Continuing Professional Development

Version 1.0

A-level Textiles

Maximising student performance in the AS and A2 written papers (Units 1 and 3) Industrial Design and Manufacture

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Permission to reproduce all copyright materials have been applied for. In some cases, efforts to contact copyright holders have been unsuccessful and AQA will be happy to rectify any omissions of acknowledgements in future documents if required.

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Contents Page The Manufacture of Textile products 4 Computer Aided Design 5 Bulk Manufacture 8 Production Systems 11 Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) 14 Working in the Fashion Industry 17 Quality Assurance and Control 18 Quality Control Standards 19 Health and Safety in the Work Place 20 Health and Safety for the Consumer 21 Health and Safety Legislation Related to Textile Products 22 Textiles Manufacture and the Environment 23 Textiles Manufacture and Moral Issues 24 Some Useful Sources of Information 25

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The manufacture of textile products

Fashion is one of the most important industries in the world and is made up of a number of inter-related and complex processes. New textile and fashion products are continually appearing in the shops. People buy new products, even though ones they already own may not be worn out. They want the latest fashions or technological developments, because they are concerned with their image of themselves, and how other people see them. But the world of fashion is not just about pandering to people’s illusions about themselves; it is a multi-million pound industry driven by the need to make profit. This complex industry has three essential parts – designing, manufacturing, and distribution. Manufacturers need to make interesting new and different products if they are to stay in business. Many manufacturing companies employ a designer to come up with new ideas. Once the products have been manufactured, they have to be sent to the retailers so that they can be sold to consumers. The process of distribution, ie getting the products from the manufacturer to the retail customer, can be further broken down into marketing, merchandising, advertising and display. The designer needs to constantly come up with new ideas before developing them into an end product which is appropriate for the intended market. Often a designer will start with a product that is already selling well and make minor modifications to bring it up to date, or make it look slightly different so that people will be tempted to buy a new one. A designer will generally be expected to work with the manufacturer in order to ensure that products are capable of being manufactured efficiently and safely and to the final specifications. The designer needs to work with the production team to make sure that:

• their ideas can be manufactured in quantity • the products they design are safe for the end user • the products are safe to manufacture • the products do not give offence to anyone • environmental issues are considered • a profit can be made.

Designers usually work to a theme, eg Japanese/Indian/Mexican culture. They need a source of inspiration to help them think of new ideas. Sometimes they look at the work of artists, eg Klimt, Matisse. They visit trade fairs and catwalk shows and study trend forecasts to see in which direction fashion trends are moving. Fashion trends often repeat themselves and designers will look to other eras for inspiration, eg the 1960s, 1980s. Fashion products are made for many different markets and a design house may have different lines with different levels of quality, price, target market, and method of production. This may include couture (one-off or bespoke), Ready-to-wear (Prêt-à-porter), diffusion lines, limited editions, budget ranges.

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Computer Aided Design (CAD)

A designer may use CAD to help develop ideas. Some of the many ways that CAD can help a designer include:

• using computer programmes to experiment with colour and texture • designing repeat patterns for fabric prints, embroidery designs, knitted or woven pattern • making a virtual prototype to see what a product might look like in different colourways and fabric

textures and on a human form • developing pattern templates • providing a database of images which can be adapted and changed as required • communicating ideas through presentation boards • showing the likely costs of making the product through the use of spreadsheets.

This computer programme enables the designer to select different fabric, patterns and colourings and create a range of garments from one design.

(Extract from Design & Make It! Textiles Technology)

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Design development

The client will want to look at the first design ideas and choose some for development. The ideas will need to be presented clearly. A designer will probably use a presentation board to show ideas. The presentation board will have sketches of the products and some samples of the fabrics and components which could be used. When some ideas have been chosen they will need to be developed into final designs. Some of the development will probably be done using computers. The pictures below show some of the ways that CAD is used in industrial design.

Computer programmes can be used to experiment with colour and pattern.

Fabric patterns can be stored on the computer and overlaid onto the design sketches to see what the finished product will look like.

The computer can be used to show a 3-D model of a garment and develop the pattern templates needed to make it.

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A virtual garment can be shown on a model to see how different fabrics will look when made up.

(All images from Clothing Technology) As well as the style, the designer needs to think about the fabric and components that may be used. Sometimes there are performance codes, such as those recommended by BSI, which the fabrics and components are expected to reach, eg fabrics selected for children’s nightwear must be flame retardant. It is usual for at least one prototype to be made. This is for a number of reasons:

• it tests out the design and gives ideas for development • it shows what the final product will look like • any problems can be put right before manufacture starts • it helps with the planning for manufacture • it provides a sealed sample of the product.

Prototypes are usually made from a cheap fabric such as calico, but may also be made from fabrics similar to the one to be used for a product if it is important to test the effect of the fabric, eg where a knitted fabric is used to give fluidity to a garment. Virtual prototypes are also used to test design ideas and these have the advantage of being much quicker to develop and to change and do not use fabric, making them cheaper and more environmentally friendly. They can also show how the product will move when on a body and how the product will look in different colour ranges. However, the cost of the software can be very expensive, it will not be possible to test out the manufacturing processes and it will not provide a sealed sample which is used to set the standards for manufacture.

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Bulk manufacture

When a final design has been chosen for bulk manufacture a pattern or template is made. If it is a fashion product, the patterns will be developed from basic blocks and will probably be done on a computer. If the product has been manufactured before, the existing pattern will be used again. The computer programme has pattern shapes for basic products. These patterns are called standardised designs and are adapted to make the new template. The computer makes the new patterns quickly and accurately and grades the patterns so that different sizes of the product can be made.

Making a basic patter Grading a pattern The computer can also produce a lay plan which shows where the pattern pieces should be placed on the fabric so that:

• there is minimum wastage • different sizes can be cut together to reduce waste • all the pattern pieces are cut out • any pattern, one-way design or nap in the fabric is taken account of • pattern pieces are cut on the correct grain of the fabric.

A computerised lay plan places the pattern templates as close together as possible so that the fabric is used very economically.

Enough fabric to make the products will be ordered. Before it is cut into pattern shapes it will be checked over in the warehouse. The fabric will be inspected to look for flaws such as imperfections in the dyeing or printed pattern, holes or frayed sections. This checking can be done using automated machines, and once the roll of fabric has been checked it will be labelled to say it is fit for use. Sometimes bar code labels are used so that the factory can keep track of each roll of fabric. Many modern factories use a just in time (JIT) system of buying stock. This means that the fabric and components are delivered to the factory just as they are needed on the production line and already inspected. This system can save money as warehouse space and fabric inspectors are not needed, but there will be problems if the materials are delivered late or if the fabric is faulty.

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Many layers of the fabric are cut out at the same time. Sometimes the spreading out of the fabric is controlled by computers which will make sure that the selvedges of the fabric are laid exactly on top of each other and that any patterns on the fabric are in the same place on each layer. A sheet (called a marker) with the position of each pattern template is placed on top of the fabric layers ready for cutting. Cutting is done in two stages; first rough cutting separates the individual pieces then the final cutting cuts each piece accurately.

The pattern pieces can be cut out in a number of different ways. Band knives are often used - these can cut very accurately through many layers of fabric at once.

Straight knife Band knife

The straight knife is an electric knife which the operator pushes through the fabric layers by hand. The band knife is fixed on the cutting table and the fabric is pushed up to the blade – it is like a band saw used to cut wood. There are also fully automatic computer-controlled cutting machines which use knives, laser beams and high pressure water jets to cut through the fabric. The lay plan is sent straight to the cutting machine which cuts the fabric automatically without the need for pattern templates.

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A computer controlled cutting machine

Special marks or notches have to be made on the fabric pieces so that the machinists have guides for accurate stitching and also to show which pieces of fabric should be sewn together. This is often done by drilling small holes through the layers of fabric, thread marking through all the layers or using a notcher which makes a small cut at the fabric edge.

Drill marker Hot notcher Thread marker (All images in this section from Clothing Technology)

The bundles of cut product pieces are labelled before being sent to be sewn. Often the labels provide information which can be read by computers. This means that a product’s progress through the manufacturing process can be checked on.

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Production systems

There are different types of production systems. The manufacturer needs to be able to make products quickly and easily to keep costs down. The main production systems are: One-off production (also called job and bespoke production) One highly skilled craftsperson produces a single garment or textile product over a number of days or weeks. Each product is made only once or only in very small quantities. This method may be used to make a theatre costume or an outfit to fit an individual customer. The garments are usually unique and finished to a very high standard. They are very expensive because of the labour costs and the use of costly materials. Batch production A team of workers make a specified number of identical products which may be made in one production run or in batches repeated at certain times. A batch can range from 2 or 3 products to a 100,000 or more. In a large factory many batches of different products for different customers and delivery dates will be processed at the same time. This involves complex planning. In modern manufacturing, workers operate in teams or production modules. The workers share tasks and equipment and become more skilled because the job they do changes day by day according to what is being made. The machinery used is more versatile than that used in mass production and workers will be skilled at using a variety of different machines. Each module is responsible for its own performance. Working as a team means that products are made quicker than one person working alone and allows for some flexibility so that they can respond quickly to changes in demand. Computer control can help manufacturers respond quickly to changes in the market and save on production costs by using quick response methods. This means that a product is completed from start to finish by a multi-skilled operative moving around machinery in a horseshoe arrangement. 3 operatives might work together in a horseshoe of 8 machines to complete individual garments.

(From Textiles Technology)

A team of workers using different machines. Notice that they work standing up so that they can move quickly and easily from one machine to another.

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Mass production Very large quantities of products are made over and over again in assembly line production. Machines are in continuous use for long periods of time so they are very specialised and expensive. The machinery and the operator skills are very specific for the job in hand. A number of operatives work on the production line and each does one part of the manufacture before passing the product to the next person who does a different job. Workers become skilled at doing one part of the manufacture but may need to be re-trained to do other types of work. This system enables them to make identical products very quickly but can be very boring for the workers. This system is also called synchronized or progressive bundle production as the products are put together as they progress through the system.

Each worker does the same task over and over again and passes the section of the product they have made to the next worker on the production line.

(From Textiles Technology)

Mass production reduces time and costs but the whole production can quickly halt if there is a problem and changing the line to make a different product can take a long time. This method is not usually used for clothing as styles change often. Some factories may specialise in products which don’t change often, eg jeans.

(From The Clothing Industry) A Unit Production System (UPS) is a computerised system used to plan, control and direct the flow of work through a manufacturing system. The unit of production is the complete product which is taken automatically from one work station to the next. The rate of production is pre-determined and the computer sets the speed at which sections of the product are taken to the operator. The section of the product is brought by overhead conveyor as close to the operator as possible, reducing the amount of movement needed to position the item to be stitched. Some operations can be carried out without removing parts from the hanger.

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When planning for manufacture the different stages in the manufacture are grouped together into key areas of production. Some sections of the product may be made as sub-assemblies. This is where some parts of the product are assembled before they go to the main production line. Some sections of the product may be made in a different factory which has specialised machinery, or workers who are especially skilled in a particular type of production such as embroidery. Sub-contracting to specialist manufacturers helps reduce manufacturing costs and enables the finished product to be high quality. Many textiles products are designed in one country and made in another. The designers and manufacturers can easily communicate via the internet, and computer generated information about a final design can be sent anywhere in the world in a few seconds. The information can be fed directly from the computer into manufacturing systems to make the product. Products are made overseas because labour is cheaper or materials may be more readily available. Some overseas manufacturers have skilled workers who are able to perform specialist tasks. Many textiles products sold in the UK have been made in other countries. The environmental costs of manufacturing products overseas, with the ensuing consequences for employment in the UK are issues that need to be considered. Other social and moral issues surrounding overseas manufacture may be related to working conditions and pay for those employed in the production of fashion and other textile items.

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Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM)

CAM is a term used to describe production processes which are done by computer controlled machines. One problem with batch production is that after a relatively small number of products have been made a machine has to be re-set to the requirements of a different product. The main advantage of CAM is that the new instructions can be stored electronically and can be downloaded and programmed into the machine very quickly. CAM is also used to replace a manual operation which means that a machine can work continuously. The quality is more consistent with fewer faulty goods produced. CAM systems can also work with materials and chemicals which might be harmful to humans. Computer controlled machines can be used to produce logos and embroidery.

A computerised embroidery machine (From Textiles Technology)

Highly specialised machines are also used to carry out identical operations which need to be repeated many times. These include automatic dart sewers, buttonholers, automatic patch pocket setters, pocket flap sewing machines, hemmers, seam sewers.

A computerised sewing machine which has different sewing programmes stored in its memory

(Image from Clothing Technology)

Many factories use an automatic conveyor system which usually runs overhead to deliver the work to the operators as it is required. There is a small terminal at each work station on the assembly line which the operator uses to monitor work in progress and record any problems such as thread breaking or a machine fault. For example, a batch of jeans with a ticket attached moves around the assembly process to operatives. As each operative completes a process on the jeans the bar coded label is swiped through a scanner built into the computer terminal attached to the machine. The central computer records the data from all the machines

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keeping track of work in progress and motivating the workforce as they can monitor their own productivity and earnings. These systems guarantee quality assurance as the quality of products made is constantly monitored and controlled by the manufacturer throughout the production process.

The automatic hanger system delivers work to the sewing operatives.

(Image from Clothing Technology)

Some sections of a product may need a fusible interfacing; this can be applied using a conveyor fusing press with the pressure, temperature and time controlled by computers to give an even finish. Finished products are pressed before leaving the factory. A steam dolly is a specialist pressing machine used for skirts, trousers and dresses.

A steam dolly is used to press some garments. The dolly is inflated inside the clothes using steam and air which makes the creases fall out.

(Image from Clothing Technology)

Pressing of completed garments can also be controlled by computers.

A computer controlled pressing machine which can store different pressing programmes in its memory

(Image from Clothing Technology)

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Modern storage and carrier systems have revolutionised the way in which garments are stored and transported. Garments are stored and transported on hangers and moveable rails so that they arrive at the shop ready to go on display. The ticketing and tagging of products is now largely done by the manufacturers and not the retailers. The barcode system used in large stores records which items are selling and can help decide when and how many to re-order from the manufacturer. Re-ordering is often done automatically as stocks of a particular product become low.

A computer controlled warehouse

(Image from Clothing Technology)

Little stock is kept in warehouses - the aim is to get the products to the shops as soon as possible and as they are needed – this is JIT (Just In Time) stock management. Many large retailers have centralised storage depots where goods are received and dispatched straight away to the shops which need them without being stored. The whole process is controlled electronically using the information on the barcode labels. This means that money is saved on warehouse space, and wages for workers as the products are not being continually handled so fewer operatives are needed. JIT manufacture is highly dependent on the use of CAD/CAM and allows manufacturers to respond quickly when fashions change as they can be more flexible in their working practice. This is also referred to as Quick Response manufacture. Many manufacturing companies operate as outwork factories and make garments, from the production pattern to the finished product, for many different retailers. This is because they have invested in new technology, which small companies cannot afford and they need to have a constant throughput of work in order to make it pay. Electronic communication allows the factories to be anywhere in the world. Many of the factories are huge, with rolls of fabric delivered to the cutting room where it goes straight on to the cutting tables. Once cut, the bundles of cut pieces are distributed to the machinists, sewn together and delivered to the retail outlet within a matter of hours. Vertical manufacturing is where the company does their own designing, manufacturing and distribution, and allows lead times to be shortened. Marks and Spencer and Zara are two popular high street retailers who operate this system.

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Working in the Fashion Industry

Fashion designer

The designer has an important role to play in the success or otherwise of a product. They have a responsibility to their employer (client) to come up with ideas that will match the brief they have been given, will be appropriate for the identified target market and that final costs will remain within the allocated budget. In today’s world designers have a responsibility to ensure that the products they design will not have an adverse effect on the environment.

Fabric and garment technologist

The technologist is responsible for ensuring that designs can be produced efficiently and economically and that the retailer/consumer is assured of high quality products which will stand up to wear and tear. They will probably be responsible for checking prototypes to inform the production process, developing final pattern templates, drawing up technical specifications for fabrics, components and manufacturing processes and overseeing manufacture of the product.

Buyer

The buyer is responsible for anticipating the demands of the retail market, including what and how many products the consumer is likely to buy in the coming season. The buyer works for the retailer and orders the products from the manufacturer. In a large organisation a buyer may specialise in a particular area such as children’s wear or eveningwear. The buyer will attend fashion shows as well as viewing collections in designers’ and manufacturers’ showrooms and much of this will involve traveling abroad. Buying the wrong styles in the wrong quantities can be a very costly mistake.

Merchandiser

The merchandiser works with the buyer and will oversee the layout of the shop floor, the stock control and distribution of goods between different branches of the retailer. This title may also be applied to a sales assistant who has responsibility for the display of the stock on the shop floor.

Visual merchandiser

The visual merchandiser is responsible for the way in which products are displayed within a retail outlet, including window displays and creative themed displays within the store.

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Quality assurance and control

Quality assurance is much wider than just Quality Control. It is about a company’s commitment to quality at every stage of the design and manufacture process, including the training of the workforce and the way in which problems are dealt with. It is about getting things right the first time and every member of staff is responsible for producing quality. BSI lays down standards for QA systems. Companies wishing to register for approved status must provide documented evidence of their Quality System and undergo regular inspections by BSI inspectors to ensure that the standards are being maintained. Quality control is an important part of manufacture and manufacturers need to make sure that the goods they produce are of an acceptable standard. It is very difficult to make lots of products which are all exactly identical but it is important that all parts of the product fit together exactly and that it falls within pre-determined tolerances. Manufacturers need to know how accurate the parts of the product need to be so that they can fit together. The level of accuracy required is known as the tolerance level. This is usually given as two numbers - an upper and a lower limit. The specification for a product will have a statement about tolerance limits. Tolerances are important to ensure reliability of the product; this reduces wastage during manufacture. One way to check the quality of products is to inspect every one. A quicker method is to set up a system of quality control. This involves inspecting a sample as they are made and collecting and analysing information about the samples. By doing this, it may be possible to notice that a particular machine is making products which are getting close to the unacceptable tolerance limits. If the machine is at fault, it is then possible to adjust or repair the machine before it starts to produce items which are defective and possibly shut down the production line. If it is the machine operative who is not producing the right quality of work, that person will be identified and can be put through further training to ensure that their work will reach the agreed standards in future. Quick response teams accept responsibility for the checking of the products they make to ensure they meet the agreed standards. Automated equipment is usually quicker and more efficient at producing and testing for accuracy so better quality products are made. Manufacturers need to make quality control checks at certain stages as the products are manufactured to make sure they are of the quality required. These stages are built in to the production specification. As well as knowing which parts of a product need to be made accurately it is important to consider when is the best time to check for accuracy. For instance, it may be too late to do anything about a pocket that is not made to the right size once it is sewn on the product.

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Quality control – standards Certain quality standards are recommended by the British Standards Institute (BSI). There are over 10,000 British Standards for almost every industry from food to building construction and textiles to children’s toys. These state the essential technical requirements, or performance codes, for a product, material or process to be fit for its intended purpose. For example

• waterproof clothing really will keep the wearer dry • the sizing of sheets allow them to fit a standard bed

BSI regularly test samples of a range of products and award certification to say that the product conforms to a stated British or European standard. This assures the consumer that an acceptable quality can be expected.

Goods which have been passed as satisfactory by BSI usually carry the Kitemark symbol on a swing label. This reduces the risk of someone buying a product which could be defective in some way.

The CE (Conformité Européenne) marking is the manufacturer’s declaration that the product complies with the essential requirements of the relevant European health, safety and environmental protection laws. The products must have a technical file which explains how the production standards are maintained and products with the mark are allowed to pass

freely within the European Union. But the CE mark is not a measure of safety or quality.

The Lion Mark – Toy Safety Logo was introduced by the British Toy and Hobby Association (BTHA) to promote high standards throughout the toy industry. The logo is put on toys that have been classified as safe for children to use. All members of the BTHA must adhere to the Code of Practice and ensure that all products conform to EN71 safety standards.

Various quality symbols are used to assure the consumer of the quality of the fibre used in the product.

Pure cotton Pure Irish linen

Pure silk Pure new wool

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Health and safety in the workplace

Health and safety issues are very important. Factories in the textiles industry can be very dangerous places with machines that are designed to cut, pierce and press fabric. There are often chemicals which are hazardous to health used in many processes. Many machines have moving parts and some get very hot - these can cause serious injuries. Proper training for the job can make operators aware of the potential dangers of various machines. Some machines, eg cutting machines, need to be fitted with guards to protect the operators from injury. Machines should be fitted with emergency stop buttons so they can be quickly switched off in the event of an emergency. Some processes require operatives to wear special safety clothing, eg chainmail gloves for those engaged in cutting fabrics, steel-toe boots for people who move heavy rolls of fabric. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy to help prevent tripping and falling; textile waste can also be a fire hazard. Fire exits should be clearly marked and kept free in case of an emergency. Fork-lift trucks are commonly used to move materials from one part of a factory to another and operatives need to consider their own safety as well as that of other employees; often there are marked out areas outside of which the trucks are not allowed to operate. The work areas should be well lit and ventilated, and workers should be given adequate breaks. Seating should be ergonomically sound so workers do not develop back and shoulder problems after working for long periods of time. Operatives should not eat or drink at the work station as food and drink may become contaminated with hazardous substances. Electricity can kill if not treated with respect. Frayed cables should be replaced immediately and only qualified electricians should do electrical repairs. Water and electricity do not mix so plugs, sockets and electrical appliances should not be allowed to get wet or touched with wet hands. There are laws concerning safety in the workplace and all employers are required to keep to them. There can be serious consequences if these laws are broken.

The Health and Safety at work Act (1974) has four main effects on the workplace:

1. It makes employers criminally liable for failure to meet regulations. 2. It set up the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which is responsible for checking that the Act is being

followed. HSE and local authority inspectors visit workplaces to make sure that health and safety regulations are being followed.

3. It gives employees the right to be represented on health and safety matters. 4. It places an obligation on employees to use safety equipment.

The Act requires businesses to make a risk assessment of their activities. The company must appoint a Health and Safety officer who will check the workplace for possible risks and puts into place the necessary procedures and/or equipment to reduce risks for employees.

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Many chemicals are used in the textile industry, and these may be dangerous to health if not stored and used correctly. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations (1994) form part of the risk assessment.

All workplaces should appoint a person to be in charge of first aid, and workplaces should have a clearly marked and well stocked first aid kit.

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Health and safety for the consumer

Products must also be safe for the consumer to use and must comply with a range of safety standards and specifications. In many cases, safety of products is a matter of law and manufacturers have a responsibility for the goods they produce. BSI provides advice on the safety standards for a wide range of products including products made from flame-resistant materials. When producing textile products the following must be considered: Fabric Fabrics must be considered for their ability to burn and/or melt easily. This can be particularly dangerous in certain situations, eg nightclothes for children and elderly people, furnishings in public buildings. Soft toys may be dangerous for young children, especially the wadding material used inside them. In some occupations where fire is a hazard, protective clothing will be needed. Any places where the public collect together must have flame-resistant furnishings. Babies often put things in their mouth. Will the fabric give off fibres that could lodge in a child’s throat? Fastenings These can be a hazard for certain people and in certain situations. Small parts may easily be dislodged and swallowed by a small child, small fingers can become trapped in zips and buckles, children have been killed because drawstrings and toggles, belts and braces have been caught in bus and lift doors. Trousers for small boys should not have a zip fastening. Fastenings and other trims used on clothing for small children should not resemble food. The elderly and some disabled people may have difficulty with some fastenings. Temperature Certain products need padding to provide insulation against extreme heat eg oven gloves. Sharp edges Firm corners and sharp edges in a product must be well padded - the user may not realise that under an attractive fabric there is a sharp corner. Wire can be particularly dangerous as it may work its way through the fabric over a period of time. Textile products are checked to ensure that there are no metal objects, eg broken needle parts, in the item before it leaves the factory.

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Health and Safety legislation related to textile products

There are many laws designed to protect those employed in the manufacture of textile products and these are the same as other health and safety at work legislation in other industries. It is important to remember that legislation is constantly up-dated. Laws which relate specifically to the design and manufacture of textile products include:

Nightwear (Safety) Regulations 1985 These Regulations prohibit the supply of children’s nightwear (other than pyjamas, babies’ garments and cotton terry towelling bath robes) that do not meet flammability performance requirements. The Regulations also specify labelling requirements.

There is a British Standard Institution (BSI) Code of Practice which gives recommendations for materials, design and manufacturing to promote the safety of children’s clothing. It is important to remember that a code of practice is not the same as legislation.

The design and manufacture of textile products is covered by the General Product Safety Regulations 1994. These Regulations place a responsibility on businesses to supply safe goods. Clothing must comply with any relevant safety legislation. Where there is no specific legislation, the safety of the product will be covered by the General Product Safety Regulations 1994. There is also a British Standards Code of Practice relating to the design and manufacture of children’s clothing to ensure safety. These Regulations specify that the hoods of children’s outer garments must not be designed to be secured by means of a cord drawn through the material. The Regulations define a child’s outer garment as: ‘a raincoat, overcoat, anorak or other garment suitable for use as outer wear having a measurement not exceeding 44 cm across the chest when the finished garment is laid out as flat as possible without distorting its natural two-dimensional shape and buttoned or otherwise fastened as it is designed to be in normal wear’. They also state that there must not be cords or ribbons accessible to a child’s mouth and must not be zips in trousers for boys under 5 years old. The Furniture and Furnishings (Fire Safety Amendment) Regulations 1993

These regulations cover the fabric furnishings used in public places. In the UK, fire brigade officers usually decide on the flammability requirements for buildings and their contents where the public has access. This kind of public building includes schools and hospitals and places of entertainment such as cinemas, nightclubs and concert halls. Day-to-day enforcement of safety legislation is the responsibility of trading standards officers who have the necessary powers to take action if they believe a product to be unsafe. They can suspend unsafe products and can prosecute suppliers of unsafe products.

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Textiles manufacture and the environment

There is increasing concern about how textile products and their manufacture affect the environment. There are laws relating to protection of the environment, eg manufacturers are not allowed to dump waste products from dyeing and bleaching processes into rivers. Responsible designers and manufacturers will also think about other ways in which their products might affect the environment. For instance:

• Growing cotton uses up valuable land space which could be used for food crops. They are also treated with vast amounts of pesticides and fertilizers which can pollute waterways and surrounding land. It is possible to buy organically grown or ‘green’ cotton which is less harmful to the environment.

• New fibres have been developed to be more environmentally friendly, eg Tencel and Lyocell. • Traditional dyeing methods use up large quantities of water and produce toxic waste which must be

treated before disposal. Synthetic fibres can have colour put into the spinning solution so the fabric doesn’t need to be dyed afterwards. There have been some developments in the growing of already-coloured cotton fibres.

• Some dyes and finishing chemicals break down in landfill sites and give off poisonous chemicals which can seep out into nearby waterways.

• The possibility of using recycled fabrics and components. This may be appropriate for one-off or craft manufacture but is not feasible for mass manufacture.

• Avoiding the use of synthetic fibres which are not bio-degradable. These will end up in landfill sites when they are thrown away and the chemicals in them can seep out into nearby fields and rivers. Metal components, such as zips, often contain cadmium which is highly toxic.

• Considering where fabrics and components are bought. If they have to travel a long way to the factory, more fuel will be needed for the planes, boats and lorries which deliver them and more exhaust fumes will be released into the atmosphere. There is also more damage to the road system and a greater risk of traffic accidents.

• Designing products for a longer life means that fewer need to be produced, saving valuable resources. Considering whether it really is necessary to buy yet another fashion product can help cut down on textile manufacturing activity.

• Thinking about the aftercare of textile products is an important part of textiles design and manufacture. Fabrics which can be washed and ironed at lower temperatures can save a lot of electricity. Developments in nano-fibres mean that self-cleaning garments are available, although they are very limited in number and are very expensive.

• Packaging of textile products produces a lot of waste, and uses energy and materials to make and transport the packaging. Is it really necessary to have a ‘designer’ carrier bag, multiple layers of tissue paper, plastic bags and fabric ribbons in order to take purchases home?

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Textiles manufacture and moral issues

Consumers are becoming more aware of the conditions in which textile products are manufactured. In the UK, there are laws to protect the health and safety of workers and prevent them from being exploited by unscrupulous employers. When textile products are made in other countries, especially less economically developed ones (LEDCs), those laws don’t apply. The pesticides and fertilizers used on cotton crops can have disastrous effects on the health of farmers and other workers if they breathe in the spray, or if it comes into contact with their body. Chemicals from the pesticides and fertilizers can pollute water courses, poisoning drinking water. Growing cotton uses vast amounts of water. In many countries where cotton is grown, there is not enough water for the people who live there to drink. Many workers in LEDCs are paid very little and forced to work long hours, often in hot, cramped and dangerous factories. Sometimes these workers are young children. Some unscrupulous manufacturers in the UK have been known to employ illegal immigrants to manufacture textile products for little pay in dangerous conditions. Many of the fashion textile products that are sold at low prices have been manufactured with no regard for the workers’ health, safety or dignity. People buying such cheap products need to ask themselves if the cheap fashion products, which they throw away as soon as a new fashion appears, are worth the human suffering involved in their manufacture. Many consumers now look for Fair Trade and eco-friendly products. Fair trade standards specify minimum social, economic and environmental requirements, which producers must meet to be certified. In the Fairtrade system, a company that meets the required standards of manufacture can buy a Licence Agreement with the Fairtrade Foundation. This licence entitles the company to apply the FAIRTRADE Mark to specific products covered by the Agreement.

The Fair Trade logo

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Some useful sources of information

Title Author(s) Publisher

ISBN

Design and Make It! Textiles Technology

Nelson Thornes 0-7487-6082-2

Clothing Technology Verlag Europa-Lehrmitte

ISBN 3-8085-6221-8

Textiles Technology Rose Sinclair & Sue Morgan

Heinemann 978-0-435413-49-1

Textiles at the Cutting Edge

Lesley Cresswell Forbes Publications 1-899527-17-6

Textiles Technology Alison Bartle & Bernie O’Connor

Causeway Press Ltd 1 873929–65-X

Understanding Fashion

Elizabeth Rouse BSP Professional Books

0-632-01891-7

Introduction to Clothing Manufacture

Gerry Cooklin Blackwell Scientific Publications

0-632-02661-8

Fashion Design and Product Development

Harold Carr & John Pomeroy

Blackwell Scientific Publications

0-632-02893-9

The Clothing Industry Hazel King Heinemann 978-0-431-99021-7 Textiles Technology to GCSE

Jane Down Oxford University Press

0-19-832813-3

How Fashion Works Gavin Waddell Blackwell Publishing 978-0-632-05752-8 Some useful websites: www.dti.gov.uk/sectors_clothing.html www.fairtrade.org.uk www.fashionmonitor.co.uk www.wgsn-edu.com/edu/index.htm