a. d. · d q () north pacific ocean other. for much of japan's early history, the korean...

Global Interactions (1200-1650)

Year Dates and Events

/

A. D. -------- 12008: First invasions of China by Mongol nomads under Genghiz Khan 1200 Italian banks set up branches in Europe, North Africa, Middle East

/1237-14008: Mongols invade and control Russia

/ ;1260: Kublai Khan becomes first Mongol emperor of China

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12 72-1292: Itall'an. merchant Marco Poloreache, and explores China befi ore voyagmg home

~ 12 95 :Persl'anrulerGhazan'sconversio nt 0 Islam stI'mulatesflowofMu sll'm and European culture to Asia

~ 13008-15008: Renaissance-expansion of trade, exploration, technology,

1299 intere~t in classic culture

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1300 more trading markets

~ 1 347:Bu bonl'cpla guespreadsfromA s ia toEur ope,' pop ulationloss ,rebellions, decline in influence of the Church

~ 13 6 8-1644:M in gDynastYl'nChl'na;n ewcash cropsincreas etr adewithAsia,

, Philippines, Europe

:0 1394-1460: Advances in navigation by Prince Henry of Portugal spur trade by I sea

1

~ 1405 -14 33:ZhengHe opens new mark etsthrou ghou tA sl'a for Chl'nese goods

~ 1399 and culture '::=;::::::.-:..::.

/ 1485-1509: Henry II of England centralizes power, expands trade and 1400 " exploration

I ,1492: Columbus seeks westward sea route to Asia; opens up European contact

with the Americas 1492-1500: Isabella and Ferdinand expel all unconverted Jews and Muslims from Spain 1497-1499: Vasco da Gama's expedition sparks Portuguese domination of spice trade with India

15008: Portuguese control of gold trade by sea with Africa eliminates costly land routes Reformation to change Christianity as defined by Roman

Catholic Church 1526: India falls under control of Mogul (Islamic) invaders 1534: Ignatius Loyola founds Jesuit Society of teachers and missionaries to

promote Catholicism 1542: Portuguese traders arrive in Japan 1545-1563: Council of Trent initiates Counter-Reformation to strengthen

Roman Catholic Church 1549: Jesuit Francis Xavier begins mission to Japan 15508: Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries arrive in Japan and begin

conversions to Christianity 1558-1603: Elizabeth I of England spurs trade, exploration, arts 16008: Japan forbids teaching of Christianity, expels missionaries, executes

converts 1610-1643: Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu expand industry,

foreign trade 1618-1648: Thirty Years' War involves most of Europe, devastates German

economy and population 1641: Shoguns initiate 200-year isolation of Japan from foreign trade and

culture 1699

A.D. --------- 12008: First invasions of China by Mongol nomads under Genghiz Khan

1200 Italian banks set up branches in Europe, North Africa, Middle East

/; 1237-14008: Mongols invade and control Russia 1260: Kublai Khan becomes first Mongol emperor of China

0 12 72-1292: Itall'an, merchant Marco Polo re ache, and explores C hinabetiore voyaging home

~ 1295:P ersi an ruler Ghazan's con versl'o ntoIslam stI'mulatesflowofMusli m and European culture to Asia

(/ 13008-15008: Renaissance-expansion of trade, exploration, technology, 129!) interest in classic culture ., 00"';-::

) 1337-1453: Hundred Years' War bankrupts Europe; Hanseatic League controls

1300 more trading markets

/; 1347:B ub onl'cplague spreads from As ia to Europe; pop ulationl oss ,rebellions, decline in influence of the Church

/: 136 8-1644:M in gDynas tyinChl'na; n ewcash crops increase trade with Asia, Philippines, Europe

/; 1394-1460: Advances in navigation by Prince Henry of Portugal spur trade by , sea

1

~ 1405-1433:ZhengHe opens new marketsthrou ghou tA sia forC hines e goods . 1399 and culture "'::::. .-=.

/ 1485-1509: Henry II of England centralizes power, expands trade and 1400 . exploration 1492: Columbus seeks westward sea route to Asia; opens up European contact with the Americas 1492-1500: Isabella and Ferdinand expel all unconverted Jews and Muslims from Spain 1497-1499: Vasco da Gama's expedition sparks Portuguese domination of spice trade with India

15008: Portuguese control of gold trade by sea with Africa eliminates costly land routes Reformation to change Christianity as defined by Roman

Catholic Church 1526: India falls under control of Mogul (Islamic) invaders 1534: Ignatius Loyola founds Jesuit Society of teachers and missionaries to

promote Catholicism 1542: Portuguese traders arrive in Japan 1545-1563: Council of Trent initiates Counter-Reformation to strengthen

Roman Catholic Church 1549: Jesuit Francis Xavier begins mission to Japan 1550s: Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries arrive in Japan and begin

conversions to Christianity 1558-1603: Elizabeth I of England spurs trade, exploration, arts 16008: Japan forbids teaching of Christianity, expels missionaries, executes

converts 1610-1643: Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu expand industry,

foreign trade 1618-1648: Thirty Years' War involves most of Europe, devastates German

economy and population 1641: Shoguns initiate 200-year isolation of Japan from foreign trade and

culture

Year '

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Global Interactions (1200-1650)

Dates and Events

c H A p T E R

12

Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia .

After practice, Mitsuo wiped his sword, polished its handle, and care- .... fully placed it in its silk-lined sheath. Then he put it away in the chest' under the window. There it must rest between training sessions for, ' two more years. Mitsuo would not be entitled to wear the sword until, at age 15, he became a warrior. !

Sighing, Mitsuo stripped off his sweaty clothes and took a bath. As he splashed in the cold water, he remembered the test question that the Zen teacher, Yozan, had put to a warrior. "If you were naked. in the bathtub and one hundred armed men came to kill you, would you beg for your life or die fighting? Or could you, as a follower of Zen, : i survive without doing either?" The warrior had said that he wanted to win without pleading for his life or fighting.

Mitsuo sighed again. Well, of course. Who wouldn't? But was that possible? He had been learning swordsmanship ever since he was five. His master often praised his timing and accuracy. But he could not, perform wonders. He thought of all the tales he had heard about fa- , mous warriors. One had been able to sense a threatening thought in . the mind of his servant. Another had conquered an opponent simply' by showing the resolve in his eyes.

Mitsuo wondered if these tales were true. He hoped they were. Perhaps the next two years would show if he were capable of such ~.

feats. During that period, he would be studying meditation under a master at the nearby monastery. He lay back in the tub and pictured himself fighting five opponents at once. He would be like a playful...

229

230

,.

GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)

wind passing among them. All five would fall like leaves caught in a swirl of air.

Mitsuo felt a conceited smile curve his lips. Ah, he must be careful. Such vanity would ruin his technique. He must learn to clear his mind of daydreams about the future and to fix it firmly on the present.

m itsuo is a young boy of noble birth living in feudal Japan. Like

!ll! noble European boys living at about the same time, he is train

ing to be a knight. In Japan, knights were called samurai. Zen, one form of Buddhism practiced in Japan, was very popular with the samurai. The concepts of this religion suited their a<#ve, highly disciplined way of life.

Besides Buddhism, the Japanese adopted other features of Chinese culture. All of these features eventually took on markedly Japanese qualities. What were these adaptable but highly individualistic people like? How did their civilization begin?

EARLY JAPANESE HISTORY AND FEUDALISM

People have lived in Japan for thousands of years. Because the early Japanese had no written history, much remains unknown about their beginnings. Scholars continue to search for answers to such questions as, Where did the people who settled in Japan come from? What was their society like at its very beginning?

By the time historians began to describe the Japanese, their society had already been influenced by the Chinese. Nonetheless, their way oflife remained unique. Although impressed by Chinese culture, the Japanese did not let it replace their own. Instead they adapted the parts of Chinese culture that they admired to their own way of life.

The Geography of Japan

Japan is close to the eastern coast of mainland Asia. It is an archipelago, a country made up of many islands. The four largest are Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu, and Hokkaido.

All of the islands are mountainous and have only small amounts ofland flat enough for farming. Plentiful rainfall and warm summers enable the Japanese to grow rice, vegetables, and fruits. They also get an abundance of food from the sea.

Japan's rugged terrain makes land travel difficult. A body of water called the Inland Sea provides a water route between Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. This water route made it possible for early Japanese groups on these islands to communicate and trade with each

Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia

Japan: Physical Map

t)

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D Q () NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN

other. For much of Japan's early history, the Korean Strait and the Sea of Japan kept out invaders from the Asian mainland. The Pacific Ocean kept away invaders from the east.

The islands have about 150 major volcanoes. About half are active. The earth's crust near Japan is unstable, causing frequent earthquakes. Underwater quakes occasionally cause tidal waves. Called tsunamis, they can be destructive to coastal areas.

The Development of Japanese Culture

In A.D. 297, a Chinese historian, Wei Zhi, described the Japanese as farmers and warriors. Korean histories mention warring clans in

231

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232 GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)

Japan. A clan is a group of families. The leaders ofthe families have a common ancestor. For a long time, Japan had no central government. Separated by rugged mountains, Japanese clans remained independent of one another. As time went on, they began to compete for power. In the 300s, one of these clans, the Yamato, conquered most of the others. Yamato rulers became known as emperors.

The Y amato Years. During the early years ofYamato rule (250710), the official state religion was Shinto, "the way of the gods." Shinto honors the spirits thought to inhabit such natural features as trees, rocks, and mountains. (Animism, a common belief system among Africans, has similar ideas about nature.)

The Yamato emperors claimed to be descendants of the sun goddess who ruled all the other nature spirits and protected Japan. This made the emperors representatives of the goddess. Consequently, they controlled both religion and the government.

From its earliest history, Japan had invaded and tried to conquer Korea to gain territory and tribute. In the 5th century, the Yamato emperors increased these efforts. Although unsuccessful, the invasions had important results. The contact between the two countries led to new developments in Japanese culture.

Korean and Chinese Influences. From the Koreans, the Japanese learned many Chinese ways. Their temple architecture, clothing styles, and methods of preparing food all began to show Chinese influence. More important, the Japanese learned the Chinese writing system and adapted it to their own language. Once the Japanese could write and keep records, they were able to imitate the Chinese bureaucratic method of governing. Writing also led to the development of Japanese literature, philosophy, and written history.

The Koreans introduced Buddhism and Confucianism to Japan. The Buddhist idea of gaining peace through discipline and methods of concentrating the mind appealed to the Japanese. A powerful group of nobles converted to Buddhism and wanted to make it the official state religion. Other members of the nobility objected. A civil war broke out and ended in the victory of the pro-Buddhist group.

A New Constitution. Once Japan's rulers accepted Buddhism, they used it as a basis for reforming their government. In 604, Prince Shotoku wrote a new constitution called the "Seventeen-Article Constitution." Using Buddhist moral principles and Confucian political theory, the constitution stated Shotoku's ideas about how to govern morally and efficiently. These ideas included the establishment of a bureaucracy similar to China's.

After a period of civil conflict, supporters of Shotoku's ideas won control of the government. (Shotoku had died in 629.) They then reformed the Japanese government to conform to Chinese political concepts.

In 710, the emperor built a new capital city, called Nara, in the same style as the Chinese imperial court. The period in Japanese

.,

"

Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia 233

Woodblock print illustrating the Tale of Genji, from a 17th-century edition

history when the rulers continued to introduce Chinese ideas from the Tang Dynasty to their society is called the N ara period.

The Move to Kyoto. About 180 years later, the emperor moved the capital to Kyoto. The ruling families in Kyoto turned away from Chinese ways and encouraged the development of a distinctive J apanese culture. The men and women of the imperial court wrote poetry and stories in their native Japanese language using the Japanese system of writing. They developed an entirely new form ofliterature called the novel. The Tale of Genji, written by a woman named Murasaki Shikibu in the early 1000s, is one of the most famous Japanese novels. It is about the romantic adventures of Prince Genji and the life of his family over a long span of time.

The Shogunate

As time passed, the emperors lost authority. Powerful clans (families) carried out the functions of the government in the name of the emperor. Sometimes, the clans fought one another to gain control of the government. In 1185, the Minamoto clan defeated its rivals. Seven years later, the emperor named the leader ofthe clan, Minamoto Yoritomo, the first shogun.

The shogun was the chief military general ofthe country. He also controlled the country's financial affairs, courts, and government appointments. Although the emperor still sat on the throne, the shogun actually ruled Japan. Soon, Kamakura, the city in which Yoritomo's palace was located, became more important than Kyoto. The Kamakura Shogunate lasted from 1192 to 1333.

Feudalism. Outside the capital, large landholders, or daimyos, controlled local affairs. In return for promises of loyalty and service,


Vanguard force of samurai warriors charging into battle

warriors known as samurai received land from a daimyo. This warrior class kept order. The peasants who worked the land were the lowest class. They could not own land.

The daimyo-samurai relationship was like the European feudal system. Both combined features of older systems. European feudalism developed from Germanic and Roman traditions. Japanese feudalism grew out of a merging of the clan tradition with Confucianism. This philosophy encourages respect for the authority or' family and state.

The two systems also had economic and social similarities. Both European and Japanese feudalism made land the most important measure of wealth. In both systems, the landowners held greater political and military power than the kings and emperors did.

Knights and samurai were also very much alike. Both swore loyalty to the lords who supported them. Both fought on horseback with carefully crafted weapons and armor. Just as knights lived by the code of chivalry, the samurai followed the Bushido, or ''Way of the Warrior." The ideal samurai was obedient to authority, had a strong sense of duty, lived simply, showed kindness to others, and was honest. Samurai and knights spent many years learning the skills they would need to fight for their lords. They started young, as Mitsuo in the story at the beginning of the chapter did.

The two systems had differences, however. The manors of European lords usually included only one village and its surrounding farmland. The daimyos' holdings could include pieces of land scattered through several areas and might contain more than one village. Unlike the European peasants, the Japanese peasants never became serfs. They were free to leave the land whenever they liked. Feudalism in Europe lasted for about six centuries. In Japan, it lasted for about eight centuries.


Bushido. Although both the knights of Europe and the samurai had strict codes of honor, the samurai code was stricter. According to the Bushido, a samurai who had dishonored himself had to commit suicide. The ritual of suicide was called seppuku and required the samurai to slash open his belly with a knife. By having the courage to commit seppuku, a disgraced samurai could regain his honor.

The Divine Wind. During the Kamakura Shogunate, the Japanese faced two major crises. The Mongol emperor of China, Kublai Khan, decided to conquer Japan. In 1274, he sent an army through Korea to invade Kyushu. The Japanese defeated the invaders. The Mongols tried once more in 1281. Again they failed when a typhoon destroyed most of their ships and forced them to withdraw. The Japanese called the typhoon "Kamikaze," the "Divine Wind." They felt that the gods had sent the wind to help them.

A Period of Disunity

In the 1330s, the Ashikaga family took control ofthe government. It ruled until 1568. The Ashikagas did not have a firm hold on the shogunate. A long period of civil wars occurred. Daimyos became even more important in controlling local areas.

Finally, in 1568, one daimyo, Oda Nobunaga, captured Kyoto. He gained the loyalty of many nobles in central Japan. But he was killE)d in 1582 before he could take full control of Japan.

Nobunaga's chief general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, won the support of the most important daimyos and became the ruler of a unified Japan in 1590. He then sent armies to Korea and attempted to invade China. Hideyoshi wanted to create an empire in eastern Asia. He did not get his wish. After he died in 1598, the Japanese forces returned home from Korea.

Europeans Arrive. During the time ofthe civil wars, Europeans first came to Japan. Before the Portuguese arrived in 1542, the J apanese had had no known contact with the West. From the Portuguese, the Japanese learned about muskets (long-barreled firearms). Such weapons changed the way the samurai fought. They now used guns as well as swords.

Along with the traders came Roman Catholic Jesuit missionaries. Led by Francis Xavier, who arrived in 1549, Jesuits converted many Japanese to Christianity. Franciscans arrived in 1593 and expanded the missionary work. Within 30 years, thousands of Japanese had

. converted to Christianity. Zen Concepts. In spite of the political unrest in this period, many

developments occurred that continue to influence the culture of Japan. Direct trade with China opened up. Monks introduced a different version of Buddhism called Zen. Many Buddhists believed that they could gain enlightenment through special kinds of medi


,.

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During World War II (1941-1945), Japan and the 4nited States fought over control of strategically located islands in the Pacific Ocean. A few American soldiers who fought in the battles reported seeing a different kind of Japanese soldier. Instead of wearing ordinary military uniforms, these men were dressed in black. They seemed able to move through the tropical jungles noiselessly, disappearing almost as soon as they had been seen. Since the black clad soldiers were not invol any ma jor battles, little attention was n to these reports. Few, if any, Americans knew that the men so briefly glimpsed were ninjas.

Ninjas first appeared in feudal Japan in the 12th century. They were the descen-dants of warriors who were on the losing side in wars between rival warlords. As whole families went into hiding, an alterna-tive society, or counterculture, developed. It was based on mastery of the martial arts needed for survival within a hostile larger society.

In time, dozens of regional and family ryu, or schools of the warrior tradition of ninjitsu, developed. ad its own phi losophy and specia d ways offighting. Often, the ryu of a particular region would be under the control of the local daimyo, or feudal lord. During the power struggles of medieval Japan, the ninjas became exJremely valuable as spies to infiltrate enemy ranks and as assassins of leaders and authority figures. With their ability to move with stealth and their reputation for mystic powers, ninjas were sometimes able to destroy the morale of armies.

In addition to the techniques of un-armed combat, the ninja was trained to fight with sword, spear, and throwing blades. Fire and explosives were also part of the ninja arsenal. Many ninjas were skilled at preparing their own explosives from natural elements. Several of the larger ninja organizations had their own chemists to produce quantities of explosives. Traditional building materials in Japan were wood, paper, and rice straw. These burn easily. Thus, the threat of fire contributed to the fear with which the ninja was regarded.

The traditional clothing of the ninja consists of special trousers that tie onto the body and a jacket with overlapping lapels. The jacket is tucked into the trousers. The nirija also wears protective arm and hand sleeves and a tied scarf used as a combination mask and hood. This costume is made of strong, dark-colored cotton cloth. It enables the ninja to move easily and to blend with the shadows.

The medieval Japanese believed that ninjas could cloud the minds of their ene-mies in order to make themselves invisible. In fact, ninja training did include mind con-trol. This had more to do, however, with the ninja's mental discipline, perseverance, and endurance, than with anything magical.

1. Explain the difference between a ninja and a samurai in medieval Japan.

2. Why do you think people study ninjitsu today?

238 GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650) -~.

keeping their two houses furnished and staffed with servants. The daimyos also had to help pay for public projects supported by the shogun. They had no money left over to raise armies and stockpile weapons.

Rigid Social Structure. Another measure made the Japanese social structure more rigid. Society was organized into four classes. The highest class consisted of the samurai. Second in importance were the peasants, who produced food for the state. Artisans, who produced goods less necessary than food, ranked third. Because they made money from things produced by others, merchants were placed in the lowest class.

Although the Tokugawas gave special distinction to the samurai and the peasant groups, they took away some of the advantages that these groups had formerly enjoyed. The once independent samurai now had to rely on the daimyos for their salaries and weapons. The peasants lost many of their rights. The government also taxed them so heavily that their lives became almost as hard and as limited as those of European serfs. Peasants in Japan did not, however, lose their freedom of movement. Many sought better ways of life in the towns.

Isolation. The Tokugawas were strict rulers, but they brought peace to Japan. They encouraged the growth of industry and trade. However, in the early 1600s, the shoguns became suspi~ious of the influence of Christians and European traders. They feared that trade would give wealth and power to rivals. The Christians, who were Roman Catholics, might put their loyalty to the Church and the pope above their loyalty to the emperor and the shogun. In 1612, the shogun forbade the teaching of Christianity and began to persecute Christians in Japan. He ordered missionaries to leave the country or be killed. He had thousands of Japanese converts executed.

The Tokugawas also restricted the activities offoreign traders. By 1641, they had closed all but one port to outsiders. Only ten Chinese ships and one Dutch ship could land each year at the port ofN agasaki. Any Japanese who was away from the country at the time could not return. Japan isolated itself from the outside world for more than 200 years.

Cultural Achievements. Japan enjoyed a long period of peace and prosperity. During this time, its culture flourished. Art lovers still marvel at the beauty and craftsmanship of the wood-block prints made during the Tokugawa Shogunate. Japanese dramatists devel oped a new form of theater called kabuki. Kabuki theater included acting, dancing, music, and colorful costumes. Other writers produced novels and poetry.

A kind of poem called the haiku appeared at this time. The haiku must contain exactly 17 syllables divided into three lines. These poems are usually vivid descriptions of nature. The best of them suggest

240 GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650) -~ "

China: The Sung Empire

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Two Empires

Early in the Sung period, nomads from Manchuria fought their way into northern China. The invaders captured the Sung emperor and began their own dynasty, the Chin Dynasty, in the north. Beijing became their capital city. The son of the captured emperor set up a new Sung capital at Hangzhou in southern China. By 1127, China split into the Chin Empire in the north and the Sung Empire in the south.

Science, Technology, and the Arts

Despite this division, advances in science, technology, and the arts continued under the Sung. Doctors developed an inoculation against smallpox. Mathematicians invented the abacus, the world's first adding machine. Soldiers began to use gunpowder as a weapon. Printers now used movable wooden type, which made it possible to produce more books in a shorter time.

Landscape painting reached its highest level during the Sung period. Potters became even more skilled in making porcelain objects. Unusual glazes gave the porcelain a rich color. The most used colors were greenish and lavender blues, transparent green, reddish brown, and whites.


China: The Sung Empire

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Two Empires

Early in the Sung period, nomads from Manchuria fought their way into northern China. The invaders captured the Sung emperor and began their own dynasty, the Chin Dynasty, in the north. Beijing became their capital city. The son of the captured emperor set up a new Sung capital at Hangzhou in southern China. By 1127, China split into the Chin Empire in the north and the Sung Empire in the south.

Science, Technology, and the Arts

Despite this division, advances in science, technology, and the arts continued under the Sung. Doctors developed an inoculation against smallpox. Mathematicians invented the abacus, the world's first adding machine. Soldiers began to use gunpowder as a weapon. Printers now used movable wooden type, which made it possible to produce more books in a shorter time.

Landscape painting reached its highest level during the Sung period. Potters became even more skilled in making porcelain objects. Unusual glazes gave the porcelain a rich color. The most used colors were greenish and lavender blues, transparent green, reddish brown, and whites.


Trade and Prosperity

Trade made the Sung Empire highly prosperous. Large ships carried cargoes of silk and porcelain to Korea and Japan. The ships also sailed to Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf area, and Mrica. Prosperity enabled the cities to become centers of learning and art. Hangzhou, the imperial capital, was larger than most European cities ofthe same period. Many streets in the capital were paved. An efficient garbage collection system kept the city clean.

Social Rights

By the 12th century, Sung China may have been the most advanced society in the world. But not everyone shared equally in its benefits. The peasants lived in poverty. The government taxed them heavily and forced them to labor on public works. The lives of Chinese peasants remained harsh until modern times.

Women in Sung China enjoyed few rights. In public, wives had to walk ten steps behind their husbands. Among the wealthy, it was fashionable to bind the feet of little girls to keep their feet small. The tight wrappings bent the toes toward the heel. This practice crippled many women. Some could not walk without support.

Military weakness and the corruption of government officials contributed to the downfall of the Sung. The problems of the Sung rulers continued until the Mongol invasion of 1279 ended their rule.

INFO CHECK

1. Explain how the Sung Empire prospered economically and culturally between A.D. 960 and 1279.

2. In what ways were women at a disadvantage in medieval China?

THE MONGOL EMPIRE

In the 13th century, nomadic Mongol horsemen in Central Asia united under a great leader named Genghiz Khan. He led his fierce warriors on a wave of conquest that lasted for 20 years. Russia and portions of the Muslim Empire fell to the Mongols. The conquests continued after Genghiz Khan died in 1227. Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghiz, became the Mongol emperor in 1260 and conquered the Sung in 1279.

The map on page 242 shows the vast size of the Mongol Empire. How did the Mongols, a relatively small group, manage to conquer such a large territory? Like other nomadic peoples, the Mongols were accomplished warriors with excellent survival skills. Herding sheep and horses on the dry, windswept steppes of their homeland had


The Mongol Empire 1300

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trained them to live for months with little food and rest. Hunting the small, swift animals of the steppes gave them practice in using weapons while on horseback. Then, too, Mongols were intensely loyal to their clan chiefs, men chosen for their leadership ability. The desire to win their leaders' approval made Mongol warriors courageous and well disciplined in battle.

Conquests by the Mongols

After Genghiz Khan united the Mongols, he sent elite officers to train the warriors in each tribe to be professional soldiers. Their skill in the arts of war was not the only reason for their success. They also conquered through cruelty and terror. When they took a city, they usually destroyed its buildings and killed all of its inhabitants.

Southwest Asia. Mongol soldiers destroyed Muslim cities and mosques in Southwestern Asia and Central Asia. Early Mongol rulers almost wiped out Muslim culture in these areas. In 1295, however, a Mongol ruler named Ghazan converted to Islam. Under Ghazan and his successors, Muslim culture became stronger than ever. The Mon


gols stimulated trade in Southwest Asia as well as in China. As longdistance trade increased, so did the flow of Western European goods and ideas to Asia.

Russia. The Mongols invaded Russia in 1237 and controlled it for about 200 years. Although the Mongols were exceptionally cruel soldiers, they were tolerant rulers. They demanded only tribute and soldiers from the Russians. The Mongol overlords did not interfere with the Russian government, religion, language, or customs.

Eastern Europe. Mongol armies swept through Hungary and Poland in 1241. This campaign might have brought large parts of central and western Europe into the Mongol Empire and changed the course of Europeari history. But the Mongol khan (ruler) died before its completion, and the army had to return home to elect a new khan.

India. In 1398, Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghiz Khan, led his army into India. His forces destroyed the city of Delhi and slaughtered both Indian soldiers and civilians. The Mongols left India after a year. During this short time, they weakened the military power of the Delhi sultans. In 1526, India fell under the control of a new Muslim group called the Moguls.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

In spite of their military skill, it took more than 45 years for the Mongols to conquer China. Kublai Khan completed the conquest and established the Yuan Dynasty.

Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol Empire, out hunting


Time Line

Year Dates and Events

A.D.

250 ~250' Beginning of 450-year rule of Japan by Y =ato clan; ri,e of Shinto as ,tate

"'" religion

~ 400s: Yamato attempt to conquer Korea; Japanese exposed to Chinese culture

699 ' 604: Prince Shotoku writes constitution based on Buddhist and Confucian ideas

100--710: Beginning of Nara period in Japan; strong influence from China's Tang Dynasty

j /900s: Kyoto becomes new Japanese capital; emperors favor native culture

:>999i;~960-1279: .under ~ung Dynasty, China becomes advanced but repressive society

r:~~::;;";-~ 1000-1871. Japan s feudal penod

1~!00~

.

i

.

.

. i . .. .,..,. !,/r--llOOs:"1200s: Chinese Buddhist monks bring Zen to Japan

<J---1l27: Chin Dynasty begins rule of northern China; Sungs rule southern China 1185-1333: Japanese emperor names as first shogun Minamoto clan leader

Y orimoto; beginning of Kamakura Shogunate 1237-1400s: Mongol invaders begin 200-year control of Russia 1244: Mongols invade Hungary and Poland; retreat after death of ruling khan 1260: Kublai Khan becomes first Mongol emperor of China 1274,1281: Kublai Khan's two invasions of Japanese island of Kyushu turned

back by typhoons ("Kamikaze") 1279-1368: Kublai Khan establishes Yuan Dynasty in China 1295: Ghazan, Mongol ruler of Persia, converts to Islam; stimulates flow of

Muslim and western European culture to southwest Asia and China 1330s-1568: Ashikaga family control Japanese government; long period of civil

wars 1368: Chu Yan-chang becomes first ruler of Ming Dynasty 1398: Mongol Tamerlane invades India, destroys Delhi, retreats

1526: India falls under control of Mogul invaders 1542: Portuguese traders arrive in Japan, introduce firearms 1550s: Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries arrive in Japan 1590-1598: Toyotomi Hideyoshi becomes ruler of unified Japan; invades Korea and China 1600s: Japan forbids teaching of Christianity, expels missionaries, executes converts 1600-1868: Tokugawa Ieyasu appointed shogun, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo), makes shogunate hereditary, centralizes Japanese government 1641: Shoguns initiate 200-year isolation of Japan from foreign trade and culture


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Restrictions and Good Works. As emperor, one of his main concerns was to prevent the Chinese from rebelling against his rule. To avoid this, he placed Mongols in all the important government positions and the Chinese in the lowest ones. He also limited the freedom of the Chinese. He made it illegal for them to own weapons, to meet in large groups, and to travel at night.

In spite of these harsh measures, Kublai Khan brought many advantages to China. He constructed roads and canals and rebuilt the city of Beijing. He gave aid to orphans and old people and provided hospitals for the sick. He also purchased food supplies in times of plenty to store away for use when famine struck.

Tolerance. Kublai Khan is famous for his tolerance. Most Mongols practiced Lamaism, the Tibetan form of Buddhism. But Kublai Khan did not force Lamaism on the lands he ruled. He allowed people in the different lands to worship in their own way. He appointed Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Taoists to minor posts in local governments. In China, he supported the concepts of Confucianism. Many Mongolians stationed in Persia converted to Islam. He allowed members of the Dominican and Franciscan Roman Catholic orders to set up missions in China.

Trade. Kublai Khan realized that he could obtain great wealth by developing Chinese trade. The new roads that were constructed during his rule allowed Chinese merchants to travel to Persia and Russia more easily and quickly. The Mongol policy of tolerance and good will toward different cultural groups also encouraged merchants of other countries to visit China. This policy brought a period of peace to Eurasia that is known as the "Pax Mongolia."

The increased trade resulted in more contact between China and distant lands. During this period, Marco Polo of Venice, Italy, went to China with his father and uncle, who were merchants. Polo, just 21 years old, became a favorite ofKublai Khan and remained in China for 18 years. He spent these years traveling through the empire, sometimes serving as a government official. Mter Polo returned to Italy in 1295, he wrote a book about what he had seen. Many of his readers refused to believe his descriptions of the size, wealth, and wonders of China. In time, however, Europeans came to accept what Polo had written as the truth. Some ofthe wonders he described were the burning of black stones (coal) as fuel, paper money (instead of metal coins), and an official postal system.

Other traders followed Polo's route to China. Marco Polo's book helped promote the exchange of goods and ideas between China and the West. It may have inspired later explorers to search for new lands.

A visitor from the Middle East also made his way to China. This famous Muslim traveler, Ibn Batutta, mentions China in his travel journal. He was in Beijing in the 1340s. Over a period of 30 years, Ibn Battuta traveled some 75,000 miles throughout the Middle East, southern and eastern Asia, and Mrica.


Effect on China. Aside from promoting contact between China, Europe, and Southwest Asia, Mongol rule had surprisingly little effect on Chinese culture. The khans made no attempt to force Mongol culture on the Chinese. The Chinese, who looked down on the Mongols as barbarians, showed no interest in adopting any of their ways.

The Decline of the Mongol Empire

After the death of Kublai Khan in 1298, the Mongol Empire split into smaller empires. These were the Golden Horde in southern Russia and the Balkans, the Yuan Empire in China, and the Ilkhan Empire in western Asia.

The rulers who followed Kublai Khan lacked his strength and ability. As Mongol rule weakened, Chinese opposition increased. In 1368, Chu Yan-chang, who had studied to be a Buddhist monk and became a rebel leader, drove the Mongols out of Beijing. A new Chinese dynasty, the Ming, replaced Mongol rule.

Chapter 13 shows how the increased contact between East and West affected Europe's economy, politics, and culture.

INFO CHECK

1. Explain why you AGREE or DISAGREE with the following statement: Genghiz Khan was a great man and an admirable ruler.

2. List the changes brought to China by Kublai Khan. Indicate which of these you regard as most important or significant.

3. What did Marco Polo have in common with Ibn Batutta?

Multiple Choice

1. Before China heavily influenced Japan, one could describe the Japanese as

1. writers and scholars

2. farmers and warriors

3. industrialists

4. none of the above.

2. The Japanese religious belief in Shinto, or

"the way of the gods," is most similar to

1. Buddhism 2.

Hinduism 3.

Islam

4. animism.

3. Cultural diffusion resulted in the Japanese adopting

1. a class of warriors and a code of

honor , 2. religious and bureaucratic prac

tices


4. The Mongol Empire included Russia and Persia.

12. Study the time line on page 244 and choose

the most accurate statement.

1. The beginning of Yamato rule of

Japan and the rise of Shinto as the state

religion occurred in A.D. 250.

2. Buddhist and Confucian ideas in-

fluenced Japan's government dur

ing Japan's feudal period.

3. Zen originated in Japan.

4. The shoguns opened Japan to for

eign trade during the 1600s.

Thematic Essays

1. Cultural diffusion influenced the de velopment of Japan, China, and Mongolia. Task: Select ONE of these societies and give specific examples of the influence of cultural diffusion.

2. In East Asia, each society developed much that was unique to itself. Task: From among the societies presented in this chapter, select one important contribution made by each that is still valued today.

Document-Based Questions

Use your knowledge of Global History and Geography and the documents to answer the following questions.

1. From a book about Asian civilizations.

"Tea is the most wonderful medicine for nourishing one's health; it is the secret of long life. India and China both value it highly. . . . I wonder why the Japanese do not care for bitter things. In the great country of China they drink tea, as a result of which there is no heart trouble and people

live long lives. Our country is full of sickly looking, skinny persons, simply because we do not drink tea."

Do you think the writer is Japanese or Chinese? Give reasons for your answer. How does this reading selection illustrate cultural diffusion?

2. Look at the illustration on page 234. How does the artist convey the function of the samurai?

3. From the Japanese government's Act of Seclusion (1636).

"1. Japanese ships shall by no means be sent abroad.

2. No Japanese shall be sent abroad. Anyone violating this prohibition shall suffer the penalty of death, and the shipowner and the crew shall be held together with the ship.

3. All Japanese residing abroad shall be put to death when they return home... .

11. The samurai shall not purchase goods on board foreign ships directly from foreigners."

What steps did Japan take to isolate itselffrom foreign influences? Why do you think this was done?

4. From a study of Asian civilizations.

"Buddhist learning is broader in scope than Confucian, but Japanese learning is even more embracing. All the various types of learning. . . are embraced in Japanese learning. . . . [The] Japanese should study all the different kinds of learning-even though they are foreign-so that they can choose the good features of each and place them at the service of the nation. . .. [The] Japanese differ from

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4. The Mongol Empire included Russia and Persia.

12. Study the time line on page 244 and choose

the most accurate statement.

1. The beginning of Yamato rule of

Japan and the rise of Shinto as the state

religion occurred in A.D. 250.

2. Buddhist and Confucian ideas in-

fluenced Japan's government dur

ing Japan's feudal period.

3. Zen originated in Japan.

4. The shoguns opened Japan to for

eign trade during the 1600s.

Thematic Essays

1. Cultural diffusion influenced the de velopment of Japan, China, and Mongolia. Task: Select ONE of these societies and give specific examples ofthe influence of cultural diffusion.

2. In East Asia, each society developed much that was unique to itself. Task: From among the societies presented in this chapter, select one important contribution made by each that is still valued today.

Document-Based Questions

Use your knowledge of Global History and Geography and the documents to answer the following questions.

1. From a book about Asian civilizations.

"Tea is the most wonderful medicine for nourishing one's health; it is the secret of long life. India and China both value it highly. . . . I wonder why the Japanese do not care for bitter things. In the great country of China they drink tea, as a result of which there is no heart trouble and people

live long lives. Our country is full of sickly looking, skinny persons, simply because we do not drink tea."

Do you think the writer is Japanese or Chinese? Give reasons for your answer. How does this reading selection illustrate cultural diffusion?

2. Look at the illustration on page 234. How does the artist convey the function of the samurai?

3. From the Japanese government's Act of Seclusion (1636).

"1. Japanese ships shall by no means be sent abroad.

2. No Japanese shall be sent abroad. Anyone violating this prohibition shall suffer the penalty of death, and the shipowner and the crew shall be held together with the ship.

3. All Japanese residing abroad shall be put to death when they return home... .

11. The samurai shall not purchase goods on board foreign ships directly from foreigners."

What steps did Japan take to isolate itselffrom foreign influences? Why do you think this was done?

4. From a study of Asian civilizations.

"Buddhist learning is broader in scope than Confucian, but Japanese learning is even more embracing. All the various types of learning. . . are embraced in Japanese learning. . . . [The] Japanese should study all the different kinds of learning-even though they are foreign-so that they can choose the good features of each and place them at the service of the nation. . .. [The] Japanese differ from


3. harmonious relations with their

neighbors

4. nomadic and pastoral lifestyles.

4. Match the terms that represent so

cial or political similarities between

Japan and Europe.

1. A clan was to Japan as a dynasty

was to Europe.

2. A king was to Japan as a vassal

was to Europe. .

3. A Zen master was to Japan as the

patriarch was to Rome.

4. The Tale of Genji was to Japan as

Homer's epics were to Greece.

5. The Tokugawas established a rigid social structure in Japan. Select the answer that correctly ranks the highest to the lowest social classes.

1. samurai, artisans, farmers, mer chants

2. merchants,

samuraI

3. samurai, merchants, artisans,

peasants

4. samurai, peasants, artisans, mer

chants

artisans, farmers,

6. The Sung Empire became extremely wealthy

because

1. it totally controlled all of the

lands known as China

2. it gained great wealth from the

nations it conquered

3. it discovered deposits of gold and

oil in the north

4. it exported silks, porcelain, and

other trade goods.

7 . Women of noble families in China

1. were able to participate in social

and political activities

2. were considered inferior to their

husbands and suffered from foot

binding practices

3. were often well educated and in

volved in trading ventures

4. none of the above.

8. The Mongols conquered other peoples and

established several longlasting dynasties

because of their

1. vast armies and heavy cannons

2. use of secret police and repressive

rule

3. hardy warriors and tolerant rule 4. hired

mercenaries and religious

beliefs.

9. The Yuan Dynasty is important because it

1. united the Chinese and Mongo

lian peoples forever

2. was the first time China was

ruled by outsiders

3. encouraged religious tolerance

and economic development

4. united the Chinese people to rise

up and rebel against their ruler.

10. The causes leading to the decline of the

Mongol and Sung empires were similar in

that

1. weak leaders or conflict over who

was to rule resulted in loss of power

2. natural disasters destroyed both

empires' economies

3. new, more peaceful, religions de

stroyed the armies' spirit

4. nomadic warrior tribes from the

north destroyed the empires.

11. The map on page 242 proves that

1. tile Great Wall prevented Mon

gols from conquering China

2. Korea was not part of the Mongol

Empire in A.D. 1300

3. Mongols captured Constantinople

and A.D. 1300

a. d. · d q () north pacific ocean other. for much of japan's early history, the korean...

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