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A GUIDE TO SCIENCE CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT METHODS

By Virginia Malone

November, 1989

Table of Contents

I IntroductionRationale for multiple forms of assessment.......................................................3Linking assessment and goals............................................................................3Choosing assessment methods...........................................................................4Organization of this guide..................................................................................5

II Collections of Responses...........................................................................................6Portfolios......................................................................................................7-16Journals and log books...............................................................................17-19

III Constructed Responses...........................................................................................20Reflections on learning...............................................................................21-26Post-learning responses....................................................................................27

Structured interviews................................................................28-31Short open-ended items..................................................................32

Explaining concepts......................................................34-36Decision-making...........................................................37-38Designing solutions......................................................39-40Scientific inquires.........................................................41-42

Fill-in-the-blank........................................................................43-46Justified selected response........................................................47-50Short hands-on tasks.................................................................50-54

Investigations..............................................................................................55-56Content investigations..............................................................57-58Issue studies..............................................................................59-62Design problem studies............................................................63-64Scientific inquiries....................................................................65-68

IV Selected Responses..................................................................................................69Multiple choice, True/False, and Matching................................................70-72Surveys.......................................................................................................73-77

V Direct Observations................................................................................................78Checklists....................................................................................................79-81

VI Scoring Methods................................................................................................82-90VI Annotated Resource List...................................................................................91-92

INTRODUCTION

Rationale for Multiple Forms of Assessment

Multiple forms of assessment provide teachers with a clear perception of their student’s conceptual understanding, skills, attitudes and behaviors. Each method presented in this guide can be used prior to teaching, as part of teaching, or after teaching has occurred. These methods can yield information on everything from student achievement to program effectiveness. But each method has its strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, several methods should be used to give the clearest picture possible of students.

Any method of assessment, formal or informal, can stimulate students with thought-provoking tasks. Frequently, formal methods become learning experiences that encourage teachers to create their own activities and students to become actively involved in their own education. But formal methods are also blamed for teachers and students alike focusing on “will this be on the test” more than “is this important to learn. The methods themselves cannot be blamed for this mind-set. Greater efforts must be made to ensure high-quality assessment instruments and high-quality training for all stakeholders in the education of students.

While this guide provides many methods of assessment, it certainly does not cover all of them. There are some suggested scoring methods, but there are numerous others as well. It is only through investigation of student needs, teacher needs, curriculum demands, and final uses of the data that assessment answers will begin to appear.

Linking Assessment Methods and Goals

The links between goals, assessment instruments, scoring, and reporting are vital to a solid assessment system. The first step in assessment is to determine the long-term goals of the program. The examples in this guide are linked to long-term goals and the specific objectives that support them. Each example should be viewed with a clear understanding of these goals. The chosen long-term goals are those that support the roles students should be able to fill in the adult world. These roles are lifelong learners, workers able to interact positively with others and design solutions to problems, active citizens able to make decisions supported by an understanding of factual information on all sides of issues, and supportive parents and community members able to help new generations to learn. In each of these roles, the student will be expected to produce work that is clear, accurate, thorough but concise, and soundly reasoned. These expectations form the basis of the rubric used to score the collections of responses and the constructed responses.

The final data collected during assessment must be evaluated in terms of long term goals. Does the data show that students are learning what they are supposed to be learning? How much progress have they made toward the goals? How far do they have to go? The answers to these questions are very important to parents and should be included in any report to parents.

Choosing Assessment Methods

When choosing an assessment method, many questions need to be answered. The following list is not exhaustive, but can act as a starting point for evaluation of assessment systems.

Questions

What goals or objectives are to be assessed and how much emphasis is to be placed on each?

What is the purpose of the assessment?

Is the purpose of the assessment clear to students, teachers, and other stakeholders?

Are the assessment tasks engaging?

Do the assessment tasks actually measure the goals or objectives they are supposed to be measuring?

Is the information collected worth the effort in terms of teacher time, student time, and monetary costs?

Will the results help students?

Can the results be reported to all stakeholders in an easily interpreted fashion?

Can reliable scoring be completed in a timely fashion?

Can the assessment instrument be administered to the number of students in the program in the time allotted?

Organization of This Guide

Assessment methods in this guide are organized according to the types of responses that are to be assessed.

Collections of Responses - This assessment method has students collect their works in a variety of ways. Two of the chief assessments in this section are portfolios of best works and portfolios of works over time. The works in both types of portfolios are products of constructed response and selected response activities. Another collection of responses is found in journals and log books.

Constructed Response - Constructed or free response methods require students to develop their own responses. The responses may range from fill-in-the-blank to paraphrasing of content to reflections on the nature of learning.

Selected Response - Selected response methods require students to choose from responses furnished by the assessment writer. These methods generally include true/false, multiple choice, matching, and keyed surveys.

Observable Responses - The responses expected in these assessments are observable behaviors or skills. As the name suggests, these assessment methods depend on direct observations of students at work.

This guide includes overviews of those assessment methods that seem most useful in classroom situations. Examples are given to illustrate most of the methods discussed in this guide and some activities are delineated to help teachers construct their own assessments. All assessment methods can and should be used in both formal and informal situations. Most may be administered by computer, orally, or in written format. In addition to the methods presented in this guide, creative teachers will find endless ways to assess student performance.

Following the sections on assessment methods are a brief section on scoring and a section of annotated resources.

Collections of Responses

A collection of responses provides an excellent way to view individual levels of achievement or individual progress. This guide covers the following collections: Portfolios of best works, portfolios of works over time, and journals and logbooks.

Portfolios

A portfolio of best works provides a view of a students highest levels of achievement. This type of collection shows attainment of specific objectives or long-term goals. A portfolio of works over time permits assessment of progress. This type of collection enables students to see the progress they have made.

Portfolios have two advantages over conventional methods of assessment. First, they allow teachers to devise stimulating, complex activities that go beyond covering the book. The multifaceted activities most appropriate for a portfolio can correspond to the real world of work in ways that skill-building worksheets and end-of-chapter questions cannot.

The second advantage of portfolios is that they can encourage the student to reflect on the work. This leads to self-evaluation and the self-evaluation implicit in portfolios can contribute to a student’s understanding of the importance of accurate self-assessment.

Both types of portfolios can be scored on the level of the work within the collection. In many cases the work is scored before it is added to a portfolio and then an overall score on the work is given. A portfolio can receive another score that is entirely independent of the quality of work in the portfolio. This score depends on the students self-evaluation and rationale for adding works to the portfolio.

Journals and Logbooks

Logbooks or journals are usually permanently bound records of original observations, quantitative data, and personal thoughts which are kept in chronological order. Unlike the exemplary portfolio, the logbook and journal include all work, including mistakes, sidetracks, and chemical spills. They generally include thoughts on a problem, possible solutions, pitfalls, and data.

Portfolios

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, technical skills, thinking skills, attitudes, interests, habits of mind, creativity, self-reflectionNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time -Two to three hours to design portfolios, with periodic reviewTypical class time - One 45-minute class period each time the portfolio is reorganized. One to two class periods for completing cover sheets or resumesPossible scoring methods - Checklist, analytic holistic, focused holistic, self-evaluationPossible problems - Purpose and methods may be confusing to students; students may mistake volume for quality; overly strict guidelines may be adopted for portfolio; portfolios may be mistakenly equated; long scoring time; worthwhile activities may be time-consuming to develop; portfolio may be cumbersome for assessing specific objectives; standardized administration is difficultPossible values - Gives view of student growth; invites self-evaluation; encourages student and teacher creativity; permits utilization of any type of student-produced product; can show progress toward long-range goals

Prior to asking a student to develop a portfolio, a purpose for the portfolio should be discussed. For example, in this guide the purpose of the portfolio is to establish a better understanding of the adult roles the student will play, how school work is helping to prepare the student for these roles, and to illustrate the student’s level of achievement toward these roles. These roles are discussed in the introduction on page 3 of this guide. In adapting these materials, you will need to be keenly aware of your educational goals for your students and forge your assessments accordingly.

Best Works

Like the portfolio of a painter or writer, this type of student portfolio should contain only the student’s best works. The portfolio might center on a single style of work or it might encompass a wide variety of pieces, such as reflective writings, scientific investigations, explanations of concepts, pictures, multimedia productions, or any evidence of student achievement. But, like any professional portfolio, a student portfolio should have a purpose and the purpose should be clear and relevant to the student. The student can be allowed to choose what to include in the portfolio, either totally or in part, as long as the works included meet the purpose.

Additions and other changes to portfolios can be made at random, at set intervals during the year, or even over the course of several years. The amount of work included usually has to be limited in some way to facilitate review, scoring, student reflection, and self-evaluation.

Reviews of student work can supply information about student attitudes, skills, behaviors, and conceptual understanding. Questions that teachers might ask include the following:

Does the student understand where improvements can be made?

Is the student overrating or underrating the quality of the work?

Do the chosen samples reflect the purpose of the portfolio?

Works Over Time

Portfolios of works over time are excellent for students who have gotten behind and feel that they are making no progress. These portfolios can also be eye-openers for students who have achieved high levels compared to their peers, but who have actually increased the quality of their work very little. Students who have entered school with little fluency in English can also benefit from these forms of assessment as they begin to see the tremendous gains they have made during the assessment period. And last, but far from least, are average students who can see the strides they have made and can feel a real sense of accomplishment, a feeling that average grades rarely impart.

In the first segment of the portfolio overtime, a student simply creates a best works portfolio. In the following segment, the first portfolio is set aside to be compared to the final portfolio. This method prevents a bulging portfolio with mixtures of old and new work. Once teachers become accustomed to developing assessment tasks, they may try to develop similar types of activities for both the beginning and final portfolio. Working with teachers in previous grades can provide a continuity of activity types if school-wide goals are appropriate for all grades and portfolios are kept from year to year. While the activities cannot be equated, one might assume that if students have chosen the best of their work over time from a wide selection of similar activities, they are capable of producing the level of work shown in the portfolio.

The following questions might be reviewed for portfolios containing works over time.

Does the student understand how much improvement has been made during the course of the assessment period?

Is the student overrating or underrating the amount of improvement that has been made?

Are increases in content understanding, skills, and behaviors apparent?

Are the increases above or below the expected increases?

Has the student shown a decrease in achievement? If so, why?

Examples of Summaries and Cover Sheets

Example of a cover sheet for a single piece in a portfolio:

COVER SHEET

Name _____________________________________ Today’s Date ________________

Activity Title___________________________________________________________

Date Activity Started _____ Date Activity Finished_____

Group Activity or Individual Activity _____________________________

Activity Abstract:

The abstract should include the problem, a brief review of the methods used, and the conclusions reached or the type of product produced. This is especially important if the final product is in a format that cannot be retained.

I included this work in my portfolio because –

Novice students should be given some questions to help them evaluate their work. The focus questions on the next page are provided as examples. The number of questions should decrease as students develop self-evaluation skills.

I certify that this report is a correct and accurate reflection of this student’s work with the following notable exceptions:

If the portfolio annotations are to be retained by the school, it might be necessary to verify the student’s reflections. Students may want to inflate their self-evaluation. The teacher’s annotations can help eliminate some of the distortions or ambiguities of student’s views.

Name _________________________ Title___________________ Date _______

This sheet could be embossed with a school seal to certify authenticity.

Example of a summary sheet for a portfolio of best works:

PORTFOLIO SUMMARY

____________________________________ __________________ _____________(Name) (Subject) (Date)

MY GOALS EVIDENCE IN MY PORTFOLIO

To write better

To get along with EVERYONE on my team even if I don’t like them very much.

COURSE GOALS EVIDENCE IN MY PORTFOLIO

To develop the ability to learn on my own

To develop the ability to design solutions to problems

To develop the ability to interact positively with others

To develop the ability to make and support decisions

To develop the ability to support the learning of others

Example of a summary sheet for a portfolio maintained over time.

PORTFOLIO SUMMARYOVER TIME

____________________________________ _________________ _____________(Name) (Subject) (Date)

Beginning Portfolio Final Portfolio

How thorough was my work? How thorough is my work now?

How accurate were my observations, calculations, and facts?

How accurate are my observations, calculations, and facts now?

How reasonable were my explanations? How reasonable are my explanations now?

How clear was my work? How clear is my work now?

Areas that needed improvement Areas now needing improvement

Examples of focus questions for initiating self-evaluation

Have your students ask themselves questions like these as they add pieces to their portfolios.

What are your goals?

Have students consider both short term and long term goals.

How far have you come toward those goals?

Encourage students to see the strides they have made towards their own goals as well as toward school goals.

How far do you have to go to meet your goals?

Have students consider next steps they need to take to reach their goals. These steps may include remediation in areas of weakness.

What did you learn from your work on this piece that you did not know before?

Have students identify concepts that they learned as they worked on the piece.

What can you do now that you could not do before completing this piece? What can you do better now than you could do before?

Have students identify new or improved skills.

What does this piece show about the progress you have made toward your personal goals, as well as the goals and objectives of this course? What does this piece show that other pieces in your portfolio do not show?

Have the student relate their work on this piece to their personal goals or the goals of the course or grade level. Encourage students to choose a single best work rather than many pieces showing the same type of achievements.

If you did this piece over, how would you change it? Explain how the changes would make the piece better.

Encourage students to find areas of needed improvement.

(If this was a group project) What was your contribution to this project?

Reviewing the reflections of other members of the group could help support or refute this student’s self-evaluation.

How well did you work with other members of the group? What could you do to help the group improve teamwork skills?

You may want to review the SCANS Report, What Work Requires of Schools with your students to help them understand the need to work as a member of a team. One of the reasons most often cited for employee problems is a lack of ability to work with others.

What were some major contributions to this activity made by others?

Valuing the work of others and giving credit for that work is a highly valued trait in the world of work.

Using the portfolio as a learning tool

Like all good assessment instruments, the portfolio can be used as a learning tool. One way to do this is to ask students to present the portfolio for a simulated job interview. Questioning can center on the student’s choice of material, its quality as assessed by the student, and the student’s feelings toward the work. The job interview technique can augment the teacher’s view of student’s attitudes and work habits. The simulated interview can show students the need for improving the quality of their work or equip students with more realistic views of their work. Teachers should have a list of questions prepared before the interview just as employers do. This structured interview can encourage more consistency in the interviews. An example is provided in the structured interview section of this guide. (See page 28.)

It may be possible to use business people as portfolio reviewers. This can introduce a vital link to the community. Once they begin to review real student work, most business people find it enjoyable and informative. These community members gain a better understanding of what the school is trying to do and will have a much better understanding of student progress. They can view the portfolio in light of their own experience and dispense valuable insights to individual students.

Having potential employers evaluate portfolios can contribute valuable feedback to students, especially at the middle and high school levels. People in the student’s chosen field are in a position to know the real needs of a given career. Allowing students to discuss their portfolio or receive written communication with a person interested in the same things as the student makes the portfolio and the work in it much more authentic. Students begin to understand the need to retain proof of excellence. They are encouraged to begin to develop resumes from the portfolio as they move toward their own goals. If they have no long-range goals, a review of the portfolio by a wide range of community members can supply ideas for future goals. (Note: It is important that outside reviewers know the goals

and objectives of the course, the use of portfolios, and the criteria for assessing the portfolios. Also, if names remain on portfolios, care must be taken that parents are well-informed of the process and that they give written approval for outside review.)

The resumes that may be developed from portfolios with annotated examples of work furnish a relatively quick and easy way to evaluate a portfolio. A teacher familiar with a student’s work may need only to skim the exemplars, so that more time may be spent on the descriptions of needs, the annotations or the resume itself. A community reviewer might want to take more time comparing the annotations to the actual work. In this way, the resume forges a link between the school and the world of work. For students about to enter the world of work, the resume has immediate use. For students bound for higher education, there are universities that accept portfolios or even require a resume as part of the entrance requirement. In some cases the portfolio is accepted in lieu of the test scores.

Scoring Suggestions

The work within the portfolio may be assigned an overall course achievement score or separate scores for each goal. The portfolio itself may be assigned an additional score using a rubric similar to the one on page 15. Thus, it is possible for students to have work within the portfolio that represents low achievement, but they may receive a score of four on the portfolio itself because they clearly recognize their level of achievement in relation to goals and standards. Teachers and students must clearly understand the difference between a score on the portfolio and a score on the work within the portfolio.

Work Within the Portfolio

The quality of the work within the portfolio can be assessed on a simple scale. The scale can be expanded to a 6- or even 10-point scale depending on the assessment needs. The work might have been evaluated prior to using this type of scale.

Score 4 3 2 1

All or almost all work is at proficient levels

Most work is advanced

Most work is intermediate

All or almost all work is beginning level

Portfolio Rubric

Thoroughness

Clarity Accuracy Reason

4 Goals have been addressed in detail.

Organized presentation makes the work clear and easy to follow. There is no redundancy.

Accurate match between work, standards, and goals.

Reasoning is apparent and well-supported.

3 Goals have been addressed, but a few missing details distract from work.

Generally organized presentation, but some lapses distract from clarity. There are some easily eliminated redundancies.

The match between the work, standards, and goals is mostly accurate, with a few inaccuracies.

Reasoning is generally apparent and supported.

2 Goals have been addressed, but the use of supporting details is not consistent.

Many lapses in organization, but the work can be followed with a little effort. There is excessive redundancy.

The match between the work, standards, and goals is somewhat accurate, but contains many inaccuracies.

Reasoning is sometimes apparent and supported and other times confusing or unsupported.

1 Goals are very superficially addressed.

Lack of organization reduces clarity

Little if any match between work,

Reasoning is confused or totally

making the work very difficult to follow. Almost all of the work is redundant.

standards, and goals.

unsupported.

Work not accepted until all goals are addressed in some way

Preparing for Portfolio Assessment

1. Prepare a statement of the purpose of the portfolio for your students.

2. Outline how you will explain the use of the portfolio to your students and their parents. Include a cover sheet design or other appropriate method to introduce the concept of self-evaluation and reflection.

3. Develop some focus questions to guide your students.

4. Outline the criteria you will use for judging the portfolio and the method of scoring.

5. Prepare some criteria for parents and/or community members to use as they evaluate a student portfolio.

6. Decide how to “sell” the use of your portfolio method to other teachers on your team. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 5 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”

7. Write down some of the possible weaknesses of your portfolio method.

8. List other assessments that will be required to complement the portfolio.

Logbooks or Journals

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, attitudes, interests, habits of mind, self-evaluation, thought processes, reflectionsNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Two to three hours to design logbook or journal, with periodic reviewTypical class time - Five or ten minutes per entryPossible scoring methods - Analytic checklists, analytic holistic, focused holisticPossible problems - Determining appropriate comparable scores; student difficulty internalizing purpose; student frustration with long-term record keeping, equating tasks; confidentiality; long scoring timePossible values - Provides view of work over time, invites self-evaluation, equips students with a tool for lifelong learning, furnishes information for creative solutions to a variety of problems

Logbooks and journals are a mandatory part of many professions and as such are highly reflective of the world of work. Many highly successful people keep a daily journal that supplies them with insight into their life and work. They find in the journal an excellent place to keep reflections on problem-solving steps. The use of logbooks and journals can be increased if regular class time is devoted to making entries until the entries become habitual. With the increasing use of word processors, many logbooks and journals appear in computer systems rather than in the traditional permanently bound books.

The logbook or journal can be used by the student to produce a final product of some type, such as a science report, an engineering design, a movie, an autobiography, a fiction book, or a list of steps to success. Scoring the journal or logbook may not be necessary if the material in the book is used to produce a final product. The final product can be assessed, based on the assumption that the product could not be completed without the information contained in the logbook or journal. If the final product can be produced without them, then the use of logbook or journal work should be carefully reviewed.

One way journals may be used is for developing student learning and creative strategies. Fill-in-the-blank or focus questions used on a regular basis may help students focus on how they learn. For example, students may be given a list of strategies such as make a table, make a graph, draw a picture, make a concept map, make an outline, look for patterns, scan the chapter, write questions, etc. After each lesson the student might focus on, “Which strategy did I use?” “Why was this the best strategy to use?” “The strategy I like to use the best is ---.”

Scoring Suggestions

Since the logbook or journal can contain very personal thoughts and ideas, the teacher must make provisions for confidentiality. This is especially true if the journal is a personal diary.

The logbook or journal can be scored on the quantity of entries on a scale from entries every day to no entries. This method fails to account for the quality of the entries, but may be used if quality is not an issue. The following is an example of a rubric that can be used to focus on the accuracy and reasonableness of the work, as well as the quantity of work.

Logbook or Journal Rubric

Level Thoroughness Accuracy Reasonableness

4 Detailed entries have been made daily.

Accurate and precise records are present.

Thoughtful connections and sound reasoning are apparent.

3 Entries have been detailed but a few days are skipped, or entries are daily but lack some detail.

Most records are accurate and precise, but there are a few inaccuracies.

Some thoughtful connections are made. Most reasoning is sound, but there are a few apparent lapses.

2 Entries are recorded inconsistently or lack any detail.

Some records are accurate, but many records appear to be carelessly recorded.

Connections are attempted, but seem unrelated. Some sound reasoning is present, but generally reasoning is confused.

1 Few entries are recorded or entries are little more than date and time.

Few if any of the records are accurate and precise.

No connections are made. Reasoning, if present, is illogical.

Preparing for Logbook or Journal Assessment

1. Prepare a statement of the purpose of the logbook or journal for your students.

2. Outline how you will explain the use of the logbook or journal to your students and their parents.

3. Outline the criteria you will use for judging the logbook or journal and the method of scoring.

4. Prepare some criteria for parents and/or community members who might view the work.

5. Develop some focus questions to help your students begin keeping a permanent log of their work and thoughts or develop some focus questions to help students maintain a journal.

6. Decide how to “sell” the use of your method to others. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 5 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”

7. Write down some of the possible weaknesses of your method.

8. List other assessments that will be required to complement the logbook or journal.

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSES

Constructed response assessment methods can present opportunities for students to simply paraphrase “the right answers” or they can create opportunities for students to synthesize information they have learned into unexpected and unpredictable forms. The assessment may be of information that is acquired prior to responses, as in post-learning response items. Investigations provide opportunities to learn some content and skills during the assessment or the assessment may focus on reflections on learning that provide opportunities for students to assess and develop their own steps and methods of learning.

Constructed responses subsume reflections on learning, post-learning responses, and investigations. Reflections on learning items ask the student, “How did you learn?” Post-learning response items ask, “What content have you learned?” “What have you learned to do?” and investigations ask, “What can you learn?” Students can respond to these assessments orally, in writing, or in different media. No matter how students respond, their answers are expected to be clear, accurate, thorough, and soundly reasoned. These expectations form the basis of the holistic rubrics given in this guide.

The most common error students make in constructed response assessments is omitting required components. Constructed response items for younger students and students just learning basic skills should be broken into several parts with space for answers between parts. This insures that all parts are addressed. Graphic organizers are also helpful to these students. But these crutches should be withdrawn as soon as possible. Students may also be taught to underline, highlight, or number required components in a constructed response prompt to reduce this error. Some students may prefer to make a checklist of requirements, an outline, or a graphic organizer of their own design to prevent omissions. It is important that students learn to ask themselves, “What am I supposed to do?” and “Did I do everything that was required?” in order to thoroughly respond to these assessments.

Reflections on Learning

Areas assessed - Thinking skills, problem-solving skills, self-reflectionsNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Two to three hours to design the activity, with periodic reviewTypical class time - One 45-minute class period or lessPossible scoring method - Focused holisticPossible problems - Students may fail to be open if grades are assigned; some reporting may have to be done orally; some parents find questions dealing with student feelings or reflections very offensive; students will be unable to recall all of the processes they use; equating tasks; long scoring time; difficult to standardize administrationPossible values - Provides a tool for lifelong learning; enables students to become part of the assessment process; encourages students to develop thinking strategies and internalize the steps to problem-solving; allows students to reflect on the nature of science, mathematics; the arts or social sciences.

Reflections on learning (metacognition) can be used for assessing students’ understanding of the methods and types of thinking they use to solve problems. Reflections on learning are often used in journal writing. They invite students to describe how they have accomplished tasks or how they felt during tasks. The personal feelings are generally not part of student assessment even though they might be shared by the student. Care must be taken to honor desires for confidentiality if personal thoughts are included in these works.

For students unaccustomed to reflecting on their own learning, it is best to begin with very simple but complete tasks that can be completed in a minute or two. These simple tasks should be something that every student can easily do. Tasks requiring several days or weeks can be used if students are accustomed to self-reflections or if the reflections are directed at specific parts of the tasks. The focus questions can become more general as students begin to think more about problem solving in terms of their own experiences, problem-solving steps, and their attitudes toward various types of problems.

The most useful aspect of reflecting on learning comes when generalizations can be made. To encourage this step, all entries should be reviewed from time to time with the students making a master list of their own steps to problem solving. Students should be encouraged to look for patterns in their own problem solving.

The scientific method, is a list of generalized steps defined by many different people as they reflected on how they solved problems. Steps from this method can add to a student’s own strategies, but in reality each student must develop his or her own strategies. Each person must also understand that following the steps will not guarantee success. One cannot simply complete the steps in order and expect answers to automatically pop out. There are many books on steps to problem solving, steps to

writing, steps in the scientific method, steps to communicating, and thousands of others that list the steps used by experts. While students might compare their lists to the list of various experts, they should be lead to understand that they are the experts when it comes to the steps they use in problem solving.

Self-reflection appears to be used by many problem solvers, including Lorenz in King Solomon’s Ring, Heyerdahl in Kon-Tiki, Patterson in The Education of Koko, Feynman in Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman, and Darwin in The Voyage of the Beagle. Readings from these sources and others can provide a stimulus for student reflection, helping them to link assessment and instruction to other endeavors. Example

Prompts:

Draw a beautiful flower.Write down five things you know about plants.Write a limerick about a lizard.

First prompts should be something all students can do quickly and successfully. As students begin to understand reflections on learning, the prompts should become more complex and contain some ambiguities.

Individual assignment:

In your journal, write down the very first step you took to solve the problem.

Group assignment:

Compare your first step to first steps of other students. How is your first step like theirs? How is your first step different from theirs? (Allow students to change their own first step if they now think that another step is the first they took.)

Class discussion:

Compile a master list of first steps for the class. Have students tell how their own first steps are like the first steps taken by their classmates.


Write down other steps you took.

Group assignment:

Compare your steps to the steps of other students. How are your steps like theirs? How are your steps different from theirs? (Encourage students to add to their steps as they work.)


(This assignment will take place after students have recorded several reflections on learning in their journals.) Look at the steps you have used for learning. Make a master list of the steps you use most often. You may use a map, an outline, a pyramid of steps, a flow chart, or other graphic to help you organize your list. Try to use as few words as possible to describe each step. Compare your list to the steps in the scientific method.

Example of a Problem-Solving Map

HypothesizeObserve Question Experiment Conclude Report


Refer to the steps you use in problem solving each time you work on any assignment. Add to and modify the steps as you work on more problems.

Focus questions

Focus questions are important for students just beginning to do reflective thinking. The following questions may help students focus their thoughts. Many of these questions can be asked orally as the teacher moves among working students, but they should be formulated by the teacher in advance of the lesson.

Examples of focus questions:

What did you think of first?What did you do first?What experiences did you bring to this problem?What steps did you follow to solve the problem?How did others help you solve the problem?What were some steps others described that might help you become a better problem solver?How are the steps you used like the steps used by others? How are they different?Can you describe each of your problem-solving steps in a word or two?How were these steps like steps you have used to solve other problem-solving tasks?How did the steps used in this problem differ from the steps you have used in other problem-solving tasks?What did you do when you got stuck?What attitudes or habits of mind help you to solve problems like this?

Scoring Suggestions

Holistic scoring is ideal for reflections on learning. Scoring may focus on thoroughness and reasoning, or it may focus on the final product, i.e., the generalization of several reflections on learning. Clarity might be included, but care should be taken that clarity refers to clarity for the student, not necessarily for the teacher.

Rubric for Reflections on Learning

Level

Thoroughness Reasoning

4 Very detailed account of thoughts is apparent.

Sound extensive reasoning is shown by continuous revision and generalization of problem-solving steps or strategies. Ideas are strongly supported with appropriate analogies and/or facts.

3 Moderately detailed account of thoughts.

Generally good reasoning is shown by revision and solid attempts at generalizing problem-solving steps or strategies. Most ideas are well supported with generally appropriate analogies and/or facts.

2 Account of thoughts lacks detail.

Weak reasoning is shown by few attempts at generalizing steps or strategies. Ideas are given but are not well supported by facts. Analogies if present are confusing.

1 Account lacks any detail. Reasoning is unsound. There may be some disconnected attempts to identify problem solving steps or strategies. Ideas if present confused or totally unsupported. No appropriate analogies are present.

Preparing for Reflections on Learning

1. Outline how you will explain the process of self-reflection to your students and their parents.

2. Outline the criteria you will use for judging the reflections and the method of scoring.

3. Design a series of tasks with focus questions that will enable students to become better at reflecting on the processes they use to solve problems.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of your self-reflection tasks to others. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 4 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”

5. Write down some of the possible weaknesses of your method.

6. List other assessments that will be required to complement the reflections on learning.

Post-learning Responses

Teaching and learning may take place before or after the administration of these items, but not during the assessment. Responses to post-learning items, like responses to investigation items, tend to be in the form of written work, but responses can take a wide variety of other forms, such as posters, drawings, oral discussions, concept maps, outlines, book covers, newspaper articles, or any type of product produced by people as they fill adult roles. Prompts and questions for post-learning responses and investigations may be identical, but the student is not allowed to use references and is generally not assisted during the assessment period.

Structured Interviews

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, thinking skills, problem solving, thought processes, reflective thinkingNumber of students assessed at one time - OneTeacher preparation time - One to several hoursTypical class time - Five to twenty minutes per studentPossible scoring methods - Analytic checklists, analytic holistic, focused holisticPossible problems - Failure to anticipate student responses; failure to sequence questions properly; failure to design revealing questions; variable results; students inhibited by lack of speaking skills; students inhibited from speaking by cultural mores; speed of interview can make evaluation difficult; teacher personality can significantly impact the results, conflicts with regular classroom activitiesPossible values - Provides in-depth information; prevents the use of inappropriate questions; insures all students receive the same “quality time”; very encouraging to many students; can make students feel “special”; can be equated

Teachers can use the structured interview in tandem with portfolios, journals, self-reflections and other open-ended forms of assessment. A list of questions that have been thoroughly contemplated or reviewed by others is especially useful to the novice teacher. The questions are a supporting framework for teacher/student interaction and in informal settings are often modified as the student responds. This type of modified or informal interview is probably more realistic for classroom use.

To develop a structured interview, the task must be outlined with specific questions written into the task at appropriate points. All students are given exactly the same task. Answers are recorded and/or a checklist is completed. A formal structured interview should provide at least the following five components –

the parameters of questioning a description of the assessment conditions definition of the problem specific questions provisions for different responses

The following example of a structured interview incorporates the use of the student portfolio and gives the student valuable experience in preparing for interviews as well as in being interviewed. The interview questions are designed to assess students’ basic understanding of ecology, use of technology, oral communication skills, and contributions to group activities. Scoring of responses is generally based on thoroughness, accuracy, clarity, and sound reasoning. Like other examples of assessment methods, this one has strong links to the educational goals described in the introduction of this guide.

Example of a structured interview:

The parameters of questioning

All information in boldface type is to be read verbatim to the student. The student will present their portfolio as part of a job interview. The job is one that requires the knowledge, skills, and habits of mind that have been developed during a unit on ecology. Each interview occurs as other students are completing homework assignments. Allow one minute wait time for answers to all questions. Record student’s answers to all questions or use a checklist to help you organize responses.

A description of the assessment conditions

Prior to the interview, present the students with a want ad and tell them to tailor their portfolio to match the want ad. Provide some class time for students to organize their portfolios and some time for peer discussion of the appropriateness of choices for the portfolio.

Student Wanted for Field Ecology Work

Make a Million Corporation seeks a student with a basic understanding of ecology for summer field work. Accurate data collection is a basic part of this exciting summer job. Calculator skills are a must. The successful candidate will be working with many other students as well as practicing scientists from all over the world. A final written report of all work will be required.

Make a Million will furnish room and board and round trip flights to the environmental site of your choice.

Apply now. Bring portfolio to Make a Million Corporation, Room 111 Science Bldg., Richland High School, Anytown, USA

No applications accepted after January 1. Make a Million Corporation is an Equal Opportunity Employer

Definition of the problem

Hello, Mr. (Ms.) (students last name) I will be interviewing you for a job with the Make a Million Corporation. I see you have your portfolio with you. That is good. You would be surprised at how few applicants bring a portfolio. As you know we are looking for someone who has studied environmental problems. You must be able to work with a wide variety of people, use a calculator, communicate in writing, and must understand some basic ecological principles.

Conducting the interview

Show me what you have in your portfolio that shows you have a good understanding of basic ecology. Allow the student ample time to retrieve information and to talk about the works in the portfolio.

Provisions for different responses during the interview

If the student does not explain what the work in the portfolio is about, say, Explain to me what this assignment was about. Allow the student to summarize the work.

Did you work in a group on this project? If the answer is no, proceed to the next question. If the answer is yes, ask, What did you contribute to the project? Allow the student to present contributions.

Explain what you learned about ecology during this project.

If other responses have not addressed calculators, say, I would like to know if you can make measurements and calculations. Show me something you have done involving measurements and calculations.

Scoring Suggestions:

Like the portfolio, the interview can be scored on thoroughness, clarity, accuracy, and reasoning. The portfolio rubric may be used for the type of interview conducted above.

Preparing for a Structured Interview Assessment

1. Prepare a statement of the purpose of the structured interview for students.

2. Develop a structured interview. Be sure to describe the setting, define the parameters of questioning, present the problem, develop the questions, and provide for different responses. The interview should be complete enough so that anyone could administer it with the same results.

3. Outline the criteria you will use for judging the results of the interview and the method of scoring.

4. List some of the strengths and weaknesses of your interview questions.

5. Consider how the interview can be linked to other assessments.

6. After you have interviewed students, decide how to “sell” the use of your interview to others. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 4 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”

Short Open-ended Items

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, communication skills, thinking skills, problem solving and decision makingNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Usually shortTypical class time - From a few minutes to one 45-minute class periodPossible scoring methods - Analytic, analytic holistic, focused holisticPossible problems - Teacher must be an active reader; high quality-questions are difficult to prepare; students misunderstand what is being asked; the match between question and objective can be difficult to achieve; equating tasks, long scoring timePossible values - Provides an in-depth look at conceptual understanding, skills, and thought processes; requires active student participation; responses can mirror the type of products produced in the adult world; administration can be standardized

Short open-ended items are constructed response items that can be completed within one class period or less. As with all post-learning response items the student must work independently and usually from memory. Most short open-ended items call for the production of an essay, but they can be posters, drawings, concept maps, outlines, book covers, short newspaper articles, or any type of product produced by people as they fill adult roles. Length can vary from short paragraphs to one- or two-page reports. Short open-ended items can assess specific skills such as observing, designing experiments, recognizing patterns, estimating, predicting, or evaluating ideas. They can assess simple paraphrasing of content, complex synthesis, or evaluation of ideas. These assessments can initiate problem solving or decision making or involve various combinations of skills and knowledge. Because of this versatility, the relative ease of item development, and ease of administration, short open-ended items remain the assessment of choice for many teachers.

Maintaining the quality of the short open-ended items can be difficult. The developer must ask the following questions of each and every item.

Is this knowledge or skill really important? If so, why? What is this item asking the student to do? Is this really what students should be able to do with this knowledge? Is it clear what should and should not be included in the work?

Short open-ended items can be grouped by what they are asking the student to do, as they are in this guide. Some items may fall into more than one group, depending on how many things a student is asked to do.

Explaining Concepts

Each example below asks the student to summarize or paraphrase conceptual information. The first example is presented in a traditional format. The others are presented in a less traditional fashion, but the content expected is the same. For some students the creative scenarios or non-traditional products can heighten their interest. For other students the scenario interferes with their understanding of what they should do. For this reason, care should be taken that the task is clearly defined in the scenario and that the rubric or scoring criteria is shared with students before they begin. Holistic scoring for these items might be based on criteria such as clarity, thoroughness, accuracy, and sound reasoning. Analytic scoring using a checklist of ideas (content guide) that describes the content is another scoring method that is appropriate and often used.

Examples of summarizing concepts:

Describe Galileo’s views on the motions of the earth.

Imagine that you are a reporter who interviewed Galileo. Write a news story summarizing his views on the motions of the earth.

Make a poster illustrating Galileo’s views of the motions of the earth.

Design a T-shirt illustrating Galileo’s views of the motions of the earth. (A sheet of paper with a T-shirt drawn on it could be provided for each student.

Short open-ended items can require students to use any or all of the higher-order thinking skills. In the examples below the student is asked to use ideas in new ways. These examples assume that the student has not been exposed to the contexts of the items during the teaching process. Scoring of these items tends to be more holistic as the scorer is trying to determine the level of reasoning, clarity, and thoroughness, as well as the accuracy of content. Generally, the scorer must approach the paper as a whole rather than as a sum of its parts.

Examples of application of concepts:

Use Darwin’s theory to explain why beavers have big incisors (front teeth). You may include drawings to help you explain.

Imagine that you are Darwin trying to explain his theory to a group of high school students. Write an article for the high school newspaper in which you discuss why beavers have big incisors (front teeth). You may include drawings for the article.

Draw a cartoon sequence using Darwin’s theory to explain why beavers have big incisors (front teeth).

Choose an animal we have not studied in class. Draw or describe a structure it has that makes it especially well-suited to its environment. Using Darwin’s theory, explain how and why the animal has that structure.


Scoring of conceptual items can be analytical, using a checklist of content points that must be included. This form of analytic scoring is easy to apply and many papers can be quickly scored. A scorer with very little content knowledge can easily and accurately score papers using an analytic checklist. For example, if an item asks a student to describe and give examples of Newton’s three laws, then a list of the three laws and a brief explanation of acceptable examples will suffice for a scorer.

Scoring of conceptual explanations can be holistic, using thoroughness, clarity, accuracy, and reasonableness of the explanation. Holistic scoring may take a bit longer, but it looks at the work as a mini-presentation of information that should include not only accurate and complete information, but should be presented in a reasonable and clear fashion.

Rubric for Explaining Concepts

Level Thoroughness Clarity Accuracy Reasonableness

4 All fundamental concepts are covered with adequate detail to enhance the work.

Clear presentation makes the work easy to follow. There is no redundancy.

All facts are accurate.

Reasoning is apparent and well-supported.

3 Most fundamental concepts are covered with adequate detail, or all concepts are covered but details are minimal.

Generally clear presentation, but some lapses are distracting. There are some easily eliminated redundancies.

Most facts are accurate.

Reasoning is generally apparent and supported.

2 A few fundamental concepts are covered with adequate detail, or most concepts are covered with few, if any, details.

Many lapses in clarity, but the work can be followed with a some effort. There is excessive redundancy.

Some of the facts are accurate, but many are inaccurate.

Reasoning is sometimes apparent and supported, and other times confusing or unsupported.

1 No concepts are covered, or a few concepts are covered with no details.

Lack of clarity makes the work very difficult to follow. Almost all of the work is redundant.

Any facts presented are inaccurate.

Reasoning is confused or totally unsupported.

Decision Making

Short open-ended items can ask students to make a decision and justify the decision with factual information they have covered in class and reasoned opinions. As with other written responses, graphic organizers may be used to help students extend their answers. Multiple questions may be given and scored as a single work. This often works for younger students who seem to be able to focus on only one process at a time and older students just learning the basics of a well-supported decision. At some point these crutches should be removed and students should be asked to respond to similar items making their own organizers or utilizing other techniques to ensure complete answers.

The example below can be used after a unit on ecosystems.

Example:

Imagine that there is a pond on the school grounds. Next year there will be 100 new students in the school and the pond is the only place left to build a play area. Give as many reasons as you can for keeping the pond and for building the new play area. A sample answer has been given for you.

Reasons for Keeping the Pond Reasons for Building a New Play Area

The pond is the home for many animals. The animals will not have a home without the pond.

The pond is the home for mosquitoes. The new play area will cover the pond so we will have fewer mosquitoes.

Do you think the school should keep the pond or build the new play area? Give facts to support your opinions. Be sure to include information that will negate arguments that might be presented by people with an opposing view.

Scoring suggestions:

Decision-making items, like other open-ended items, can be scored on thoroughness, clarity, accuracy, and reasoning. The rubric descriptions are modified to fit the decision-making process. As with other rubrics, the more inexperienced the students, the more detailed the descriptions need to be. The descriptions tend to help the student understand what is expected and should be helpful to students if the rubric is shared with the students before they begin working.

Rubric for Decision Making

Level

Thoroughness Clarity Accuracy Reasonableness

4 All views of issue are discussed with adequate detail.


All facts are accurate. The consequences of decisions are accurately portrayed.

Reasoning includes strong validation for views and invalidates opposing views. Opinions are supported by facts.

3 Most views of issue are discussed with adequate detail, or one viewpoint is discussed in detail but other views are only cursorily reviewed.

Generally clear presentation, but some lapses are distracting. There are a few redundancies.

Most facts are accurate. The consequences of decisions are generally accurate.

Reasoning includes validation for own views with some invalidation of opposing views, or validation of own views lacks some generally apparent supporting evidence. Most opinions are supported by facts.

2 Issue is viewed from one side only. There is some detail to this

Many lapses in clarity, but the work can be followed with a little

Some of the facts are accurate, but many are inaccurate. The

Reasoning includes little validation for own views and little or no attempt is made to invalidate

view. effort. There is excessive redundancy.

consequences of decisions are somewhat inaccurate.

opposing views. Opinions are weakly supported by facts.

1 Issue is viewed from one side with no details.


Any facts presented are inaccurate. The consequences of decisions if given are totally inaccurate.

Reasoning is not readily apparent. Own view appears to change within argument. Opinions are unsupported or are supported by more opinions.

Designing Solutions

Short open-ended items can ask students to design a solution to a problem and provide factual evidence that their solution will probably work within the given constraints. These essays require students to apply the basic principles they have learned. Since the answers can be highly divergent, focused holistic scoring is generally preferred for these types of constructed response items. As with other content-bound constructed response items, the scorer must have some content knowledge as well as good reasoning skills.

An item may require the student to produce an engineering design such as the example below. This example requires a thorough understanding of evaporation and animal habits to complete a workable solution to the problem.

Example:

Describe a method that could be used to catch and hold rainwater for a family living in a dry region. Include methods to prevent evaporation and contamination by wild animals. You may use labeled drawings to help you explain your design. Be sure to explain why your design will work, using basic scientific principles.


Holistic scoring is ideal for open-ended items that require designing a solution to a problem. A scorer will need to have enough knowledge to recognize designs that could

be supported by facts but are not, and the scorer will need to be able to determine the accuracy of facts used to support designs. A scorer will also need to understand the constraints on experimental designs in order to score experimental designs.

Rubric for Designing Solutions

Level


4 All design constraints are met. Explanation of design is detailed enough that design could be replicated.


All facts are accurate.

Design is strongly supported by facts.

3 Most design constraints are met. Explanation of design lacks sufficient detail to replicate design.

Generally clear presentation, but some lapses are distracting. There are a few redundancies.

Most facts are accurate.

Design is adequately supported by facts.

2 An attempt is made to meet some of the design constraints. Lack of explanation interferes with presentation of design.

Many lapses in clarity, but the work can be followed with a little effort. There is excessive redundancy.

Some of the facts are accurate, but many are inaccurate.

Design could be supported by factual information, but the support is missing or confusing.

1 No attempt is made to meet the design constraints. Explanation of the design is absent.


Any facts present are inaccurate.

Design cannot be supported by factual information.

Scientific Inquiry

An item may ask a student to provide a design for an experiment, make and record observations, interpret data, or any of the other skills required for scientific inquiry. Scoring may be based on thoroughness, clarity, accuracy, and reasonableness, just as with other open-ended items. The rubric is adjusted that students may more clearly understand what is expected.

Example of experimental design:

What are the effects of different humidity on the activity of pillbugs?

Give your hypothesis for the above question, use facts to explain why you believe your hypothesis is correct, and design an experiment which could test your hypothesis.

Example of inference:

These cups are made of two different materials. The materials of which cup would make the best insulation for a house. Give evidence to support and explain your answer.

Example of observations:

[Studies of two different species of grasshoppers.]Explain how the two grasshoppers are alike and how they are different. Make a chart to help you organize your answers.

Alike Different

Rubric for Scientific Inquiry

Level


4 Experiment has addressed all variables. Adequate controls are present. Trials are repeated until consistency is obtained. Observations are detailed.


All facts and observations are accurate.

Inference is reasonable and well- supported. A rigorous proof would result from this experiment.

3 Experiment has addressed most variables. Adequate controls are present. Trials are repeated several times. Most observations are detailed.


Most facts and observations are accurate.

Inference is reasonable, but not as well-supported as it could be. A proof will result from this experiment, but it will not bear up under scrutiny.

2 Experiment has addressed a variable. Controls are attempted but not appropriate. Trials are repeated once or twice. A few observations are detailed.

Many lapses in clarity, but the work can be followed with a little effort. There is excessive redundancy.

Some of the facts and observations are accurate, but many are inaccurate.

Inference could be supported by factual information, but the support is missing or confusing. Any proof resulting from this experiment will be inadequate.

1 Experiment does not address any variables. No controls are present. The experiment is one once. No observations are detailed.


Facts or observations presented are inaccurate.

Inference cannot be supported by factual information. No proof will result from this experiment.

Preparing for Short Open-ended Items

1. Prepare a set of short open-ended items. Each item should define the required components of the response, and the limits of the response.

2. Describe how the answer to each item will prove that a student has met an objective or objectives of your course.

3. Outline the criteria you will use for judging the items.

4. Prepare both an analytic checklist and a holistic rubric for scoring. Describe the situations in which you would use each type of scoring method.

5. Decide how to “sell” the use of short open-ended assessments to other teachers on your team. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 4 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”

6. Describe other assessments that will be required to complement the use of the items you have produced.

Fill-in-the-blank

Areas assessed - Conceptual understandingNumber of students assessed at one time - Individual, classTeacher preparation time - ShortTypical class time - ShortPossible scoring method - AnalyticScoring time - ShortPossible problems - Can encourage rote memorization; teacher must be an active scorer watching for possible alternative answers; translating results can be difficultPossible values - Can provide quick idea of student understanding; easy to administer; easy to score

Fill-in-the-blank items are favored by teachers who have little time to construct classroom tests. They are easy to construct and score, but can encourage rote memorization of facts. Another problem with fill in-the-blank items is the possibility of multiple answers due to ambiguity in the question. A teacher unfamiliar with the content and depending on the textbook for answers may not recognize alternative correct responses. For example, a unit question on the digestive system might read as follows. “Energy that humans use is stored in _____.” The keyed response might be food. However, humans use energy that is stored in gasoline, coal, wood, plants, fats, carbohydrates, proteins, ATP, and a wide variety of other possibilities. Teachers depending entirely on the textbook for answers may overlook these alternatives, which are just as correct as food. The problem of correct responses being unknown to the teacher is inherent in all types of items, but it seems to be especially problematic in fill-in-the-blank items.

Fill-in-the-blank items can be used as a quick pre-test to determine some of the ideas students have about a concept. A single item which would be far too ambiguous for use on a final test might serve a teacher well. For example, students were asked to complete the following. “All cells are ____.” Student responses included answers such as all cells are square or all cells are pink. A look at the previous year’s science book showed why these responses were made. These students had good visual memories and instruction could have been modified accordingly.

Fill-in-the-blank can be very useful to students who can learn to use a standard fill-in-the-blank statement for specific situations. For example, students may be taught to ask an experimental question by repeated use of the fill-in-the-blank item, “What are the effects of ____ on ____?” If students use this model frequently, the statement should come to mind any time they are to develop an experimentally testable question. These fill-in-the-blank models can be used to start the thinking process. Students should be reminded that at some point there will be no fill-in-the-blank stimulus and other stimuli may produce equally valid results.

Fill-in-the-blank may also be used to stimulate creativity. For the item, “I can use ___ instead of what is being used now,” students can brainstorm to fill-in-the-blank with anything and later search the answers for the best substitution. A problem that asks students to come up with a solution for the problem of broken shoelaces might yield the response, “I could use string, fishing line, wire, plastic, etc., instead of cotton.” The problem can be as simple as a shoelace or as complicated as laws to preserve forests. Numerous examples of creative “starters” are given in Thinkertoys and other books on creativity found in the business section of book stores.


Because of the problem of multiple correct responses in these types of items, they may be best used informally with no scores attached. If scores are to be assigned, care must be taken to give credit for all correct responses, not just the keyed response. This means the scorer must be well-versed in the content area.

Fill-in-the-blank items that are used for starting the thinking process may be scored for quantity of responses or for reasonableness after the student has chosen the most logical responses.

Preparing for Fill-in-the-blank

1. Prepare some fill-in-the-blank items that will allow multiple correct responses or items that can be used repeatedly in various situations to help students start the thinking process.

2. Outline when, where, how and why you will use the items.

3. After you have presented the items to students, put their responses in groups, tell what you think the responses mean, and tell how these responses will cause your lessons to be modified.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of fill-in-the-blank assessments to other teachers on your team. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 4 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”


JUSTIFIED SELECTED RESPONSE

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, specific skillsNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Long for a complete test, but easy and quick to modify existing high-quality multiple choice itemsTypical class time - One 45-minute class periodPossible scoring methods - HolisticScoring time - LongPossible problems - Long scoring time; students may receive the impression that they are preparing for selected response testsPossible values - Can show reasoning behind answers; good tool for teaching reasoning; administration can be standardized

Justified selected response items ask the student to justify their responses to multiple choice, true/false, or matching items. This form of assessment provides an opportunity for the teacher to see if the student really knows the answer or is just guessing. Teachers can detect misconceptions and poor reasoning. Frequent use of this type of item can lead students to more careful reasoning if time is spent discussing responses. Care must be taken that students do not interpret this type of assessment as a way to improve selected response test-taking skills.

Scoring of justified selected response may be a combination of keyed answer and holistic scoring, or simply holistic scoring. As is true of other forms of constructed response items, scoring time can be long, which tends to negate the value of the rapidly scored selected response items.

If the selected response items are rote memory items, justifying the response is almost meaningless, so care must be taken to choose items that can be justified by more than, “I read it in the book.” The student should also be asked to explain why the wrong answers are wrong. This means that the multiple choice item must be carefully designed so that are some good reasons why the wrong answers are wrong. Discussions of the development of high-quality multiple choice or other selected response items is beyond the scope of this guide, but there are numerous textbooks that address this subject. The development of justified selected response may begin more easily if existing selected response items are used, with the addition of a justification question.

Example:

The picture above shows the position of the earth and sun at different times of the year. The earth is in which position when it is winter in the northern hemisphere? (Circle your answer.)

A * BC D

Describe how a person can tell when it is winter in the northern hemisphere just by looking at the pictures. Above each letter on the picture write the time of year it would be in the northern hemisphere and tell how a person can tell when it is spring and fall.

Multiple choice items in which all of the options can be justified can also be used for this form of assessment. This allows the student to compare and evaluate given responses and requires sound reasoning skills.

Example:

Which of these animals is most important for controlling the rat and mouse populations in a field? (Circle your answer.)

AHawksBRattlesnakesCOwlsDCats

Explain why your answer is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good as your answer. Be sure to describe the field and its location as you justify your answer.

Preparing for Justified Selected Response Assessments

1. Prepare 3 or 4 justified selected response items that have one clearly best answer.

2. Prepare 3 or 4 justified selected response items that have several justifiable responses.

3. Outline the criteria and scoring method you will use for judging the activities.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of justified selected response items to other teachers on your team. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 4 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”


SHORT HANDS-ON TASKS

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, specific problem-solving skills and contentNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Depends on the number and quality of the prompts required, usually more than one hour. Setup time depends on the number of materials, but rarely less than two hours.Typical class time - Generally one 45-minute class period.Possible scoring methods - Checklist, analytic holistic, focused holistic, analyticPossible problems - Equipment failures; test security; difficult to prepare prompts; difficult to collect appropriate materials; long scoring timePossible values - Exciting format for most students; demonstrates specific skill weakness; tasks can be equated; administration can be standardized

Assessing the skills developed in science classes can be accomplished by using short hands-on tasks. Most science teachers will recognize this assessment delivery method as the lab practical. The short hands-on task usually yields more information about student attainment of specific skills than the lab practical, which generally focuses on pure recall. This form of assessment can indicate that a student is proficient in a skill such as massing objects, but the student may not know when to utilize this skill while solving a problem. Some short hands-on tasks center on a central problem or theme, but the tasks generally remain independent of each other. If the tasks must be done in sequence to reach some final conclusion, then administration problems are compounded. These types of tasks can be attached to more traditional forms of assessment. For example, a few students at a time can be allowed to move through four or five stations, then return to their desks to complete a more traditional form of testing. Since the students are moving around and involved in a hands-on task, they generally find this type of assessment more enjoyable than paper and pencil tests.

In order to develop this type of instrument, objectives must be carefully matched to appropriate tasks. Scoring rubrics must be developed that match the objectives. The same amount of time must be allotted for each task. Security measures must be devised, materials collected, and instructions carefully written. Plans must be made so that the replacement of materials used at each station does not interfere with testing. Be prepared. Whatever can go wrong, will.

Example:Short Hands-on Tasks

Student Booklet

Not everyone will start at station number one. Look at the station number. Turn your booklet to the station number that matches the station you are at now. Wait until your teacher tells you to begin.

In this test you will move to different stations where you will learn something about some aliens from a distant galaxy. After you have completed all of the information on the aliens, you will draw a picture of the aliens and describe the evidence you have that your alien is drawn correctly. You will also need to tell about some structures your alien has and tell how they might be useful on earth.

You will have 5 minutes at each station to complete your work. Raise your hand if you need help at any time. Do NOT move until told to do so.

(You may want to follow the path the students will follow so they will have the idea of how they are to move. When preparing the stations, you will need to place copies of the entire series of stations at each station so that all students can take the test at the same time.)

Station 1

(Objective: To mass objects to the nearest gram. This station will have a penny, a dime, a balance, a ruler, and a beaker. The extra materials are there so the student can choose the appropriate equipment. There will be a sheet of paper, titled Station 1, on which will be drawn the outlines of each piece of equipment. A label will be inside each outline. The outlines allow you to locate missing pieces quickly. Demonstrate to the students how each piece of the equipment should be placed on the paper. Mark an arrow on this paper or another sheet of paper showing the direction the student will move.)

Be sure you are at station 1.

The aliens from the distant galaxy have only two different masses. Someone has reported that their masses are the same as the mass of a penny and a dime. Determine the mass of the penny and the dime. Record your answers below.

Mass of a penny = ________ = mass of one type of alienMass of a dime = _________= mass of other type of alien

When you are finished, turn your booklet over and return each set of materials to its correct location. You will be following the arrow to go to the next station, but WAIT UNTIL YOUR TEACHER SAYS MOVE BEFORE GOING TO STATION 2.

Station 2

(Objective: To use appropriate measuring devices. To measure object length to the nearest millimeter. This station will have a centimeter ruler, a meter stick, a new pencil, some string, and a spring scale. Provide the same type of equipment sheet and arrow as you did for station 1.)


The aliens from the distant galaxy come in two different heights. The short ones are the height of a new pencil. The tall ones are the height of the desk. Find the height of the aliens. Record your answers below.

New pencil length = ______ = Height of short alienHeight of desk = ______ = Height of tall alien

When you are finished, return each set of materials to its correct location. You will be following the arrow to go to the next station, but WAIT UNTIL YOUR TEACHER SAYS MOVE BEFORE GOING TO STATION 3.

Station 3

(Objective: To group objects and define the criteria for grouping. This station will have a small, medium, and large paper clip. A small, medium, and large paper clip straightened. A small, medium, and large paper clip with the center bent upward. A small, medium, and large washer. All objects should be in a bag. Provide the same type of equipment sheet and arrow as you did for station 1.)


In the bag are some food items the aliens brought with them from their galaxy. There are two different kinds of food. Separate the food into two groups. Fill in the chart below to how the two food groups are alike and how they are different.

Alike Different

Put the alien food back in the bag.

When you are finished, return the bag to its correct location. You will be following the arrow to go to the next station but WAIT UNTIL YOUR TEACHER SAYS MOVE BEFORE GOING TO STATION 4.

Station 4

(Objective: To draw conclusions and give supporting data. This station will have three different sizes of squares cut out of black felt with a small hole in the middle, three identical squares cut from cardboard with a small hole in the middle of each, and three identical squares cut from an egg carton with a hole in the middle of each.

The hole should be the same size in all of the squares. All objects should be in a bag. Provide the same type of equipment sheet and arrow as you did for station 1.)


Look in the bag. The aliens have dropped some of their coins. Carefully study the shape of the coins. These coins and the aliens food are the only thing that can be picked up by the aliens. What do you think their hands must look like? Draw the shape of the alien hands. Then write down why you think this is the shape of the hand.

Put the alien coins back in the bag.

When you are finished, return the bag to its correct position.

After all students have completed each of the stations have them answer the following question.

RECOGNIZING ALIENS

After you have collected all of the information on the aliens, draw a picture of the aliens. Use the information you have gathered to help you think of the aliens. Place your drawing below.

After you have drawn your alien, describe the evidence you have that your alien is drawn correctly. Tell about some structures your alien has and tell how they might be useful on earth.

Preparing for Short Hands-on Tasks

1. Prepare a series of short hands-on tasks. Include –

stations that test at least three different skill objectives.

(optional) a scenario of interest to students to tie the stations together. No station can depend on the results of a previous station, unless all students will be starting on station 1. This can occur if some students are at stations while others are working at their desks. Include a final activity linking all stations to the scenario. The final activity should not hinge on having the right answer on all of the stations.

stations that require the same amount of time to complete.

a map of the room showing how students will move through the stations. Each set of stations should have the last station adjacent to the first station.

a list of materials and preparation instructions for each station

a student answer document

a plan for replacement of materials

a security plan

an estimated setup time

2. Outline the scoring criteria for each station

3. Outline the criteria and scoring method you will use for judging the activities.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of short hand-on tasks to other teachers on your team. Be sure you are able to answer the questions in the section on page 4 titled “Choosing Assessment Methods.”

5. Describe other assessments that will be required to complement the use of the short hands-on task you have produced.

INVESTIGATIONS

Areas assessed - Thinking skills, problem solving, decision making, scientific inquiry, thought processes, reflective thinkingNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Depends on the quality of the prompt, the materials used, and preparation requirementsTypical class time - One full class period to many weeksPossible scoring methods - Checklists, analytic, analytic holistic, focused holisticPossible problems - Teacher must be an active reader or listener; high-quality questions and enabling activities are difficult to prepare; students can misunderstand what is being asked; the objective/task match can be difficult to achieve; time required to administer tasks can interfere with course content coverage demands; equipment failures; test security; safety; equating tasks; long scoring time; administration cannot be standardizedPossible values - Provides an exciting format for most students and an in-depth look at conceptual understanding, skills, and thought processes; requires active student participation; can mirror the type of work completed in various occupations; can involve students in citizenship roles; can support more meaningful learning experiences; results can produce scores for different content areas; grants an opportunity for all students to gain proficiency; can be a learning activity; scoring can occur at many points along the way; diagnostic and final assessments can be used

Investigations, unlike post-learning response assessments, require the acquisition of some knowledge and skills during the assessment. These investigations are often presented as simulations, either with or without the use of computers. The products and the experiences are much closer to the type of products and experiences one encounters outside the classroom setting. The administration time of these items is generally long, extending from a single class period to several weeks, or even longer. Intermediate checkpoints can provide the teacher and student with information on progress and specific skills. Final responses for investigation items can more closely mirror adult activities than shorter assessments and are often displayed for or reviewed by community members. Because responses to investigations usually represent long-range goals and many specific objectives, they are ideal for inclusion in portfolios and in some circles these are the only legitimate performance assessments.

Direct observations of behavior are often used in tandem with investigation items, since the students are actively engaged in learning. Repeated use of these types of items can be useful for observing habits of mind such as persistence, curiosity, skepticism, openness to new ideas, and positive interactions with others.

The major difficulty with this form of assessment lies in the acceptance of the assumption that in finding and applying knowledge students will actually come away

with knowledge. It is the difficulty of accepting this assumption that makes investigations as tests highly suspect for many people. Teachers using this form of assessment will have to be prepared to defend it to parents, community members, and most likely to other teachers. A teacher journal with personal insights, unanswered questions, and student comments can help crystallize the importance of learning during the test and provide ample defense for this form of assessment. Without these defenses, the teacher will probably be compelled to test after this assessment.

Investigations usually include the following:

A prompt (scenario) of interest to students

Analysis and evaluation of multiple sources of information or data

Instructions that include the constraints and required components of the investigation

Instructions on how to proceed and any constraints on methods to be used

Some group activities

Some individual activities

A final product that mirrors commercial or academic products, e.g., a film, a model, a scientific report, a poster, a computer program, a formal report, an advertisement, a brochure, a big book, a stamp, a discussion, a picture, etc.

Multiple opportunities for assessing students’ knowledge, skills, behaviors, and habits of mind

Scoring

A single objective or several independent objectives can be scored using analytic techniques or analytic holistic rubrics. This can make scoring more meaningful to the student and can provide several scores on a single product. Focused holistic scoring allows the entire task to be scored as a whole, but the rubric and annotated anchor papers are generally needed to make the scores more meaningful to students. Investigations offer many interim scoring opportunities, including direct observations of behaviors.

CONTENT INVESTIGATIONS

Content investigations typically require the creation of a final product similar to those developed by companies or individuals in the world of work. People actively supporting learning, such as parents, teachers, health care professionals, social workers, community leaders, may also develop these types of products as they try to explain the natural and social world to people needing new information. The variety of products is endless, including everything from essays to simple graphic illustrations to multimedia presentations.

Example of a content investigation:

The product: A big book. Score it using the rubric for explaining concepts on page 36.

The prompt: “Make a big book for younger students describing a local ecosystem and the interactions of the organisms in the system. You will use your big book to teach a small group of younger students about ecosystems.” (Students two or three years younger or idea. Share the scoring rubric with students.)

Materials:

Some examples of big books. (These are available from any elementary school library and in the childrens sections of most bookstores.)

Books, magazine articles, textbooks, encyclopedias and other sources of information on ecosystems.

In team schools, some of this of activity can be directed by the science, art, writing, or math teacher. Each teacher should be certain that he or she receives information on student progress and that class work continues to revolve around this task rather than “plowing ahead” to other topics that must be covered. The final product can receive a score in any or all subject areas.

Large paper and cardboard for backings.

Cameras, colors, etc. for graphics

Equipment needed for field work

Students from a lower grade on presentation day

Group assignment:

“Examine four or five big books. Discuss how they are alike and how they are different.”


“Which book do you like the best and why?” (This may be scored by the language arts teacher.)

Group assignment:

“Make a list of all of the reasons why members of your group like big books. Discuss with your group the characteristics that make a big book most appealing. Make a master list of the most important characteristics of big books.”

Class discussion:

“Make a master list of characteristics that make a big book appealing. Allow each group to contribute one characteristic to the list and continue in round-robin fashion until all of the groups feel all characteristics are listed. Characteristics not agreed upon by all groups may be marked optional.” (Students should transfer this master list into their journal for latter use. Next time students are to complete a big book they will be able to refer to this master list.).

Class discussion:

“Present a list of terms that younger students should be taught. Present the type of content that must be present in the big book such as:

Descriptions or pictures of organisms in the ecosystem A food web of the system Numbers of each species of organisms in the system”

Make a list of different local ecosystems students may study. Have each groups choose from this list or the class may work on a single ecosystem.

Group assignment:

“Read the chapter on ecosystems. As a group answer the questions at the end of the chapter. Be sure that each member of the team agrees with the answers. You will be using this information in your big book so be sure you have good answers to all questions.” (Scoring may be on completeness of written answers or on oral contribution and questions to the group.)

Individual and group assignment:

“Each member of your team is to use different reference materials on ecosystems. Be sure to keep bibliography information. All members should present their findings to the group. You are responsible for taking notes on each presentation to add to your own notes. If you can use a data base set up an outline you may use as a basis for identifying different fields. Be sure to include bibliographic information on all entries.” (Scoring of each individual’s notes can occur prior to the group discussion. This can be important in groups where one or two students are doing most of the work and feel that a group score is unfair. Scoring on the use of the database is another possibility.)

Group assignment:

“Go to the ecosystem you are reporting on. Take field notes on the types of organisms you find there and estimate their numbers.” (If students do not understand sampling techniques now is a good time to introduce this technique. If cameras are available pictures should be encouraged as well as sketches and drawings. Older students may do some work on soils, water samples, air samples, etc.)


“Write a double-spaced draft of your big book. You may use any notes you have and a word processor. Be sure to include --

Descriptions or pictures of organisms in the ecosystem A food web of the system Numbers of each species of organisms in the system All of the characteristics of the best big books”

Group assignment:

“Give each member a copy of your rough draft and read your story to the group. Have each group member make suggestions for making your story better. Each group member should write their suggestions on their copies and return them to you. Remember you want your big book to be accurate, thorough, clear, and show sound reasoning.” (Be certain students understand the criteria, including accuracy, news story components, etc. An observation checklist might be used to make certain all group members contribute. Missed observations might be checked by using the written comments.)


“Complete your big book.” (Allow students to use computers and other technologies to add polish to their work. The final product can be assessed using the rubric on page xx.)


“Present your big book to a group of younger students. Your presentation and book should help the students learn about the ecosystem.” (Students may be paired with one or two younger students or more. Scoring may center on oral presentations. Students may want to practice in their own groups before presenting to younger students.)

Example of an issue study:

The product: A letter to the editor. Score it using the decision-making rubric on page 38.

The prompt: A brief description of a actual local issue. For example, a local politician is supporting the building of local recharge dams to supply drinking water from an aquifer. Another politician is supporting the construction of a single above-ground reservoir. Write a letter to the editor explaining your view. Be sure to include factual information supporting your view and reasons that will negate the most common arguments for opposing views. (Share the scoring rubric with students.)

Materials:

Sufficient information on a local problem for all students to become involved in retrieving facts and opinions.

Copies of well-written letters to the editor providing opinions on different issues.

In team schools, some of this of activity can be directed by the debate, writing, science, or math teacher. Each teacher should be certain that he or she receives information on student progress and that class work continues to revolve around this issue rather than “plowing ahead” to other topics that must be covered. The final product can receive a score for any or all subject areas.

Group assignment:

Brainstorm to make a list of the questions that should be answered in order to make the best choice among the proposed solutions. Example: What is the difference between the amount of water the recharge dams will supply and the amount the reservoir will supply?

Remember that in brainstorming no answer or question is wrong. Evaluation of the quality of the questions comes after brainstorming.

Be sure to include questions on each of the following: the environmental implications the social implications economic impacts tradeoffs

Class discussion:

Ask students to compile a master list of possible questions by allowing each group to contribute one question. Start with the weakest group. Continue allowing each group to supply a question until all groups feel the list is complete. Many questions will be similar, and these should be consolidated.

Group assignment:

Use a decision-making matrix to decide which questions need to be answered. For example:

Criteria*This question will be used because answers to it provide will provide information on:

Question Numbers

1 2 3 etc.

Social implications

Experimental evidence

Economic implications

Environmental implications

Tradeoffs

Other

Totals*Key - No information =0, Some information = 1, Much information = 2

After all questions are evaluated, their scores can be totaled and those receiving the highest scores can be the ones that will be studied. The number of questions studied will depend on the size of the group and the length of time the issue will be studied. (Scores may be assigned for group participation.)

Group and individual assignment:

“Collect information on the issue and develop a list of answers to as many questions as possible using any available resources. You and members of your group should contact local groups and government officials involved on both sides of the issue and report back to the class as a whole. You may divide up the questions among the group members, but each member should watch for answers to all questions.” (Scores may be assigned to individual students notes and answers to questions.)

“You should keep your notes organized on a data base if possible or on a chart similar to the one below.”

Question Facts or opinions supporting recharge dams

Facts or opinions supporting the above-ground reservoir

What is the difference between the amount of water the recharge dams will supply and the amount the reservoir will supply?

If enough dams are built in critical zones, enough water will be trapped in one two- inch rain to furnish the city with drinking water for one year.

Only one dam will have to be built, so fewer land owners will have to agree to the building of the dam.

Class discussion:

Make a master list of questions and answers. If some groups are noticeably weaker than others, compile answers to questions. Allow each group to contribute a question and answer in a round-robin fashion until all groups feel the answers and questions have been adequately covered. Conflicting answers should be discussed and supporting evidence should be called for.

Laboratory experience:

A laboratory activity that shows students how to test water quality. Groups should collect and test actual water samples. (Score using the rubric on inquiry found on page xx.)

Group assignment:

“Examine five letters to the editor. Discuss how they are alike. For example, do they all give opinions on an issue? These likeness’ should be mirrored in your own letter. Keep a master list of the components of letters to the editor.” (Be sure the letters to the editor are of the quality you want your students to produce)


“Write a double-spaced letter to the editor explaining your view. Be sure to include factual information supporting your view and reasons that will negate the most common arguments for opposing views.”

Group assignment:

“Give copies of your letter to your group and read the letter to your group. Have each group member make suggestions for making the letter better. The suggestions should be both oral and in writing.” (An observation checklist might be used for group participation.)


Rewrite your letter based on group input. (Score using rubric on decision making found on page xx. Drafts may be compared to final to see how much students gained from the group discussions. After you approve them, the letters may be submitted to newspapers.)

Example of a Design Problem:

The product: An innovative solution to a problem, for example, a water supply problem.

The prompt:

“Make a presentation to the class that provides a solution to the local water supply problem using what you have learned about our water problems. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of your solution. Use scientific and economic principles to prove that your solution is workable.” (Share the scoring rubric with students.)

Group assignment:

“Brainstorm with your group for possible solutions to the problem. Remember that no idea is bad, and even ideas that may have been tried before should be included in the group’s list.”

Class discussion:

Have groups contribute their ideas to a master list. Each student should keep a copy of the master list.


“Select the most promising solution from the master list. Develop a presentation of the solution you have chosen. Use visuals and working models if possible. The presentation must include the solution to the problem, the tradeoffs of using this solution, the scientific principles that support this solution as a viable option, and the costs in terms of money, time, safety, and the environment. You may want to use a decision-making matrix like the one below to help decide which solution is best.”

Criteria Solutions

1 2 3 etc.

Cost effectiveness

Environmental safety

Human safety

Scientifically sound

etc.

Totals

“Each solution can be assigned a number for each criterion. Zero = not possible, 1 = somewhat possible, and 2 = very possible. After all solutions are evaluated, the scores can be totaled and those solutions receiving the highest scores can be the ones that should be studied.”

Group assignment:

“Make your presentation to the group. The group should contribute suggestions for making the presentation better rather than dole out negative criticism. The group should not simply say this part is not good.” (Working with the speech or language arts teacher can enhance this part of the task. A group participation score may be used for this work.)


Revise your work and make a presentation to the class. (Scoring can be based on thoroughness, accuracy of facts, clarity of presentation, and soundness of reasoning. An environmental engineer or a hydrologist might be invited to listen to the best solutions and present their views. Score the rubric on Designing Solutions from page 42.)

Example of a Science Inquiry

Science inquiries are not verification labs or labs used to teach specific techniques. They are opportunities for divergent pathways to arrive at a wide variety of answers. Ultimately the student should be able to design and carry out their own experiments or evaluate the experimental design of others to make informed decisions. At some point students should be given the task, “Design and complete an experiment, record your observations, and draw your own conclusions.” This is a perfect match to the objective, but at first students require guidance and reflection on inquiry strategies. It is only when they have internalized the methods used by scientists that students will be able to produce their own inquiries and judge the quality of proof offered by the scientific inquiries of others. In this guide several examples of enabling tasks built around seeds will be used, but any object or event may be used. This type of instruction with guided student reflection needs to be repeated often if students are to be successful at inquiring scientifically.

Example

The product: A written rigorous proof of a hypothesis. Score it using the rubric at the end of this section on page 42.

The prompt: “Develop a testable hypothesis concerning seeds. Experiment to test your hypothesis, and write a paper that will provide a rigorous proof validating or invalidating your hypothesis. You will be given two different kind of seeds to use in your experiment.”

(Two objects that are similar but different are easiest to begin with. Examples: Leaves, fruits, rocks, toys, electrical circuits, models, etc. The more experienced the students are, the more subtle the differences can be. The more unusual the object or event, the greater the student enthusiasm. Various laboratory equipment should always be available, including measuring devices. Before beginning share the scoring rubric with students.)


“Write down as many observations as you can about these seeds. Be sure to include how they are alike and how they are different.” (These observations may be scored based on thoroughness, accuracy, and precision. Make available rulers, balance, hand lens, microscopes, and other equipment that might be useful for making observations.)

Reflections on learning:

Examples of focus questions for journal entry:

How did you observe these objects? How did you know what to write about? What kind of observations did you make first? If you had time to make more observations, what kind of observations would you

make? Have you had to use observations in the past? Tell when, where, what kind, and

why you used observations.

Group assignment:

“Share your observations with your group. Be sure to add new observations to your list or change your observations if someone has more accurate observations than you. “

“Brainstorm with your group to think of as many questions as you can about the seeds. Fill in the question side of a chart like the one below. Use your observations to help you think of questions.” (If students have trouble getting started, have them think of question starters such as who, what, when, where, why, how, how much, what are the effects of, what will happen if.)

Questions Hypotheses Rationale

Where did the seeds come from?

I think one seed came from a tree and one from a grass.

One is very big and heavy, the other is long and thin like some grass seeds I have seen.


“Think of answers to each of the questions. These answers are your hypotheses. Tell why you think each hypothesis is correct. These are your rationales for the hypotheses. The chart shows an example of what you are to do.” (This section could be scored on the reasonableness of the hypotheses and the accuracy of the information in the rationale.)

Reflections on learning:

Examples of focus questions for journal entry:

How did you think of questions to ask? What kind of question did you ask first?

How did you think of hypotheses? What kinds of questions were you able to make the most hypotheses for? What kinds of questions were you unable to make any hypotheses for?

Class discussion:

Discuss some of the questions in the class. Some questions can be answered by using reference books. Other questions are best answered by testing the hypothesis. Students must understand what can be tested, what can be answered by using reference materials, and what needs to be reworded to be tested. Be sure students understand what they can and cannot test. Students must understand the terms “testable” and “proof.”


“Decide which hypothesis you will test. The hypothesis you choose must be safe to test, you must have the materials you need to test the hypothesis, and you must have your teacher’s approval before you begin experimenting.” (If time permits, students should use references to confirm their rationale and learn about factors they may be testing.)


“Design an experiment to test your hypothesis. Your experiment should provide proof that your hypothesis is correct. You may find that your hypothesis is incorrect. Proving that your hypothesis is wrong is just as important as proving it is correct. You may also change your hypothesis as you learn more.”

Group assignment:

“Present your experimental design to the group. Members of your group should provide ideas on how to make the experiment better.”


“Make any corrections in your experimental design that are needed. Have your teacher approve your experiment, then complete your experiment. Write a paper which includes your question, hypothesis, rationale, experiment and data, and conclude with a rigorous proof for or against your hypothesis.” (Scoring can be holistic, based on a rubric similar to the one on page 42.)

Preparing for Investigations

1. Prepare an investigation assessment to include:

At least one group activity. The product of this group activity must be useful for completing the task.

A description of the final product, e.g., a film, a model, a scientific inquiry report, a poster, a computer program, an advertisement, a brochure, a big book, a stamp, a discussion, a picture, a multimedia presentation, etc.

A prompt (scenario) of interest to students.

Instructions which include the limits of the task’s scope and the components required for the task.

Use of multiple sources of information or data.

Use of multiple skills to be applied in the course.

Materials and procedures required for implementing the task.

Embedded assessment opportunities.

2. Write down how the task can be implemented in the classroom and include hints for success.

3. Outline the criteria and scoring methods you will use for judging the product.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of this task to other members of your team.

5. Describe how this task could be linked to other forms of assessment.

SELECTED RESPONSE

Selected response methods allow students to select responses from given responses. These methods are generally favored when large numbers of students need to be tested in a short period of time. The scoring is fast and reliable. Items can be produced that ask for everything from simple recall to evaluation of ideas. Selected response assessments often cover the same type of material as constructed response items. However, selected response assessments are much better at describing what students do not know rather than what they do know.

Matching, True/False, Multiple Choice

Areas assessed - Conceptual understanding, specific skillsNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Long for high-quality itemsTypical class time - One 45-minute class periodPossible scoring method - Answer keyPossible problems - Some questions may not reflect objectives; wrong answers may be keyed; assessment does not reflect the type of work students will be called upon to do as adults; assessment does not probe in-depth understandingPossible values - Tests a large number of students quickly; scoring is objective and fast; covers a wide variety of topics and skills quickly; can be thought-provoking; administration can be standardized

Multiple choice, true/false, and matching items furnish snapshots of student achievement. They can be developed to assess many problem-solving skills, but generally the skills are tested in isolation. The ease of administration and scoring and statistical reliability of selected response items make them a valuable asset for classroom testing.

Multiple choice appears to be the best of the selected response assessment methods. Multiple choice items can assess simple recall to advanced reasoning. They can have a single correct answer or multiple correct answers. Good, thought-provoking multiple choice items can be fashioned, but this requires a great deal of time and content expertise. The difficulty of preparation can be minimized by using item models and banking good items.

On multiple correct answer items, scoring methods can give advantages to the student who is good at guessing or can highly penalize a student for guessing. This gives an advantage to the student able to calculate these odds. Instructions can be given to help minimize this problems.

True/false items can be tricky and they require a much larger number of items to maintain reliability. They can assess a wide variety of recalled information in the shortest time, but are generally not suitable for assessing complex learning. True/false items are subject to much guessing and items may be interpreted in several ways, making scoring unreliable.

Matching items are very good for testing associations. However, test-wise students quickly learn to answer many of these items by the process of elimination.

The following are some of the common criteria used to evaluate selected response items:

The item matches the objective. The item is clearly stated. The item avoids negatives, especially in the case of true/false items. One item does not give away the answer to another. The item does not require knowledge of the correct answer to a previous item. For multiple choice items, the incorrect responses are plausible and all of the

responses are parallel in structure. The item is not tricky. The item clearly has a correct response.

Preparing for Multiple Choice, True/False, or Matching Assessments

1. Using multiple choice, true/false, or matching items, prepare a unit assessment instrument that addresses each of the following:

Applying conceptual understanding, not recall of factual information

Applying decision-making skills

Applying problem-solving skills

Applying inquiry skills

2. Use the criteria provided in the Selected Response Section and references to help you design the best possible test.

3. Provide an answer key.

4. Have your peers critique the test.

Surveys

Areas assessed - Attitudes, interests, opinions, learning stylesNumber of students assessed at one time - Large groupTeacher preparation time - Depends on the complexity of the questionsTypical class time - One 45-minute class periodPossible scoring method - Answer keyPossible problems - Student failure to be candid; items can be interpreted differently; difficult to construct; time-consuming to interpret data into usable classroom formsPossible values - Offers evaluation of lessons or programs; assessment interests, views of opinions; administration can be standardized

Interest Surveys

There are numerous commercially available surveys that will provide information on preferred learning styles. These surveys are generally accompanied by interpretive manuals. Interest inventories and surveys are also available and are excellent for student career planning as well as classroom planning. An interest inventory can be tailored to match an upcoming lesson. The following example might be used before a unit on animal behavior. Groups may be assigned based on mutual interest in the case of the animals or they may be assigned so that each group gets a writer and an artist.

Example:

Patterns of Behavior Unit

In our next unit we will be investigating animal behavior. After you have completed the experiments and library research, your group will produce a “big book” for third grade students on a particular animals behavior.

Which animals would you be most interested in investigating?*

______ Birds

______ Mammals

______ Reptiles

______ Amphibians

______ Fish

______ Insects

______ Other invertebrates

Which part of the “big book” would you be most interested in doing?*

______ Writing the text for the book.

______ Doing the artwork for the book.

______ Formatting the text on the computer.

*Check all areas of interest.

ATTITUDE SURVEYS

Attitude surveys ask for general feelings toward something. Many students will not report their attitudes honestly, especially if they assume the survey has something to do with their grades. The attitude survey is probably most helpful in the classroom when it is used to evaluate lessons or programs rather than individual student attitudes. Construction of these surveys can be fairly rapid. Care should be taken to keep all of the statements to be evaluated in positive terms. Negatives such as not, none, never tend to be confused with the answer key.

Example:

LESSON EVALUATION

Key:4 I agree with this statement.3 I would agree with this statement if there were some

minor changes in the lesson.2 I would agree with this statement if there were some

major changes in the lesson.1 I would never agree with this statement.

Use the key to answer these questions.

___ The subject of this lesson is interesting.

___ The textbook was very interesting for this lesson.

___ The activity used to learn about this subject was useful to me.

___ The homework helped me learn about this subject.

Give some suggestions for making this lesson better.

Tell what you liked least about the lesson.

Tell what you liked best about the lesson.

Example for very young students:

LESSON EVALUATION

LESSON NAME Birds DATE

I liked to learn about birds.

I liked to read about birds.

I liked making bird beaks.

I liked going to the zoo.

What I liked best about birds.

What I did not like about birds.

Preparing for Surveys

1. Prepare a statement of the purpose of the survey or questionnaire.

2. Outline how you will explain the use of the survey or questionnaire to your students and their parents.

3. Outline the method you will use to evaluate the results of the survey or questionnaire.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of the survey or questionnaire to others.

5. Describe some of the possible weaknesses of the survey or questionnaire.

6. List other assessments that will be required to complement the survey or questionnaire.

DIRECT OBSERVATIONS

Direct observations play an important role in assessing and correcting problems as students work. Observations can be recorded “play by play” as they are in many case studies, but these methods generally require an outside observer and extensive amounts of teacher time and for those reasons are not included in this guide. Checklists that can be carried on a clipboard or input into a hand- held computer are more useful to classroom teachers. No matter which method is chosen it is important to observe all students, observe in different situations, and search for patterns of behavior.

Informal direct observations with immediate feed-back to students are used more often than any other form of assessment. The results of these observations are not systematically recorded and evaluated making them unreliable for formal assessment. From the student’s point of view this immediate and personalized feed-back derived from immediate assessment of work is the most valuable form of assessment.

Checklists

Areas assessed - Attitudes, interests, traits, learning styles, technical skills, behaviorsNumber of students assessed at one time - Depends on the extent of the checklist. One student to entire classTeacher preparation time - LongTypical class time - One 45-minute class periodPossible scoring method - Summary of check marks or check marks totalPossible problems - Difficult to construct items that will not be interpreted differently at different times; time-consuming to interpret data into usable classroom forms; measures only presence or absence of a trait or behavior; difficult to standardize administrationPossible values - Behaviors and skills that cannot be assessed in more traditional formats are assessed; can keep observations focused; can insure observation of all students; can provide indirect evidence of attitudes

Teachers make thousands of direct observations each day. Checklists are a means of organizing these observations into a more usable format. They are especially helpful when a teacher deals with a large number of students every day. Some students demand a great deal of attention, and this means that other students are not observed as carefully or as often as desirable. A checklist can help remedy this situation. Some checklists can be scaled, but this can increase the complexity of construction and the difficulty of interpretation. Even simple checklists require considerable teacher effort to complete, but they can provide information that cannot be attained in any other way.

Standards for scoring should be set before using a checklist. For example, a single negative behavior might lower the score, or a certain number of positive behaviors might need to be observed to earn a score. It is possible to have some peer scoring using behavior checklists, but the teacher must be very sensitive to peer pressure and personality conflicts. No matter how the scoring is done, students should understand the process before it begins.

Construction of checklists requires a careful analysis of the attributes of skills or behaviors. An added value of checklists is that students begin to understand the type of behavior and skills required in various roles. The behaviors on the checklist can be discussed with students enhancing their understanding of the qualities required to fulfill various roles, such as leadership, cooperative worker, trainer of others, safe laboratory worker, etc.

In the following example, leadership is to be assessed, but leadership has to be broken into observable behaviors. Note that each check means that the behavior was observed rather than not observed. This makes the use of the checklist much easier and less confusing.

Example:

Student names

LEADERSHIP CHECKLIST

Asked for help from team members.

Asked for competing points of view.

Asked for opinions from non-participating team members.

Gave deserved praise and/or encouragement.

Checklists are often used during science inquiries for a laboratory participation grade. The lists can represent general laboratory behaviors as in the example below. It may not be possible to check all behaviors for all students in one laboratory period. But over time, all behaviors should be observable for every student a minimum number of times. Dates of observations can be used instead of check marks in each column, with x’s through the date if the behavior was negative. As with other checklists, the method of scoring should be clear to students before observations are begun.

Student names

Laboratory Checklist

Safety procedures used

Instruments used correctly

On-task Cooperates with others

Preparing for Checklists

1. Prepare a statement of the purpose of the checklist.

2. Describe how you will explain the use of the checklist to your students and their parents.

3. Outline the criteria you will use to score the checklist.

4. Decide how to “sell” the use of the checklist to others.

5. Describe some of the possible weaknesses of checklist.

6. List other assessments that will be required to complement this assessment.

SCORING METHODS

Scoring methods, like assessment methods, vary tremendously. The main concerns with scoring methods are reliability, efficiency, and ability to produce a meaningful score.

OBJECTIVE SCORING

Objective scoring methods used with selected response items depend on making a key showing the correct responses. The method is quick, reliable, and easy. Incorrectly marking the answer key is always a possibility and care should be taken to avoid this pitfall.

ANALYTIC SCORING

Analytic scoring is often used on content essays. A master list of information that must be present is developed, but once scoring begins it is a rapid process. The paper is read and missing information is deducted from the students score. This type of scoring does not generally attempt to address the overall quality of the paper or reasoning.

Analytic scoring can be used for reports that have specific component requirements. Lab reports are often graded this way with points deducted for missing components such as a data table, a graph, or anything else deemed to be a necessary component. If care is not taken, more attention is paid to quantity rather than the quality of the student response.

Examples:

Analytic scoring guide for a question asking for a description of the digestion of a hamburger. Each of the following should be included:

Function of the teeth Function of the stomach Function of the liver and pancreas Function of the small and large intestine

(Note: At higher grades the list of essential components can become quite long.)

Analytic scoring guide for an abstract of a science investigation:

Problem is given. Method is briefly summarized. Main conclusion is given with major supporting evidence.

FOCUSED HOLISTIC SCORING

Focused holistic scoring centers on the product as a whole. Numerous pieces of work are studied and a scale is designed by describing factors inherent in the product at the various scoring levels. Each score point of the rubric addresses each of the major factors that should be included in the work. After the work is examined or the task defined, the rubric may need to be modified as factors are added or subtracted and descriptions of score points are reworked. This scoring method allows a relatively quick scoring of process skills. However, it fails to pinpoint strengths and weaknesses of students.

Items requiring scoring of writing skills require a scorer who has a good command of the language. Items requiring content knowledge require a scorer with content knowledge as well as a good command of the language. In other words, scorers should possess the same skills and content knowledge as those being assessed in order to fairly evaluate the work.

Very general rubrics can be used by experienced teachers, but they provide little information to the student or even to other teachers. It is still important to have a general idea of the value of each score point. For example:

4 No major errors; few, if any, minor errors. Work is proficient level.3 One or two major errors or too many minor errors to warrant a higher score.

Work is advanced level.2 Several major errors or a few major errors with many minor errors. Work is

intermediate level.1 Numerous major errors and an overwhelming number of minor errors. Work is

beginning level.

All rubrics used within a course should match the general value of each score point. 4’s should always represent the most proficient work, 3’s the most advanced, and so on. The range of score points should be even intervals, e.g., 1-4 or 0 - 3 not 1-3 or 0 - 2. This prevents “lumping” scores in a single middle score. It is important to note that holistic scoring does not allow comparison of score numbers. For example, two papers can receive a score of two for entirely different reasons. Thus, comparing student scores can be misleading unless the score is treated as a level of performance, which it is.

Rubrics designed specifically for one task have little carry-over value to other tasks. Very general rubrics say little more than excellent to poor. A rubric should help the scorer determine the quality of work and should help students improve their work as they learn to apply the rubric over the course of a year. Therefore, rubrics should be specific enough for student learning, but general enough to use on many tasks.

The rubric may be presented in paragraph form or as a matrix. If a matrix is used, the scorer should be cautioned to view the paper holistically; that is, as a total rather than

a sum of its parts. There is often the temptation to score each column in the matrix separately and average these scores. This may slow down the scoring process and does not allow the scorer to view the paper as a whole. There are times when one factor in the work is so overwhelmingly strong that it overrides lower scores in other areas or vice versa. Rubrics written in the paragraph format should begin as a matrix so that parallel information is included for each score point. This eliminates as many scoring gaps as reasonably possible.

Example of a matrix:

Level


4 Experiment has addressed all variables. Adequate controls are present. Trials are repeated until consistency is obtained. Observations are detailed.


All facts and observations are accurate.

Inference is reasonable and well- supported. A rigorous proof would result from this experiment.

3 Experiment has addressed most variables. Adequate controls are present. Trials are repeated several times. Most observations are detailed.


Most facts and observations are accurate.

Inference is reasonable, but not as well-supported as it could be. A proof will result from this experiment, but it will not bear up under scrutiny.

2 Experiment has addressed a variable. Controls are attempted but

Many lapses in clarity, but the work can be

Some of the facts and observations are

Inference could be supported by factual information, but the support

not appropriate. Trials are repeated once or twice. A few observations are detailed.

followed with a little effort. There is excessive redundancy.

accurate, but many are inaccurate.

is missing or confusing. Any proof resulting from this experiment will be inadequate.

1 Experiment does not address any variables. No controls are present. The experiment is one once. No observations are detailed.


Facts or observations presented are inaccurate.

Inference cannot be supported by factual information. No proof will result from this experiment.

Example of paragraph format:

4 Experiment has addressed all variables. Adequate controls are present. Trials are repeated until consistency is obtained. Observations are detailed. Clear presentation makes the work easy to follow. There is no redundancy. All facts and observations are accurate. Inference is reasonable and well- supported. A rigorous proof would result from this experiment.

3 Experiment has addressed most variables. Adequate controls are present. Trials are repeated several times. Most observations are detailed. Generally clear presentation, but some lapses are distracting. There are some easily eliminated redundancies. Most facts and observations are accurate. Inference is reasonable, but not as well-supported as it could be. A proof will result from this experiment, but it will not bear up under scrutiny.

2 Experiment has addressed a variable. Controls are attempted but not appropriate. Trials are repeated once or twice. A few observations are detailed. Many lapses in clarity, but the work can be followed with a little effort. There is excessive redundancy. Some of the facts and observations are accurate, but many are inaccurate. Inference could be supported by factual information, but the support is missing or confusing. Any proof resulting from this experiment will be inadequate.

1 Experiment does not address any variables. No controls are present. The experiment is one once. No observations are detailed.Lack of clarity makes the work very difficult to follow. Almost all of the work is redundant. Facts or

observations presented are inaccurate. Inference cannot be supported by factual information. No proof will result from this experiment.

USING MAJOR AND MINOR ERRORS

This type of scoring uses a general holistic rubric defined by major and minor errors with the errors actually listed. The errors may tend to focus on the components of the task, as in the example below, or they may be centered on qualities of the work such as clarity, reasoning, etc. The type of error listed depends on the product to be reviewed.

Example:

General rubric

4 No major errors; few, if any, minor errors3 One or two major errors or too many minor errors to warrant a higher score2 Several major errors or a few major errors with many minor errors1 Numerous major errors and an overwhelming number of minor errors

Example of errors list:

MAJOR ERRORS MINOR ERRORS

Identify a problem.

The problem is NOT clearly defined in text NOR is the problem inferred by the given experimental technique.

A problem statement is omitted, but the student obviously has identified the problem.

Design an experiment to investigate the problem.

Design does not permit investigation of a problem. Design omits appropriate control of variables or has a sample size or trial number that will not produce reliable results.

The design includes unnecessary procedures but this does not have detrimental effects on the results. The design is understandable but a bit difficult to follow.

Collect meaningful, organized data for ease of analysis.

Appropriate charts/tables are missing OR are totally unorganized. Missing labels make it impossible to identify the type of data collected.

Appropriate graphs are missing. Graphs may lack enough information to be interpreted correctly, e.g., graph labels are missing.

Charts may be slightly disorganized, but they are understandable. Labels may be missing, but it is apparent what data has been collected.

Appropriate graphs are given, but there are some style errors. Labels may not be complete, but they are understandable.

Correct analysis of data.

No attempt is made to analyze data or to identify trends or patterns from the data.

There may be a few inconsistencies in the analysis. Major patterns in the data are correctly identified.

Conclusion.

Conclusion is NOT supported by the data. Conclusion is missing, incorrect, or is based upon extraneous information. Logical cause and effect relationships are missing.

Conclusion is generally supported by the data, but there are a few inconsistencies.

ANALYTIC HOLISTIC SCORING

Analytic holistic scoring follows the same procedures as focused holistic scoring. Since the rubrics are more specific, they are generally more useful to students, especially to beginners. They can be used when only part of a paper is to be scored. Several analytic scores can be given to one paper. With a little practice, a teacher will be able to read a paper one time and assign several analytic scores. Analytic holistic rubrics are often used with short-answer essays. Discussion of the analytic holistic scoring rubrics before and after the task can provide a vehicle of instruction.

Examples:

Observing

4 Observations are thorough, accurate, and precise.3 Observations may lack some detail. Some inaccuracies are present or the preciseness

varies considerably.2 Many easily observable characteristics or events are missing. Many inaccuracies exist.

Precision is mostly lacking.1 Few, if any, observations are made. The observations present are not accurate or

precise.

Drawing Conclusions

4 Inferences are reasonable and supported by factual information.3 Inferences are generally reasonable and for the most part supported adequately.2 Inferences are given, but lack support and are sometimes illogical.1 Inferences, if present, are illogical, and little, if any, support is offered.

STEPS TO HOLISTIC SCORING

Scoring of student work should be meaningful to students, efficient in terms of time, and provide consistent results. Holistic scoring can meet these requirements, but it does require some preparation prior to scoring. The following steps outline the general process used for many formal holistic scoring programs. The exact sequence of these steps varies to meet the needs of the program.

Define the main goals and supporting specific objectives of the course.

Very specific, detailed objectives can usually be measured efficiently in machine-scorable selected-response formats. Tasks that require students to meet more global goals and therefore support many objectives are usually scored subjectively.

Design a task that cannot be completed without meeting the main goals and the supporting objectives of the course.

Since holistic scoring takes time, it is often prudent to utilize one task that covers many objectives or a main goal rather than developing many smaller tasks that address each objective specifically.

Define the essential factors of the work that students are expected to produce.

These factors might include accuracy, completeness, thoroughness, clarity, synthesis of concepts, supported inferences, or any other factor that is an essential part of the highest- quality work. Teachers who involve students in this process report large strides in student progress.

Develop a rubric based on the essential factors of the work and the general value of each score point.

Each score point of the rubric should address each of the factors to be included in the work. After the work is examined or the task is defined, the rubric may need to be modified.

Internalize what the rubric means in terms of student products.

For example, if you were scoring a diving competition, you would have to thoroughly understand the rubric before you saw the dive because you only get to see the dive once. The same holds true for student products. Rare is the teacher who will have time to reread every paper many times, judging it one time for grammar and another for accuracy, etc. You have to be able to form an overall impression of the quality of the work by quickly determining the relevant strengths and weaknesses of the work.

Prepare the students and parents.

Share the rubric with students and parents. Explain how the rubric is used. Show some previously scored work and, if possible, take time to discuss the reason for each score. Allow students to score some work using the rubric. Be certain all work is anonymous. The more accurate students become in evaluating the work of others, the more accurate their self-evaluations become. Students who have the most difficulty evaluating work usually have the most difficult producing the work.

Define an anchor set.

An anchor set is made up of groups of works illustrating each score point. The number of groups depends on the number of score points used. For a four-point scale the separation might be done as follows: High, medium, and low groups would be determined by comparing papers. The medium group should be the largest group so it is divided into two groups. This will provide a four-point range high, high medium, low medium, and low, with a zero reserved for no work. Brief annotations describing each set according to the rubric and some specific details are then developed. A few papers may be moved up or down as annotations are developed. The anchor sets help maintain scoring consistency from year to year and scorer to scorer. Anchor sets will usually have the lowest of the high papers (4-) so the scorer will know that anything better than that paper must be a 4. The set will also contain the best (3+) and the worst (3-) of the 3s. This pattern is followed for the rest of the anchor sets. Students, parents, or any interested party can take any paper and say, This work is not as good as the 3+, but it is better than the 2+, so it must be a 3. The score that they arrive at should be the same or adjacent to the teachers score. Any discrepancies should be discussed. Annotations serve as a reminder of how anchor set scores were derived and are usually representative of the types of strengths and weaknesses found at that score point. NOTE: The plus and minuses are used here to illustrate a point and are not recorded. They would indicate a more precise scoring method than is actually being applied.

If there are many assignments that produce the same type of product, one anchor set will usually suffice for classroom assessment.

Score student work.

Keep the rubric and anchor set close by. There may be an occasional student product that requires a second reading or viewing. You may want to annotate these line calls to help you explain the score to the student or parent.

When two scorers are scoring the same work, which is usually the case in large-scale assessment systems, averages and third readers are employed to resolve differences.

After long breaks from scoring, it is best to carefully review the rubric and the anchor set.

Train students to score papers using the anchor sets. Allow them to score some unmarked papers. Compare their scores to the scores you have previously assigned. Discuss the reasons for your scores. This activity can help students learn to evaluate their own work.

Annotated Resource List

American Association for the Advancement of Science (1989). Science for All Americans, Washington, D.C.

This book presents an excellent view of what a generally literate person should know and be able to do. The chapter on Habits of Mind is especially important to classroom teachers who are trying to make their learning relevant. The chapter on effective learning and teaching can provide the teacher with many strong rationales for using different assessment methods.

Dunn, Susan and Rob Larson, (1990). Design Technology, Children’s Engineering, The Falmer Press, New York, NY.

Numerous design problems for young children are presented with examples of student work. With some modification most, if not all, of the problems can easily be adapted for older students. All of the activities are fun and instructive.

Charles, R., Lester, F., O’Daffer, P. Mullis, I. (1986). How to Evaluate Progress in Problem Solving, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA.

An excellent practical book on evaluation in mathematics. It is easy to follow and can be adapted to science.

Kovalik Susan J. and Karen D. Olsen, Kid’s Eye View of Science, A Teacher’s Handbook for Implementing an Integrated Thematic Approach to Teaching Science, K-6. Center for the Future of Public Education, P.O. Box 20339, Village of Oak Creek, AZ 86341

This handbook presents an integrated approach to learning with assessment as an integral part of the lessons.

McCollum, S. (1994). Performance Assessment in the Social Studies Classroom, A How-to Book for Teachers, Chalk Dust Press, P.O. Box 1711, Joplin, MO.

This practical guide is filled with constructed response assessments which can easily be adapted to science. It is written in an easy to follow style which allows the user to implement the assessments immediately.

Michalko, Michael, (1991). Thinkertoys, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA.

A book designed to stimulate creative business thinking, it is filled with open-ended questions that can be used to stimulate student creativity in the science classroom.

What Work Requires of Schools, a SCANS Report for America 2000, (1991). The Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.

This very inexpensive, concise book can give the teacher insights into long-range goals for their students. The companion book, Learning a Living: a Blueprint for High Performance, provides some examples of activities which can easily serve as constructed response assessments. Chapter 6 provides a clear overview of assessment and testing.

a guide to science classroom - currikicdn.s3-us web viewthinkertoys: and other books on creativity...

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