families’ long-term identities, which seemed to be the result of
experiencing challenges and sacrificing of family resources for the sake of others. The authors
refer to this effect as the family deepening process (Palmer et al., 2007). In a study conducted by
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Neill and Dias (2001) on adventure education, exposure to challenge increased an individual’s
psychological resilience. The authors compare the increase in psychological resilience in the
face of challenge to the process of immunizations, “Just as immunity to infections is gained
through the controlled exposure to a pathogen…so too successful encountering of difficult
challenges can provide a form of psychological inoculation” (Neill & Dias, 2001, p. 2). The
study supports the observation made by Palmer et al., (2007) suggesting that the family
deepening referred to may be an increase in the families’ resilience as a result of the exposure to
challenge faced by the families Palmer et al. observed.
In a small study conducted by the department of social work at the University of Hong
Kong, researchers Wong, Fong and Lam (2015) used volunteering as a platform for increasing a
family or individual’s protective factors (including locus of control, meaning of life, family
cohesion, social support, and access to community resources). The study found that an
individual or family’s ability to manage difficult life circumstances and stressors was increased
when the protective factors were increased through volunteerism (Wong et al., 2015, p. 25). The
importance of this increase in resilience through volunteerism is summed up in well-known
trauma researcher Bessel van der Kolk’s (2014) book, The Body Keeps the Score. Van der Kolk
wrote, “Study after study shows that having a good support network constitutes the single most
powerful protection against becoming traumatized” (p. 212). Furthermore he asserted,
“Traumatized human beings recover in the context of relationships: with families, loved ones,
AA meetings, veteran’s organizations, religious communities, or professional
therapists…Recovery from trauma involves (re)connecting with our fellow human beings” (p.
212).
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Limitations and Future Considerations
The studies showing causational effect between volunteering and increased mental well-
being are small and have not been replicated. Due to the large number of studies showing
significant correlation between well-being and volunteerism however, many consider the current
research to have validated the theory that volunteerism promotes well-being (Son & Wilson,
2012; Miller et al., 2002). Many of the studies suffer from selection bias. For this reason, using
volunteering as an intervention would be beneficial only if the client is genuinely interested in
participating. Research suggested that individuals who are not interested in volunteering or are
forced to volunteer, benefit less from the experience than individuals who have a choice in
whether and where they volunteer (Miller et al., 2005).
In regards to family volunteerism, the biggest limitation to the current research is that a
search doesn’t yield many results, and the articles written on the topic are qualitative and rely on
small sample sizes. These findings are thus best used theoretically. Nevertheless, in an article
written by Lewton and Nievar (2012), the authors posit that family life educators can use the
findings to increase family well-being by using volunteer activities as a platform for observing
family interactions and helping them apply skills (p. 698).
Many of the studies cited above support the finding that health benefits are not universal
to everyone who volunteers. In a study conducted by Black and Living (2004), volunteers were
asked to complete surveys exploring their experiences volunteering and their motivations to
volunteer. By comparing these two variables, Black and Living (2004) concluded that
volunteers’ level of motivation to volunteer (in part determined by the individual’s interest in the
particular volunteer activity) affects the experience of volunteering overall (p. 528). Since many
of the mental health benefits associated with volunteering include opportunities (such as
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increasing self-esteem, social supports, and community engagement), the experiences of the
volunteers play a significant role in determining the benefits they gain from volunteering. Other
research has substantiated these findings. In a study conducted by Miller et al., (2002),
researchers found that the volunteers’ interest in the activity positively affected the self-reported
positive effects of the volunteer experience on well-being. When volunteers were allowed to
choose their experience or when their recreational activities were converted to volunteer
opportunities, the individuals experienced greater increases in well-being.
Group dynamics and relationships were also found to play a large role in the volunteer
experience. Haski-Levelnthal and Cnaan (2009) found that the group is what influences an
individual to volunteer in the first place, impacts how hard the volunteer works, and impacts
when the volunteer decides to leave. For this reason, the group dynamics will need to be
monitored and addressed if the volunteer group is to be used therapeutically. Each individual
will need to be selected based on how well s/he will fit in with the current group, just as is done
with any therapeutic group. This is especially important when considering that in a study
examining the relationship between subjective well-being and volunteering. Pilkington,
Windsor, and Crisp (2012) found that contact with family and friends is a more substantial
mediator of subjective well-being than contact with other community members. Furthermore, in
a study conducted by Greenfield and Marks (2004) on whether volunteering acts as a protective
factor for older adult’s psychological well-being, results indicated that when an individual has
experienced role-identity losses (such as might be lost with death or job-loss), volunteering acts
as a protective factor against the lost sense of purpose that often accompanies a role-identity loss
(p. 262). Considering that other research indicated that possessing certain roles (such as life-
partner) and increasing the number of identity-roles an individual possesses is correlated with
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heightened psychological well-being (Black & Living, 2004), building relationships amongst
volunteers as a way of increasing identity-roles may be an important mediator for well-being
(Piliavin & Siegl, 2007, p. 451).
Finally, research by Wong et al., (2015), found that debriefings of the volunteer
experienced allowed the individuals and families internalize the experience in a way that
positively impacted the well-being associated with volunteering. These debriefings also seemed
to provide individuals and families with the opportunity to increase protective factors associated
with resilience, such as increased access to community resources and bridging between social
groups (p. 673). Haski-Leventhal and Cnaan (2009) similarly found that debriefings before and
after the volunteer experience increased the deepening process amongst volunteers, increasing
the protective factor of social capital (p. 72), and Miller et al. (2005) found that the health
benefits associated with volunteering can be positively affected by checking in with the
volunteer to ensure the volunteer feels valued and comfortable (p. 24). The long-term health
benefits associated with volunteering are diminished when volunteers do not feel appreciated in
the experience (McMunn, Nazroo, Wahrendorf, Breeze, & Zaninotto, 2009).
In summery, the specific correlates for obtaining the most benefit from volunteering
include an individual’s interest in the volunteer experience, the closeness of the relationships
built within the group, and taking time before and after the experience to debrief. If volunteering
is to be used therapeutically, the model will need to include a variety of experiences for the client
to choose from, an intake interview to assess whether the individual is a good fit for the group
(someone suffering from an eating disorder who is not managing symptom use will not be a good
fit for a couple or family experience with a focus on cooking), and will need to provide time
before and after each volunteer experience for the group to connect, process, and debrief.
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Additionally, there is limited research suggesting that encountering challenges enhances
individual and potentially family resilience (Neill & Dias, 2001; Palmer et al., 2007). Physical
adventures in some of the choices can offer this challenge, while asking individuals, couples and
families to reflect on the challenges faced and overcome during the debriefings may be sufficient
to build resilience (Neill & Dias, 2001).
Volunteering as a Therapeutic Intervention
Traditional family psychotherapy takes place in an office or group room, where a
therapist can get to know the family, build rapport, understand their presenting problem, and help
the family overcome said problem. While this method is often effective and has many benefits,
it also has its downfalls (Zur, 2001). From a systems perspective, when a family presents for
therapy, the therapist is consistently looking for the systemic patterns upholding the presenting
problem. This includes (but is not limited to) the family’s decision making process, conflict
style, conflict resolution style, and communication styles (Broderick, 1993). Within an office, it
can take time for a family to reveal these patterns to a therapist, in part because an office is an
unusual setting for the family to interact (Woods, 1998). Furthermore, a family might put on a
“show” for the therapist, using different styles in the office than are typically used at home.
When a therapist gives homework, asking the family to practice a new skill, many families come
back the next session without having done said homework (Woods, 1998).
A possible solution to this set of problems is to transfer the therapy outside the office.
Therapists have found that home visits can be a more pragmatic way of connecting with a client
or family who is too unsystematic, busy, sick or impoverished to make it into an office (Zur,
2001). It also provides the therapist with the opportunity to observe the context of the family life
(Zur, 2001). While this concept is not new, it is also not widely used as a therapeutic tool.
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Instead of using the out of office experience as a tool itself, the home is instead treated as the
office in which traditional psychotherapy takes place.
There are other opportunities for increasing mental well-being outside of an office
setting. As the research above suggested, there is a significant correlation between volunteering
and Eudaimonia, which is increased when the volunteer experience is being encouraged,
processed and monitored to help ensure it is a positive experience (Neill & Dias, 2001; Haski-
Leventhal & Cnaan, 2009). Because using therapy as a means for increasing social capital is not
a new idea, the therapy office is an ideal setting for supporting volunteering as a means of
obtaining the health benefits associated with social interest tasks, such as volunteering.
Therapeutic methods such as Interpersonal Therapy and Career Counseling are proven, effective
interventions based in building social capital as a way of helping a client obtain wellness and
achieve personal goals (Swartz et al., 2008).
Not only does volunteering help the client to build social capital, it decreases stigma of
individuals with mental illness in the community, increasing the chances of the client finding a
community in which s/he feels like a valuable member. As Miller et al., (2005) point out, “There
is ‘hard evidence that our school and neighborhoods don’t work so well when community bonds
slacken, that our economy, our democracy, and even our health and happiness depend on
adequate stocks of social capital’” (p. 20).
Conclusion
One of the beautiful things about psychotherapy, and likely one of the reasons many of us
choose this field, is to help foster a (re)connection between an individual and her/his community.
A therapist helps encourage a client to connect with her/him, as a way of practicing what it
means to be vulnerable and to intimately connect with other human beings. Although an
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important starting point, connecting with one human being who is sworn to confidentiality and
who is professionally trained not to cast judgement, is a very different experience than
connecting to a varied group of community members and neighbors. Volunteering has the
unique opportunity to provide this context.
Volunteering moves beyond the boundary walls of a counseling office, proving for a
limitless intervention. Unlike a religious group, which requires a belief in a common system, or
an AA group, which requires the desire to overcome a common challenge, a volunteer group has
no condition beyond a willingness to engage in some form of work. Whereas a religious group
or a support group (such as AA) has limitations on the person in order to join, a volunteer group
has the potential to reach a wider variety of individuals with a variety of reasons for joining.
Volunteering also builds resilience by increasing one’s community and social network (Haski-
Levelnthal & Cnaan, 2009, p. 66; van der Kolk, 2014). An individual who builds community
with an individual or family from a different culture, SES, or struggling with a different set of
problems, not only builds tolerance and understanding for these differences, decreasing the
likelihood of experiencing anxiety and fear when coming into contact with individuals from
these various walks of life (Manatschal, 2015, p. 234), but is building social interest as Adler
first imagined it.
Adler asserted that social interest in its truest form is not simply a striving for community
amongst a particular political or religious group, but is at its core, “…a goal which would have to
signify the ideal community of all mankind [italicized for emphasis]” (Adler, as cited in
Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 142). Connecting to community is about feeling safe,
significant, and feeling like we belong to others’ lives and to something bigger than ourselves, all
of which play an important role in healing. The idea for Soul Support Network arose from this
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
21
recognized need. Despite the many benefits of volunteering, there are few resources available to
practitioners to utilize volunteering as a tool within psychotherapy. Not only do individuals,
couples, and families deserve access to all the tools available for healing, but our world and all
the individuals in it deserve access to all the untapped social interest the individuals seeking
treatment have to offer. The business I have proposed (see Appendix) aims to meet that need.
Soul Support Network will employ psychotherapists to help foster social connection and
Eudaimonia through various volunteer activities, helping individuals and families find a space
where they are challenged to grow, embraced as significant, and reminded of their belonging in
the diverse world we all call home.
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
22
References
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SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
23
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SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
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SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
27
Appendix
Business Proposal:
Soul Support Network
Submitted by: Linnea M. S. Logas
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
28
Business Proposal: Soul Support Network
This is a proposal for Soul Support Network, a company dedicated to supporting social
interest outside the therapy office. This proposal will allow for the seamless integration of
volunteering as a therapeutic tool. Soul Support Network will provide the tools necessary for
therapists to be able to assess an individual’s and family’s interests and strengths, and to assess
client progress throughout the volunteer experience. These tools will include surveys to monitor
enjoyment, perceived value, and perceived appreciation of the experience, and traditional
interpersonal therapy interventions to support the continued building of social capital through the
volunteer experience. Furthermore, Soul Support Network will facilitate contact between clients
and volunteer sites and provide additional supports for clients who need extra help in order to
carry out volunteer responsibilities.
Soul Support Network will be run by a group of psychotherapists who will not only
facilitate the volunteer process, but will be onsite to observe the participating individuals and
families. This will give the therapists a unique glimpse into individual and families decision
making processes, social skills, strengths, conflict styles and resolution styles. Process time
before and after each volunteer day will give the therapists the opportunity to teach skills based
on what they have observed necessary, and will provide clients with the opportunity to process
the experience together, building bonds between the volunteers and following what research
suggests is best practice for obtaining well-being through the experience.
Similar Business Models
Adventure & Wilderness Therapy. Family Adventure Therapy and Wilderness Therapy
programs began emerging in the United States in the 1980’s as a way of building trust,
communication and problem solving skills amongst individuals and families (Neill, 2004, Family
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
29
Adventure Therapy). While these programs do not include volunteer components to build
resilience through social capital, they are based in many of the same theories as Soul Support
Network. New Vision Wilderness is one such organization, focused on serving underserved
youth in the Midwest and north-pacific since 2007 through a combination of psychotherapy and
adventure experiences (“New Vision Wilderness” n.d.).
Cost. New Vision Wilderness (NVW) includes family therapy at the beginning and end
of each youth’s stay with the program. The average length of stay is between 6-10 weeks, and
uses a variety of therapeutic techniques throughout the program including EMDR and art therapy
in addition to the adventure expeditions. Due to insurance not covering the entire cost of the
program, NVW has opted out of accepting insurance. The cost of the program includes an
enrollment fee of $1950 plus a daily fee of $485. This cost covers an initial assessment of the
client, treatment planning, individual therapy 3x per week as well as regular group therapy, gear
and meals for the duration of the program, adventure outings (such as kayaking, rock climbing
and fishing), and continued support through collaboration with schools and therapists after the
completion of the program (“New Vision Wilderness”, n.d.).
The model of New Vision Wilderness seems to be standard for adventure therapy
programs. The majority of programs serve at-risk youth and have some but limited contact with
family members. Equinox Counseling and Wellness Center (ECWC), founded in 2009, is
somewhat unique. ECWC offers shorter adventure therapy trips to adolescents as a part of their
overall family therapy treatment, with the intent of making the transition back to family life more
seamless than programs with long outings and no family contact during the trip. The families are
not involved in the adventure portion of the trip, but are included in the overall therapy
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
30
experience before and after the program (Equinox Counseling and Wellness Center, 2016).
Despite contacting ECWC multiple times, I was unable to obtain information on client costs.
Family Service Vacations. Volunteer tourism has its roots in the aftermath of WWII,
when organizations began to form to bring individuals to other regions and countries to aid in
clean-up efforts. In the 1960’s, President John F. Kennedy started the Peace Corps, a federal
organization to encourage students to be worldwide ambassadors to developing nations
(“Volunteer Tourism Views”, 2013). It wasn’t until 1971 when the first paid-for service vacation
model was created by Earthwatch Institute (“Earthwatch Institute”, 2014). Since that time, many
more organizations have capitalized on the trend of volunteer tourism, with an estimated 800
tourist organizations offering service trips to individuals and families (“What is the size of the
Voluntourism Market”, 2013), and Travel Agent journal reporting volunteer tourism as one of
the fastest growing areas of tourism (Rogers, 2007).
Cost. On average, a week-long domestic service trip through the Sierra Club focusing on
environmental stewardship costs $620 per person (“Sierra Club Outings”, 2016) and a domestic
trip through Global Citizens focusing on community outreach costs $1,000, with children’s costs
averaging 30% less for both organizations (“Global Citizens Network”, 2016). These prices are
consistent with other non-service oriented tourist businesses. Wilderness Inquiry averages $725
for a week long expedition to the boundary waters (“Wilderness Inquiry”, 2015). International
service trips through Global Citizens average $3,000 for a two week trip, while Wilderness
Inquiry averages $3,900 (“Global Citizens Network”, 2016; “Wilderness Inquiry”, 2015).
After reading about the success these various adventure therapy programs and volunteer
tourism agencies have had over the last 10-20 years, I developed my business plan for Soul
Support Network with some important changes to what seems to be the current standard business
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
31
model. Unlike other adventure therapy programs, Soul Support Network will include couples and
families throughout the entire experience, will have a focus on volunteering instead of adventure
(although adventure will be a part of some of the offered experiences), and will cater to all
families, not just families with youth at-risk. The business model reflects the interest people have
in volunteer tourism, while using best practices suggested by research to ensure lasting and
meaningful change for the individuals and families participating in the programs.
Mission Statement
Soul Support Network is a non-profit organization run by a dedicated group of therapists
who believe strongly in the healing capacity of community. Through a variety of enriching
volunteer experiences, individuals and families are given the opportunities and supports needed
to strengthen relationships, fortify emotional and mental well-being, and build community.
Objectives
To facilitate individuals’ and families’ goals towards well-being, including but not
limited to increased self-esteem, increased self-efficacy, increased life-satisfaction, and
decrease in self-reported depression and anxiety
To increase individuals’ and families’ resilience through increased protective factors
including social skills, social networks, and community resources
To increase individuals’ and families’ access to populations diverse from their own as a
means of building tolerance and social connection
Services
Individuals, families and couples who are looking for reconnection or struggling with
depression, a sense of meaninglessness, or anxiety are best fit for the treatment provided in this
program. Due to the lack of insurance coverage, the first phases of this program will cater to
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
32
higher SES populations, with the goal of increasing the SES range as grants and scholarships
become available. Clients will not be asked to participate in a set number of programs, but will
instead be able to choose the program that best fits their needs. Upon the initial intake session
with a therapist, clients may be advised to consider participating in one program over another
depending on goals and treatment needs. Research shows that the increase in well-being is not
determined by the number of hours spent volunteering, but is determined the time allocated to
building social bonds between the volunteers (Haski-Levelnthal & Cnaan, 2009).
In order to ensure the best possible success for the groups as a whole, individuals
struggling with eating disorders, high levels of social anxiety, suicidal ideation, and unmanaged
narcissism, borderline, and bi-polar will not be eligible. Once symptoms are being managed,
these individuals are welcome to participate.
Staffing
See Start Up Costs for specific FTE’s. There will be a psychotherapist present at every
group therapy session for every two families or couples present, or for every 6 people in the
group, with a minimum of two psychotherapists for any volunteer excursion. All
psychotherapists will be licensed in the state of Minnesota, and will only treat individuals,
couples and families living in Minnesota. Two staff members will be present for all non-
therapeutic, planned group activities for every two families or couples present, or for every 6
people in the group.
Space
The space needed for the program to run is minimal. A group room, a kitchen, a private
admin office, and an office space to hold several staff will be needed. Before and after
excursions, clients will be invited to meet at a central office space at Aslan Institute, 4141 Old
Sibley Memorial Hwy Eagan, MN 55122, to do any psychoeducation needed around the trip, go
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
33
over group norms and expectations, de-brief after the outing, and to process as a group. On the 1-
2 week long trips, clients will be expected to meet every morning and every night to debrief and
process.
Program Timeline
Phase 1
o Weekend volunteer opportunities with a small group. Individuals, couples or
families will be provided a therapy session at the beginning of the weekend to
address any concerns and establish goals with the therapist, in addition to group
therapy provided throughout the weekend.
Local: Cooking classes with families or couples where the meal made
together is enjoyed as a group, and where extra is made and brought to
community members in need
Environmental: Weekend excursion to a state or national forest to
volunteer clearing trails, picking up trash, taking water samples, or
anything else the park service needs at that time
Cultural: Weekend trip to White Earth Reservation in north-central
Minnesota to tutor children, work in the community gardens, or help
refurbish historical buildings. History about the reservation and the
Anishinaabe will be included as a part of the experience.
Phase 2
o 1-2 Week long volunteer opportunities with a small group, paid for out of pocket
or through insurance as an outpatient program. Individuals, couples or families
will be provided therapy sessions 2-3x per week in addition to the group therapy
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
34
provided daily. Each individual, couple or family will also have an initial hour
and a half long intake before the week commences to establish a treatment plan.
Local: Work with the Minnesota Food Network to gather, sort, and clean
food from neighborhoods and local farms. A portion of the food gathered
will be brought to local food shelves throughout the twin cities, while a
portion of the food will be cooked into meals and served at soup kitchens
in the twin cities. Volunteers will have the opportunity to be a part of each
step of this process.
Environmental: Week long excursion to the boundary waters for couples
and families, helping the park service with trail clearing or other activities
needed at that time.
Cultural and environmental retreat: A two week long break from reality in
beautiful Hawaii, where individuals, couples, and families will participate
in art therapy, yoga, and participate in volunteer activities. These activities
might include coastal clean-up, Honu turtle preservation, tutoring in the
schools, or helping build homes for underprivileged families. Retreat will
include group outings to snorkel, whale watch, stare gaze, and learn about
Hawaii’s rich cultural heritage.
Phase 3
o Grants will be written to provide scholarships to at-risk youth and their families to
participate in the small groups. This is based on research conducted by Morrow-
Howell, Hong, & Tang (2009) who found that individuals with lower SES
reported more benefit from volunteering than their higher SES counterparts.
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
35
o Grants will also be written to hire bi-lingual psychotherapists to give multi-
cultural families the opportunity to be involved in the small groups.
Phase 4
o Tailor specific groups to specific challenges clients are facing. For example,
individuals overcoming an eating disorder and their families will be invited to
participate in an outing as a group. This could include individuals suffering from
anxiety, marital or family distance and conflict, depression, addiction, feelings of
meaninglessness, families or individuals looking for support after a serious illness
such as cancer, or grief support.
Reimbursement
Soul Support Network will be in-network with most major insurance companies as long
as the insurance company deems the need for this alternative therapy necessary and relevant.
Insurance is reserved for medically necessary treatment, so while research supports the medical
benefits of volunteering, insurance is unlikely to reimburse for the entirety of this program. If an
individual is seeking treatment for a diagnosable mental-health illness, insurance may cover the
psychotherapy portion of the program depending on the individual’s insurance plan. Insurance
may also cover specific interventions, such as art therapy sessions and yoga sessions. Family
therapy and couple’s therapy will be out-of-pocket unless the family is seeking supportive
treatment for one individual in the family with a diagnosable mental-health illness. The cost of
travel, lodging, food, and extra activities will be covered out-of-pocket.
For individuals and families who cannot afford the cost out-of-pocket but who still wish
to participate, health care lending companies such as Prosper will be presented as options. Grants
written in the final phases of Soul Support Network will also help provide scholarships for
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
36
individuals and families who cannot afford services otherwise. There will also be a sliding scale
fee. This sliding fee will be put into effect the second year of operation in order to ensure the
financial stability of the business. The sliding scale fee will be described as stated below:
For some individuals it is financially difficult to make use of self-pay therapy. If you feel
you cannot afford the full fee per session, then calculate the sliding fee for each session
as follows: divide your annual gross income for all wage earners in the household during
the most recent tax year by the number 500. This will give you an approximation of the
sliding fee for each session. Example: if the gross annual income for all wage earners in
the household is $50,000, then divide it by 500, and the sliding fee is $100 for each
session. A minimum fee of $80 is requested per session. If $80 is still too high, there are
scholarships available to cover or help off-set the cost. While groups cannot be offered on
a discount at this time, there are scholarships and lending options available for qualifying
individuals. We can discuss these options when you come in for your first session or free
phone consultation.
After the first year, the number to divide income by will increase to 1000, with a minimum fee of
$40 in order to make services more accessible to a wider group of clients. Scholarships will
continue to be offered to these individuals to help offset the $40 fee if this is still too high.
Startup Costs
Startup costs are determined by costs associated with phase 1. Subsequent phases will be
incorporated in years to come as Soul Support Network establishes revenue, a client base, and
works out the inevitable kinks that come with starting a business. Expenditures and revenue
sources will both change with each phase, but the baseline for both will be those established in
phase 1. The following startup budget outlines one-time expenditures associated with the initial
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
37
startup, anticipated monthly expenditures associated with the first year of phase 1, and
anticipated monthly revenue associated with the first year of phase 1.
Table 1
Start Up Costs: Soul Support Network
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
(A) Staff and Personnel
("Wilderness Therapy Jobs", 2016; "Catering & Chef Services,
2016).
2 Weekday therapists
Conduct individual and family therapy sessions 3-4 days per week for 50 minute sessions $80.00 224 $17,920.00
2 Weekend (1 day) event therapists
Pay per day, operates 1x per month $300.00 2 $600.00
2 Full Weekend (2 day) event therapists
Pay per day, operates 2x per month $300.00 8 $2,400.00
Chef
Teaches one weekend cooking class per month (3 hours + 2 hours prep and clean up + 1 hour shopping) 1 hour planning the month's event meals $60.00 7 $420.00
Prep cook Shopping and assembling weekend meals $18.00 12 $216.00
FICA & Medicare (7.65% salary)
$1,649.03
(Paycor, 2016).
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
38
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Total Monthly Payroll Expenses $23,205.03
(B) Monthly Office & Admin Costs
Business Insurance
$250 1 $250
("Business Insurance Cost
Analysis", 2016).
Workman's Comp
Includes liability insurance for therapists and workman’s comp for all non-therapist employees $50 1 $50
("Business Insurance Cost
Analysis", 2016).
Rent Office space for two therapists weekly $900 1 $900
(B. Lahn, personal
communication, July 21, 2016).
Rent
Retreat spaces including kitchen space and group room $200 1 $200
(B. Lahn, personal
communication, July 21, 2016).
Website Hosting
$25 1 $25 (Palmer, 2014).
HIPPA compliant Software $36 1 $36
(Centore, 2016).
Email Host HIPPA Compliant $4 1 $4 (Palmer, 2014).
Phone/Internet
$40 1 $40 (Palmer, 2014).
Public Utilities Shared amongst all renters $100 1 $100
(B. Lahn, personal
communication, July 21, 2016).
Office Supplies Tissues, coffee & tea, printer paper $25 1 $25
(Centore, 2016).
Van Payments
Van for transport for weekend events $350 1 $350
("Used Full Size Van For Sale",
2016).
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
39
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Gas
400 miles 1x per month + 100 miles 1x per month, 16 gallons per mile, average gas cost of $3. 25 per gallon $300 1 $300
Food Costs
Food for cooking class and meals for weekend events $500 1 $500
(R. Logas, personal
communication, August 12,
2016).
Lodging
One night tent rental in state park, two night lodge rental at White Earth Reservation $880 1 $880
("Outfitting and Rental", 2016;
"Cabins & Rates", 2015).
Total Monthly Office/Admin Expenses $3,660
Total Monthly Expenses
$26,865.19
(B) One-time startup costs
Office decor & signage
$1,000 1 $1,000 (Centore,
2016).
Rent deposit
$800 1 $800
(B. Lahn, personal
communication, July 21, 2016).
Legal Fees Incorporating business through Legalzoom.com $1,500 1 $1,500
(Centore, 2016; R. Logas, personal
communication, August 12,
2016).
Business cards and brochures $400 1 $400 ("MOO", n.d.).
Website Design
$600 1 $600 (Katkin, 2015).
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
40
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Expense Category
Printer
$200 1 $200 (Palmer, 2014).
One time miscelanious
$1,000 1 $1,000 (Centore,
2016).
1x startup costs: Total
$5,500
Projected Expenses for the first month: Total $32,365.19
Projected Revenue Source
Description Monthly Total
Wkly Tx, Pd by Client or Ins
$120/Session, 28 sessions/wk per therapist $26,880
Cooking Class $215.5/person, 8 people, 1 class per month $1,724
Environmental Outing
$350/person, 8 people, 1 class per month $2,800
Cultural Outing $400/person, 8 people, 1 class per month $3,200
Total Monthly Revenue
$34,604
Total Projected Expenses for the first month $32,365.19
Total Surplus, first month
$2,238.81
Total Projected Expenses after first month $26,865.19
Projected Surplus, after 1st mo. - Total $7,738.81
SUPPORTED SOCIAL INTEREST
41
References
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amenities/
Canoe rentals and camping equipment rentals. (2016). Retrieved from
http://elyoutfittingcompany.com/boundary-waters-canoe-gear-rentals-shuttles/
Catering & Chef Services. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.angieslist.com/research/catering-
and-chef-services/
Centore, A. (2016, May 9). How much money can a counselor in private practice make? [Web
log comment]. Retrieved from www.thriveworks.com/blog/how-much-money-can-a-
counselor-in-private-practice-make/
Earthwatch Institute. (2014). History of Earthwatch. Retrieved from
http://earthwatch.org/about/history-of-earthwatch
Gilsdorf, R. (1997, July). Gestalt and adventure therapy: Parallels and perspectives. In Exploring
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