a history of african americans - gbv.de · pdf filea history of african americans with...
TRANSCRIPT
FREEDOA HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS
with Documents
Deborah Gray WhiteRUTGERS UNIVERSITY
Mia BayRUTGERS UNIVERSITY
Waldo E. Martin Jr.UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIAI BERKELEY
Bedford 1st. MartinisBoston • New York
~;W)J!j.'IIiI/'iii!MfllllllfII/.jf}f!.'M~iI!i_'IiIIiiJii!/IIIW/I~/I!/_'$~'!/I'. _
Brief Contents
GHAPTER 1 FromAfricatoAmerica, 1441-1808 2
GHAPTER 2 African Slavery in North America, 1619-1739 54
GHAPTER 3 African Americans in the Age of Revolution, 1740-1783 110
GHAPTER 4 Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic, 1783-1829 160
GHAPTER 5 Black Life in theSlave South, 1820-1860 210
GHAPTER 6 The Northern Black Freedom Struggle and the Coming of the Civil War,1830-1860 264
GHAPTER 7 Freedom Rising: The Civil War, 1861-1865 322
GHAPTER 8 Reconstruction: The Making and Unmaking of a Revolution,1865-1885 376
GHAPTER 9 Black Life and Culture, 1880-1915 430
GHAPTER 10 The New Negro, 1915-1940 492
GHAPTER 11 Fighting for a Double Victory, 1939-1948 550
GHAPTER 12 The Early Civil Rights Movement, 1947-1963 604
GHAPTER 13 Multiple Meanings of Freedom: The Movement Broadens, 1963-1975 662
GHAPTER 14 The Challenge of Conservatism in an Era of Change, 1968-2000 720
GHAPTER 15 African Americans and the New Century, 2000-Present 774
xxi
Contents
Pretace ixVersions and Supplements xviiSpecial Features xxxixMaps xliIntroduction tor Students xliii
From Africa to America,1441-1808
African Origins 4The History ofWest Africa 5Slavery in West Africa 9
The Rise of the Transatlantic Slave Trade 10Europe in the Age of the Slave Trade 10The Enslavement ofIndigenous Peoples 12The First Africans in the Americas 14The Business of Slave Trading 16
The Long Middle Passage 18Capture and Confinement 20On the Slave Coast 24Inside the Slave Ship 26Hardship and Misery On Board 29
Conclusion: The Slave Trade's Diaspora 30
Chapter Review 31
2
DDCUMENTS: Inside the Slave Trade 32KING AFONSO I (MVEMBA NZINGA), Letter to the Portuguese King Joao III, 1526 + •PETER BLAKE,An Account of the Mortality of the Slaves Aboard the Ship James, 1675-1676 •JAMESBARBOTJR., General Observations on the Management of Slaves, 1700 • ALEXANDERFALCONBRIDGE,An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa, 1788
DOCUMENTS: The African Slave Captives 38OLAUDAHEQUIANO, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or GustavusVassa, the African, 1789 • BELINDA, The Petition of Belinda, 1782
VISUAL SOURCES: European Images of Africans in the Era of the SlaveTrade 43Facsimile of the Catalan Atlas Showing the King ofMali Holding a Gold Nugget, 1375 •Sebastian Münster, German Map of Africa, 1554 • Willem Janszoon Blaeu, New Dutch Map
xxiii
xxiv CONTENTS_______ 'ilkJi!iJ!!}IlPrdi. •••• "I/i;.J _
of Africa, 1644 • Page from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, 1252-1284 • The Adoration ofthe Magi, c. 1500 • lohn BarbotMeetingwith the KingofSestro, 1691 • Negro's Cannoes,Carrying Slaves, on Board of Ships att Manfroe, seventeenth century • Portraits ofWestAfricans, 1679 • African Slaves in the Mines, 1565 • Antislavery Carneo, late eighteenthcentury • Group ofNegros, as Imported to Be Sold for Slaves, 1796
Notes 52 • Suggested References 53
African Slavery in North America,1619-1739 54
Slavery and Freedom in Early English North America 56Settlers, Servants, and Slaves in the Chesapeake 57The Expansion of Slavery in the Chesapeake 62The Creation ofthe Carolinas 64Africans in New England 66
Slavery in the Middle Atlantic Colonies 70Slavery and Half-Freedom in New Netherland 71Slavery in England's Middle Colonies 73
Frontiers and Forced Labor 75Slavery in French Louisiana 76Black Society in Spanish Florida 77Slavery and Servitude in Early Georgia 79The Stono Rebellion 79
Conclusion: Regional Variations of Early American Slavery 82
Chapter Review 83
DDCUMENTS: Making Slaves 84The Codification of Slavery and Race in Seventeenth-Century Virginia, 1630-1680 • An Actfor Regulating of Slaves in New Jersey, 1713-1714 • The South Carolina Slave Code, 1740
DDCUMENTS: British Colonists Debate the Merits of Slavery 90SAMUELSEWALL,The Selling of Joseph: A Memorial, 1700 • ] OHN SAFFIN,ABrief andCandid Answer to a Late Printed Sheet, Bntitled, The Selling ofJoseph, 1701 • GEORGIASETTLERS,The Settlers' Petition, 1738 • GEORGIA TRUSTEES,Answer of the Trustees, 1739
VISUAL SOURCES: African Labor in the Making of the Americas 97Nieu Amsterdarn, c. 1642-1643 • Lucy Parke Byrd, c. 1716 • Canoe for Pearl Fishing,c.1586 • Tent Boat, 1769 • Map ofthe Pernambuco Region in Northeast Brazil, 1662 •Slaves Producing Sugar, 1681 • Engraving of a Virginia Tobacco Farm, 1725 • TradeCard Promoting Virginia Tobacco, eighteenth century • Tobacco Label, c. 1730 •Slaves Making Dye from Indigo, 1748 • Processing Indigo Dye, 1757 (detail)
Notes 108 • Suggested References 109
CONTENTS XXV_____________________________________ x:·'/fii/i!MJi/I!.WiIIiRl;J;/!l$f/Jl!ll;I/Ii! _
African Americans in theAge of Revolution, 1740-1783 110
African American Life in Eighteenth-Century North America 112Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies 113Shaping an African American Culture 114The Slaves' Great Awakening 116
The African American Revolution 120The Road to Independence 121Black Patriots 124Black Loyalists 128
Slaves, Soldiers, and the Outcome of the Revolution 131American Victory, British Defeat 131The Fate ofBlack Loyalists 132Closer to Freedom 135
Conclusion: The American Revolution's Mixed Results for Blacks 138
Chapter Review 139
DOCUMENTS: The Great Awakening in the South 140GEORGE WHITEFIELD, A Public Letter to Slaveholders, 1740 • JAMES HABERSHAM AND
WILLIAM PIERCY, Papers on David Margate, 1775 • DAVID GEORGE, A Fugitive SlavesEarly Life and Religious Conversion, 1785
DOCUMENTS: African American Patriots 145PHILLIS WHEATLEY, A Poem to the Earl of Dartmouth, 1772 • PHILLIS WHEATLEY, Letterto the Reverend Samson Occom, 1774 • LEMUEL HAYNES, Liberty Further Extended, 1776
VISUAl SOURCES: Freedom's Fight 149Paul Revere, Ihe Bloody Massacre, 1770 • Crispus Attucks, the First Martyr of theAmerican Revolution, 1855 • Lithograph of the Boston Massacre, 1856 • John Trumbull,Ihe Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's HilI, 17th June 1775, c. 1815-1831 (afterthe 1786 version) • John Trumbull, George Washington, 1780 • Edward Savage,Ihe Washington Family, 1789-1796 • Jean-Baptiste Le Paon, General Lafayette atYorktown, Attended by James Armistead, c. 1783 • John Blennerhassett Martin, JamesArmistead Lafayette, c. 1824 • John Singleton Copley, Ihe Death of Major Peirson,January 6,1781, 1783
Notes 158 • Suggested References 159
xxvi CONTENTS
Slavery and Freedom in theNew Republic, 1783-1829 160
The Limits of Democracy 162The Status of Slavery in the New Nation 163Slavery's Cotton Frontiers 165Slavery and Empire 170
Slavery and Freedom outside the Plantation South 171Urban Slavery and Southern Free Blacks 173Gabriel's Rebellion 174Achieving Emancipation in the North 176
Free Black Life in the New Republic 178Free Black Organizations 179Free BlackEducation and Employment 181White Hostility 183The Colonization Debate 186
Conclusion: African American Freedom in Black and White 188
Chapter Review 189
DOCUMENTS: Slavery's Children 190SOJOURNER TRUTH, A Former Slaves Fight to Free Her Son, 1850 • MADISON HEMINGS,
Life among the Lowly, 1873
DOCUMENTS: Free Black Activism 194
THOMAS COLE AND OTHER FREE BLACKS, A Memorial to the South Carolina Senate,1791 • ABsALoMJoNEs AND OTHERS, Petition to Congress on the Fugitive Slave Aet,1799 • GEORGE LAWRENCE, Oration on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1813 • FREE
PEOPLE OF COLOR OF RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, Petition to Congress on Colonization, 1817
VISUAl SOURCES: The Black Body in Early American Culture 199Cover ofBenjamin Banneker's Almanac, 1795 • SamuelJennings, Liberty Displaying theArts and Seienees} or the Genius of Ameriea Eneouraging the Emaneipation of the Blaeks,1792 • NewJersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery'sMembershipCertificate, 1792 • Charles White's Illustrations of the Anatomical Features ofAnimalsand Humans, 1799 • Charles White's Comparisons ofHumans and Other Primates,1799 • Oliver Goldsmith, A History of the Earth} and Animated Nature, 1774 • The TruePicture ofMary-Sabina, c. 1744 • James Akin, A Philosophie Coek, c. 1804 • BobalitionBroadside, 1825
Notes 208 • Suggested References 209
CONTENTS xxvii____________________________________ '_a~_~l'~.!:_- _
The Expansion and Consolidation of Slavery 212Slavery, Cotton, and American Industrialization 213The Missouri Cornprornise Crisis 215Slavery Expands into Indian Territory 216The Dornestic Slave Trade 218
Black Challenges to Slavery 220Denrnark Vesey's Plot 221David Walker's Exile 222Nat Turner's Rebellion, the Amistad Case, and the Creole Insurrection 225
Everyday Resistance to Slavery 227Disobedience and Defiance 227Runaways Who Escaped frorn Slavery 229
Survival, Community, and Culture 232Slave Religion 233Gender, Age, and Work 235Marriage and Farnily 237
Conclusion: Surviving Slavery 240
Chapter Review 241
Black life in the Slave South,1820-1860 210
DOGUMENTS: Managing the Slaves 242
THOMAS PINCKNEY [ACHATES], Reflections, Occasioned by the Late Disturbances inCharleston, 1822 • P. C. WESTON, Management of a Southern Plantation, 1857
DOGUMENTS: Slave Testimony 245
FRANCIS HENDERSON, A Fugitive's Story, 1856 • VILET LESTER, Letter to Patsey Patterson,1857 • MARY REYNOLDS, The Days of Slavery, 1937
VISUAL SOURGES: The Art of the Plantation 250
Detail of aJar by Dave, 1857 • Oak LeafPanelfrorn a Slave Quilt, 1857-1858 • SlaveQuilt with Star ofBethlehern Pattern Variation, c. 1837-1850 • Harriet Powers, BibleQjlilt, 1886 • Francis Jukes, Mount Vernon in Virginia, 1800 • Scipio Hunted, 'As MenHunt a Deer!," frorn Uncle Tom's Cabin, or Life among the Lowly, 1852 • Black WornenSlaves frorn Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, Written byHimself, 1849-1850 • Slave Children in Sunday School frorn Life at the South, or "UncleTom's Cabin" as 1t 15,1852 • Slave Children and Schoolrnaster frorn Life at the South, or"Uncle Tom's Cabin" as It 15,1852 • Slaves Dancing frorn Aunt Phillis's Cabin, or SouthernLife as 1t 15,1852 • Death ofDinah frorn Frank Freeman's Barber Shop, 1852 • A Childand Her Nanny, c. 1855 • A Slave Farnily in a Georgia Cotton Field, c. 1860
Notes 262 • Suggested References 263
xxviii CONTENTS
The Northern Black Freedom Struggleand the Coming of the Civil War,1830-1860 264
The Boundaries of Freedom 266Racial Discrimination in the Era of the Common Man 266Black Communities in an Era ofExpansion 269Black Self-Help in an Era ofMoral Reform 272
Forging a Black Freedom Struggle 276Black Communities Connect 277BlackActivists andActivism 278The Abolitionist Movement 282
The Slavery Question and National Crisis 285Westward Expansion and Slaveryin the Territories 285The Fugitive SlaveCrisis 287Confrontations in Kansas and the Courts 290Emigration and Insurrection 292
Conclusion: Whose Country Is It? 295
Chapter Review 297
DOCUMENTS: Elite Black Women Speak Out on Education, Citizenship,and Slavery 298
SARAH MAPPS DOUGLASS, To Make the Slaves' Cause Our Own, 1832 • ELIZABETH
JENNINGS, On the Cultivation of Black Wornens Minds, 1837 • Lucy STANTON, Slaveryand Abolition as War, 1850 • SARA G. STANLEY, A Call to Action! Black Wornen SupportBlack Male Vote in Ohio, 1856
DOCUMENTS: Former Slaves Speak Out on Slavery 303
HENRY HIGHLAND GARNET, An Address to the Slaves of the United States of Arnerica,1843 • FREDERICK DOUGLASS, What to the Slave Is the Fourth ofJuly?, 1852
VISUAl SOURCES: Minstrel Shows 309
Dancingfor Eels, 1820 • Dancingfor Eels, A Scene frorn the New Play of New- York asIt Is, as Played at the Chatharn Theatre, N.Y., 1848 • Jim Crow, c. 1835 • Zip Coon,c. 1834 • Coal Black Rose, c. 1830 • The Virginia Serenaders, 1844 • Christy'sMinstrels, c. 1847 • "Oh, Susanna," as Sung by Christy's Celebrated Band ofMinstrels,c. 1850 • Topsy in Uncle Torns Cabin, 1852 • Ira Aldridge, Shakespearean Actor,1853 • FrankJohnson, Musician, Bandleader, and Composer (undated) • Boz'sJuba, 1848
Notes 320 • Suggested References 321
CONTENTS xxix
Freedom Rising: The Civil War,1861-1865 322
The Coming of War and the Seizing of Freedom, 1861-1862 324War Aims and Battlefield Realities 324Union Poliey on Blaek Soldiers and Blaek Freedom 326Refugee Slaves and Freedpeople 328
Turning Points, 1862-1863 332The Emancipation Proclarnation 332The U.S. Colored Troops 334Afriean Americans in the Major Battles of 1863 338
Horne Fronts and War's End, 1863-1865 340Riots and Restoration of the Union 341Civilians at Work for the War 343Union Victory, Slave Emaneipation, and the Renewed Strugglefor Equality 346
Conclusion: Emancipation and Equality 349
Chapter Review 350
DDCUMENTS: Wartime Opportunities and Dilemmas 351ALFRED M. GREEN, Let Us 0 0 0 Take Up the Sworfl, 1861 • ISAIAH C. WEARS, Ihe EvilInjustice of Colonization, 1862 • THOMAS MORRIS CHESTER, Negro Self-Respect and Prideof Race, 1862
DOCUMENTS: Black Women at Work during the War 355
Lucy SKIPWITH, Letters to Her Master, 1861-1865 • SUSIE KING TAYLOR, Reminiscencesof My Life in Camp, 1902 • SARAH H. BRADFORD, Harriet Tubman: Ready for Service tothe Union Cause, 1886
VISUAl SOURCES: The Moment and Meaning of Emancipation 362
Watch Meeting-Dec. 31st- Waitingfor the Hour, 1863 • Wateh Meeting Posteard,1863 • Reading the Emancipation Proclamation, 1864 • Colored Troops under GeneralWild, Liberating Slaves in North Carolina, 1864 • Arrival of a Federal Column at a Planter'sHouse in Dixie, 1863 • Emancipated Slaves, 1863 • Slave Children, "As We FoundThem" and "As They Are Now;' 1864 • Private Hubbard Pryor, before and after Enlistingin the U.SoColored Troops, 1864 • President Lincoln Riding through Richmond, April 4,amid the Enthusiastic Cheers of the Inhabitants, 1865 • Forever Free, 1867 • Freedmen'sMemorial, 1876
Notes 374 • Suggested References 375
XXX CONTENTS
Reconstruction: The Making andUnmaking of a Revolution, 1865-1885 376
A Social Revolution 378Freedom and Family 378Church and Community 381Land and Labor 384The Hope ofEducation 386
A Short-Lived Political Revolution 390The Political Contest over Reconstruction 390Black Reconstruction 393The Defeat ofReconstruction 397
Opportunities and Limits outside the South 400Autonomy in the West 400The Right to Work for Fair Wages 403The Struggle for Equal Rights 405
Conclusion: Revolutions and Reversals 407
Chapter Review . 408
DDGUMENTS: Letters to the Freedmen's Bureau, 1865-1868 409J OSEPH R. J OHNSON, The Need for Hornes, 1865 • HENRY BRAM, ISHMAEL MOULTRIE,AND YATES SAMPSON, ARequest for Homesteads, 1865 • TONEY GOLDEN WILLIAM,GABRIEL ANDREWS, AND TONEY AxON, The Terms ofWork, 1865 • JAMES HERNEY, ARequest for Furlough, 1866 • CYNTHA NICKoLS, ARequest for Custody, 1867 • MILLYJ OHNSON, Seeking Information about Her Children, 1867 • J OE EASLEY, Persecution of theFreedpeople, 1868
DOGUMENTS: Race, Sex, and the Vote 414SOJOURNER TRUTH, Equal Voting Rights, 1867 • PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICANEQUAL RIGHTS ASSOCIATION, A Debate: Negro Male Suifrage vs. Woman Suifrage,1869 • MARY ANN SHADD CARY, Womans Right to Vote, early 1870s
VISUAl SOURGES: Portrayals of Reconstruction-Era African Americans 419The Birth of a Nation, 1915 • Democratic Party Broadside, 1866 • Campaign BadgeSupporting Horatio Seymour and Frands P. Blair Jr. for President and Vice President,1868 • Colored Rule in a Reconstructed(?) State, 1874 • The Ignorant Vote, 1876 • The"Practical" Politicians Love for the Negro, 1885 • The Darktown Fire Brigade, 1887 • ALiterary Debate in the Darktown Club, 1885 • Crumpled, 1886
Notes 428 • Suggested References 429
CONTENTS xxxi
Black life and Culture,1880-1915 430
Racism and Black Challenges 432Racial Segregation 4321deologies ofWhite Supremacy 435Disfranchisement and Political Activism 437Lynching and the Campaign against It 438
Freedom's First Generation 442Black Women and Men in the Era ofJim Crow 443Black Communities in the Cities ofthe New South 447New Cultural Expressions 451
Migration, Accommodation, and Protest 454Migration Hopes and Disappointments 455TheAge ofBookerT. Washington 456The Emergence ofW E. B. Du Bois 458
Conclusion: Uplift 464
Chapter Review 465
DOGUMENTS: Lynching 466
Ihe Lynching of Charles MitchelI, 1897 • Ihe Lyl)ching ofVirgii Jones, Robert Jones,Ihomas Jones, and Joseph Riley, 1908 • Ihe Lynching ofLaura and Lawrence Nelson, 1911 •T. THOMAS FORTUNE, Fiendishness in Texas, 1885 • 1da B. Wells, Ihe Case Stated, 1895 •BOOKERT. WASHINGTON,A Protest against the Burning and Lynching ofNegroes, 1904 •MARY CHURCH TERRELL,Lynchingfrom a Negro's Point ofView, 1904
DOGUMENTS: Debt Peonage 475
A GEORGIA NEGRO PEON, Ihe New Slavery in the South, 1904 • W E. B. Du BOIS, Alongthe Color Une, 1910 • LETTERTO THE EDITOR, From the South, 1911
VISUAl SOURGES: Exhibit 0'American Negroes at the Paris World's Fair 480The Paris Exposition, 1900 • The Black Village in a Colonial Exhibition, Toulouse,France, 1908 • Exhibit of American Negroes, 1900 • Occupations ofNegroes and Whitesin Georgia, 1900 • Congressional Medal ofHonor Winners, c. 1900 • MricanAmericans Sorting Tobacco, 1900 • Composing Room of the Richmond Planet, 1900 •Morning Prayers at Fisk University, 1900 • Dentistry at Howard University, 1900 •Model Dining Room at the Agricultural and Mechanical College in Greensboro, NorthCarolina, 1900 • Atlanta University Students, 1899 or 1900 • Baseball Players fromMorris Brown College, 1899 or 1900 • Bazoline Estelle Usher, Atlanta UniversityStudent, 1899 or 1900
Notes 490 • Suggested References 491
xxxii CONTENTS
The New Negro,1915-1940 492
The Great Migration and the Great War 494Origins and Patterns ofMigration 494Black Communities in the Metropolises of the North 496Mrican Americans and the Great War 500
The New Negro Arrives 504Institutional Bases for Social Science and Historical Studies 505The Universal Negro Improvement Association 507The Harlem Renaissance 510
The Great Depression and the New Deal 515Economic Crisis and the Roosevelt Presidency 516Mrican American Politics 518Black Culture in Hard Times 523
Conclusion: Mass Movements and Mass Culture 526Chapter Review 527
DOCUMENTS: Explorations in Black Identity 528
LANGSTON HUGHES, Poems, 1921-1925 • GWENDOLYN BENNETT, Poems, 1923-1927 •ZORA NEALE HURSTON, How It Feels to Be Colored Me, 1928
DOCUMENTS: Black Socialism and Communism 534A. PHILIP RANDOLPH, Gur Reason for Being, 1919 • W. E. B. Du BOIS, Negro Editors onCommunism: A Symposium of the American Negro Press, 1932 • ANGELO HERNDON, YouCannot Kill the Working Class, 1934 • RrCHARD WRIGHT, 12Million Black Voices, 1941
VISUAl SOURCES: Representations of African Americans in Film 540Al]olson in The Jazz Singer, 1927 • Stepin Fetchit in The County Chairman, 1935 • Bill"Bojangles" Robinson in Harlem Is Heaven, 1932 • Paul Robeson in The Emperor Jones,1933 • Paul Robeson in Sanders of the River, 1935 • Nina Mae McKinney in GangSmashers, 1938 • Hattie McDaniel in Gone with the Wind, 1939 • Butterfly McQueen inGone with the Wind, 1939 • Fredi Washington and Louise Beavers in Imitation of Life,1934 • Poster for an Early Mrican American Film, 1916 • Edna Mae Harris in LyingLips, 1939
Notes 548 • Suggested References 548
The Crisis ot World War 11 552The War Begins 553African Americans Respond to the War 556Discrimination in the Military 557
Atrican Americans on the Home Front 560New Jobs and Wartime Migration 561Organizing for Economic Opportunity 565
The Struggle tor Citizenship Rights 567The Right to Vote 569New Beginnings in Political and Cultural Life 573Desegregating the Army and the GI Bill 575
Conclusion: A Partial Victory 577
Chapter Review 578
DDCUMENTS: Atrican Americans and the Tuskegee Experiments 579Classification ofTuskegee Syphilis Study Participants, 1969 • Interview with a TuskegeeSyphilis Study Participant, 1972 • PRESIDENT BILL CLINTON, The Nations Apology to theTuskegee Syphilis Study Participants, 1997 • ALEXANDERJEFFERSON, Interview with aTuskegee Airman, 2006 • WILLIAM H. HASTIE AND GEORGE E. STRATEMEYER,Resignation Memo and Response, 1943
CONTENTS____________________________________ .dl.iI&'i'.iQNilfi/ilikW!'ilfltlit_i!!i!J!'i!i,
Fighting for a Double Victory,1939-1948
xxxiii
550
DOCUMENTS: Testimony trom the Front 586PRIVATEJOHN S. LYONs, Letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1943 • SERGEANT BEN lUSERJR., Letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1944 • MRs. CHARLES H. PURYEAR, Letter to theCrisis, 1945 • PRIVATE FIRST CLASS ROBERT E. THREET, Letter to Truman K. Gibson,1943 • LIEUTENANT MARGARITTE GERTRUDE IVORY-BERTRAM, Incidents As an ArmyNurse, 1941-1945 • PRIVATE FIRST CLASS GLADYS O. THOMAS-ANDERSON, The 6888thPostal Battalion, 1944-1946 • THELMA THURSTON GORHAM, Negro Army Wives, 1943
VISUAl SOURCES: The Struggle tor the Hearts and Minds of Black Americansthrough World War 11Propaganda 592Transfusion Cartoon, 1942-1945 • Good Enough to Die ... but Not Good Enough toPitcht, 1945 • Hitler Is Here!, 1943 • Suddenly Popular, 1942 • IfYou Can't GoAcross ... ComeAcross! Buy War Bonds, 1942-1945 • Keep Us Flying! Buy War Bonds,c. 1942 • United We Win, 1943 • Recruiting Women, 1943 • Why Joe Joined the Army!,1942 • Pvt. Joe Louis Says ... , 1942
Notes 602 • Suggested Reterences 603
xxxiv CONTENTS
The Early Civil Rights Movement,1947-1963
Anticommunism and the Postwar Black Freedom Struggle 606African Americans and Truman's Loyalty Program 607Loyalty Programs Force New Strategies 610
The Transformation of the Southern Civil Rights Movement 612Triumphs and Tragedies in the Early Years, 1951-1956 612New Leadership for a New Movement 616The Watershed Years of the Southern Movement 618Frustrations Mount 622
Civil Rights: ANational Movement 625Civil Rights in the North and West 625Fighting Back 629The March on Washington and the Aftermath 631
Conclusion: The Evolution of the Black Freedom Struggle 635
Chapter Review 636
DOGUMENTS: The Murder of Emmett Till 637
604
MAMIE TILL BRADLEY,Telegram to President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1955 • WILLIAMBRADFORDHUIE, What Happened to Emmett Till's Killers?, 1957 • CHARLES C. DIGGSJR., Report to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1955 • W. BEVERLYCARTER,Letter to E. FredericMorrow, 1955 • E. FREDERIC MORROW, White House Memo, 1955 • J. EDGARHoovER, Letter to Dillon Anderson, 1955 • J. EDGAR HoovER, FBI Memo on CommunistActivity, 1956
DOGUMENTS: We Are Not Afraid 645
ANNE MOODY, Coming of Age in Mississippi, 1968 • CLEVELANDSELLERS,Ihe River ofNo Return, 1973 • ANDREW L.JORDAN,Murder in Mississippi, 1955 • ELIZABETHECKFORD, Ihe First Day: Little Rock, 1957 • ANGELA DAVIS, With My Mind onFreedom, 1974
VISUAl SOURGES: The Media and the Civil Rights Movement 651
Emmett Till, 1954 • National Guardsmen Escorting Freedom Riders, 1961 • FreedomRiders beside Their Burned Bus, 1961 • Birmingham Demonstrators Being Sprayed withFire Hoses, 1963 • Birmingham Demonstrator Being Attacked by a Police Dog,1963 • Elizabeth Eckford Walking toward Little Rock Central High School, 1957 •Demonstrators Kneeling in Prayer in Albany, Georgia, 1962 • James Zwerg in HisHospital Bed, 1961 • John R. Salter, Joan Trumpauer, and Anne Moody Sit In atWoolworth's inJackson, Mississippi, 1963 • A Woolworth's Protest in New York,1960 • Martin Luther KingJr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1963
Notes 660 • Suggested References 661
CONTENTS XXXV
Multiple Meanings of Freedom:The Movement Broadens, 1963-1975 662
The Emergence of Black Power 665Expanding the Civil Rights Struggle 665Early BlackPower Organizations 666Malcolm X 668
The Struggle Transforms 671BlackPower and Mississippi Politics 672Bloody Encounters 674Black Power Ascends 676
Economic Justice and Affirmative Action 681Politics and the Fight forJobs 681Urban Dilemmas 682Tackling Economic Injustice 684
War, Radicalism, and Turbulence 686The Vietnam War and Black Opposition 687Urban Radicalism 690
Conclusion: Progress, Challenges, and Change 693
Chapter Review 694
DDGUMENTS: The FBI, COINTELPRO, and the Infiltration of the Black FreedomMovement 695COINTELPRO Targets Black Organizations, 1967 • PBI Tries to Discredit StokelyCarmichael, 1968 • COINTELPRO Praises Its Eiforts to Infiltrate TV News, 1968 • PBIDirects Field Offices to Target the Black Panther Party, 1968 • PBI Uses Pake Letters toDivide the Chicago Black Panthers and the Blackstone Rangers, 1969 • Tangible Results,1969 • "Special Payment" Request and Ploor Plan of Pred Hampton's Apartment, 1969 •State Department Concerns about African Visitors, 1960 • Church Committee Report, 1976
DOGUMENTS: Black Families, Black Women, and the Moynihan Report 703DANIEL PATRICK MOYNIHAN, The Negro Pamily: The Case for National Action,1965 • WILLIAM H. GRIER AND PRICE M. COBBS, Black Rage, 1968 • EDWIN
HARGROVE AND CLAlRE C. HODGE, lobs and the Negro Pamily: A Reappraisal, 1971 •MICHELE WALLACE, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman, 1978
VISUAl SOURGES: The Black Arts Movement 709Ernie Barnes,The Sugar Shack, 1972 • Faith Ringgold, The Plag IsBleeding, 1967 • LOIsMailouJones, Vbi Girlfrom Tai Region, 1972 • Elizabeth Catlett, Homage to My Young BlackSisters, 1968 • BarkleyHendricks, October's Gone ... Goodnight, 1973 • BarkleyHendricks,Iconfor My Man Superman (Superman never saved any black people - Bobby Seale), 1969 •Raymond Saunders,lack lohnson, 1972 • Raymond Saunders,Red Star, 1970
Notes 717 • Suggested References 718
xxxvi CONTENTS
The Challenge of Conservatismin an Era of Change, 1968-2000
Opposition to the Black Freedom Movement 723Emergence of the New Right 723Law and Order, the Southern Strategy, and Anti-Affirmative Action 724The Reagan Era 726
The Persistence of the Black Freedom Struggle 729The Transformation of the BlackPanthers 729The Emergence of BlackWomen 731The Fight for Education 734Black Political Gains 736The Expansion of the BlackMiddle Class 737
The Different Faces of Black America 739The Class Divide 739Hip-Hop, Violence, and the Emergence of a New Generation 742Gender and Sexuality 744AllAfrica's Children 746
Conclusion: Black Americans on the Eve of the New Millennium 749
Chapter Review 750
DOGUMENTS: Black Americans Debate Affirmative Action 751
SHELBY STEELE, A Negative Vote on Affirmative Action, 1990 • RANDALL KENNEDY,
Persuasion and Distrust: The Affirmative Action Debate, 1986
720
DOGUMENTS: The Million Man and Million Woman Marches 757MAULANA KAREN GA, Mission Statement for the Million Man March, 1995 • ]AMES].
LULLEN, Actions That Count for More Than Marching, 1995 • RON DANIELS, FromPatriarchy to Partnership, 1996 • Mission Statement for the Million Woman March,1997 • ]uNE]oRDAN,AGatheringPurpose, 1998 • C.DELoREsTucKER,ADayforWomen, 1997 • ELIJAH GOSIER, ]ourneys Deserve Praise-to a Point, 1997
VISUAl SOURGES: Hip-Hop Culture 764
A Break-Dancer in New York City's Washington Square Park, 1984 • A GraffitiArtistin Long Island City, Queens, New York,2009 • Run-DMC, 1987 • Still from theMovie Beat Street, 1984 • Queen Latifah, 1993 • Salt-N-Pepa, 1994 • Damon Dash,2007 • Suge Knight, 1993 • Lauryn Hill, 1999 • Hip-Hop in Senegal: PositiveBlack Soul, 2005 • Street Dancing in Abbas, Morocco, 2008 • Hip-Hop Culture inBeijing, 2006
Notes 772 • Suggested References 773
CONTENTS xxxvii
African Americans and the New Century,2000-Present 774
Diversity and Racial Belonging 777New Categories ofDifference 778Solidarity, Culture, and the Meaning ofBlackness 783Diversity in Politics and Religion 785
Trying Times 788The Carceral State, or "the New Jim Crow" 7889 / 11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq 793Hurricane Katrina 794
Change Comes to America 796Obama's Forerunners, Campaign, and Victory 796The ObamaAdministration 799Obama and Race in America 800The 2012 Election 803
Conclusion: The Promise or Illusion of the New Century 804
Chapter Review 805
DOCUMENTS: The Despair of Hurricane Katrina 806
TRYMAINELEE, A Reporter's Eyewitness Aeeount,. 2005 • KEVINJ OHNSON, "CampGreyhound" Outpost ofLaw and Order, USA Today, September 8,2005 • JIM DWYERANDCHRISTOPHER DREW, Fear Exeeeded Crime's Reality in New Orleans, New York Times,September 29,2005 • Photographs of the Devastation, 2005
DOCUMENTS: The Trayvon Martin Case 815Photographs of Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman, 2012 • Protesting the Case,2012 • THE NATION, Trayvon Martin: Guilty ofBeing Blaek, 2012 • JESSEWASHINGTON,Trayvon Martin, My Son, and the Blaek Male Code, 2012 • Autopsy Report, 2012 •Neighborhood Wateh Program Poster, 2012 • Florida's "Stand Your Ground" Law, 2011
VISUAl SOURCES: First Lady Michelle Obama 824Michelle Obama Speaking at the Democratic National Convention, 2008 • Ihe Polities ofFear,2008 • White House Family Portrait, 2009 • White House Governors' Dinner,2009 • Miehelle 0, 2009 • Let's Move! Campaign, 2011
Notes 830 • Suggested References 831
xxxviii CONTENTS
Appendix: Documents A-1The Declaration ofIndependence • The Constitution of the United States ofAmerica • Amendments to the Constitution • The Emancipation Proclarnation[1863] • Presidents of the United States • Selected Legislative Acts • SelectedSupreme Court Decisions • Selected Speeches and Letters
Appendix: Tables and Charts A-48AfricanAmerican Population ofthe United States, 1790-2010 • AfricanAmericanEducational Attainment in the United States, 2011 • Unemployment Rates in the UnitedStates by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2005-2010 • Educational Attainment in the UnitedStates, 1960-2010 • African American Occupational Distribution, 1900 and 2010 •African American Regional Distribution, 1850-2010
Glossary of Key Terms G-1
Index 1-1