a course for supervisors - elt supervision – pvt edu

State of Kuwait دولة الكويت

Ministry of Education وزارة التربية

EFL General Supervision التوجيه الفني العام للغة الانجليسية

دورة الموجه الفنيA course for supervisors

إعداد التوجيه الفني العام للغة الانجليزية

Prepared by :

EFL GENERAL SUPERVISION

2010 / 2011

EFL GENRAL SUPERVISION /2

Page Topic No

4 - 11 The role of technical supervisor 1 12 - 18 Models of supervision 2 19 - 27 Leadership 3 28 - 36 Communication skills 4 37 - 44 Teacher observation- A 5 45 - 51 Classroom observation - B 6 52 - 62 Professional development 7 63 - 72 Teacher evaluation 8 72 - 82 Writing reports 9 83 - 91 Result analyzing & Low achievers 10

92 - 106 Training of Trainers 11 107 - 115 Planning 12 116 - 122 Time management 13 123 - 129 Total quality management 14 130 - 140 Supervision & special education 15

Index


By Topic No

Mrs. Salwa The role of technical supervisor 1 Mrs. Salwa Models of supervision 2 Mr. Ali Leadership 3 Mr. Ali Communication skills 4 Mrs. Wafaa / Mr. Azatour Teacher observation- A 5 Mr. Azatour / Mrs. Wafaa Classroom observation - B 6 Mrs. Huda /Mr. Mona Professional development 7 Mrs. Huda /Mr. Mona Teacher evaluation 8 Mr. Adulaheem Writing reports 9 Mr. Meshari Result analyzing & Low achievers 10 Mr. Osama Training Trainers 11 Mr. Mona/Mrs. Huda Planning 12 Mr. Mona/Mrs. Huda Time management 13 Mrs. Seham Total quality management 14 Mr. Mohee Supervision & special education 15

Index


( 1 )

هَهام الوىجه الفني

Duties & responsibilities

of the supervisor


In a rapidly changing world, where knowledge, concepts, technology, philosophy, in fact almost everything is swiftly altering, education has also been exposed to some fundamental changes. It is no longer confined to considering human needs and requirements of the present but it is to address, to reflect on the development of human skills and capacities, and the necessities of the future .In that ‘global’ village, the current era is shaped by a tremendous progress of knowledge, which leads to an explosion in teaching and learning.

That is why the role played by the technical supervision is increasingly elevated day by day, in order to cope with the speedy progress and fast going up developments of educational objectives, construction, curricula and the upgrading of the professional standards of everyone concerned. These fast developments and progresses in the educational process were imposed upon it by the requirements of the new era, the revolution in knowledge, accumulation of information, the population influx, and the modern technological advancements.

Since education is a complex, intricate and extending endeavour, thus needs constant and regular technical assistance and professional growth for coordinating and unifying efforts to ensure the best delivery. The educational supervisor is the one who can provide this technical assistance.

To be characterized by good conduct, resourcefulness, flexibility, straightforwardness objectivity, fairness, and to pay due respect of and adhere to the values, traditional, customs and ethics of the society.

To be psychologically balanced faithful to his /her profession, capable of self-control, non-prejudiced, unbiased, and strictly adhering to sound values and viable educational norms.

To have confidence in him/herself and in the others; and to make this confidence the bases of his/her proceedings with all teachers and the all personnel in the school community.

To be also unassuming, modest diplomatic, optimistic, courageous, enthusiastic, assiduous, convincing, open-minded, permissive, wise and cute.

To be co-operative, and capable of providing the suitable atmosphere of co-operation and solidarity among all the teachers.

To be characterized with impartiality, fairness, unbiasedness, uprightness, honesty, integrity, and probity in all his/her conducts.

Introduction

The Technical Supervisor’s personal characteristics are:


To be fluent, cultured, well versed in the art of teaching and supervision, too. To be well aware of the modern trends in teaching, supervising, the tenets of the

comprehensive philosophy of education, educational planning and the perspective educational programming, as well.

To be deeply rooted and knowledge in his/her major field work. To be well aware of the school curricula, their objective, and the most recent teaching

methodology adopted. To be aware of the other school subjects, in a general way that enables him/her to

achieve integrity between his school subject and the others’. To be adept in writing reports, conducting researches, running meetings, leading

workshop, and running seminars. To be professionally affiliated to the assignments and commitments of education, and

its norms and ethics. To be an able, capable, competent, skillful, efficient, and democratic in decision

making and taking, in the right time, and the suitable way. To be able to encourage, motivate and entice the teachers to be creative, innovative,

and demonstrative of their gifts. To be able to develop the teacher’ performance, practically, artistically,

professionally, technologically, and scientifically in order to enhance self-learning, self-enrichment and self-education.

The most important responsibilities of the technical supervisor are:

Clarifying both general and specific objectives of the study domain and showing the best ways of translating these objectives into behavioural situations.

Assessing the curricula content to insure their validity, authenticity, relevance, and adaptability to the modern era and the community.

Designing and preparing model preparations for teaching units, model lessons, tests and teaching aids, to guide the instructors in their practical performances.

Encouraging the instructors to be creative and innovative, and conduct pilot studies and educational researches ,as will as motivating them to be initiative in modernizing instructional and teaching methods, to be skillful in reorganizing the contents of the textbooks, in order to make them more attractive, interesting and applicable.

Conducting scientific researches, or pilot studies in order to guide the instructors in their endeavours to remedy and treat certain deficiencies in certain schools, or a group of schools. These studies could include curriculum researches, teaching methods,

Evaluations and assessments techniques, as well as pupils’ varied school activities.

The professional characteristics are

Duties and responsibilities of the supervisor


Therefore, according to the prospective view, the educational supervisor’s job will encompass the following roles:

1) The Educational Supervisor as a leader:

Be fully aware of and competent in the most recent methods of educational technology, and how to apply them accurately, relevantly and effectively in the educational process.

Develop teachers’ efficacies, practically, and professionally in order to upgrade and update their classroom performances.

Be capable of developing and updating curricula. Experiment modem and recently adopted educational methods Design creative programmes to cater for the specific needs of learners

2) The Educational Supervisor as a Trainer. Properly classify and diagnose the training needs of teachers. Discretely plan the needed training courses to encompass different levels of

training, in addition to drawing relevant plans for implementing and assessing each accordingly well.

Hold specific training courses for newly recruited teachers. These training courses must encompass ways of coping with their new educational environment.

Train teachers in the art of utilizing, using and dealing with modern educational technology.

3) The Educational Supervisor as an Evaluator.

o Assess the school curriculum according to its ingredients, textbook, contents, o organization, objectives and practical implementation. o Evaluate all elements and dimensions of the educational situation. o Objectively evaluate the study-subject teachers’ performance on scientific and

objective bases. o Help teachers to effectively assess their pupils by using different assessment

techniques. o Evaluate pupils’ achievement with the help of different assessment techniques, in

order to improve it. 4) The Educational Supervisor as a Researcher. Pinpoint problems of the educational process by looking into them and thinking of

relevant solutions to each. Provide teachers with concise summaries of researches conducted in their field of

work to benefit from and utilize in improving their performance in their classes.


Encourage teachers to conduct pilot studies and field researches to help them in solving the problems they face in their work as practical solutions to substitute solutions that are not based on solid scientific grounds.

Conduct educational researches related to field problems, to contribute in finding out practical solutions to them, and be a model to be followed by his I her fellow teachers in conducting procedural field researches and pilot studies.

5) The Educational Supervisor as a Coordinator and a Motivator.

Take the initiative in solving professional problems that might take place among staff

teachers in their departments or with the school administrations, or vice versa. Elevate teachers’ morale and lighten feelings of desperation, hopelessness, and job dissatisfaction. Build up balanced humanitarian relationships with teachers. Secure communication channels between different parts of the educational process, either in the same school, or in other schools he/she is supervising.

Encourage teachers to work co-operatively as one team, by utilizing modern educational technologies and participating in school activities, competitions, seminars, conferences.

-The technical supervisor represents the strong link between the supervision and the educational zone.

-The technical supervisor’s job is complementary with the school principal as he/she represents the technical element in the educational process.

-The technical supervisor offers his/her recommendations concerning the distribution of school timetable based on each teacher’s, qualities, experiences and efficiencies.

-The technical supervisor gives his/her say in solving the problems that might arise between any elements of the educational process, without any prejudice.

-The technical supervisor gives a clear picture of teacher’s performance in classes and during school activities, duly.

-The technical supervisor gets the accurate data and information concerning the educational process from the school administration, now and then.

-The technical supervisor tasks part in planning, pursuing, and evaluating the school activates, relevant to his/her school subject, which are being organized by the school administrations.

The relationship between the technical supervisor and school administration:


The technical supervisor submits a comprehensive periodical plan of the tasks and activities to be achieved.

The technical supervisor suggests suitable training courses for the teachers according to their needs.

The technical supervisor participates in implementing the training courses.

Prepares reports about the periodical test results and his/her suggestions for taking by the hands of the low-achievers therein.

The technical supervisor suggests the titles of books and references needed for both the libraries of the schools and the educational zone’s.

The technical supervisor takes an active part in preparing teaching aids needed for his/her school subject.

The technical supervisor submits reports about the teachers of low achievements to the administration of his/her educational zone.

The Technical supervisor suggests transferences of teachers among school, and distributes the experienced ones equally according to class densities, in addition to distributing newly recruited teachers on different schools.

The technical supervisor pursues the application of new curricula and the field reactions thereof.

The technical supervisor fills in any gaps that might appear in the curricula during their application in the field.

The technical supervisor participates in the committees of authorizing, modifying, or reviewing the textbooks.

-The technical supervisor develops and strengthens human relations with his/her

colleagues by coordinating and interacting with them in their different tasks, activates, and educational projects. These collaborations have positive effects on the whole educational process.

-The technical supervisor must be positive and co-operative in his/her dealings with different administrations.

The relationship between the technical supervisor and the senior technical supervisor

The relationship between the technical supervisor and the school curriculum:

The relationship between the technical supervisor, his/her colleagues, educational administrations and the society:


-The technical supervisor has to be keen on attending all the meetings, seminars, and occasions to which he/she is invited, or those that might provide ample changes for improving his/her professional efficacy.

-The technical supervisor must Evaluate and respect all the traditions and values of the society and caters for reinforcing and highlighting them

THE

SESSION

ORIENTATION

SESSION FIELD SESSION

FIRST EVALUATIVE

SESSION

SECOND

EVALUATIVE

SESSION

Duration

of

session

September

From the first day of

school work till the

end of September.

October November,

December &

January

February, March,

April& May.

Till the end of the

final exams.

Goals of

session

*Providing all school

with all ministerial

circulars relevant to

the supervisor’s

study subject.

*Taking notes of data

and information

concerning the

teachers.

*Giving

recommendations to

schools in relation to

the timetable.

*Holding a meeting

with the senior

teacher &staff

members to discuss

new educational

issues.

*Investigating

qualitative &

quantitative school

Potentials

*Visiting schools to

pay visits to

different teachers

then discussing the

feedback

afterwards.

*Holding meetings

with the staff

teachers to discuss

the foundation

and methods of

teaching & other

relevant issues.

* Identifying the

problems facing

the school & the

teachers

and facing them.

*Identifying

strengths

demonstrated by the

teacher.

*Identify areas the

teacher needs to

focus on during the

second half of the

semester.

*Developing an

action plan for the

rest of the semester

including specific

experiences for the

teacher.

*Evaluating the

teachers, pupils and

school curricula

*Identifying

strengths

demonstrated by

the teacher.

*Identify areas

the teacher needs

to focus on during

the second half of

the semester.

*Developing an

action plan for the

rest of the

semester

including specific

experiences for

the teacher.

*Evaluating the

teachers, pupils

and school

curricula

Sessions of supervisor’s school visits and their objectives


Brackett, J. R. (1904) Supervision and Education in Charity, New York: Macmillan.

Briscoe, C. and Thomas, D. N. (eds.) (1977) Community Work. Learning and supervision, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Brown, A. (1984) Consultation: An aid to successful social work, London: Heinemann.

Brown, A. and Bourne, I. (1995) The Social Work Supervisor. Supervision in community, day care and residential settings, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Christian, C. & Kitto, J. (1987) The Theory and Practice of Supervision, London: YMCA National College.

Cogan, M. L. (1973) Clinical Supervision, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Community Education Validation and Endorsement (Scotland) (1995) Guidelines for the Endorsement of Fieldwork Supervision Courses, Edinburgh: Scottish Community Education Council.

Dawson, J. B. (1926) 'The casework supervisor in a family agency', Family 6: 293-295.

Drucker, P. (1988) ‘Management and the world’s work’, Harvard Business Review, September - October.

Feltham, C. and Dryden, W. (1994) Developing Counsellor Supervision, London: Sage.

Ford, K. and Jones, A. (1987) Student Supervision, London: Macmillan.

Gerth, H. H. & Mills, C. W. (eds.) (1948) From Max Weber. Essays in Sociology (1991 edn.), London: Routledge.

Goldhammer, R., Anderson, R. H. and Krajewski, R. J. (1993) Clinical Supervision. Special methods for the supervision of teachers (3rd. edn.), Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Goffman, E. (1959) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1969 edn.), Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Goffman, E. (1961) Encounters. Two studies in the sociology of interaction, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.

Hawkins, P. & Shohet, R. (1989) Supervision in the Helping Professions. An individual, group and organizational approach, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Kadushin, A. (1992) Supervision in Social Work (3rd. edn.), New York: Columbia University Press.

Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Marken, M. & Payne, M. (eds.) (1987) Enabling and Ensuring. Supervision in practice, Leicester: National Youth Bureau.

References


( 2 )

أنىاع الحىجيه الفنيطرق و

Models of supervision


From Bailey’s point of view (2006), the modern educational supervision is characterized as follows :

o It is the technical process which aims to improve teaching and learning through the care, guidance and simulation of continued development for not only teachers but also any other person having an impact on the educational context.

o It is a consultation process, based on respect for the opinion of teachers who are mainly affected by the work of supervision.

o It is a collaborative process in different stages since it welcomes various views that represent proper relationship between the supervisor and the teacher so as to address the educational problems and find appropriate solutions.

o It is an academic process which encourages research and experimentation whose results can be used to improve setting and achieving clear, observable and measurable objectives in the educational setting.

o It is a leadership process which requires the supervisor to have the ability to coordinate teachers’ efforts by aiming to achieve the teaching objectives.

o It is a humanitarian process in which the supervision recognizes the value of individuals as human being so that they can build a mutual trust between themselves and the teachers and know the exact and varying capacities of each teacher they deal with.

The functions of supervision are three main functions which are: Administrative, Educational and supportive.

It means that supervision is concerned with the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work; co-ordination of practice with policies of administration and the assurance of an efficient and smooth running office. The educational supervision is the channel that bonds administrative and technical bodied together, and provides both with the most accurate data and information.

The educational development of each individual worker on the staff in a manner calculated to evoke the teacher to realize his possibilities of usefulness. The technical supervision must be based on solid scientific bases, taking into consideration the circumstances of the teachers, the learners, the school facilities. In addition to being well aware of the general and specific educational objectives .Therefore, these scientific trends necessitate both rehabilitation and training courses for the teachers, to fulfill the new requirements of modern technological advancements, and to cope with the most

Introduction

Administrative

Educational


recently adopted trends in their mission in particular, and the educational process, in general.

It’s the maintenance of harmonious working relationships .Teachers often view supervision as a threat and become anxious when interacting with their supervisors. These adversarial attitudes often stem from traditional supervisor-supervisee relationships and the unsystematic and subjective nature of traditional classroom visits that are usually unannounced, supervisor-centered, authoritarian, directive, and judgmental. Whether we supervise teachers for the purposes of retention, review, dismissal, promotion, reward, or reprimand, our efforts need not be viewed as negative or unproductive.

Whatever approach we endorse, supervision is always challenging. One of the greatest challenges we face is how to turn negative attitudes towards supervision around so that teachers can reap the rewards and benefits-in the form of professional development and improved instruction.

In Directive supervision the role of the supervisor is to direct and inform the teacher, model teaching behaviours, and evaluate the teacher’s mastery of defined behaviors. There are at least three problems with directive supervision. First, there is the problem of how the supervisor defines good teaching. Second, this model may give rise to feelings of defensiveness and low self esteem on the part of the teacher. Third, there is the problem of assigning ultimate responsibility for what goes on in the classroom. Directive supervision forces teachers to comply with what the supervisor thinks they should do. This keeps the responsibility for decision making with the supervisor instead of shifting it to the teacher

Another negative consequence of directive supervision is that it can be threatening.

Supportive

Models of supervision

1-Directive supervision


In this model, the supervisor’s role is to suggest a variety of alternatives to what the teacher has done in the classroom. Having a limited number of choices can reduce teachers’ anxiety over deciding what to do next, and yet it still gives them the responsibility for decision-making. Alternative supervision works best when the supervisor does not favour any one alternative and is judgmental. The purpose of offering an alternative is to widen the scope of what a teacher will consider doing. The supervisor offers suggestions about how alternatives can be used to guide the beginning teacher. The aim is for teachers to try alternative behaviors and to pay attention to the consequences. If teachers are provided with strategies that give them a way to understand the consequences of what they do, teachers can gradually on themselves to make teaching decisions.

Within a collaborative model the supervisor’s role is to work with teachers but not direct them. The supervisor actively participates with the teacher in any decisions that are made and attempts to establish a sharing relationship. The teacher and supervisor work together in addressing a problem in the teacher’s classroom teaching. They pose a hypothesis, experiment ad implement strategies that appear to offer a reasonable solution to the problem under consideration. Instead of telling the teacher what he should have done, the supervisor could have asked, ‘what did you think of the lesson? How did it go? Did you meet your objective?” This would be said in a positive, interested, and none judgmental way.

The essence of non directive supervision the supervisor attempts to have the teacher come up with his own solutions to teaching problems. Supervisors who listen and demonstrate an understanding of what the teacher has said are providing an understanding response. An understanding response is a recognized version of what the teacher has said. if supervisors are more non directive when supervising teachers will have the freedom to express and clarify their ideas and a feeling of support and trust could grow between the supervisor and the teacher. On directive supervision can also have a different result. Some teachers report that it makes them feel anxious and alienated. One reason foe anxiety may be due to the inexperience of the teacher. The way the supervisor understands nondirective supervision could also cause the teacher anxiety. The supervisor has simply used the surface techniques while ignoring the deeper principles.

2-Alternative supervision

3-Collaborative supervision

4-Non directive supervision


The creative model encourages freedom and creativity in three ways. It can allow:

1-a combination of models or a combination of supervisory behaviors from different models.

2-a shifting of supervisory responsibilities from the supervisor to other sources

3-an application of insights from other fields that are not found in any of the models. Working with only one model can be appropriate but it can also be limiting. Sometimes a combination of different models might be needed. A supervisor can select a particular supervisory approach according to the type of information the teacher is seeking. Another supervisor approaches supervision through a nondirective model; after he gains the teachers’ trust, he begins to collaborate more with them. The number of combinations is endless.

The self help explorative model of supervision is an extension of creative supervision.

The emergence of this model is the result of Fanselow (1977a, 1981) who proposes a different way to perceive the process that teachers go through in their development, one that provides opportunities for both teachers and supervisors to gain awareness of their teaching through observation and exploration. The supervisor is not seen as a helper which is the basis for other models of supervision but as another, perhaps more experienced, teacher who is interested in learning more about his or her own teaching.

The aim is for both the visiting teacher and teacher to explore teaching through observation of their own and others’ teaching in order to gain an awareness of teaching behaviors and their consequences, as well as to generate alternative ways to teach.

Clinical supervision refers to contact with teachers with intent of improving instruction and increasing growth. The benefits of a clinical supervision approach are many and varied. Most notably, clinical supervision gives us the opportunity to be more interactive than directive, more democratic than authoritarian, more teacher-centered than supervisor-centered, more concrete than vague, more objective than subjective, and more focused than unsystematic.

5-Creative supervision

6-Self help explorative supervision

Clinical Supervision


The Pre-Observation Conference

Set up in a relaxed, non-threatening environment Use inquiry skills to ascertain the following:

o Philosophy o Goals o Objectives o General ideas relative to practices in the classroom o Specifics regarding class to be observed o Class objectives o Activities o Evaluation methods o Special conditions o Concerns of teacher relative to practices o

The Observation

Collect data during observation Stay focused (Avoid the tendency to cure all ills in one session) If patterns exist that negatively impact teaching and learning, document them.

Pre- Observation

1

Post- Observation

Conference

4

Growth Phase

5

Repeat Process

6

Clinical

supervision

Observation

2

Analysis and

Strategy

3

Clinical Supervision Process


Analysis and Strategy

After observation, reflect on data collected Analyze data and compile data in presentation form Develop a report to be shared with the teacher Stick to the facts (Avoid making value statements)

Post-Observation Conference

Develop an informal atmosphere Share observations with teacher Share data collection form Allow reflection time Ask teacher for reactions Use inquiry skills to ascertain teacher perceptions of the following

o Areas of strength o Areas of concern o Reactions to the data presented o Preliminary plan of action

Growth Phase

Teacher develops a plan of action and shares with supervisor In solitude, supervisor reflects on the following:

o Data collection instrument o Conferences o Inquiry Skills o How to continue to build the relationships

Teacher implements plan of action

Repeat Process

The process is repeated as a system check and as a continuation of the cycle of growth for both colleagues.

Acheson K. A., and M. D. Gall, 1992. Techniques in the clinical supervision of teachers: Preservice and in-service applications (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.

Freeman, D. 1982. Observing teachers: Three approaches to inservice training and development. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 1, pp. 21-28.

Gebhard, J. C. 1984. Models of supervision: Choices. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 3, pp. 501-14.

Wallace, M. J. 1991. Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.

References:


( 3 )

أساليب القيادة

Leadership Styles


There are many definitions for the concept of leadership. The following are some of them: It is defined in the dictionary as the process of and "ability to guide, direct, or influence people". It is the process of providing aid and support for subordinates aiming at accomplishing a common goal.

"Leadership is the ability to listen and observe, to use their expertise as a starting point to encourage dialogue between all levels of decision-making. It is the ability to convey the leader's vision to his followers to achieve the set goals. Leadership is the capacity of identifying problems and initiating solutions and change for real improvement."

"The superior leader gets things done with very little motion. He imparts instruction not through many words but through a few deeds. He keeps informed about everything but interferes hardly at all. He is a catalyst, and though things would not get done well if he weren't there, when they succeed, he takes no credit. And because he takes no credit, credit never leaves him." Said and defined by Lao Tse, Tao Te Ching.

It is best defined as the ability to guide oneself and others to accomplish the desired objectives.

Human beings in nature tend to gather and form communities. These communities contain various types of thinking and desires that should be constrained under a set of laws and regulations. Thus, the role of leadership here comes to control those communities towards a better life. Therefore, leadership is important in all levels of our life, whether at the level of the smallest social unit (the family) or the biggest unit which is the whole community or the whole world. Leadership is important in forming the required teams, distributing roles among members, keeping balance among the roles of members, and forming a successful link between teams at various levels.

Napoleon said: "An army of rabbits led by a lion is better than that one of lions led by a rabbit". It is widely known that the leader or leaders of a company or community of any type are the ones who change the status of the community and determine its later position among peers. If he is a successful leader, his community will be highly valued. If he is a failure, his community will be full of disruptions and failures.

Leadership is important in education, because it is the core structure of the whole community. Whenever we have a clear hierarchal structure, with clear set of leadership levels, and a clear method of control and follow-up, we will have a successful achievement of building the community. Educational leaders are the most important and effective ones in the society, due to their role in supervising the building of minds, the building of future visions, and the building of future leaders in the country.

Introduction

The importance of leadership


Although they seem much alike, they are different in the following points:

1. A leader focuses on the objective, the future, building the human being and achievements. Whereas, the manager focuses on the present, performance of employees, and to decrease time and money consumption while trying to improve the current situation.

2. A leader affects the changes himself into his community; whereas, the manager adapts with changes.

3. A leader builds work-teams to achieve the set goals; whereas, the manager manages the work-teams and heads them trying to achieve success.

4. A leader inspires, influences and motivates his followers to do the right things. Whereas, a manager plans, organizes and controls his subordinates to do the things right.

5. A leader focuses on people; whereas, a manager focuses on rules and structures. 6. A leader is concerned with totalities, therefore he keeps his eyes on the horizon

(future). Whereas, a manager is concerned with details, thus he keeps his eyes on the bottom-line (present).

7. Both deal with planning but in two different ways. A leader creates a vision, puts the strategy and directs people towards the goals. A manager puts plans, studies detailed budgets and specifies near targets.

8. A leader deals with controlling through inspiration and motivation; whereas a manager implements control systems and policies to measure performance.

There are many theories for classifying the types of leadership styles. We will come over some of them to give a sum up of the main types.

Kurt Lewin and his group of researchers classified leadership into three categories:

1. Authoritarian or autocratic: In this style of leadership, the leader tells his followers what to do and how to get it done, without getting advice from followers. This method of leadership is mainly effective when there is a problem and needs quick decision-making, when all followers are aware of the problem and are well-motivated. Otherwise, it is seen as a demotivating method of leadership and demeaning to followers.

2. Participative or democratic: In this style, the leader involves some followers in the decision-making process. However, the final decision is still the authority of the leader. This gives a sense of respect to and cooperation with the leader. This style helps as well in taking the best decisions.

Differences between a leader and a manager:

Leadership styles


3. Delegative or Free Reign: Here the leader delegates some of his tasks to his followers. They are chosen carefully to be able to analyze problems and situations and take the suitable decisions. However, the leader is still responsible for all taken decisions. It is also called Laissez-faire which works best when you have selected followers who are well-motivated and highly capable of dealing with problems and decision-making.

Some researchers add another type to the Lewin's classification, which is called "Paternalestic"

4. Paternalistic style: In this style, the leader acts like a "father figure". He believes that he is the most knowledgeable; therefore, he takes decisions for his followers even in the things belonging to them. He believes in the need to support followers. Yet, there is fear of going too far to be dictatorial and falls into the trap of poor decision-making.

David Straker categorize leadership styles according to the beliefs and values of the leader as follows:

Charismatic Leadership Participative Leadership Situational Leadership Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership The Quiet Leader Servant Leadership

Followers gather around the charismatic leader because of his charming personality. He relies on the influencing and affecting others through the interesting image of his character, rather than authority. He pays a great deal of attention to others around him. He is an attentive listener to his addressor that this latter one feels he is the most important person in the world. This leader focuses all his senses on reading and scanning the people around him, pointing out their moods and concerns. He uses effective body and verbal language. They use language, symbolism and storytelling effectively in a persuasive way that followers will take orders without argument. This type of leadership is widely used by politicians and religious leaders to gather a lot of people around them quickly and easily.

1) Charismatic Leadership


A participative leader involves people ( subordinates, peers, superiors and

stakeholders) in the process of decision-making. He might involve them in various

ways. He either suggests a decision and takes the feedback and views from others, or

receives a proposed decision from the surrounding followers and discusses it with

them, then he takes the final decision. This behaviour increases awareness of followers

in the process of decision-making and ensures full loyalty and adherence to

implementation. This approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint

decision-making, democratic leadership and power-sharing.

This type of leadership is influenced by the surrounding factors, the current

situation and the followers. The leader’s perception of his abilities, his followers’ mood

and abilities, and the situational factors plays an important role in the decision-making

process. He is required to deal with the emergency situations in a proper way; that’s

why they call him sometimes “The One Minute Manager”. In this type of leadership, he

should adapt with the situations in which he is working. He combines both supportive

and directive behaviour in leadership. He should have excellent wits to determine

which is the best style for the current situation: Democratic, autocratic or delegative.

The transactional leader creates clearly formulated hierarchy where each level

reports clearly what is required to the lower level and subordinates through a clear

chain of command. He usually rewards successful implementation of orders and

sometimes mentions punishments through a well-designed disciplinary system. The

followers are motivated by rewards and punishment. There is a sort of theoretical

contract by virtue of which the leader transacts work to the subordinates and they

assume full responsibility for doing it. When things go wrong, the subordinate is

considered to be personally at fault. He keeps away from interference unless there is

performance below his expectation; there he will take the needed corrective action.

2) Participative Leadership:

3) Situational Leadership

4) Transactional Leadership


Followers of a transformational leader are driven by passion and energy in response to the person who inspires them with his vision and enthusiasm. Thus, the leader here starts with developing an effective vision to excite his followers, then he conveys the vision into those followers every now and then constantly to ensure they are thrilled and energetic. He takes all opportunities to assure and convince them, build a trust relationship with them, and reveals his ideas for them to follow. He knows the way very well; all they have to do is to follow him. He keeps his eyes on the future knowing his path, and he keeps correcting failures whenever the course deviates from the direction. Followers will be more and more energetic and productive as long as they see successful achievements taking place. In order to keep his position prominent, the leader always chooses a clearly seen place in the middle and show their followers how they should behave. This sets an example to followers and keeps them motivated. As well, he uses certain ceremonies, heroic phrases and symbolism to indicate progress and sustain motivation.

Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but not a narcissist. They like to win and feel proud to achieve success always; however, when the followers are happy in their current situation, the leader feels frustrated. In this case only, those leaders are doomed to failure.

The actions of a leader speak louder than his or her words. He is much of a transformational leader but without focusing on himself; on the contrary, he focuses on giving credit to his teams. This type of leadership depends on persuading followers of task-importance through rational arguments. He shares the benefits of success with others and mostly deny it to himself, but takes full responsibility for failures. He keeps far from showing himself, therefore he is taken seriously by many and might be neglected or downplayed when compared to any charismatic leader around. It is not a new trend of leadership; Tao Te Ching was discussing the same characteristic around 500 BC.

5) Transformational Leadership

6) The Quiet Leader


The leader has responsibility for the followers and the community. The servant leader serves others, rather than others serving the leader. The serving here comes in the form of helping to achieve and improve. The servant leaders are interested in fostering their followers with concern and listening. They focus on listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to growth of people, and building community.

Greenleaf says that true leadership "emerges from those whose primary motivation is a deep desire to help others." Since it is a deep desire in themselves to help others, they have a high sense of morality in their characters, making the well-being of the followers their utmost interest. That's why it is closely related to religious morals and might be found more in religious organizations and the public sector.

Leader by the position achieved. Leader by personality, charisma. Leader by moral example. Leader by power held. Intellectual leader. Leader because of ability to accomplish things.

There are some difficulties that might face leaders in performing their role, such as:

- Disobedient group of followers: They might cause a lot of fuss in the team and mostly disrupt the leaders' effort and plans.

- Successor syndrome: The leader might feel afraid of his subordinates and clings to the reigns of power he has to prevent anyone from succeeding him.

- Hesitation and fear: This might lead to breaking of the trust relation ship between the leader and his followers. Then, there will be complete failure and no achievement of goals.

- Dictatorship: Some leaders might fall into this trap of excessive use of authorities. Then he will be in complete isolation and none of followers will stay a follower.

- Keeping much care about followers till the leader forgets the objectives of work.

7) Servant leadership

Types of leaders.

Obstacles to leadership


The best leader is the one who maintains many of the above-mentioned styles of leadership and does not stick to one style only. He has the ability to analyze the situation and choose the appropriate leadership style for this particular situation.

- He should admit and accept that his main mission is to help his team, provide

them with his support and encourages them to achieve the required goals. - He should accept the faults of his teams and tries to correct them. Every work is

subject to failure and success; thus, he should turn their failure to a means of learning from mistakes for success.

- Giving trust and respect to the team-members helps in promoting their spirit of achievement. Caring for the team is essential to ensure their loyalty in times of emergency.

- Understanding Group Needs and Characteristics. It is essential to be part of the group even though he is the leader. Being a close member to them enables him to know about their needs and characteristics, and helps him foster the needs in time and know how to deal with each one.

- Knowing and Understanding Group Resources. A leader should know all his resources, not only the physical ones, but also the imaginative creative ones, such as: people's attitude, mentality, abilities, background and skills. This knowledge will help the leader a lot in taking proper decisions utilizing suitable people and resources.

- Controlling the Group. The group is mainly found for a purpose. Controlling this group will help in directing the efforts of the group towards achieving the goals.

- Counseling. This item usually takes place between the leader and one of his followers to listen to his problem and try to provide solutions. If the leader fails to listen, or turns the follower away, the ignored serious problem will inevitably lead to group problems.

- Setting the Example. The leader should set an example to his followers throughout his behavior and character. If he sets the example, it is for sure a success that will be achieved far more than he himself used to expect. For this kind of leader, as long as he takes care of his follower's needs, he enjoys their respect, loyalty, and even love.

- Representing the Group. The leader must represent his group in a variety of issues, conveying to others his followers' ideas, feelings and attitude. And he plays the role vice versa in reporting to his followers others' attitudes and ideas.

The best leader

Eleven Skills of leadership


- Planning. Planning is problem-solving. The leader should maintain the skill of finding suitable solutions to arising problems and hardships.

- Evaluation. The leader should keep evaluating his methods to ensure they are suitable and successful. Evaluation is a continual process that will help the leader set or move to the higher goals.

- Sharing Leadership. Sharing leadership is the ability to extend the self of the leader to his efficient followers, to accomplish jobs greater than one person alone can handle. This is the key element to success and society-development. In this case, the whole group will be at highest level of productivity.

- Manager of Learning The role of the leader here is an "effective teacher". He should train his followers to be effective leaders. By improving their skills and knowledge, he is helping himself in achieving high quality work and objectives.

- Getting and Giving Information. The leader has to maintain an effective role of getting and giving information, i.e. he should communicate effectively with his followers; otherwise, they will turn him down and let go. This term of effective communication is very important, thus it will be discussed below separately.

The ethics and efficiency of the leader are reflected in the choices he makes to form the teams of followers. The best leaders throughout history were the ones who had carefully chosen their followers, and more importantly, they had chosen more brilliant assistants than themselves to ensure their communication of power and instructions is clear and productive. The best leaders are not afraid of facing and admitting their mistakes. They are the leaders who make a real change in their followers first, and in the society, second. Everyone should work on showing and developing the leader inside him/her. 1- Adair, John, Develop Your Leadership Skills, John Adair, London2007. 2- Bennis, Warren, On Becoming A Leader, Basic Books, New York, 1989. 3- Cunningham, William G., Educational Leadership, Allyn & Bacon Inc., 2008. 4- Kotter, John P., Leading Change, Library of the Congress, USA,1996.

Conclusion

References


( 4)

ههارات الاجصال

Communication Skills


When there is something wrong in a company, a friendship, a personal relationship, or even in the educational process, lack of communication or misinterpretation is mainly the basic factor of the problem. Most problems are caused by poor communication. Thus, improving your communication skills can bring tremendous success, huge rewards and a lot of effort and time-saving. It can help you improve your life in all fields: At home, at work, and even in the street while walking.

Imagine you are the manager of a company giving this message to employees, "You are mine!". All employees will be at a mess. Some will not understand it, others will get angered , and some others might think positively as requesting help. The manager will see many responses to his message. He is solely responsible for this ambiguity. Therefore, the type of message we send should be clear and effective.

"We as individuals need to take full responsibility for communicating effectively. It is our responsibility, no one else’s".

That's why all modern companies, organizations and successful individuals focus on developing communication skills. Because of the developed skills, so many companies could obtain big contracts and huge benefits. Effective communication skills are one of the major keys to success and achievement of goals.

We communicate, whether it is through the spoken word, the written word or sign language it is for a purpose: to instruct or inform, to please, to entertain or to educate.

Communication is also defined as the process of producing, transferring and exchanging of information and ideas aiming at affecting some changes and obtaining the desired response.

The process of communication is based on many factors and elements. The elements of the process are shown in the following diagram:

Introduction

The definition of communication


Medium/

channel

The factors are simply ensuring that recipient (or receiver) has fully understood the message, and to ensure he/she has accepted the content of the message. This will lead to a successful type of communication.

To ensure effective communication, each of the above-mentioned elements should be clear without problems or obstacles.

Let’s begin with the message itself. If the message is too lengthy, disorganized, or contains errors, the message will be misinterpreted. The message will be confusing to the recipient. The message should be short and direct.

The sender should not give too much information in the message. He should be able to specify things in the message according to the recipient's demands, time and specialty, mainly because we are in busy modern societies where there in no place for ambiguity and loss of time.

As well, the sender should keep in mind the necessity that his message should appeal to people of various cultures, backgrounds or mentalities.

Once you understand this, you need to work to understand your audience’s culture, making sure you can converse and deliver your message to people of different backgrounds and cultures within your own organization, in your country and even abroad.

Then, for the channel of sending the message, you have to choose the best communication channel. For example, using email to send simple directions is practical. However, if you want to hold a discussion with students on a complex task, emails can't be effective here. Moreover, if the message you want to send contains any negative attitudes or feelings, it will work contrary to what you desire. It can turn your class into a mess due to the impact of words on listeners or receivers. And to consider the best way to send a message, the sender should take into consideration the following:


The sensitivity and emotional content of the subject. How easy it is to communicate detail. The receiver's preferences. Time constraints. The need to ask and answer questions.

We live in communities. We can't avoid dealing with people around everyday whether in schools, companies, streets or government entities. Dealing with others need a lot of communication skills to get our things done. If the sender maintains high communication skills, the receiver will feel comfortable in performing the required duties and he/she will achieve the goals. Both the sender and receiver of the message will feel highly evaluated and will affect the achievement of goals and productivity of the community. This obviously has many benefits in the workplace and in our daily life. For example, it can lead to:

increased productivity at work. better team working. fewer mistakes and therefore more cost saving. less stress. less conflict. fewer rumours. better motivation. greater profits. a happier workforce. fewer misunderstandings and therefore fewer rows. greater cooperation. more friends and an enhanced social life. improved relationships

Communication is at the heart of all good management. You can't be a leader or manager unless you maintain high communication skills.

Communicating with more confidence is needed when dealing with low achievers in class for examples, or discussing an issue about exams, or making a disciplinary interview. If you are seeking to improve your relationships with your friends or family, you need high communication skills. If you don't, all people around will leave you unattended, and you will be alone.

Thus, it is highly important to develop communication skills.

The importance of communication


As the term signifies, a lot of people think that the word " communication" refers specifically to the use of language. They then split that use of language down into two different areas of oral and written communication. In fact, this term refers to more than the use of language. Communication refers to:

1) Verbal communication skills: They are the skills that come in the various forms of word usage. This means that both oral and written words come under this category. It is the spoken, oral, and written way of communicating. It makes use of words, vocabulary, numbers and symbols and is organized in sentences. We usually use this type of communication everyday, because it is thought to be more accurate in conveying messages. Therefore, this type of verbal messaging is used widely in the educational system.

A teacher can't inspire and energize his class with written instructions, statements, data and analysis, systems, or processes. Effective verbal communication can do. Students are inspired and aroused by exciting mental pictures, imaginative future, promising success, appealing values and principles, clearly chosen words for orders and instructions, …etc. This effective verbal communication raises their productivity and spirit for study.

2) Non-verbal communication skills: In this type of communication, people use symbols to convey messages, apart from using words. This messaging method depends on the ability of the receiver to interpret the message. Thus, the message is open to interpretation correctly or incorrectly according to the ability of decoding messages by the receiver. It is mostly unintended messaging and sent unconsciously, therefore people don't notice these expressions and interpret them unconsciously as well.

In this type, we can mention our body language, dress-code and expressions of feelings. Body language includes our facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, posture, and even the tone of our voice. When we laugh, we send a message that we are happy. When we smile or cry, we signify a certain type of feeling. When we dress in black, this signifies official issues.

The ability to understand and use nonverbal communication is a powerful tool that will help you connect with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build better relationships at home and work.

Nonverbal communication is a vital form of communication. When we interact with others, we always give and receive unlimited non-verbal signals. All of our nonverbal behaviors- including our gestures, our sitting, our tone of speech, our eye movements, our way of listening, our movements, and our reactions - send strong messages that can be interpreted positively or negatively. Then these messages and their interpretations

Types of communication


might form an atmosphere of trust, agreement, obedience, want for more communication and interest; or they might lead to an atmosphere of distrust, disinterest, confusion , contradictions, anger, or even clash.

Nonverbal communication signals and messages can play five roles:

Repetition: They can repeat the message the person is making verbally.

Contradiction: They can contradict a message the individual is trying to convey.

Substitution: They can substitute for a verbal message and replace it completely. For example, a person's eyes can often convey a far more vivid message than words and often do. A look of disinterest to the speaker might silence him better than saying to him "Shut up".

Complementing: They may add to or complement a verbal message. A teacher who pats a student on his shoulder in praise send a strong message of content and praise, that can increase the impact of the verbal praise.

Accenting: They may accent or underline a verbal message. Pounding the table by the teacher, for example, can send a message students for paying attention or keeping silent.

There are many types of nonverbal communication, such as:

Facial expressions

The human face is full of expressions that can express numerous messages and signals. This type of communication is considered universal and almost the same in all cultures. The facial expressions for happiness, hatred, tenderness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, despise and disgust are the same across cultures.

Body movements and posture

If we think a little bit about the way people sit, walk, stand up, or hold their head, we will get messages and understand those people in a better way. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a lot of information to the people around you. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements.

Types of nonverbal communication and body language


Gestures

Gestures are inseparable part of our daily lives. We wave, point, peak, beckon, nod and use our hands when we’re arguing or speaking . We express ourselves in an unintended way. Automatically our hands start to work for revealing what is in our minds. Usually this type of expression needs a lot of skill on the part of the receiver to interpret it properly.

Eye contact

So many people are visual perceiving ones. The visual sense is dominant for those people; thus eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication for them. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, aggression, love or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for decoding and interpreting the other person’s response.

Touch

Touch is an important way of dealing with others, throughout handshake, tapping on the shoulder, warm hug, reassuring pat on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm.

Space

Space between the sender and receiver is a crucial aspect of communication. How do you feel when someone is too close into your own space? It must be a feeling of discomfort and unrest. We all have a need for physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy, aggression, dominance, or affection.

Voice

We communicate with voices without words throughout tone, pitch, volume, inflection, rhythm, and rate. When we speak, other people “read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. These nonverbal sounds give strong signals of our true feelings and meanings. Think about how tone of voice, for example, can indicate irony, anger, friendliness, confidence….etc.


Success in your mission depends on the good communication skills you have. They are a major necessity in your personal and business life. Some people are born with good communication skills; however, they can be developed and nurtured in case you are not naturally a good communicator. The following steps are helpful to make a good communicator:

1) Think before you speak: The sender or communicator should prepare his plans and presentations earlier. In private interviews, the sender should take enough time to clarify the points in his mind and then to the receiver. Always be honest in your communication.

2) Be an active listener: Listening is often more important than speaking. To improve your communication skills, pay attention to what others are saying without getting distracted. Attentive listening make an interesting to-the-point speaker.

3) Make good eye contact: Well-utilized eye contact gives you a sense of confidence and revealing to people the character that you have. A swift aimlessly moving eyes make you seem less than trustworthy and lacking of confidence. If you are looking everywhere but in the eyes of your audience, it will arouse suspicion. This doesn't mean you should initiate a staring contest. Just make sure to put your audience at ease by holding the gaze at times.

4) Take it slow: Don't slur your words together or mumble. If you speak too fast, then you'll lose your audience. Use words only if you are sure of their meaning. Make yourself easily understood.

5) Use appropriate volume and tone: Of course, you should speak louder when addressing a group than you would in private conversations. Reflect attitudes and feelings in your voice. A monotone approach is never appropriate in any message sending or communication.

6) Practice: It's the best way to improve your communication skills. The more you do it, the easier it will get.

7) Stay Focused: Focusing on the current issue is highly effective in communication. Bringing too many issues together, or talking about past things in an irrelevant way will lead to clouding the issue. Mutual understanding will be unlikely, in this case, and makes the whole discussion more taxing and even confusing. Stay focused on the present, your feelings, understanding one another and finding a solution.

8) Try To See Their Point of View: In any argument or discussion, most of us primarily want to feel heard and understood. A leader should try to see the other side, and then he can better explain his own ideas. In communication, when you feel you couldn't get the question, you should ask for clarification. The leader must provide you with clear explanation if he is such a leader of high communication skills.

Tips for improving communication skills.


9) Respond to Criticism with Empathy: When someone comes at you with criticism, it’s easy to feel that they’re wrong, and get defensive. Criticism is hard to hear, and often exaggerated or colored by the other person’s emotions, it’s important to listen for the other person’s pain and respond with empathy for their feelings. Also, look for what’s true in what they’re saying, because they can be valuable pieces of information.

10) Own What’s Yours: Realize that personal responsibility is a strength, not a weakness. Effective communication involves admitting when you’re wrong. If both the sender and receiver of messages share some responsibility in a discussion or argument, they should look for and admit to what’s theirs. It diffuses the situation, sets a good example, and shows maturity. It also inspires the other person to respond kindly, leading both closer to mutual understanding and a solution.

11) Use “I” Messages: Rather than saying things like, “You really messed up here,” begin statements with “I”, and make them about yourself and your feelings, such as: “I feel frustrated when this happens.” It’s less annoying, sparks less defensiveness, and helps the other person understand your point of view rather than feeling attacked.

12) Take a Time-Out: Sometimes in the mid of discussions and arguments, tempers get heated and it not possible to continue. The communicators should take a break, whether it is a real break to have something , or to tell a joke that will help them cool down and get back to constructive communication.

The effective communication aims at providing an understanding, social interaction, highlighting the importance of an awareness of one’s own behaviour and of its effect upon others, interpreting and making sense of the responses of others. The importance of effective communication skills should be emphasized. As said by Rogers and Escudero, "Social relationships lie at the heart of our humanness, and in turn, communication lies at the heart of our relationships.’ It is known that highly effective communicators are highly successful people. They are happier and more resistant to stress and psychosocial problems, and to achieve more in academic and professional contexts.

References 1- Davis, Martha.(PHD), How to Communicate: The Ultimate Guide to Improving Your Personal and Professional Relationships, MJF Books, July 1993. 2- Greene, John, O. , Handbook of Communication And Social Interaction Skills, Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates, Inc., New Jersey, 2003. 3- Hargie, Owen, Handbook of Communication Skills, Rutledge, London 2006. 4- Rawson, Pauline, Communicating With More Confidence, Pauline Rawson, Hampshire, England, 2007. كتاب فن التواصل مع الآخرين، محمد هشام أبو القمبز، كتاب الكتروني -5

Conclusion

References


( 5 )

الصَفية ولاحظة ال

Classroom observation -A


Observation – a powerful tool Let’s face it , teachers don’t like being watched. They almost always feel that whoever is observing them will find something to criticize. The whole process also conjures up images of inspectors, clipboards, checklists and fear of being judged unfairly. Yet classroom observation has to be a positive and key part of performance management.

Even in the most team-orientated schools, with the best support systems and a really well developed culture of ‘no blame’, teachers will still be apprehensive about being observed. But classroom observation clearly contributes to school improvement. For example, as supervisors, we have to know what the quality of teaching is like. Subject teachers have to be able to demonstrate that they know how well their subject is being taught.

Classroom observation needs to be both well organized and focused because watching well planned and complex lessons can be overwhelming. Both the observer and observee have to discuss the purpose of the observation in terms of, for example, what is being observed, the problems presented by the class and what the main objectives of the lesson are.

In other words there needs to be a focus for the observation. In terms of performance management, this may be part of a whole-school focus, a subject focus or an element of concern expressed by the instructor being observed.

Although the term 'observation' suggests watching what happens, it also includes listening; observation data are often in the form of examples of what people have said.

Observation is probably the most effective way to see what people do and to hear what they say. Teachers may gain more accurate information by watching students than by asking them. Taken from: Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research.

Introduction

Making it work

What is observation?

Why use observation?


Robson (2002) identifies possibly the two main types of observation but there are many examples inbetween.In participant observation, the observer has a role in the observed group a tutor, for example, may observe a group of students. Participation can be at different levels and, while this may not seem to be an objective approach, it is a good case for observation with a ‘scientific attitude’, that is, it will be carried out systematically, skeptically and ethically.

It is important that observation is as objective as possible and observers need to beaware of their own interests and biases so that the information gained is as valid and reliable as possible and not selected to prove a point. Observers usually keep on the spot notes to complement an observation schedule so that any additional or unusual events can be noted.

Reliability of observation will come from observer consistency. Observers must ensure that they make similar decisions about similar events on different occasions. They must also make the same decisions about the same events if they see or hear them again, say on video or audio tape. Ideally, more thanone observer should be involved in looking at the same events, at least in initial practice sssions, so that there can be agreement on what is going on and how it is to be coded.

STUDENT ATTITUDES

TTT VS STT

TEACHER STUDENT INTERACTION / RAPPORT

ERROR CORRECTION

TEACHER’S POSITION

USAGE OF TEACHING AIDS

SEATING ARRANGEMENT AND GROUPING TECHNIQES

DEALING WITH DISRUPTIVE SITUATIONS And many other topics… you name it!

How is it done?

Validity and reliability in observation

WHAT DO OBSERVERS USUALY FOCUS ON?

Making it work


The following procedures for developing a colleague visitation program are drawn from successful programs at colleges and universities. Classroom observation models emphasize a three-step consultation process which includes a pre-observation conference, classroom observation, and a post-observation conference.

In the pre-observation session, the colleague observer obtains information from the instructor concerning his or her class goals, students, and particular teaching style. An interview schedule provides a brief, structured way of obtaining such information and includes the following questions:

1. Briefly, what will be happening in the class I will observe? 2. What is your goal for the class? What do you hope students will gain from this

session? 3. What do you expect students to be doing in class to reach stated goals? 4. What can I expect you to be doing in class? What role will you take? What teaching

methods will you use? .

Guidelines for Classroom Observation

Pre-Observation Conference


5. What have students been asked to do to prepare for this class? 6. What was done in earlier classes to lead up to this one? 7. Will this class be generally typical of your teaching? If not, what will be different? 8. Is there anything in particular that you would like me to focus on during the class?

Details such as the date for the classroom observation, use of a particular

observation form or method, and seating arrangement for the colleague observer should also be decided by mutual agreement at this session.

Observers have identified the following as characteristics of effective teaching: organization and clarity, command and communication of subject matter, teacher-student rapport, and enthusiasm. Questions listed below may help the observer identify particular skills or techniques in the classroom which illustrate the characteristics of good teaching. Knowledge of Subject Matter Does the instructor exhibit mastery of the content? Is the depth and breadth of material covered appropriate to the level of course and group of students? Does material covered in this class relate to the syllabus and overall goals of the course? Does the instructor emphasize a conceptual grasp of the material? Does the instructor incorporate recent developments in the discipline? Is the content presented considered important within the discipline and within related disciplines?

Organization and Clarity

Structure: Is the instructor well prepared for class? Does the instructor provide an overview of the class? Is the sequence of content covered logical? Is the instructor able to present and explain content clearly? Does the instructor provide transitions from topic to topic, make distinctions between major and minor points, periodically summarize important concepts or ideas in the lecture? Does the instructor use examples and illustrations to clarify difficult or abstract ideas?

Teaching Strategies: Are the instructor's teaching methods appropriate to the goals of the class? Is the instructor able to vary the pattern of instruction through movement gestures, voice level, tone and pace? Does or could the instructor use alternative methods such as media, discussion, lab, questioning? Is the board work legible and organized? If appropriate, does the instructor use students' work (writing assignments, homework problems, etc.)? [Is] the use of various teaching strategies (lecture, handouts, media) effectively integrated?

Closure: Does the instructor summarize and integrate major points of the lecture or discussion at the end of class? Are homework or reading assignments announced hurriedly?

Classroom Observation


Instructor-Student Interaction Discussion: How is discussion initiated? Are the purpose and guidelines clear to students? Does the instructor encourage student questions?

Kinds of Questions: Are questions rhetorical or real? One at a time or multiple? Does the instructor use centering questions (to refocus students' attention), probing questions (to require students to go beyond a superficial or incomplete answer), or redirecting questions (to ask for clarification or agreement from others)?

Level of Questions: What level of questions does the instructor ask? Lower level questions generally have a "right" answer and require students to recall or list facts. Higher level questions ask students to generalize, compare, contrast or analyze information.

What is done with student questions: Are questions answered in a direct and understandable manner? Are questions received politely or enthusiastically?

What is done with student response: How long does the instructor pause for student responses (formulating answers to difficult questions takes a few minutes)? Does the instructor use verbal reinforcement? Is there a non-verbal response (smile, nod)? Is the instructor receptive to student suggestions or viewpoints contrary to his or her own? Presentation and Enthusiasm Does the instructor demonstrate enthusiasm for the subject? For teaching? Can the instructor's voice be easily heard? Does the teacher raise or lower voice for variety and emphasis? Is the rate of speech too fast or slow? Is the rate of speech appropriate for note taking? Does the teacher maintain eye contact with students? Does the instructor use facial expressions, posture, or motion to sustain student interest? The colleague observer can reinforce and add to the instructor's perceptions by referring to the log of class events.

An analysis and interpretation of the classroom visit, as well as of the post-observation conference, should go to the instructor. It is important that the results of observations be shared with the instructor being evaluated. It is also important that any colleague observation program emphasize the positive, constructive feature of the observation process - the improvement of instruction. Student Behaviour Survey the class on occasion and note what students are doing. What are note-taking patterns in class (do students take few notes, write down everything, write down what instructor puts on board, copy each other's notes in order to keep up with the lesson)? Are students listening attentively, slumped back in desks, heads on hands? Are there behaviors that are outside of the mainstream of class activity (random conversations among students, reading of materials not relevant to class)?


Overall

What did you like most about this particular class and/or the instructor's teaching effectiveness? What specific suggestions would you make to improve this particular class and/or the instructor's teaching effectiveness? Did you learn anything in the pre- or post-observation sessions that influenced or modified your responses? Overall, how would you rate this instructor? The post-observation conference is most useful if it occurs within a few hours of the classroom observation, while the activities are still fresh in the minds of the teacher and the observer. No later than one day following the observation, the colleague should review the notes on the class. The observer should then discuss the classroom observation in depth with the teacher. A series of questions with which to initiate a follow-up discussion would include:

1. In general, how did you feel the class went? 2. How did you feel about your teaching during the class? 3. Did students accomplish the goals you had planned for this class? 4. Is there anything that worked well for you in class today that you particularly liked?

Does that usually go well? 5. Is there anything that did not work well-that you disliked about the way the class

went? Is that typically a problem area for you? . 6. What were your teaching strengths? Did you notice anything you improved on or

any personal goals you met? 7. What were your teaching problems- areas that still need improvement? 8. Do you have any suggestions or strategies for improvement?

Feedback is not The Truth. It is simply information about others’ perceptions and responses. If both the giver and receiver of the feedback follow the suggestions below, the feedback session will be most useful. Giving Feedback: 1. Try to be as specific as possible rather than general. 2. Be descriptive rather than evaluative. 3. Make sure the feedback refers to something the person has control over.

Post-Observation Conference

Guidelines for Giving and Receiving Feedback:


4. Make sure you are giving the feedback to be helpful, not punitive. 5. Because it is easier for most faculty members to give feedback that aims to help

someone correct something rather than to give useful positive feedback, try to give positive feedback more often than corrective feedback. Demonstrating first to the instructor that you noticed a lot that was good will give you more credibility when you give constructive feedback. Plus it will make your constructive feedback more hearable.

Our job as supervisors is to help teachers to develop as best they can. We need to understand how teachers learn to teach so we can help them along in the process. Teachers learn to teach by teaching. The process can be enhanced if they are observed by a more experienced professional. We need to think about how the observation process can help teachers to learn to teach better .We need to think whether traditional checklists are of help to teachers and whether they reflect the complexities of what is happening in the classroom.

A course For Supervisors / prepared by: ELT Supervision / 2007-2008

www.Shambles.net/pages/staff/classroom

http://www.comment.edu/emprel/trng/tm_3_2_clasobs.html

http://www.slideshare.net/negaleano/conducting-classroom-observation

http://gsi.berkeley.edu/faculty/facwithgsis/observation.html.

Rubrics for Evaluating Teacher’s Performance / Prepared by: Mr. Mohsen Afifi (HOD) at Al-Asma Educational Zone.

Conclusion

References

http://www.shambles.net/pages/staff/classroom

http://www.comment.edu/emprel/trng/tm_3_2_clasobs.html

http://www.slideshare.net/negaleano/conducting-classroom-observation

http://gsi.berkeley.edu/faculty/facwithgsis/observation.html


( 6 )

الولاحظة الصَفية

Classroom observation -B


• Regular Observation: it is the case of having a pre-service or a novice in-service teacher observing one of the senior’s teachers’ classes before the former has his/her class observed by an advisor or a senior teacher who is supposed to a provide an oral or written feedback on what has been observed. A feature of this type of observation is the power-relationship that governs both the observed teacher and observer. Observation in this context tends to be more judgmental and feedback is represented in a more official manner. Because of its evaluative nature and, novice teachers tend to have a negative impression toward this form of observation.

• Peer Observation: unlike the previous type, peer observation is arranged between peer teachers, usually teaching the same teaching levels, and with the same professional experience. It is not a compulsory event in the sense that a teacher may deliberately ask to observe his/her colleague’s class or have his/her colleague observe one of the classes for the sake of exchanging feedback and optimizing teaching strategies. The nature of feedback in this vein may range from a verbal “thank you for having me in your class” statement into a face-to-face verbal or/and written feedback session. • Three-way observation: this third form of observation was first introduced at an American college and then has slowly started to spread among other colleges. Its framework is similar to the regular observation with the inclusion of a student’s perspective. The rationale behind having a student taking part in teacher’s observation is originated from a learner-centered classroom, which underlines the value of students’ reflections on teachers’ practices.

Besides its educational as well as pedagogical benefits, classroom observation serves administrative purposes. For instance, while formative observation assists in improving teachers’ teaching tools and promoting cooperative teaching environment, summative observation involves the evaluation of teaching effectiveness used for merit, and/or promotion, or other purposes of the same nature. Gains from observation, however, remain dependent on the way the nature of teaching is understood by observers and observed alike. Both formative and summative observations can be based on the same observation instruments, though both forms differ in procedures and aims.

For quite a long period, classroom observation typically consisted of subjective data based on personal and anecdotal accounts of effective teaching. Novice teachers’ teaching skills’ acquisition depended on the mastery of specific repertoire of observable behaviors that included but not limited to:

I- Types and Purposes of Observation

II-Traditional view versus Reflective view on classroom observation


• How teacher starts and ends a lesson • How teacher allots times within a lesson • How teacher assigns tasks to students • How teacher organizes learning groups • How teacher monitors students’ task performance • How teacher asks questions • How teacher reinforces students’ answers

In short, the observer role was limited to observe, describe, and then comment on the “how” dimension of the observed. Being as such, not only did the feedback use to be subjective, for it used to be based on a biased data collection and analysis, but also it used to threaten novice teachers’ creativity and lack of confidence toward their own teaching style.

With the advent of systematic classroom observation method, objective and reliable measures of observation started to be implemented; thus a debate on reflection on teaching, learning, and observation have become more of necessity than a choice. Classroom observation within this framework goes beyond a focus on the identification of the techniques and strategies experienced teachers employ. It has become as an opportunity for teachers to develop a critically reflective position to their own teaching: observers main task has become an objective data collection through the use of systematic instruments that can be used to develop deeper understanding of HOW and WHY the observed teachers teach the way they do.

1. Pre-Observation Conference Guidelines

The aim behind holding the pre-observation conference is for the observed teacher to assign the observer a goal for the observation and a task to accomplish. The task would involve collecting information about the lesson goals, objectives, used strategies/methodology, and form of assessment. Both teachers may agree upon observation procedures or instruments to be used during this session and arrange a schedule for the observations. The following is a list of questions that the observer might ask the observed teacher:

What is the main goal of your course?

What is the main goal of the course session to be observed?

What is your specific objective for the course session to be observed? In other

words, what do you expect the learners to be able to know and do by the end of your session?

What strategies/ methods will you use to help the learners to reach this objective?

III-Phases of Observation


How will you assess whether the learners reached this objective? In other words,

How will they show that they know and can do what you expected of them?

Do you have any concerns that you would like the observer to address?

2. While-observing phase

The second stage of observation is the time when the visitation takes place. Using the agreed-upon tools and procedures, the teacher observing should complete the observation task without interfering in the performance of the teacher being, or in the teaching learning process in progress. The main criteria that are controlled through different forms of systematic checklists or grids are:

Organization of the lesson: the opening, structuring, transitioning, and closure of the lesson.

Time management: allotment of time of different activities during the lesson.

Students’ performance on tasks: the strategies, procedures, and interactions patterns employed by students in completing tasks.

Time on task: the extent to which students were actively engaged during task.

Teacher’s questions & students’ responses: the types of questions the teacher asks during a lesson, the way students respond, and the way the responses are either reinforced or refuted.

Teacher’s explanation: the way the teacher explains vocabulary, grammar, and/or syntactic items during the lesson.

Teacher’s action zone: the extent to which the teacher interacts with some students more frequently than others during the lesson.

Students’ performance during pair/group-work activities: Teacher’s arrangement of students into small groups, monitoring of students’ time-on-task during group work, the dynamics of group work activities, students’ use of L1 Vs. L2 during group work, and the kind of responses they make.

Classroom interaction: the way the teacher monitors both teacher-student and student-student interactions.

Use of textbook: the extent to which the teacher resorts to the textbook during the lesson and the types of departure made from it.

3. Post Observation Conferencing Guidelines

The post observation session is the time where both teachers meet again for data presentation and analysis; and the “how to” and “why” dimensions are questioned and justified for the sake of understanding, reinforcing and suggesting different alternatives. No judgments or evaluations are to be made: the teacher observer’s task here is on the one hand, to highlight the strongest points, activities, strategies, and techniques used by the performing teacher; on the other hand, s/he may inquire about the reasons and rationales of unclear situations then go no suggesting some alternatives.


As to the timing of the post-observation conference, the sooner it is held the more effective its outcomes are going to be. In other words, teachers should not hold the meeting weeks or months after the observation took place, because in the latter’s case it would be difficult to discuss or explain what has happened during the observation. Also, it is always recommended for the observer to start his/her feedback with a positive comment while providing an honest feedback.

IV-Limitations of Classroom Observation

There have also been several criticisms related to the use of structured observation techniques.

Observers generally focus on isolated behaviors, without concern for the preceding and subsequent behaviors that provide the context and meaning of the behavior. Another concern is that most observational systems are generally limited–they can be used only to observe behavior that can be quantitatively measured. Furthermore, these observational systems make it difficult to record complex instructional behaviors.

Some of these concerns or limitations are related to drawing of valid conclusions. One of the primary concerns or source of invalidity that needs to be addressed regarding the use of systematic observational techniques relates to the obtrusiveness of the technique. Observer effects may occur because teachers and students are aware that their behaviors are being observed. The presence of an observer may change teacher or student behaviors, perhaps resulting in reactive effects. Teacher anxiety or teachers performing less well than usual can interfere with the drawing of valid inferences about what normally occurs in the classroom. On the other hand, there is also some evidence that indicates that teachers' instruction may be slightly better than usual when they are being observed.

There are other concerns that are related to the actual amount of time that is necessary to obtain a valid observation period, as well as the appropriate number of observations that are required in order to obtain reliable and valid measures of instruction. Similarly, there are a number concerns related to the analyses of data. Most of these concerns address the issue of what appropriate level of analysis should be used when analyzing the observation data.

Another pragmatic concern relates to the misuse of classroom observation data. Classroom observations can be very useful as a formative evaluation procedure, but should not be used to provide summative decisions.

V-New Directions

It is important to point out again that no one data source or methodology will sufficiently answer all critical educational questions. Multiple measures or indicators of instruction are needed to help capture a more comprehensive picture of what goes on in


classrooms. Some of the new directions for classroom observation research include the following: (1) combining both qualitative and quantitative methods in observation systems; (2) developing observation instruments that are based on "standards" of pedagogy; (3) using student-centered observation instruments that allow for comparisons between groups of students within the class; and (4) using instruments that assess authentic, interactive instructional practices that have been found to relate to student gains on higher-level cognitive outcomes.

Conclusion To sum it up, just like all forms of observations, and/or professional development tools, an effective classroom observation requires an observation instrument designed to portray the classroom environment as accurately and reliably as possible. This is why the observers are not to ask questions or participate in activities during class; such behavior can detract from and invalidate the observations. The can be briefly introduced to the students, with an equally brief explanation of why s/he is present. The observer should be in the observed classroom a way ahead of class starting time. Additionally, both the observer and the observed should invest some time reviewing and discussing the results from the completed Classroom Observation Instruments. Finally, it is always important for the observer to begin the conference with a positive comment and still provide honest, constructive feedback.

Observer: Date: Observed teacher: Time: Observed Period: Level:

Students Category: Room Number: 1. Organization of the lesson: the opening, structuring, transitioning, and closure of the lesson. 2. Time management: allotment of time of different activities during the lesson. 3. Students’ performance on tasks: the strategies, procedures, and interactions patterns employed by students in completing tasks. 4. Time on task: the extent to which students were actively engaged during task. 5. Teacher’s questions & students’ responses: the types of questions the teacher asks during a lesson, the way students respond, and the way the responses are either reinforced or refuted. 6. Teacher’s explanation: the way the teacher explains vocabulary, grammar, and/or

Conclusion

Classroom Observation Form


syntactic items during the lesson. 7. Teacher’s action zone: the extent to which the teacher interacts with some students more frequently than others during the lesson. 8. Students’ performance during pair/group-work activities: Teacher’s arrangement of students into small groups, monitoring of students’ time-on-task during group work, the dynamics of group work activities, students’ use of L1 Vs. L2 during group work, and the kind of responses they make. 9. Classroom interaction: the way the teacher monitors both teacher-student and student-student interactions. 10. Use of textbook: the extent to which the teacher resorts to the textbook during the lesson and the types of departure made from it.

References Latham G P, van den Berg P, Wiersma U J, (1995). Dutch Reactions to Behavioral Observation, Behavioral Expectation, and Trait Scales. Group & Organization Management (USA) . Vol.: 20; Issue: 3; P.: 297-310. Edwards M R, (1996). Improving performance with 360-degree feedback. Career Development International (UK). Vol.: 1; Issue: 3; P. 5

Alex Case, (2008). UsingEnglish.com Jack C. Richards and Charles Lockhart. “Teacher Development Through Peer Observation.”

References


( 7 )

الحنوية الوهنية

Professional development


These are changing times in education systems around the world. With the start of the new millennium, many societies are engaging in serious and promising educational reforms. One of the key elements in most of these reforms is the professional development of teachers; societies are finally acknowledging that teachers are not only one of the “ variables” that need to be changed in order to improve their education systems , but they are also the most significant change agents in these reforms. This double role of teachers in educational reforms- being both subjects and objects of change- makes the field of teacher professional development a growing and challenging area, and one that has received major attention during the past few years.

Professional development, in a broad sense, refers to the development of a person in his or her professional role. More specifically, “ Teacher development is the professional growth a teacher achieves as a result of gaining increased experience and examining his or her teaching systematically”( Glatthorn , 1995, p. 41). Professional development includes formal experiences ( such as attending workshops and professional meetings , mentoring etc.)and informal experiences ( such as reading professional publications , watching television documentaries related to an academic discipline etc.) ( Ganser,2000). This conception of professional development is, therefore, broader than career development, which is defined as “ the growth that occurs as the teacher moves through the professional career cycle” ( Glatthorn, 1995, p.41) , and broader than staff development , which is “ the provision of organized in-service programmes designed to foster the growth of group of teachers; it is only one of the systematic interventions that can be used for teacher development”

( Glatthorn, 1995, p.41) . When looking at professional development , one must examine the content of experiences , the processes by which the professional development will occur , and the contexts in which it will take place ( Ganser , 2000; Fielding and Schalock, 1985 ).

1. It is based on constructivism rather than on a ‘transmission-oriented model’. As a consequence, teachers are treated as active learners (Lieberman, 1994; McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001) who are engaged in the concrete tasks of teaching, assessment, observation and reflection (Dadds, 2001; Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1995; King and Newmann, 2000).

Introduction

What is teacher professional development ?

New perspective of professional development has several characteristics


2. It is perceived as a long-term process as it acknowledges the fact that teachers learn over time.

3. It is perceived as a process that takes place within a particular context. The most effective form of professional development is that which is based in schools and is related to the daily activities of teachers and learners (Abdal-Haqq, 1996; Ancess, 2001; Baker and Smith, 1999; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Dudzinski et al., 2000; Ganser, 2000; McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001). The most successful teacher development opportunities are ‘on-the-job learning’ activities such as study groups, action research and portfolios (Wood and McQuarrie, 1999).

4. Many identify this process as one that is intimately linked to school reform (Guskey, 1995b; Loucks-Horsley, 1998), as professional development is a process of culture building and not of mere skill training (Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 2001) which is affected by the coherence of the school programme (King and Newmann, 2000).

5. A teacher is conceived of as a reflective practitioner, who enters the profession with a certain knowledge base, and who will acquire new knowledge and experiences based on that prior knowledge (Cochran- Smith and Lytle, 2001; Jenlink and Kinnucan-Welsch, 1999; Lieberman, 1994).

6. Professional development is conceived of as a collaborative process (Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1995). The effective professional development occurs when there are meaningful interactions (Clement and Vanderberghe, 2000), not only among teachers themselves, but also between teachers, administrators, parents and other community members (Grace, 1999).

7. Professional development may look and be very different in diverse settings, and even within a single setting, it can have a variety of dimensions (Scribner, 1999). Schools and educators must evaluate their needs, cultural beliefs and practices in order to decide which professional development model would be most beneficial to their particular situation.

It is important to bear in mind the difference between a professional development system and a professional development model (Ingvarson, 1998). Models are specific processes and opportunities that are planned to provide professional development to teachers from the beginning of their preparation.

However, a system requires a wider perspective that includes the

interconnections between:

• the goals, objectives and purposes of professional development;

• the context in which professional development is to take place;

Systems and/or models of professional development


• the personal and professional characteristics of the participants of the system;

• the models, techniques, and procedures to be implemented;

• the costs and benefits of professional development;

• a determination of who is to make which decisions;

• a process to evaluate and assess the effectiveness of professional development on different constituencies;

• a determination of infrastructure support for professional development.

According to Guskey (1995a), there are some ‘guidelines for success’ that must be followed when planning and implementing professional development opportunities for teachers. They are:

• to recognize change as being both an individual and an organizational process;

• to think big, but start small;

• to work in teams to maintain support;

• to include procedures for feedback on results;

• to provide continuous follow-up, support, and pressure;

• to integrate programmes.

Aside from the individual satisfaction or financial gain that

teachers may obtain as a result of participating in professional- development opportunities, the process of professional development has a significant positive impact on teachers’ beliefs and practices, students’ learning, and on the implementation of educational reforms.

The first step in any process of developing a professional in any field is the initial

professional preparation of that person. In teaching, this preparation takes very different

shapes and forms and varies dramatically from country to country. Yet it is agreed that

learning to teach is personal (as it depends on the students’ personal learning history, their

pre-conceptions and beliefs about

Variables that contribute to the success of teachers’ professional development

Why is teacher’s professional development important ?

How do teachers learn to be teachers ?


learning and teaching), complex (because of the variety of skills and competences

that have to be learned) and context-specific (Hauge, 2000).

As described previously, different conceptual orientations about the role of teachers

and their preparation have shaped the nature of the initial preparation of teachers.

Calderhead and Shorrock (1997), for example, describe the following orientations:

(a) The academic orientation emphasizes teachers’ subject expertise and sees the

quality of the teachers’ own education as their professional strength. In this

orientation, a solid liberal arts education is the key factor.

(b) The practical orientation, emphasizes the artistry and classroom technique of

the teacher. The key ingredient in this orientation is the practical experiences in

the classroom, and the apprenticeship model of preparation.

(c) The technical orientation emphasizes the knowledge and behavioural skills that

teachers require. It is associated with micro-teaching and competence-based

approaches, and is solidly inspired by the behaviourist model of teaching.

(d) The personal orientation emphasizes the importance of interpersonal

relationships in the classroom and considers learning to teach as a process of

becoming inspired in the humanistic approach to psychology (represented by

Carl Rogers). The key element in teaching preparation is, therefore,

experimentation and discovery of personal strengths.

(e) The critical inquiry orientation views schooling as a process of social reform, and

the role of schools as promoting democratic values and reducing social

inequities. A key element of this perspective is to promote the development of

critical and reflective practices in teachers so that they can become agents of

social change.

These orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive. However, depending on

the culture and values of a particular society, the historical time, and the society’s

perception of teachers and teaching, whichever orientation is decided upon will have a

great effect on which type of education and professional-development opportunities are

available to teachers.

Teacher preparation is usually separated into two very broad categories: pre-service

and in-service teacher preparation. As a result of the current transition from ‘teacher

training’ to ‘teacher professional development’, these two categories are adopting new

meanings. Both are described below.


Pre-service teacher education varies dramatically around the world in such aspects as institutional context, content areas, time allocation and forms of practical experiences for the students (Ben-Peretz, 1995). It also varies in how societies perceive its purpose. Although many societies consider this preparation to be the only professional preparation teachers will receive throughout their careers, the current tendency is to acknowledge that this is merely the first step in a longer process of professional development. It is well-documented that 'during initial training and their first few years in the classroom many

teachers, perhaps even the majority, experience difficulties in learning to teach・ (Calderhead and Shorrock, 1997, p. 8), and, thus, most educators are advocating for more support to expand the conception of teacher preparation and professional development, which does not necessarily imply more years of ‘pre-service’ or initial education.

All around the world, teacher-preparation programmes are offered in colleges or universities and in special institutions, which may or may not be connected to a university system. In other countries, teacher preparation is offered in universities, some in the form of short programmes of around two years’ duration, others over a period of four or five years. In some developing countries, teachers are prepared in secondary, post-primary and post-secondary education programmes that last anything between six to nine months and a few years. In a majority of countries, the initial or pre-service preparation varies depending on what level the teacher will teach after graduation. The traditional format is to have secondary teachers be prepared in institutions of post- secondary education, while teachers being prepared for primary schools require a lower level of education. However, there is a new trend in a majority of countries to impose the same level of preparation on all teachers, regardless of the level they will teach.

The meaning of ‘in-service’ education is changing, and it varies from country to country depending on the level of preparation teachers receive prior to their entering the profession.

For most developed countries worldwide, in-service education and training includes "those education and training activities engaged in by primary and secondary-school teachers and principals, following their initial professional certification, and intended mainly or exclusively to improve their professional knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order

that they can educate children more effectively・ (Bolam, 1982, p. 3). However, as mentioned above, in most developing nations and many developed countries, in-service

Pre-service education

Where does pre-service education take place?

In-service education


training is the only preparation teachers receive when they are hired while not yet having qualified (or certified) teacher status.

Greenland (1983) has described the following four categories of in-service education and training:

• for unqualified teachers (mainly certification courses);

• to upgrade teachers;

• to prepare teachers for new roles, such as teacher educators or principals;

• curriculum related, particularly when there are curricular changes in the system, or when teachers require some form of refresher course.

When in-service training constitutes a part of some form of an initial teacher-preparation process, it is identified as ‘professionalization’. If

it is offering an ongoing development of the teacher who is already a

‘professional’, it is identified as ‘capacitacion’ *training+, ‘perfeccionamiento’*improvement+, ‘actualizacion’ *getting up to date or updating+, or ‘formacion continua’ *continuous education+ (Villegas-Reimers, 1998).

Despite the fact that most educators and policy-makers agree on the importance of in-service training, the motives behind their interest vary. One is human resource development, the second is the management of planned change, and the third is based on self-development by schools and teachers.

There is a recent tendency to consider the needs of schools and communities when planning in-service education programmes. For example, in many countries in-service programmes are being designed and offered by the schools (Germany, Japan, Spain, United Kingdom etc.) as a way to train their own staff and teachers. Each school can therefore decide on the content of their in-service programme (Benejam and Espinet, 1992). In addition, in many countries new structures have been created to coordinate this kind of training, and now a variety of institutions (both new and pre-existing) offer different and improved in-service programmes.

To summarize, in-service education plays an important role in teachers’ professional development, and although its traditional conception is still necessary for those many unqualified or non-certified teachers who are in the classrooms, there is now a much broader and appropriate way to respond to the professional development needs of teachers throughout their careers.

Where does in-service education take place?


Action research is the name given to a series of procedures teachers can engage in , either because they wish to improve aspects of their teaching , or because they wish to evaluate the success and / or the appropriacy of certain activities and procedures .

The teacher described by Julian Edge is following a version of the classic action research sequence in which teachers first consider problems or issues in their teaching which lead them to design questions ( or use other methods ) in order to collect data . Having collected the data they analyse the results , and it is on the basis of these results that they decide what to do next . They may then subject this new decision to the same examination that the original issue generated ( this possibility is reflected by the broken line in Figure below ) Alternatively , having resolved one issue they may focus on a different problem and start the process a fresh for that issue .

Identify a problem issue

Think of questions to ask / information to be gained

Collect data

Analyse data

Decide on future action

There are many possible reasons for conducting our own action research . We may want to know more about our learners and what they find motivating and challenging . We might want to learn more about ourselves as teachers – how effective we are , how we look to our students , how we would look to ourselves if we were observing our own teaching . We might want to gauge the interest generated by certain topics , or judge the effectiveness of certain activity types . We might want to see if an activity would work better done in groups rather than in pairs , or investigate whether reading is more effective with or without pre-teaching vocabulary .

How can we conduct professional growth ?

How action research works

Aims of action research


1- Keeping a journal : many teachers keep a record of what they and their students do in the form of journal or diary .

2- Observation Task : we can record who speaks when in class , how many times each individuals student asks for the teacher's help over a week's study . We can watch and make written records of students language production in general .

3- Videotape and audiotape are especially useful for precise observation tasks since they allow us to watch and / or listen to events repeated .

4- Interviews : we can interview students and colleagues about activities , materials , techniques and procedures .

5- Written questionnaires : these are often more effective than interviews , especially when administered to individual students . Questionnaires can get respondents to open questions .

6- Language progress : we can measure the students' language progress as a result of our new and different activities through homework assignments and test results .

7- Data collection : data collection frequently involves more than one method. Indeed the more methods we use , the more reliable our analysis is likely to be. By weighing up our journal entries , our observations and our students' written responses , we will be in a position to decide on future action .

Here is much to be learnt from the various methodology books , journals and magazines produced for teachers of English .Books and articles written by teachers and theorists will often open our eyes to new possibilities . They may also form part of action research or ' search' and 'search' cycles discussed above , either by raising an issue which we want to focus on , or by helping us to formulate the kinds of questions we wish to ask

Developing with colleagues : Not all reflection , action research , or reading needs to be done by teachers working alone . There are many ways teachers can confer with each other .

* Cooperative / collaborative development:

Teachers need chances to discuss what they are doing and what happens to them in class, so that they can examine their beliefs and feelings. However much we have reflected on our own experiences and practice , most of us find discussing our situation with others helps us to sort things out in our mind.

* Peer teaching , peer observation : Peer observation and peer teaching , involve colleagues, who are equal, watching and teaching together so that both maybe helped in their understanding and practice .

Methods of action research

Professional literature


*The teachers' group : one of the most supportive environments for teachers , where real teacher development can take place , is the small teachers' group . In this situation colleagues , usually working in the same school , meet together to discuss any issues and problems which may arise in the course of their teaching .

* Teachers' associations : teachers' associations provide two possible development opportunities :

1- Conferences : attending conferences , meetings and workshops allows us to hear about the latest developments in the field , take part in investigative workshops and enter into debates about current issues in theory and practice .

2- Presenting : submitting a paper or a workshop for teachers' association meeting , whether regional , national or international , is one of the most powerful catalysts for reflecting upon our practice .

The virtual community : there are now a large number of channels on the Internet by which teachers can talk to each other , exchanging ideas and opinions , and asking for help .

In order to enhance professional and personal growth , teachers sometimes need to step outside the world of the classroom where the concentration , all too frequently , is on knowledge and skill alone . There are other issues and practices which can be of immense help in making their professional understanding more profound and their working reality more rewarding , such as :

* Learning by learning : one of the best ways of reflecting upon our teaching practice is to become learners ourselves so that our view of the learning – teaching process is not always influenced from one side of that relationship .

* Mind and body : they need to pay attention to their physical well being , not only so that they can teach better but also so that they can survive , learn and grow as people . Teachers need to care for their bodies to counteract stress and fatigue as techniques for breathing and progressive relaxation .

* Supplementing teaching : one way of countering the potential sameness of a teacher's life is to increase our range of occupations and interests , so that teaching becomes the fixed centre in a more varied and interesting professional life . Writing materials can be challenging and stimulating and when done in tandem with teaching can provide us with powerful insights , so that both the Writing and the teaching become significantly more involving and enjoyable. Some people write items for public exams . Some make tapes or set up web sites . Some help to organize entertainments for their students or run drama groups , sports teams or conversation get – together . But whatever the tasks are , the positive effects of them can be felt in all aspects of our professional lives .

A broader view of development


1-Abdal-Haqq, I. 1996. Making time for teacher professional development. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education.

2- Ben-Peretz, M. 1995. Curriculum of teacher education programs・. In: Anderson, L. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education (second edition). London: Pergamon Press.

3- Bolam, R. 1982. In-service education and training of teachers: A condition of educational change. Final Report of CERI Project on INSET. Paris: OECD.

4- Benejam, P.; Espinet, M. 1992. 鉄pain・. In: Leavitt, H.B. (Ed.), Issues and Problems in Teacher Education: An international Handbook. New York: Greenwood.

5- Calderhead, J. 1995. Teachers as clinicians・. In: Anderson, L. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education (second edition). London: Pergamon Press.

6-Calderhead, J.; Shorrock, S.B. 1997. Understanding teacher education: case studies in the professional development of beginning teachers. London: The Falmer Press.

7- Clement, M.; Vandenberghe, R. 2000. 典eachers’ professional development: a solitary or collegial (ad)venture?・. In: Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 81-101.

8- Cochran-Smith, M.; Lytle, S.L. 2001. 釘eyond certainty: taking an inquiry stance on practice・. In: Lieberman, A.; Miller, L. (Eds.), Teachers caught in the action: professional development that matters. New York: Teachers College Press.

9- Dadds, M. 2001. Continuing professional development: nurturing the exper within・. In: Soler, J.; Craft, A.; Burgess, H. (Eds.), Teacher development: exploring our own practice. London: Paul Chapman Publishing and The Open University.

10- Darling-Hammond, L.; McLaughlin, M.W. 1995. policies that support professional development in an era of reform・. In: Phi Delta Kappan, 76(8), 597-604.

11- Ganser, T. 2000. An ambitious vision of professional development for teachers・. In: NASSP Bulletin, 84(618), 6-12.

12- Glatthorn, A. 1995. Teacher development・. In: Anderson, L. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education (second edition). London: Pergamon Press.

13- Grace, D. 1999. paradigm lost (and regained)・. In: Independent School, 59(1), 54-57.

References


( 8 )

تقوين المعلن

Teacher’s evaluation


Teacher evaluation is a vital part of the educational process, yet there is no consensus on the best way to carry it out. Most education professionals would agree , however , that since many important decisions are made on the basis of information gathered in the evaluation process, it is crucial that the instruments used be both valid and reliable.

Teacher evaluation can have two broad purposes, formative as when they are used to improve teaching quality by identifying strengths and weaknesses, or summative one, as when they are used in making personal decisions. If used for formative purposes, there should be provision in the evaluation procedure for discussion of the result of the evaluation so that teachers can make use of the feedback they receive to improve the quality of their teaching. On the other hand , if used for summative purposes , evaluators must pay close attention to whether or not the decisions that are based on the evaluations are legally defensible and ethically sound.

Teacher evaluation is a complex process. It is a series of activities and actions that are interconnected and related to a specific purpose. Since teachers deal with complex problems, they should be evaluated as professionals which means that their standards should be developed by their peers and their evaluation should focus on the degree to which they solve professional problems competently . The emphasis of their evaluation should be on their teaching and not on them as individuals and take into consideration the involvement and responsiveness of others involved in the education process.

The evaluation process usually involves preparation, observation, data collection, reporting, and follow-up. Data collection normally entails a formal observation which is preceded by a pre-conference and followed by a post- conference. The utilization of formal observations does not mean informal observations are ignored. Many unannounced visits usually prove to be more effective than a few announced visits.

Teacher evaluation should be a small but significant part of the larger strategy for school improvement which would see staff development take place prior to evaluations (Wood & Lease, 1987).

Teacher evaluations should be dialogical rather than hierarchical. The division of labour between those who determine what is to be taught and when and how it is to be taught and those who teach must be addressed, because teacher-proofing curriculum and instructional strategies is in direct opposition to treating teachers as professionals. Evaluators should know the subject matter, pedagogy, and classroom characteristics of the teacher being evaluated (McGeachy, 1992), as well as take into consideration the fact that experienced and excellent teachers are capable of pedagogical performances that educational theory and research can neither explain nor predict .

Introduction

What is Teacher Evaluation?


These risk-takers and innovators must be encouraged not stifled. Consequently, any effort to define standards for teaching and to operationalize them in an evaluation must reach beyond the judgment of academic experts. Therefore, we need a form of evaluation that will reflect a more enlightened view of teaching, that will inspire teacher educators to aim higher in creating their curricula and designing their programms, and that will, in the very process of being implemented through supervised residencies in the schools, introduce new forms of mentoring, collaboration, and collegiality.

The general purpose of teacher evaluation is to safeguard and improve the quality of instruction received by students , so boards must provide a process that allows and encourages supervisors and teachers to work together to improve and enhance classroom instructional practices. According to the literature there are six main purposes of teacher evaluation: l. It should strive to improve instruction by fostering self-development and peer assistance. 2. Staff development activities can be rated and identified . 3. The selection process can be validated (McGreal, 1983). 4. A well-designed, properly functioning teacher evaluation process provides a major communication link between the school system and teachers . 5. Personnel decisions such as retention, transfer, tenure, promotion, demotion, and dismissal can be enhanced through an effective evaluation process . 6. Teacher evaluation is capable of protecting students from incompetent teachers by bringing structured assistance to marginal teachers .Since there are no clear-cut standards for judging incompetence, multiple indicators must be utilized to identify marginal teachers . Teacher Interviews: Teacher interviews consist of standardized rank- ordered questions asked by a supervisor in private. Interviews are also used to review performance following administrator observation so that the teacher and the administrator can collaboratively evaluate the performance and set goals.

Why Should Teacher Evaluation be Conducted?

Current Evaluation Methods


Class observation by a supervisor: Class observation by a supervisor is used both summatively and formatively, and consists of the supervisor rating teaching performance observed during a classroom visit. Usually there is a pre-observation meeting in which the observer gets information on the lesson to be observed, evaluation criteria are agreed upon , and procedures are discussed. Advantages are that the evaluation is based on relevant , observable criteria which often have been determined by faculty and administrators together ; also , the teacher usually receives post-observation feedback. Peer review: Peer review, can be used both summatively and formatively, and usually involves pre- and post-observation conferencing. Advantages of this method are that it has the potential for establishing peer networks that encourage idea sharing ; evaluators are familiar with course content and context ; it can be less threatening than supervisor evaluation; and it can have high face validity. On the negative side, teachers may also fear damaging their working relationships by evaluating one another. Self evaluation: Self evaluation can be accomplished through self-reports , self study materials , self rating forms , comparison of oneself to one's peers, and videotaping and analyzing one's own teaching. These evaluations can be of value for formative purposes , as they allow for self-reflection and improvement, and encourage professionalism and the establishment of long-term goals for development. A good system of teacher evaluation makes use of several different methods and instruments to fulfill the purposes of the evaluation. Moreover, the process ought to have a professional orientation, or an orientation that is geared toward long-term career development, that assesses both teaching and nonteaching aspects of the job, and that includes input from supervisors, students, peers, and individual teachers themselves In the recent Literature, there are several instruments that programs could make use of by adopting and adapting them for their particular needs, or by using them as a basis for updating their current instruments. 1-Instruments for Administrative Performance Reviews: An instrument for teacher observation should list areas to be included in the observation, and leaves space for comments on each. Main headings are preparation; execution; activities; interaction and social climate; teacher's characteristics; and overall assessment of the lesson. Under each of these are specific items to be commented upon, For example, under teacher's characteristics are patience and self-control; confidence; adaptability; voice; use of language; and movement. Some evaluators may appreciate that open-ended comments are called for on this form, and that it covers the

Current Instruments


most important aspects of teaching ,some of which might otherwise be overlooked by observers. 2-Instruments for Peer Review: Brown's (1994) form for peer observation allows for both quantitative and qualitative feedback. Specific items listed under each category are related N/A, 4 (excellent), 3,2, or 1, and space is left for each of these to be commented on. Major categories are preparation; presentation; execution/methods; personal characteristic and teacher / student interaction. 3- Instruments for Self-evaluation A useful self-evaluation instrument is Chistison and Bamno's (1984) self-observation form, which is also reprinted in Brown (1994, pp. 435-436). Items are listed by category, and can be rated according to a scale provided. Learning environment includes relationship to students; the classroom; presentation; and culture and adjustment. The category on Individuals includes physical health; self-concepts; aptitude and perception; reinforcement; and development.

Teacher evaluations are often designed to serve two purposes: to measure teacher competence and to foster professional development and growth. This some common teacher concerns.

A teacher evaluation system should give teachers useful feedback on classroom needs, the opportunity to learn new teaching techniques, and counsel from principals and other teachers on how to make changes in their classrooms. To achieve these goals, evaluators must first set specific procedures and standards. The standards should

* relate to important teaching skills,

* be as objective as possible,

* be clearly communicated to the teacher before the evaluation begins and be reviewed after the evaluation is over, and

* be linked to the teacher's professional development.

Evaluators should consider a variety of teaching skills. If the evaluators use several sources of information about a teacher's performance, they can make a more accurate evaluation.

Some procedures evaluators can use are to:

Improving Teacher Evaluations

Effective teacher evaluation


* Observe classroom activities. This is by far the most common form of data collection for evaluation. The goal of class observations is to obtain a representative sample of a teacher's performance in the classroom. Evaluators cannot accomplish this goal with a sample of only a few hours of observation or with an observation of only one class. Observations can be formal and planned or informal and unannounced. Both forms of evaluation can provide valuable information.

* Review lesson plans and classroom records. Lesson plans can reflect how well a teacher has thought through instructional goals. Looking at classroom records, such as tests and assignments, can indicate how well a teacher has linked lesson plans, instruction, and testing.

* Expand the number of people involved in the evaluations. Most often principals or department supervisors conduct evaluations. Again, many state laws and collective bargaining agreements specify that teacher's supervisors evaluate their performance. This system works well if the only goal of evaluation is to determine competence. If the goal of the evaluation is to promote growth, however, other evaluators should participate. Self-evaluations give teachers' perspective on their work. Surprisingly, few school systems require self-evaluations. Teachers who want to improve their teaching are eager to know how other teachers and their students view them. These are the people who interact with the teacher everyday; their perspective should not be ignored during the evaluation process.

A post-observation conference can give teachers feedback on their strengths and weaknesses. Evaluators must remember to:

* deliver the feedback in a positive and considerate way;

* offer ideas and suggest changes that make sense to the teacher;

* maintain a level of formality necessary to achieve the goals of the evaluation;

* maintain a balance between praise and criticism; and

* give enough feedback to be useful but not so much that the teacher is overwhelmed.

Linking evaluation and development is a difficult task for teachers, evaluators, and principals. Although there are few easy answers, evaluation can be used to:

* work with teachers to set specific, achievable goals;

Reporting the results of the evaluation.

Linking teacher evaluation to professional development.


* provide constructive criticism and suggestions to improve weak areas and amplify strengths; and

* enlist experienced teachers to help improve the performance of less experienced teachers.

Experienced teachers often state that evaluations are not productive. Some of this dissatisfaction is based on experiences which can be avoided:

* Teachers not having any input into the evaluation criteria. Other professionals (doctors, lawyers, engineers) control the criteria for entering and maintaining membership in their profession. Teachers, on the other hand, often do not have that privilege. State laws or school boards decide the focus of the evaluation. This leads teachers to distrust the evaluation process and to question the validity of the results it produces.

* Evaluators not spending enough time on the evaluation. Teachers complain that the principal, or whoever is conducting the evaluation, does not have the time to gather quality information and provide useful feedback. After a teacher's first year evaluation, he or she may not have another evaluation for two or three years, sometimes longer.

* Evaluators not being well trained. Teachers complain that few evaluators haven't any special training to help them plan and carry out a successful evaluation. Even worse, many have had little or no recent experience in the classroom. The criteria for evaluations are often vague, subjective, and inconsistent. This robs the evaluator of the credibility needed to carry out an effective evaluation.

* Results of evaluations not being used to further teacher development. For many teachers, the evaluation process can be a dead end. The results do not figure into salary increases, promotions, or any meaningful program for professional development. Few districts have established a clear link between teacher evaluation and teacher development.

To determine what constitutes an effective teacher evaluation policy, one must relate principles of effective teacher evaluation measures to effective policy development. First and foremost, teacher evaluation at its best is guided by principles of good policy. Effective policy has a statement of purpose which is usually derived from the philosophy of the school division and guidelines that allow the implementers the opportunity to use their professional judgment from situation to situation .The length of the written text and the language used are also important features of effective policy.

Teacher concerns.

Criteria for Effective Teacher Evaluation Policy


An evaluation policy should also contain a repeal of any prior policies and procedures and a statement of how it will be applied as well as identify the individuals to be evaluated and the personnel who will be doing the evaluating . Effective policy development is comprehensive, participatory, and long range; open to phased implementation, internally consistent with its goals; and indicative of the commitment of time and resources that it requires for success. Teachers, principals, and directors, as well as students, parents, and community members, should be intimately involved in the policy making and implementing processes . The importance of evaluatee involvement in policy development can be suggested by: -An appraisal system developed jointly between supervisors and subordinates has a better chance of incorporating diverse but relevant points of view than a system developed by top management alone. The greater the opportunity for participation by parties affected by a decision, the greater the potential for acceptability of the decision. -Policies that might alarm the community must be introduced thoughtfully only after sufficient preparation in terms of informing or, better yet, involving the community because, if no one complies with a new policy, it has accomplished little. - Provision should be made for any person or group in the school community to initiate review of a policy . It is recommended that a policy be developed to facilitate suggestions for change. Such a policy would ensure that a working party, comprised of experts and stockholders, is appointed to explore an issue and prepare at least three viable options. Policy makers must realize that efforts and outcomes will vary from setting to setting and that "the effective school of this year may not be so effective next year" Finally, the policy must be accompanied by the technical assistance and resources necessary to support its implementation.

Myth 1: The central purpose of teacher evaluation is to improve teachers and teaching. The truth is that there is scarce research to suggest that evaluation causes teacher growth. Rather, teachers will improve if you give them enough TIME to work on good ideas: uninterrupted time with students, time to plan and implement what is already known, and sufficient discretionary time to be full human beings. There are other very good reasons to evaluate: to document current good practice, reassure teachers of a needed and effective job, reassure audiences, identify good teaching practices for emulation, and prevent bad evaluation practices.

THE TEN MYTHS (AND TRUTHS) OF TEACHER EVALUATION


Myth 2: Better teacher evaluation is just a better rating instrument or framework of teacher behaviors. The truth is that educators do not agree on what should be included in any single catalog of teacher performances or competencies, none could encompass all of what the open-ended nature of teaching should have, teachers are effective using different sets of small numbers of behaviors, and teachers work in varied contexts which call for different competency sets. Comprehensive frameworks, descriptions, systems analysis, and lists of duties help build understanding of good teaching, but they don't cause good evaluation.

Myth 3: Excellent teaching is accomplished by strong performance of components of teaching. Rather, a good teacher performs three or four components extremely well, adequately performs some others, and (to be honest) poorly or spottily performs many other things that a teacher is "supposed" to do. Doing a few things well at the moment carries the entire performances of teaching and learning; the other possible performances simply don't matter at the given time in the real human world of a classroom. It is a misleading strategy to try to assess every possible component, duty, competency, or element of a teacher performance at a point in time in order to understand the overall quality of that teaching.

Myth 4: Specific a priori goals (unique to individual or from a general framework) are needed to evaluate a teacher. Rather, good teaching can be documented after the teaching has been done by highlighting the actual specific outcomes, performances, or preparations that played a role in that specific teacher performance.

Myth 5: A uniform system of teacher evaluation is essential: all teachers should be evaluated the same way. The reality is that teachers are good for different constellations of reasons. They work in quite different settings, with different kinds of demands and criteria for quality. Also, we just cannot get all the information we might want for each instance of teacher evaluation. Fairness demands that all teachers have an equal opportunity to document their quality in the ways most appropriate to them.

Myth 6: Teacher quality can be objectively measured and known by using a sufficiently accurate checklist and rating scheme, or by comparing pupil achievement test scores. Rather, all evaluation is subjective. However, there is good subjectivity and bad subjectivity. Good subjectivity is (a) based on the best objective evidence available, (b) controlled for individual bias, (c) involves the interested audiences, and (d) employs some public logic.

Myth 8: Teacher Evaluation and Staff Development are inextricably bound together. The reality is that these are two important, but independent, programs.

Myth 9: The principal is the only and best evaluator. Rather, others can provide information or opinion, and should be involved. Peer teachers, clients, and comparative norms all play a role.


Myth 10: Bad teachers cannot be dismissed. The reality is that action on unsatisfactory teachers is a principal duty which is widely expected by lay public, parents, teachers, the legal system, and some school districts. It is difficult (and expensive), and should be, to badly dismiss a deficient teacher or to dismiss a good teacher. However, principals can effectively team with other district personnel to act on the small number of deficient teachers.

1- Bmwn, H. D. (1994). Teaching by p*eipIes: An interactive approach to Iangwge p~dtagogy. Englewood Cliffs' N4: Prentice Hall Regents. 2- MacGinitie, W. H. (1 993). Some limits of assessment. Journal of Reading, 6, 556-560. Magnusen, K 0. (1987). Faculty evaluation, performance, an8 pay. lournal of Higher Education, 58 (51. 5 16-529. 3- McGreal, T. L, (1983). Successful teacher evaluation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision md Curriculum Development. 4- Woad, D. R (1992). Teaching narratives: A source for faculty development and evaluation. Hmard Edrrcrn'od Rm-ew, 62 (41,535-550,

References


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كحابة الحقارير

Writing Reports


A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or any matter on which definite information is required. (Oxford English Dictionary)

Reports are highly structured form of writing often following conventions that have been laid down to produce a common format. Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information was gathered as much as the information itself.

- To take decisions - To coordinate - To follow up - To verify - To measure - To determine - To compare - To calculate - To modify - To develop, update, improve

- Educational reports - Research reports - Technical reports - Final reports - Pursuing reports - Laboratory reports - Technical reports - Statistical reports - Reports of a field trip - Reports of field work

Reports vary in their purposes, but all of them will require a formal structure and careful planning, presenting the material in a logical manner and concise language, honesty, making sure of the correctness of information written and keeping away from personal desires and own views.

What is a report?

Objectives of writing reports:

Different types of reports:


1. Clarifying your terms of reference 2. Planning your work 3. Collecting your information 4. Organizing and structuring your information 5. Writing the first draft 6. Checking and re-drafting

1. Terms of reference:

They are guiding statements used to define the scope of your investigation. You must be clear from the start what you are being asked to do. Knowing your purpose will help you to communicate your information clearly and will help you be more selective when collecting your information.

2. Planning your work: Careful planning will help you to write a clear, concise and effective report,

giving adequate time to each of the developmental stages prior to submission.

o Consider the report as a whole. o Break down the task of writing the report into various parts. o How much time do you have to write the report? o How can this be divided up into the various planning stages? o Set yourself deadlines for the various stages.

3. Collecting information:

There are a number of questions you need to ask yourself at this stage:

o What is the information you need? o Where do you find it? o How much do you need? o How shall you collect it? o In what order will you arrange it? o Make a list of what information you need. o Make an action plan stating how you are going to gather this information.

4. Organizing information:

One helpful way of organizing your information into topics is to brainstorm your ideas into a “spider diagram.”

o Write the main theme at the center of piece of paper. o Write down all the ideas and keywords related to your topic starting from

the center and branching out along lines of connecting ideas. o Each idea can be circled or linked by lines as appropriate. o When you have finished, highlight any related ideas and then sort topics.

Stages in report writing


o Some ideas will form main headings, and others will be sub-sections under these headings.

o You should then be able to see a pattern emerging and be able to arrange your main heading in a logical order.

5. Structuring or organizing your report: The purpose of a report is to inform the reader. It’s helpful, both to the

reader and to the writer, if the report is logically organized. Over the years a standard format for reports has been worked out. Following the format ensures that all the essential information is included and that is treated in pragmatic way. The format usually adopted is that described in a British Standard. If we don’t apply this format, there won’t be any clear difference between writing an essay and writing a report.

6. Drafting and re-drafting: Why should I draft and re-draft?

The simple answer to this question is that drafting and re-drafting will help you to write a better report.

o A report or research is a complicated piece of work. You need to draw upon a variety of sources and integrate them with your own ideas. This takes time and drafting and redrafting will help you to organize your materials and ideas into a coherent essay , report or research.

o Drafting can help you be more relaxed about your writing because you know that the early drafts will not be assessed. For example, some reporters decide not to pay too much attention to their grammar on a first draft and find that this helps them to write more freely.

o Re-reading your own work helps you to see your ideas in new ways. If you write a draft and then re-read it, you will almost always find ways of improving it.

o Writing a draft gives you an opportunity to let others read what you are writing. This can also help you to find ways of improving your work.

o Drafting and re-drafting helps you to think about your use of language. It is an excellent way of improving your writing skills.

How do I re-draft?

The problem of drafting and re-drafting is deciding what kinds of things to attend to when re-reading a draft. Many students are reluctant to make major changes to their drafts and tend to focus only on things like grammar and spelling. The solution is to attend to the larger things first and leave the smaller things until later.


The format of a report The format of an essay

- Presents information and findings from task

- Presents an argument to answer a question

- is meant to be scanned quickly by the reader to pick out particular information

- Is meant to be read carefully

- Uses headings and subheadings and is structured into sections

- It is not conventional to have headings

- May not need references and bibliography/reference list

- Always needs references and bibliography/reference list

- For some subject areas uses short, concise paragraphs and bullet-points where applicable

- Links ideas into cohesive paragraphs, rather than breaking them into a list of dot-points

- Uses graphics wherever possible (tables-graphs-illustrations) especially when describing results of research

- Rarely uses graphics, pictures or graphs

- For some discipline may require an abstract (sometimes called an executive summary)

- Doesn’t usually have an abstract

- May conclude with recommendations or appendices

- Doesn’t normally have recommendations or appendices

A common problem is that people transfer what they have learned about essay writing to report writing. Both essays and reports need;

- A format style - Careful proof-reading and neat presentation - Structure with an introduction, body and conclusion - Critical or analytical thinking

1. Title:

The title is your readers’ first contact with the report. Its aim is to inform them of the report’s content. It should be brief, but it must contain enough information to distinguish it from other similar reports. It shouldn’t be more than 15 words in length.

Differences between an essay and a report

Similarities between an essay and report

The main sections of a report


Try to write it using ordinary English grammar, rather than the “headline” style that is sometimes adopted; for example, a good title might be: “A comparative survey of computer programs for business using the PC”, rather than “PC business program comparison survey.”

2. Abstract or summary:

The abstract is like a mini report. It summarizes the whole report in one concise paragraph of about 100-200 words, so it is not important to give detailed information in the summary. It’s sufficient to inform the reader what was carried out and what results of this investigation were. For a short report a summary of about 100-150 words is enough; for a major research report, a summary may as long as on page. It certainly should not be longer than this. As a general rule, the shorter the summary is, the better, as long as the essential information is included. Although it must be brief, the summary should be written in complete sentences, not as notes.

3. Introduction:

The introduction outlines the purpose of the report and explains to the reader what the experiment or research is about. Usually the introduction states the problem to be solved or the research or task to performed and explains its purpose and significance. So the introduction answers the following questions:

- Why is the report being written? - What kind of information does it contain? - How is the problem being approached? - For whom is the report being written?

4- Methods and materials:

This section provides details on how the research was carried out and may consist of a list of materials or equipment and possibly a precise account of how the research or experiment was carried out in the correct order without missing out any important details. In short this section answers the questions:

- What did I do? - How did I do it? - What did I do it with? -

5- Results/Findings:

This is the place where you present your evidence. It should be organized logically so that your conclusions arise naturally from the facts you have written. It is important to confine yourself, stick on facts and resist the temptation to indulge in personal views. It’s sometimes helpful to use tables, diagrams or graphs to make your information more easily understood. Make sure that graphs and diagrams are well constructed to make the information easy to understand. A badly-constructed diagram or graph can make the information more confusing.

5- Discussion:

In this section, you must briefly describe again in your own words your results or research findings and, at greater length, interpret them with regards to what was


expected. You are also expected to mention problems or elements of the research that didn’t work out. This is a crucial part of the report since it is here that you show your understanding of what you have done and its context in the broader subject area, give your interpretation of the results and show that you understand the significant of the experiment and the results.

6- Conclusions and recommendations:

This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It should be expressed clearly and shouldn’t present any new information. You may wish to list your recommendations in a separate section or include them with the conclusion. In some report, styles, the results, discussion, and conclusion sections can be combined in various ways.

7- References:

Most reports require references at the end. You should give precise details of all the work by other authors which has been referred to within the report. Details should include:

- Author’s name and initials - Date of publication - Title of the book, paper or journal - Publisher - Place of publication - Page numbers - Details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared

References should be listed I alphabetical order of the authors’ names. Also make sure that your references are accurate and comprehensive.

8. Appendices:

An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which is not essential to the main findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishes. Remember you must refer to each appendix at the appropriate point (or points) in your report, for example, ‘A liker scale questionnaire was used (see appendix 1).

Gowers (1973) says that the purpose of good style is to affect the reader. Style in this sense is not intended to mean the kind of complicated or heightened language you would find in poetry. Good style simply means choosing ways of expressing yourself that will communicate your ideas clearly. Style is, therefore, a matter of good manners - of putting yourself in your readers’ place so that you don’t make unnecessary demands on them. Your readers shouldn’t have to struggle to work out the meaning of what you write. Gowers (1973) is essential reading on style, but other books on report writing contain useful information; e.g. Cooper (1984), Elsenberg (1982), Fletcher (1983), Van Emden and Easteal (1987).

Written Style


Be brief:

Use no more words than necessary to express what you mean. It is sometime tempting to choose a roundabout way of saying something because an unadorned statement may seem too rigid. Try to remember that you are wasting your own, your company’s and your reader’s time, if you use too many words. While it may sometimes be tactful to dress up unpalatable facts in a cloak of excess words, most technical writing demands that you make your points as concisely as possible. Here are a few examples of how very wordy statements can be pruned:

“It is of importance to bear in mind the fact that the Minister’s views in this connection, which were indicated at the meeting, were that it was a matter of prime importance that local authorities appreciate that information concerning possible breaches of the regulations should be communicated to the investigating officers of the ministry without undue delay.” (57 words)

This could be written:

“The Minister said that it was important that Local authorities told his Ministry as quickly as possible if the regulations were broken.” (22 words)

Try to avoid phrases that add nothing to your meaning or could be replaced by one word, e.g. Due to the fact that = because

On a daily basis = daily

Of a complex nature = complex

Be clear:

Avoid confusing your readers. Take care to use words which have the precise meaning you intend to convey, and, when you have the choice, choose words which are most easily understood. Avoid words with vague meanings. It is usually better to use concrete rather than abstract nouns and to use verbs rather than nouns. This will make your point more strongly.

e.g.: The retention of your receipt is desirable = Please keep your receipt

Another common way that writers confuse their readers is by stringing nouns together, a common practice in newspaper headlines, where editors have to make their headlines as eye-catching and brief as possible; e.g. “CHIP SHOP OWNER DEATH SCANDAL”. Here we don’t know whether the chip shop owner found someone dead, was found dead, killed someone, was killed, or perhaps, was poisoning customers. Generally

The elements of style can be summed up vey simply: be brief; be clear; be human.


these ambiguities will be explained in the main text. But some writers use this style as if it were self-explanatory. For instance, see how long it takes to decode the following sentence:

“The existing management information system will be upgraded and complemented with a company-wide networked database which will link into the current satellite based intra-Schlumberger packet switching communications system.”

It’s unfair to make your readers do more mental processing.

Be human:

Your readers will find what you write easier to read if they feel that a human being has written the text and that you have understood their needs as human beings. In particular, try to use active rather than passive voice forms of verbs. For example, compare the following statements:

- “Performance has improved.” - “An improvement in performance has been recorded.” - The first is active: it is short and to the point. - The second is passive: it requires more words and ends up saying something less

clearly.

- Islamic history provides us with a clear and strong evidence in understanding and application of the scientific method of thinking, it was narrated that the Prophet peace be upon him passed by his companions with a pot full of honey, asking them one by one: What's in the pot? and every one of them answered: It is honey, O Messenger of Allah. However, Abu Bakr did not follow what his colleagues followed . But he put his finger and tasted Honey three times, then said: It is honey, O Messenger of Allah answered the Prophet peace be upon him answered “Ratified, O Abu Bakr.” Companions were perplexed and asked him: Why did not you tell us what you said to Abu Bakr ? He answered to the effect:” Abu Bakr was the most desirable in his judgment and decision-making, in terms of taste and his dependence on repetition, did not stop at drawing a sense of consideration.“

- Ratified the Messenger of Allah may Allah bless him and grant him peace !

Adamsun, Arthur (1990) A Student’s Guide for Assignments, Projects and Research. Oxford: Thamesman Publications [808.06 ADA]

Barker, Alan (1993) The Right Report: A Practical Guide to Report Writing London: Industrial Society [808.066 BAR]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Prophet Mohammed ( PBUH ) and the scientific method


British Standards institution (1989) Recommendations for Bibliographical References (BS 1629). London: BSL

British Standards institution (1972) Presentation of Research and Development Reports (BS 4811). London: BSL

British Standards Institution (1990) for Citing Publications by Bibliographical References (BS 5605). 2nd ed. London: BSL

British Standard Institution (1989) Recommendations for References to Published Materials (BS 1629). London: BSL

British Standard Institution (1980) Numbering of Divisions and Subdivisions in Written Documents (Point-Numbering) (BS 5848). London: BSL

Bowden, John (2004) Writing a Report: How to Prepare, Write and Present Effective Reports. 7th ed. Plymouth: How to Books.[808.066 BOW]

Burnard, Philip (1992) Writing for Health Professionals: A Manual for Writers. London: Chapman & Hall [808.066 BUR]

Gowers, Sir Ernest (1973) The Complete Plain Words. 2nd ed. Revised by Sir Bruce Fraser. London: HMSO [425 GOW]

Haines, Roger (1990) Roger Haines on Report Writing: A Guide for Engineers. Blue Ridge Summit: TAB Books [808.066 HAL]

Hauge, Paul and Roberts, Kate (1994) Presentations and Report Writing. London: Kogan Page [808.066 HAU]

Web Links:

The Student Academic Support website study skills database, which can be found at: http://www.studentacademicsupport.abertay.ac.uk , has a list of useful websites to help with report writing. Here is a selection:

University of Canberra: a generic guide to the structure and purpose of a report – http:// www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/reports

Writing Centre: More detail about the possible sections in a report and what goes in them – http:// www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/labs.html

Surrey University: Good overview of the reasons for report writing – http:// www.surrey.ac.uk/Skills/pack/report.html An Abertay:

English as foreign language: contact Amanda Oliver ([email protected])

Advice for disabled students (including dyslexia): John Petrie ([email protected])

http:// www.studentacademicsupport.abertay.ac.uk

Web Links

http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/reports

http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/labs.html

http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Skills/pack/report.html

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.studentacademicsupport.abertay.ac.uk/


( 10 )

جحليل النحائج

و هحابعة الضعاف

Analyzing results

& Low achievers’ follow up


The technical supervisor is responsible of planning programmes for the improvement of instructions , working with others to increase the effectiveness of the teaching-learning and assisting the teacher and student in continuous evaluation with emphasis on helping the teacher develop and use reflective, self evaluative techniques. There is little chance in spending time and effort improving our classrooms and our teaching if we have no way of assessing and evaluating how well our learners are able to use the language we have been teaching them.

Evaluation is a purposeful, cyclical process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting relevant information in order to judge and make educational decisions. Evaluation may focus on the quality, appropriateness, worth or relevance of teachers, students, classroom instruction, instructional materials and activities, or whole courses or programmes of instruction. The process of evaluation includes different stages and aspects such as measurement, assessment, appraisal and judgment. Teachers need to assess students performance to be able to judge their achievement.

Assessment is the act of collecting information on individual learners’ performance , proficiency and achievement. Measurement is the process of finding the size, quantity or degree of something. Measurement implies the existence of tools, skills and criteria.

Assessments motivate teachers. Good formative assessment processes gives teachers evidence that students are progressing, and that’s what will keep them going. Formative assessment gives teachers confidence that they’re getting better and better. Students and teachers feel in control. They don't feel victimized. (Stiggins, 1994) Classroom assessment provides information to help make decisions about students , curricula and methodology . Specifically , we assess to make decisions in order to meet student needs and teacher purposes .

• Determining student strengths and weaknesses

• Determining learning styles of our pupils

• Learning about student interests in various topics

Introduction

What is Evaluation ?

Why do we need to use classroom assessment?

For students assessment helps in :


• Monitoring and following the progress of individual pupils

• Diagnosing the group's learning progress as a whole

• Providing feed-back about students' achievements

• Placing students into learning groups based upon achievement and personality factors .

Good tests give teachers insight into their own teaching practice and into the needs of their students, allowing for a more precise focus on areas on which students need the most work.

Planning instructional activities • Discovering what pupils have learned and what they still need to learn

• Deciding what to teach next

• Determining how to adapt instruction for student needs and learning styles

• Evaluating the effectiveness of our teaching methods

• Assigning grades and giving other feedback to students

• Giving feedback to parents

• Giving feedback to other teachers in the school and the principal

• Communicating with other professionals in order to provide more effective Instruction.

• Determining which content to include and which content to exclude from Instruction

1- The head of department and Teachers. H.O.D and teachers need to be skilled in administering, scoring, and interpreting

results from diverse assessment methods. Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills in interpreting informal and formal assessment results, including pupils' performances in class and on homework assignments. They will be able to administer standardized achievement tests and be able to interpret the reported scores.

H.O.D and teachers will be able to apply the concepts of score and summary indices in ways that enhance their use of the assessments that they develop. They will be able to analyze assessment results to identify pupils' strengths and errors. If they get inconsistent results, they will seek other explanations for the discrepancy or other data to attempt to resolve the uncertainty before arriving at a decision. They will be able to

Assessment helps teachers in:

Who analyzes results ?


use assessment methods in ways that encourage students' educational development. They also will be able to write sufficient reports to their superiors.

2-Supervisors.

Supervisors should be skilled in using assessment results when making decisions about individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement. Assessment results are used to make educational decisions at several levels: in the classroom about students, in the community about a school and a school district, and in society, generally, about the purposes and outcomes of the educational enterprise. Supervisors play a vital role when participating in decision-making at each of these levels and must be able to use assessment results effectively.

Supervisors and teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills to be able to use accumulated assessment information to organize a sound instructional plan for facilitating students' educational development. When using assessment results to plan and/or evaluate instruction and curriculum, teachers will interpret the results correctly and avoid common misinterpretations.

There are different kinds of tests which students go through in one scholastic year. The first test is the diagnostic test which the ELT supervision carries out among the schools of each stage, then analyze the results of these tests after receiving the statistics from schools and suggest remedial and development plans which can be implemented by heads of department and teachers to improve the standard of pupils .

By the end of each educational period the supervisor receives again more statistics from all the schools that he/she is responsible of in the area . These statistics show the test and on going assessment results , percentages of success , divisions of pupils and the number of the low achievers in each school.

Interpretation of any test results used to inform decision making and intervention in an educational context must always be informed by additional information gathered in the course of the assessment from school records, portfolios of current coursework, direct observation, reports from teachers and parents, and any reports from other professionals. Such information should be integrated with the test finding . The school supervisors are expected to perform many serious actions when reviewing statistics and reports such as :

A) While reviewing statistics .

Assessing students' performance in the light of the test analyses.

The ELT supervision main roles in studying results and percentages of success:


Studying the suggested plans for remediation and raising the standard of low achievers , as well as the plans assigned for high achievers then surveying the results of each in order to emphasize the positive sides and a void and remedy the negative ones accordingly .

While reviewing statistics the technical supervisor needs to put in mind some factors that may have affected the test taker’s performance during assessment and consequently his/her test score.

Comparing the results of the previous periods with the recent ones to check whether pupils are improving or not

Comparing the results of all the educational areas to check the differences in the percentages of success and take suitable decisions or reach judgments about the performance of teachers and pupils as well.

B) After reviewing statistics.

Suggesting relevant steps to be taken to overcome any deficiencies

Keeping in touch with school administrations and the heads of departments to follow up the application of such plans .

Receiving periodical reports from school about pupils achievements and the effectiveness of the remedial plans .

Conducting field visit to schools to watch the progress of the work.

Submitting periodical reports to the senior supervisor to acquaint him with the latest developments .

Modifying remedial plans according to pupils' needs and achievement.

Holding meetings with the school administrations , heads of department and teachers to be aware of the pupils' areas of weakness and strength .

Encouraging the teachers to co-operate with the social workers in their school to contact parents and to provide them with a copy of the remedial plan to follow up their children.

Studying carefully the main factors behind the instability of tests analyses and the standard of pupils from one period to another and getting teachers to give convincing justifications in their attached reports

The precision of the data provided, and the exactness of numbers.

The percentage of success in the oral assessment comparing it with the percentage of success in the written assessment.

The percentage of success in each branch of the exam " Vocabulary ,Structures , Language functions, Set book, Composition , Comprehension, Spelling, Translation and Punctuation.

When analyzing test results and percentages of success the supervisor need to cater for:


Comparing the results of the previous periods with the recent ones to check whether pupils are improving or not .

Comparing the branches of the exam with previous exams branches to check improvement.

Checking plans and evaluating its success according to the results.

Factors which may have affected the test taker’s performance during assessment and consequently his/her test score .

Schools , local supervision and general supervision analyze test results to measure student progress, identify areas where improvement is needed, and allocate resources accordingly. Test scores can indicate where school leaders may need to boost instruction, either through curriculum changes or professional development for teachers. Likewise, area and national policymakers use test results to compare progress among schools in the area and the country.

The supervisor examines the statistics which he/she receives from his school staffs and gives great attention to the performance and the following up of the low achievers , and after that he/she reaches judgment about the pupils' and teachers' performance. He/She listens to the teachers , holds meetings with heads of department and conducts class visits to see how the teachers deal with pupils specially the low achieves and watches pupils performance closely . He/She suggests solutions , prepares remedial plans and makes it possible for teachers to overcome any obstacles . The school supervisor have to follow up the implementation of the suggested remedial plans to measure to what extent they are applicable and effective in improving the standard of the pupils .

The technical supervisor need to make sure that teachers

Fully understand that the students standard uplifting is their responsibility. Care and are committed to each student's achievement. Believe each student can improve. Remain constantly aware of pupil progress in relation to objectives.

The technical supervisor should train teachers to:

Give clear and explicit instructions Apply methods for controlling minor classroom disruptions with immediate, brief

action that downplays the incident. Give students frequent encouragement and praise for effort Apply interactive teaching with a focus on improving skill and concept mastery

How are tests helpful to education decision makers?

The role of the ELT supervision in low achievers follow up.


Involve low achievers in cooperative learning in small group activities Utilize teaching aids to attract the pupils attention and achieve lessons objectives

in easier and more sufficient way. Improve his teaching techniques to be more EFFECTIVE.

Engaging every learner , Fostering learner confidence , Focusing on objectives , Eliciting learner performance , Connecting prior knowledge

Teaching explicitly , Integrating the four skills , Varying learning activities

Enhancing peer assistance

Training teachers to be more effective at classroom management and to use more effective and interactive teaching methods is likely to help low-achieving students improve in some important respects. They are more likely to feel accepted at school and are less likely to get into serious trouble that can eventually discourage their educational careers.

The coverage of the syllabus affects pupils' performance ,achievements and the testing process . Some teachers try to finish quickly regardless of pupils' understanding or comprehension . Others , on the other hand , resort to over teaching because they believe that repetition is effective and helps pupils to grasp the information easily . Both kinds of teachers have bad influence and affect the coverage of the syllabus because of their false beliefs. It is the ELT supervision's responsibility to check to what extent do schools stick to the distributions of the syllabus and cover the allotted amount of pages through out the a specific period of time.

Planning the study domain is on of the technical supervisor's roles . He/She is required to :

Suggesting the general plan for the study domain ( Its objectives , procedures, pursuing and assessment. )

Setting up the relevant instructions that enhance the achievement of the objectives of the general plan and the plans for subordinate activities.

Specifying the needs of the study domain ( textbooks , references and educational technology )

Preparing and approving the distributions of the curricula content through out the months of the scholastic year for all grades of teaching stages.

Assigning the methods of teaching for the study subject.

Taking an active part in writing , modifying and reviewing textbooks.

The coverage of the syllabus


Misunderstanding of the syllabus and its objectives.

Lack of time management.

The density of the syllabus

Teachers' absence.

Holidays and school celebrations.

Tests and assessments .

Limited ability teachers ( lack mental and written preparation)

The level of the pupils in each class.

ELT supervisors should regularly follow up the coverage of the syllabus to prevent teachers' manipulation and reluctance. This can be done through adopting many ways such as :

Conducting frequent class visits.

Going carefully through the teachers' preparation registers.

Keeping in touch with heads of department and asking them to submit periodical reports about the progress sheet .

Checking the progress sheet regularly not only at the end of each educational period.

Checking the weekly plan designed and suggested by ELT General Supervision regularly with the help of the heads of department to follow up the application of such plans.

The technical supervision has a significant role in the processes of planning , implementation, follow-up, evaluation, remediation and effective development of the educational process, to reach the best results. This role can not be achieved unless there are good assessment methods and skillful teachers and supervisors to analyze the results and use their outcomes sufficiently. English language technical supervisors play a crucial role in helping teachers to modify and adapt their teaching techniques and styles in order to help learners to develop professionally and overcome any learning obstacles or disabilities.

The Technical Supervisor's Guide. Mrs. Suad Al-Ansary.

What factors affect the coverage of the syllabus:

Conclusion

References:


Teacher Training . DR. Jwaher Al-Dabbous . DR. Graham Howells

www.moe.edu.kw ELT General Supervision – Guide lines (Measurement & Evaluation)

www.moe,edu.kw 2007 -2006العام الدراسي ( رؤساء الأقسام ) الدورة التدريبيت للوظائف الإشرافيت

www.unl.edu/buros/bimm/html/article3.html Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students.

http://www3.ksde.org/pre/low_achievers2000.html Possible causes of and solution for low achievement

http://www.moe.edu.kw/

http://www.moe,edu.kw/

http://www.unl.edu/buros/bimm/html/article3.html

http://www.archieve.official-documents.com.uk/

http://www3.ksde.org/pre/low_achievers2000.html


( 11)

جذريب الوُذربين

Training of trainers


Training is the process of acquiring the knowledge, skills, and attitude that are needed to fill the gap between what people want to do, and what they are able to do now. The purpose of ‘cascade training’ is to pass knowledge and skills to colleagues who work at different ‘levels’. In order to teach a trainer how to train well, a ‘learning by doing’ approach is best.

They have to deliver information or concepts or new ways of working They often have to introduce an entire workforce to a new mission People come to them with training needs or personal issues and they have to find or

deliver the appropriate programme which will address these specific requests. Many times it isn't even the individuals themselves who come to the training or HR

department, but their managers, who often want staff members miraculously transformed.

Trainers have to balance the needs of the institution , which is to have staff working as efficiently and effectively as possible .

Trainers need all kinds of skills: communication, counselling and group work. They have to be articulate, empathetic, professional, knowledgeable, trustworthy

Think of the best trainer/facilitator you ever had; list qualities that made them great; then identify your weak points as facilitator and try to improve.

Work as a training team, and assign roles based on strengths of individuals in the team (e.g. presenter, facilitator, listener, commentator, note-taker, gender balance)

Arrange for an acceptable venue (light, electricity, nice table setting where people can see each other - with break-out rooms, refreshments, visual equipment)

Make sure you have all the (visual) materials needed - paper, pens, flipcharts, tape, markers, etc.

Ensure you understand and have internalized all tools before being a facilitator otherwise you can't talk with confidence.

Prepare well and rehearse.

Relax and energize participants. Facilitate name-learning.

Familiarize participants with each other and with organizations represented.

Ensure all participants understand the aims and objectives of the workshop.

Introduction

Preparation

Practices for Training

Someone has to train the trainer. Why ?


Always properly introduce the key aims of the training, and use an ice-breaker

through which everybody is introduced, especially if you do not know participants

well.

Icebreakers are very important to keep a group interested and working together

effectively. They are useful for training workshops, and for the actual monitoring

process that involves group discussions and exercises.

Ensure all the activities planned for the workshop are acceptable to the

participants.

Agree upon a timetable.

List expectations, and get a sense of the level of knowledge present among

participants at the start of the training.

Adapt the programme to address the felt needs and make and modifications to

content or structure as requested by the group;

Agree to ‘rules’ of the workshop (e.g. mutual respect, one speaker at a time, no

mobile phones, etc.).

Emphasize ‘learning by doing’ as the approach that will be taken during training;

Start every day with a recapitulation of the previous day. Then introduce the

agenda for the day and seek inputs. For every training block (1.5 hours) explain

what they will do, then do it, then summarize what was done including a list of key

points (if possible summarized by participants).

Use a variety of communication methods: show a wide range of visual aids (simple,

easy to read in colour and size, key words not long stories), involve children,

encourage plenary discussion, group work, individual work, role-playing, etc.

Role-play a bad facilitator versus a good facilitator for contrast and clarity.

Also remember to incorporate activities that: invigorate participants (who are

sleepy or looking bored), calm participants (who are over-excited, particularly

children), and that refresh participants (who have been working hard) in between

training activities.

Stick to time-frames where possible.

Have a strong closing session where you review aims and expectations, summarize

what was learnt, commit to action, and close with appreciation and

congratulations;

Always build in an evaluation of the training as improvements can always be made.

Any simple evaluation is suggested to focus on the following questions:

- What did you like about the training?

- What did you not like about the training?

- What will you do as follow up to the training?

- What suggestions do you have to improve future training sessions?


Stay relaxed and calm. Be open and honest. Be a good listener; observe, record, observe, record…; Do not panic when the group in silent; wait patiently for them to think about what

they want to say. Do not interrupt people. Do not make judgments of people’s responses (for example, saying that ‘this is

good, and that is bad’) or humiliate anyone. Do not let arguments dominate the discussion; encourage participants to re-focus

on the main topic. Be aware of language barriers; let people talk in the language they are most

comfortable in (and ask someone else to translate if necessary). Use visual aids and body language to help overcome language barriers; Have eye contact, stand up and move around, speak slowly, use your voice

(intonation). Make it as interactive as possible - involve and engage participants. Ask questions

and invite participants to tell their stories; Use humor if natural for you, and smile. Choose words, stories, numbers, and cases that capture interest (use real

examples to illustrate your points). Address concerns, questions, issues as raised by participants, while sticking to the

main messages you want to get across

Technical expertise. In order to run a training course on a particular topic, the training provider should be

competent, professional, and experienced within the specific field.

Training material. The written material is also key to its success. Rather than expecting participants to

write lots of notes, loosing track from the topics, the best courses are those that supply a comprehensive training handbook and other adequate supporting material that participants can refer to once they leave the course.

Adaptability. The aims of the training should be carefully assessed to provide the most accurate

program. By determining precisely what participants expect from the training it is possible to focus on what is most important and work on practical and tailor-made exercises.

Attitude

What makes a good training course?


Class size. It is essential that the class size is manageable. Each participant should have access to

all the relevant equipment and receive the attention they deserve. Often the bigger the class size the poorer the results. A maximum of about 6 participants is ideal.

Class homogeneity. For a better result all participants should be of a similar skill level to avoid frustration

from either having to wait or being left behind.

After-course care. Many training providers assume that once a particular training is over, it is the end of

their relationship with the participants. However, offering an ongoing service that lasts beyond the course completion is the sign of quality from the training company. Some companies offer a post-course technical support service and a comprehensive consultancy service.

In short, good trainings rely on the trainer to assess the participants’ level, set the target/s, give clear explanations, provide practical exercises and encourage interaction within the group. These are the main keys to making training a great and useful experience.

Name-learning assignment Name chain Alphabetical lineup Name bingo Name tag mix-up Alphabetical sign-in Do you know your neighbors? Personalized name tags Name toss What's in a name?

‘Find someone who…’

We are going to start with a Mingle activity. This is quite a common way of opening a training course or workshop. Please stand up from your seats. Walk around the room. Speak to as many other participants as you can. Try to write a name in each space. Find someone who…

learning names

learning names


___________ has been on a workshop at the British Council before.

___________ has been the trainer on a workshop in the last 2 months.

___________ has never conducted a training course before.

___________ has met the trainer of this workshop before.

___________ is feeling anxiety about this workshop.

___________ arrived here before you this morning.

___________ has developed training materials before.

___________ will be conducting training workshops in the near future.

___________ likes the way this training room is arranged.

___________ doesn’t like the way this training room is arranged.

Anticipate participants' responses to the material presented. Identify potential problem situations before hand and plan contingency approaches. Consult other trainers for approaches and insights they have found helpful. Turn difficult situations and comments back to the group. Allow group members to work through the situations or comments themselves.

Limit your opinions on controversial subjects and avoid expressing personal opinions. Never argue with a participant. 1. Desire: Scouter must want to learn how to operate a unit effectively.

Adults resist learning something simply because somebody says they must.

They learn best when they have a strong motivation to acquire a particular skill or to increase a particular knowledge.

The desire to learn must be created by emphasizing the importance of the job to be done.

2. Need: Leaders learn only what they feel a need to learn.

Materials presented in a training course should provide an immediate aid to unit operation.

Try to use this idea: "This is what you do. This is how you do it. This is why you do it."

Handling difficult situations

Eight Fundamental Requirements for Training Leaders


3. Leaders Learn by Doing.

Provide immediate and repeated opportunities to practice or use what is taught.

On-The-Job training with a skilled trainer is excellent.

4. Situations presented in training courses must be realistic.

Use actual unit situations as the basis for discussions.

5. Previous experience affects a leader's ability to learn.

If new knowledge doesn't fit in with what leaders already know or think they know, they may tend to reject it.

Training material should convince leaders of the best methods.

6. Leaders learn best in a relaxed, informal, comfortable environment.

Provide opportunities for fun and fellowship. Encourage discussion and questions. Try to avoid arguments. Avoid arguments that relate to the policies of the Boy Scouts of

America.

7. Use a variety of training methods and techniques.

Change the pace often.

8. Leaders want guidance and help, not grades.

Here are some of the ingredients of a training course. Make some notes under each heading, describing what would make a good course. relationship between the participant and the ‘educator’?

Trainer

The 'perfect' training course

Participants

Environment

Programme


Is it true that, at different times in your job, you may be taking a different role (eg, one minute your are an instructor, the next minute a facilitator)? Here are some other ‘roles’ you may perform when facilitating learning.

Motivator and inspirer: Mediator or referee Mentor or coach Quality controller Chairperson Presenter Counsellor

Just as there are many kinds of learner, there are different types of trainer. If we

recall our schooldays, we will remember that some of our teachers were stricter than

others, some more enthusiastic about the subject, some were laid back and others were

lively in the classroom.

We are going to look at some types of trainer:

The ‘guru’ : An expert. Has a deep knowledge of her subject and loves to share it.

‘Showman’: A would-be actor. Loves to be ‘on stage’, to perform before the

audience. Often jokes and tells stories. A great entertainer.

‘One of the boys’ (‘one of the girls’) : Communicates on a very friendly level with

the participants. Perhaps mixes socially with them.

The quiet one Tends to keep a low profile, preferring the participants to do all the

work. Likes to stand back and let them get on with it.

Disciplinarian Strict. Likes to push the participants hard and exert strong control

over the group.

A trainer's various hats

Task: Can you think of at least one or two situations within the training-room in which a trainer performs the above roles? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

What type of trainer are you?


Type Action

The Silent one. A participant doesn’t appear to want to contribute.

The Griper. A participant often complains about the tasks, facilities

and other things.

The Know-all. A participant wants to display his/her knowledge,

dominating the session.

The Clash. Two or more participants clash over personalities,

abilities, facts, etc.

The Latecomer. A participant consistently arrives late, returns late

after breaks.

Difficult-to-understand. A participant is hard to understand,

maybe a non-English speaker, a non-technical person on a

technical course.

TRAINER CHARACTERISTICS

POOR GOOD

Monotone / irritating voice or laugh Good inflection,

Tone of voice annoyed, exasperated Tone of voice: unruffled

No visual contact Good visual contact

Doesn't know material / program Solid knowledge base - Credibility in area

Disorganized / unprepared Organized and prepared

Critical Understanding and attentive

Know-it-all Willing to share knowledge

Apathetic (indifferent, uninterested, unconcerned)

Enthusiastic - excited about topic

Dwells on personal life / experiences Authenticates material with experiences and practical applications

Defensive, intolerant Receptive to questions; listens to the whole

Types of trainee – Complete the action

TRAINER CHARACTERISTICS


Group ( A )

Method Pros Cons

Lectures/ presentations

- allows the trainer to convey information quickly to a large group - persuasive

Written exercises

- allows for individualised learning - adjustable to different levels

Group discussions

- involves everyone - can explore new ideas - flexible

Case studies

- realistic and work-related - great for problem-solving

Role plays

- provides environment for practice - allows for testing ideas

question before answering

Says things in the same way, repeatedly

Flexible; willing to stop and find a new approach

Lack of presentation skills Good presentation skills

Can't deal with surprise hurdles (i.e. machines don't work, etc.)

Handles the unexpected calmly and efficiently

Can't gauge the mood of the room Can gauge the mood of the room

Unprofessional appearance (incorrect / no uniform, poor attitude)

Professional appearance (clothes, body language, attitude, self confidence)

No sense of humor. Has a sense of humor - someone who can make us laugh in the first few minutes

Too proper, stiff Likes to have fun

Types of training methods


Group ( B )

Method Pros Cons

Games and simulations

- high level of involvement and interest - memorable and fun

Questionnaires - self-awareness - allows time for reflection

Project work with presentation

- useful for knowledge and skills -practice - effective for recall of knowledge

Videotaped simulations with playback

- useful for self assessment - provides medium for peer feedback

Brainstorming

- energizers and fun - great for stimulating ideas

SUMMARY of TRAINING TECHNIQUES

Method What it is When To Use It

Lecture

One person conveys information to a group of learners by talking to them, with or without visual aids. There is no participation by the learners and little feedback to the lecturer.

In large groups where discussion is not practical. When an expert is relaying new information to learners who have no relevant personal experience.

Informal Talk Similar to a lecture, except involving feedback and participation by the learners. Less formal.

In groups where there is ample time for questions and feedback. Where material being presented is not entirely outside the experiences of the learners.

Demonstration

A person or team of persons show learners how they would carry out a task by actually performing the task while explaining it. Usually followed up by practicing the task.

Especially helpful for teaching a skill. Need to have a small instructor to learner ratio.

SUMMARY of TRAINING TECHNIQUES


Discussion A planned conversation (exchange of ideas or viewpoints) on a selected topic, guided by a trained discussion leader.

Where the ideas and experiences of the group will help them discover the point they are learning. There needs to be an experienced leader to keep things on track.

Case Study

A realistic situation or a series of actual events is presented to the learners, either orally or by a handout, for their analysis.

Where real-life situations get the point across most effectively. Where multiple points of view will help learners to better understand the concepts.

Role-Playing

Leaders or learners act out roles presented in a particular situation. Participants must supply their own dialog within the context of the role and the situation.

Where high learner participation is desired, and when the subject involves person to person communication.

Simulations

A more complex form of role-playing and case study. Used to recreate the environment in which participants would normally carry out a job and the situations that might arise.

For disaster, rescue, first aid, or other crisis management situation training. Any time an elaborate role-play can best teach the subject matter.

Brainstorming

Group members suggest possible solutions to a problem in rapid-fire order, either orally or on cards to be posted. All ideas are considered; criticism and editorializing are not allowed.

When the things to be learned involve pulling together the ideas of the whole group. For program planning.

Buzz Groups

A way to promote the quick exchange of ideas on a single topic in a short period of time. Ideas are presented back to the larger group for discussion.

When the group is too large for general discussion or brainstorming. When the experiences of the learners can lead them to discover solutions for themselves.

Question and Answer Session

An opportunity for an expert to impart specific knowledge about a topic in direct response to the desires of the group of learners.

Near the end of a training session. When an expert is available--one whose knowledge is either superior or whose authority makes his/her answers correct.

Learning Centers A series of stations/tables/corners, each accommodating a small group, all

When desiring to teach a lot of information in a short period of


Dos Don’ts

Warm up learners’ minds before you start a session.

Review the learning frequently.

Encourage learners to ask questions. Question them frequently.

Set clear objectives for each task.

Make sure learners know why they are learning.

Restrict input to maximum 7 pieces of information at a time.

Take lots of breaks.

Present critical info at the beginning and recap at the end.

Use visuals (whiteboard, slide show, real things)

Ask learners how they learn best.

Use realistic case studies and role-plays.

Use anecdotes.

Use participants’ names.

Give useful feedback.

Overload learners with information.

Use abstract ideas, if possible.

Ask questions like “Do you understand?” or “Have you all got that?”

Take things for granted.

Speak too fast so that participants are lost.

Ask learners to do things you would not be prepared to do yourself.

teaching related parts of the same general topic.

time. When a group is too large to teach effectively through other methods above.

Dos and don’ts of training delivery


The computer with power point presentation software combines the advantage of the overhead projector, the slide projector, flip chart, flannel board, and whiteboard/chalkboard, all rolled into one.

1. With computer projection systems, presentation can be made to audiences as small as five (use a monitor only) or as large as an auditorium full of students.

2. Projection can best be done in a semi-dark room. A darkened room is not necessary.

3. The trainer faces the audience. By keeping eye contact with the participants, the trainer is able to maintain control of the group while at the same time controlling the presentation.

4. The presentation is prepared by using presentation software. The software has a number of special effects:

a. Animation b. Backgrounds c. Slide transitions

6. A large number of fonts can also be used. Some sizing considerations.

a. Titles b. Main Thoughts 50 - pt

c. Secondary points 32 – pt d. Third level points 28 - pt

e. Fourth level and smallest recommended 20 - pt

7. Color on Color ranking is as follows:

(Ranked from most visible to least visible)

1. Black on yellow 2. Green on white 3. Blue on white 4. White on blue

5. Black on white 6. Yellow on black 7. White on red 8. White on orange

9. White on black 10. Red on yellow 11. Green on red 12. Red on green

Equipment

Overhead projector Screen

Transparencies / slides Flip chart

Marker pens Blu-tack / wall tape

Camera / tripod TV monitor

Tapes Extension cables and masking tape

Adaptors (3-pin – 2 pin) CD / tape player

Pads of paper, pencils

Seating and tables

General training room checklist

Making power point presentations


Enough chairs for all participants and trainer Enough space to move around

Lighting, ventilation, AC

Water, glasses, sweets

Trainer’s needs

Preparation done? Audience research done?

Water, sweets, pain-killers Somewhere to sit / stand / walk around

Mirror, grooming done? Watch

Documents

Manuals Handouts Participants list

Things to know

Where the toilets are What to do in case of fire

Who to contact in case of equipment failure Where are the refreshments served

Trainer’s kit Marker pens Wall tape

Scissors Hole punch

Stapler Overhead pens

Pain-killers Business cards

Tissues Spare notepaper / pencils / pens

Post-it notes Watch

Cough sweets Bottle of water

Evaluating Training by Peter Bramley, 2003 Learning Needs Analysis and Evaluation by Frances and Roland Bee, 2003 Designing & Delivering Training by David Simmonds, 2003 Training in the Age of the Learner by Martyn Sloman, 200 Evaluation Training: a resource for measuring the results and impact of training on

people, departments and organisations by Sharon Bartram and Brenda Gibson. Aldershot: Gower, 1999

How to Deliver Training by Martin Orridge. Aldershot: Gower, 1998 Training Interventions: Promoting Learning Opportunities by Margaret Anne Reid,

Harry Barrington. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 1999

World Class Training: Providing Training Excellence by Kaye Thorne and Alex Machray London: Kogan Page, 1999

How to Measure Training Effectiveness by Leslie Rae. Aldershot: Gower, 2001

References


( 12 )

الحخطيط

Planning


Planning can greatly reduce your stress quotient. Proper planning gives you the peace of mind of knowing that you have formulated a feasible plan of action and that your goals are attainable. Planning also helps you to be prepared for obstacles because part of the planning process is creating a contingency pan for unexpected problems. Planning serves as a way to evaluate your progress as you work. Planning your daily and weekly activities will clearly illustrate whether or not you are staying on schedule.

Planning can be defined as “a process of taking decisions for future actions in order to achieve pre-determined objectives by optimum utilization of available resources in a limited time frame”. Planning is the process of setting goals, developing strategies, and outlining tasks and schedules to accomplish the goals.

A plan is the product of the planning process and can be defined as a set of decisions about what to do, why, and how to do it. A plan of action is a living reference framework for action. Planning comprises all the work associated with the six-step planning process:

− Specify Problems and Opportunities − Inventory and Forecast Conditions − Formulate Alternative Plans − Evaluate Effects of Alternative Plans − Compare Alternative Plans − Select Recommended Plan

When you are about to attempt a project, whether organizing an expedition, launching a new product or embarking on a research project, you inevitably face problems and risks. These might be:

Risks to life or health Risks to status, career or employment Problems of lack of resources Risks of wasting limited resources, whether money, time or power The risk to your self-esteem if you fail .etc.

Introduction

What is planning ?

Why Should You Plan?

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/process.html

http://www.investorwords.com/2187/goal.html

http://www.investorwords.com/4775/strategy.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/task.html

http://www.investorwords.com/4405/schedule.html


Planning is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. Planning is preparing a sequence of action steps to achieve some specific goals. If you do it effectively, you can reduce much the necessary time and effort of achieving the goals.

A plan is like a map. When following a plan, you can always see how much you have progressed towards your project goal and how far you are from your destination. Knowing where you are is essential for making good decisions on where to go or what to do next.

Planning is also crucial for meeting your needs during each action step with your time, money, or other resources. With careful planning you often can see if at some point you are likely to face a problem. It is much easier to adjust your plan to avoid or smoothen a coming crisis, rather than to deal with the crisis when it comes unexpected.

Planning is the process by which you determine whether you should attempt the

task, work out the most effective way of reaching your target, and prepare to overcome unexpected difficulties with adequate resources. It is the start of the process by which you turn empty dreams into achievements. It helps you to avoid the trap of working extremely hard but achieving little.

Planning is an up-front investment in success - by applying the planning process effectively you can:

Avoid wasting effort:

It is easy to spend large amounts of time on activities that in retrospect prove to be irrelevant to the success of the project. Alternatively you can miss deadlines by not assessing the order in which dependent jobs should be carried out. Planning helps you to achieve the maximum effect from a given effort.

Take into account all factors, and focus on the critical ones:

This ensures that you are aware of the implications of what you want to do, and that you are prepared for all reasonable eventualities.

Be aware of all changes that will need to be made:

If you know these, then you can assess in advance the likelihood of being able to make those changes, and take action to ensure that they will be successful.

The Planning Process


Gather the resources needed:

This ensures that the project will not fail or suffer for lack of a critical resource.

Carry out the task in the most efficient way possible

So that you conserve your own resources, avoid wasting ecological resources, make a fair profit and are seen as an effective, useful person.

The formal procedure of applying the planning process helps you to:

Take stock of your current position Identify precisely what is to be achieved Detail precisely and cost the who, what, when, where, why and how of achieving

your target. Assess the impact of your plan on your organization and the people within it, and

on the outside world. Evaluate whether the effort, costs and implications of achieving your plan are

worth the achievement. Consider the control mechanisms, whether reporting, quality or cost control, etc.

that are needed to achieve your plan and keep it on course.

Planning is best thought of as a cycle, not a straight-through process: once a plan has been devised it should be evaluated. This evaluation may be cost or number based, or may use other analytical tools. This analysis may show that the plan specified may cause unwanted consequences, may cost too much, or may simply not work.

In this case the planning process will have to cycle back to an earlier stage, or the plan may have to be abandoned altogether - the outcome of your planning may simply be that it is best to do nothing!

The stages of the planning cycle that will be explained below are:

The Planning Cycle


Effective planners must master many skills. they need to develop skills related to the following seven competency areas:

1. Analyzing and interpreting data and situations 2. Diagnosing problems and identifying relevant causal factors 3. Predicting and forecasting 4. Goal setting and identifying possible courses of action 5. Evaluating and comparing possible courses of action 6. Communicating 7. Implementing actions and monitoring them.

People are constantly bombarded with a variety of data about situations that they must analyze, interpret, and assess. In these data rich situations we must use basic cognitive, intuitive and judgmental skills to sort out what the data means. We analyze, interpret, and assess the data. Analyzing means separating the situation into parts and examining the parts to better understand what is occurring. Interpreting means explaining and providing your own view of the situation. Assessing means estimating the value or worth of elements of the situation. In applying these basic skills, we sort data into categories and we identify consistent and plausible interpretations of the available data. These data are often about important events, so the analysis must be as rigorous and complete as possible, and the interpretation must be systematic and cautious. Assessments and interpretations of data indicate its importance, plausibility, and worth or

What are basic planning skills?


value. Plausible explanations of the data should be discarded only when there is a sufficient amount of evidence to clearly rule them out. The key problem facing people is that data is often incomplete, conflicting, and extraneous. So we must exercise care and identify missing, erroneous, or extraneous data. We all need to develop skills to assist in:

Coping with partial information

Recognizing and assessing contradictory data

Identifying unreliable data

Making realistic assumptions

Developing complicated reasoning chains supported by assumptions and evidence

Using intuition to reach defensible assessments and interpretations.

Furthermore, some people must diagnose problems affecting not only themselves but a group or an entire organization. Diagnosing is the process of determining the cause and nature of problems. Usually we will need to draw inferences and make judgments to reach a diagnosis. Inferring means reaching conclusions based upon what is known and assumed. Judging, a skill that people use often, is the process of forming opinions and estimates relevant to a situation or problem. As a skilled diagnostician, a person needs an understanding of the entire situation, and the relationships among elements in the situation. A person needs to be especially skilled at the following:

Using incomplete and conflicting information

Separating symptoms and causes from problems

Collecting relevant diagnostic information.

However, people must do much more than analyze, interpret, and diagnose. Another important skill is forecasting and predicting the future. This skill involves determining what one believes is likely to happen in the future. Sometimes models of the past or present are useful aids in forecasting. In other situations, quantitative models introduce false confidence and exaggerate errors and discontinuities about anticipated events that are occurring over time. The predictors or variables used by people to help them anticipate the future can change rapidly as events unfold, thus requiring an adjustments of plans. Skilled planners develop an adequate and appropriate understanding of causes and consequences to help them anticipate events and adjust planned actions over time. Hence people must be skilled at:

Considering and assessing multiple possible futures

Making use of diverse types of data from many sources

Considering contingencies and uncontrollable factors

Assessing the likelihood of events.


Naturally, two basic skills that planners must possess are identifying possible courses of action and goal-setting. Planning is the process of designing a consistent integrated program of actions that when carried out will accomplish specific goals. Goal-setting is the process of identifying desired accomplishments and targets. Planners should be especially skilled at identifying long-range strategic actions. A planner should be able to construct plans that achieve long-run goals without consuming excessive resources or violating constraints. If long-run goals of the business are in conflict, then planners must be able to establish priorities. Skilled strategic thinkers are flexible and opportunistic in situations that are not fully known or that change with time. They can work with predictions and develop plans that are responsive to the uncertainty and contingencies associated with them. A skilled planner can cope with the following key problems:

Assessing the likely consequences for alternative courses of action

Sorting out irrelevant issues, and focusing only on the most relevant

Resolving goal conflicts and prioritizing goals

Preparing for possible contingencies

Coordinating the actions and actors in a plan.

Planners must be skilled at evaluating and comparing possible courses of action. In a planning situation, alternative plans or courses of actions need to be evaluated against normative criteria to ensure their "goodness". The major normative criteria that must be met by a planned course of action include acceptability, adequacy, completeness, distinguishability, feasibility, suitability and variety. When one compares alternative plans to accomplish the same mission and long-term objectives a list of specific criteria related to effectiveness and efficiency need to be developed. The specific criteria should then be used to make comparisons among the alternatives. Planners must assess measures like the following for each alternative planned course of action:

What is the anticipated percent accomplishment of specific identified objectives?

What is the total use of resources?

What is the impact on human resources, e.g., number of staff needed?

What is the likely occurrence of unintended desirable effects, e.g., few vs. many side effects?

What is the likely occurrence of unintended UNDESIRABLE effects and what is the magnitude of the side effects?

Planners must also work and communicate with a wide array of individuals with

various backgrounds. In order to be an effective planner, one must possess well-

developed communication, interpersonal and team skills. Effective communication

includes both the ability to influence and inform others and the openness to be


influenced and informed by others. Effective planners, then, have communications-

receiving skills such as listening openly to new ideas, and effective communication-

sending skills such as speaking persuasively.

Finally, planners must be skilled at implementing and monitoring plans. Once a plan

has been communicated to those who will execute it, planners must carry out their

assigned tasks in executing the plan and assist those people who need help. Also,

planners must interpret signals and feedback from others who are executing the plan.

Effectively implementing and monitoring a plan that has been skillfully crafted can

greatly increase the likelihood of its success.

When writing an action plan to achieve a particular goal or outcome, you can get

much help from the following steps.

Clarify your goal. Can you get a visual picture of the expected outcome? How can

you see if you have reached your destination? What does make your goal

measurable? What constraints do you have, like the limits on time, money, or

other resources.

Write a list of actions. Write down all actions you may need to take to achieve

your goal. At this step focus on generating and writing as many different options

and ideas as possible. Take a sheet of paper and write more and more ideas, just

as they come to your mind. While you are doing this, try not to judge or analyze.

Analyze, prioritize, and prune. Look at your list of actions. What are the absolutely

necessary and effective steps to achieve your goal? Mark them somehow. After

that, what action items can be dropped from in the plan without significant

consequences for the outcome. Cross them out.

Organize your list into a plan. Decide on the order of your action steps. Start from

looking at your marked key actions. For each action, what other steps should be

completed before that action? Rearrange your actions and ideas into a sequence

of ordered action steps. Finally, look at your plan once again. Are there any ways

to simplify it even more?

Monitor the execution of your plan and review the plan regularly. How much

have you progressed towards your goal by now? What new information you have

got? Use this information to further adjust and optimize your plan.

How to write an action plan


Here are some ideas that will help you improve your planning skills and planning ability.

Force yourself to plan. If you fail to plan, you are by default planning to fail. Schedule uninterrupted time every day to do your planning. Anticipate possible problems you could encounter in your project because of

people, material, or mechanical failures. Purposely provide preventive actions and contingency plans in important high risk situations.

When planning a project, plan in thinking time. Plan for tomorrow, tonight. Your subconscious will help organize while you sleep. Each day anticipate the sequence of activities that you will do to attain the

objectives you are after. Think about your entire week. How will important projects be sequenced? Do your planning on paper to capture all of your ideas and to be sure none of them

get lost. We can only work mentally with about seven pieces of information without losing something. Write your thoughts down and you will be able to utilize everything you think of during your planning process.

When developing a specific plan, list the activity steps individually on small pieces of paper and then sequence the pieces of paper. Then write the whole plan out in sequential order.

If you must, leave your office and get away to do your planning in a quiet place where you can think.

Don't hurry the process. Something will get overlooked.

How to improve your planning skills


( 13 )

إدارة الىقث

Time management


Time management refers to a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals. This set encompasses a wide scope of activities, and these include planning, allocating, setting goals, delegation, analysis of time spent, monitoring, organizing, scheduling, and prioritizing. Initially time management referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities as well. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools and techniques.

Time management is a set of principles, practices, skills, tools, and systems working together to help you get more value out of your time with the aim of improving the quality of your life.

The important point is that time management is not necessarily about getting lots of stuff done, because much more important than that is making sure that you are working on the right things, the things that truly need to be done.

Smart time managers know that there is much more to do than anyone could possibly accomplish. So instead of trying to do it all, smart time managers are very picky about how they spend their time.

They choose to focus and spend their time doing a few vital projects that will really make a difference, rather than spending all their time doing many trivial things that don't really matter all that much.

If you become a good time manager, you’ll not only get a lot more done in less time, but you’ll feel more relaxed, focused and in control of your life.

You’ll be able to use your time in a much more balanced and effective way, and you’ll be able to make time for the people and activities that you love. When you get to the end of a busy day, you’ll feel a strong sense of accomplishment from everything that you actually got done.

Improving your time management skills can even help you get better results by doing less work, because you're focusing on the things that really matter rather than all the low-priority busywork that just keeps you busy.

If you don’t learn how to manage your time well, you’ll be far less productive than you could be and you’ll get a lot less done. You’ll also feel much more stressed and

Introduction

What Exactly Is Time Management?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocating

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_setting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_setting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitoring

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduling

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prioritizing&action=edit&redlink=1


overwhelmed, and you’ll struggle to find time to spend with the people you care about and to do the things you enjoy.

Time management is important because without it, life has the potential to be chaotic. The importance of time management can be shown by these points:

Time is limited. Therefore if a person doesn't actively manage their time, this individuals time may be used up before they realize it.

Time management allows a person to succeed. Managing their time encourages achievement of goals.

What a person does with their time sums them up as a person. When people describe a person, they are really describing the sum of what that individual has done with their time. To take advantage of time management a person should engage in activities they want to be recognized for.

Effective personal time management allows individuals to spend time doing the things that they really enjoy. Whether that means more quality family time, or more vacations

There are so many advantages to managing your time effectively. If an individual is still not convinced of the importance of time management – these are some of the benefits of time management to keep in mind:

Keeps an individual on track to achieving their big life goals. By managing their time well, they will reach those big goals they have.

Their life quality will be improved. They will get a happy, healthy and balanced life. Upper hand. They will have advantages over those individuals that don't manage

their time, because these people will be able to fit more into their day and achieve more.

More productive. Effective use of the minutes and hours in a persons day means that they will get more done in less time.

High standard of work. Being organized and making the most of their day. These people will not be stressed and rushing tasks, due to lack of time. Therefore their standard of work will be high.

Why is Time Management Important?

What are the Benefits of Time Management?

http://www.tamingtime.com/importance-of-time-management.html


In the meantime, here are 15 practical time management tips to help you get started...

1. Write things down

A common time management mistake is to try to use your memory to keep track of too many details leading to information overload. Using a to-do list to write things down is a great way to take control of your projects and tasks and keep yourself organized.

2. Prioritize your list

Prioritizing your to-do list helps you focus and spend more of your time on the things that really matter to you. Rate your tasks into categories using the ABCD prioritization system described in the time management course.

3. Plan your week

Spend some time at the beginning of each week to plan your schedule. Taking the extra time to do this will help increase your productivity and balance your important long-term projects with your more urgent tasks. All you need is fifteen to thirty minutes each week for your planning session.

4. Carry a notebook

You never know when you are going to have a great idea or brilliant insight. Carry a small notebook with you wherever you go so you can capture your thoughts. If you wait too long to write them down you could forget. Another option is to use a digital recorder.

5. Learn to say no

Many people become overloaded with too much work because they overcommit; they say yes when they really should be saying no. Learn to say no to low priority requests and you will free up time to spend on things that are more important.

6. Think before acting

How many times have you said yes to something you later regretted? Before committing to a new task, stop to think about it before you give your answer. This will prevent you from taking on too much work.

15 Time Management Tips


7. Continuously improve yourself

Make time in your schedule to learn new things and develop your natural talents and abilities. For example, you could take a class, attend a training program, or read a book. Continuously improving your knowledge and skills increases your marketability, can help boost your career, and is the most reliable path to financial independence.

8. Think about what you are giving up to do your regular activities

It is a good idea to evaluate regularly how you are spending your time. In some cases, the best thing you can do is to stop doing an activity that is no longer serving you so you can spend the time doing something more valuable. Consider what you are giving up in order to maintain your current activities.

9. Use a time management system

Using a time management system can help you keep track of everything that you need to do, organize and prioritize your work, and develop sound plans to complete it. An integrated system is like glue that holds all the best time management practices together.

10. Identify bad habits

Make a list of bad habits that are stealing your time, sabotaging your goals, and blocking your success. After you do, work on them one at a time and systematically eliminate them from your life. Remember that the easiest way to eliminate a bad habit, it to replace it with a better habit.

11. Don’t do other people’s work

Are you in the habit of doing other people’s work because or a ‘hero’ mentality? Doing this takes up time that you may not have. Instead, focus on your own projects and goals, learn to delegate effectively, and teach others how to do their own work.

12. Keep a goal journal

Schedule time to set and evaluate your goals. Start a journal and write down your progress for each goal. Go through your goal journal each week to make sure you are on the right track. Keeping a journal on your computer has never been easier!

13. Don’t be a perfectionist

Some tasks don’t require your best effort. Sending a short email to a colleague, for example, shouldn’t take any more than a few minutes. Learn to distinguish between tasks that deserve to be done excellently and tasks that just need to be done.


14. Beware of “filler” tasks

When you have a to-do list filled with important tasks, be careful not to get distracted by “filler” tasks. Things such as organizing your bookcase or filing papers can wait until you tackle the items that have the highest priority.

15. Avoid “efficiency traps”

Being efficient doesn’t necessarily mean that you are being productive. Avoid taking on tasks that you can do with efficiency that don’t need to be done at all. Just because you are busy and getting things done doesn’t mean you are actually accomplishing anything significant.

habit 1 - be proactive®

This is the ability to control one's environment, rather than have it control you, as is so often the case. Self determination, choice, and the power to decide response to stimulus, conditions and circumstances

habit 2 - begin with the end in mind®

Covey calls this the habit of personal leadership - leading oneself that is, towards what you consider your aims. By developing the habit of concentrating on relevant activities you will build a platform to avoid distractions and become more productive and successful.

habit 3 - put first things first®

Covey calls this the habit of personal management. This is about organizing and implementing activities in line with the aims established in habit 2. Covey says that habit 2 is the first, or mental creation; habit 3 is the second, or physical creation. (See the section on time management.)

habit 4 - think win-win®

Covey calls this the habit of interpersonal leadership, necessary because achievements are largely dependent on co-operative efforts with others. He says that win-win is based on the assumption that there is plenty for everyone, and that success follows a co-operative approach more naturally than the confrontation of win-or-lose.

Stephen Covey's Seven Habits of Highly Effective People®

http://www.businessballs.com/time.htm


habit 5 - seek first to understand and then to be understood®

One of the great maxims of the modern age. This is Covey's habit of communication, and it's extremely powerful. Covey helps to explain this in his simple analogy 'diagnose before you prescribe'. Simple and effective, and essential for developing and maintaining positive relationships in all aspects of life. (See the associated sections on Empathy, Transactional Analysis, and the Johari Window.)

habit 6 - synergize®

Covey says this is the habit of creative co-operation - the principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, which implicitly lays down the challenge to see the good and potential in the other person's contribution.

habit 7 - sharpen the saw®

This is the habit of self renewal, says Covey, and it necessarily surrounds all the other habits, enabling and encouraging them to happen and grow. Covey interprets the self into four parts: the spiritual, mental, physical and the social/emotional, which all need feeding and developing.

http://www.businessballs.com/empathy.htm

http://www.businessballs.com/transactionalanalysis.htm

http://www.businessballs.com/johariwindowmodel.htm


( 14 )

الجىدة الشاهلة في الحعلين

Total quality management

in education


In recent debates about education, the term (quality control) and (standards) are frequently heard. They are used interchangeably in relation to claim about whether things are getting better or worse. Given that education is one of the major spending departments of governments, it is not surprising that there is so much debate about whether value of money is being achieved.

The word quality itself stems from the Latin qualitas which means ―of what kind. The concept of quality is relative, subjective and variable (Asim and Okon, 2005; Lindsay, 1992). Okebukola (2005) defines quality as fitness of purpose, while Fadipe (2005) views quality as appropriateness of resources available to education. Akpan and Esirah (2005) maintain that the concept of quality varies from that of providing special services to conforming to standards or fitness for purpose. Quality is the base line standard in education which can be measured on a scale of reference. It is an expression of standard or the means by which a certain set standard in education can be achieved (Maduewesi, 2005).

The concept of quality in education is multidimensional and embraces all functions and activities in the academic sphere. It involves quality of students, instructors/facilitators, instruction, facilities and equipment, academic programmes, curricula and assessment of students' performance. The quality according to Cavanaugh (2002) may include quantitative elements such as completion rates, student performance, and student evaluations of the learning experience.

Crosby (1979, p. 17) defines quality as “conformance to requirements”. With his definition, emphasis is put on intent in TQM and the involvement of all employees in the process. If we talk about quality in student affairs, we must define in specific terms (requirements), i.e. as to how we will measure quality and whether there is conformance to our outlined requirements.

Also, Juran (1989) proffers the belief that an agreement on the definition of quality is difficult and that most definitions lack precision. He defines quality as “fitness for use” (p.15), but sees the need to include the words product and customer when discussing quality. He defines product as “the output of any process” (p. 16) and customer as “anyone who receives or is affected by the product or process” (p. 17). Therefore, in order for quality to be an issue, there must be a product (goods and services) and a customer (internal or external). From his writings, it is clear that he also sees intent and conformance to requirements as being important elements of quality

Introduction

Concept of quality


W Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, and Philip B. Crosby have long been considered major contributors to the total quality management (TQM) movement in the United States; however, their quality principles and approaches have been more readily embraced by Japanese businesses as Japan has sought to be more competitive in the global market. When Deming went to Japan, he entered a world that was ready for help. Deming, Crosby, and Juran set the stage for the quality movement in education by espousing the importance of quality management to the customer and the worker and by underlining the significance of quality to our future as a country competing in the global marketplace.

Quality education is not a gift granted by governments, but an investment made on the nation's people as it is fundamental to building any nation. As stated by Hassan (1994), quality of education does not start in conference halls and laws, but starts from the school and classroom, parental interest participation of management, teachers and students to take responsibility for the development of education and quality control (Hassan, 1994, p. 25). Also need to verify the quality of education through the presence of a clear policy and specific quality of comprehensive and efficient administrative management of educational institutions, and the activation of the system monitoring and evaluation to avoid the errors, and provide system training to high-level teaching and administrative staff ( Al-Nabawy, 1995).

A wide range of efforts has been made to define the concept of quality control. One of these definitions is Control which is the process of regulating or otherwise keeping a check on developments.

Control is one of the purposes of quality processes. Control may be exercised across systems (or even transnationally) or within institutions. Usually control is directed to suppressing the growth of institutions or, within institutions, of programmes. Control is underpinned by a concern that unregulated growth may undermine higher education credibility or fail to meet social, cultural, economic or political requirements.

In Hungary, quality control is defined in Higher Education Act (2000 amendment) as follows:

Quality control: examines the compliance of the operation of the higher education institution with the prevailing provisions of law and with the documents of the higher education institution from legal, economic and educational - professional points of view. (Szanto, 2003)

Quality in education

What is quality control


Total Quality became one of the issues to be concerned to administrative leadership in any organization to raise their performance, as mentioned by Hammoud (2000) that quality has been used in the competition between these institutions (Hammoud, 2000, p. 37), as long as the total quality derives power movement of information and hiring talented employees and invest intellectual abilities in a manner creatively to achieve the continuous improvement of the institution (Rhodes, 1992, p.12).

Since the success of management is linked to efficient productivity, therefore, appeared the Total Quality Management (TQM) to raise productivity and sustainability of quality, and management has become the comprehensive quality of an integrated strategy for the development of productive enterprises and services, including educational institutions, and management focused on the performance of the work correctly, and in a manner typical and ideal to avoid waste resources or poor utilization, and reduce disputes between employees and the satisfaction of beneficiaries and supports innovation and renewal (Riyaad, 2007).

The concept of Total Quality Management from the latest management concepts is based on a set of principles and ideas that can be adopted by any particular department in order to achieve the best possible performance.

That the challenges in the business organizations in contemporary human society combined with the qualitative aspects, both commodity and service, using quality as a weapon of competitive key role in this direction has been interest in the framework Intellectual Total Quality Management (TQM) as this concept marks the three pillars of a meaningful way in this area namely:

1. Achieve customer satisfaction.

2. The contribution of the organization.

3. Continued improvement and development in the quality (good or service) (Joseph Jablunsky).

According to Rhodes (1992), TQM is a process management strategy based on a set of values and derive power movement of the information that we can, in which to recruit talented employees and their intellectual investment in the various levels of organization creatively to achieve the continuous improvement of the organization.

The concept of Total Quality Management

The definition of total quality in education ( TQM)


The definition of Rhodes represents a frame of reference for the sample application of total quality in education. The inputs (students) and processes (what goes on inside the school) students, graduates and output. The total commitment from the application of TQM in the educational institution should be reviewed in the letter of the institution and its goals and strategies for dealing with the educational standards and procedures for the calendar used to recognize the needs of beneficiaries (students), or the quality of education and preparation that they think make their needs met.

In many countries, especially those with a significant public sector, governments seek to control unrestrained growth in higher education. They may do this via financial controls or ministerial decrees but increasingly quality monitoring and accreditation are being used to restrict expansion. Linked to this is the perceived need to ensure the status and standing and legitimacy of higher education. External review is used to ensure that the principles and practices of higher education are not being eroded or flouted, thereby undermining the intrinsic quality of university-level education and research. Globalisation and the internationalisation of higher education, new forms of delivery, and an increasingly unrestricted market, are all features of a landscape that seems to be out of control. This has resulted in international as well as national attempts to control higher education. The control aspect of quality evaluation specifically addresses the comparability of standards: that is, the standard or level of student academic or professional achievement, nationally and internationally. Attempts have been made to ‘benchmark’ academic standards including: externally-set and marked examinations; specification of the content of syllabuses; (threshold) descriptors of outcomes; external examiners to ensure inter-institutional comparability of awards. The use of external examiners, for example, is well-established in some countries as a means of making comparisons between programmes within subject disciplines. (Harvey & Newton, 2004)

Bonstank (2oo1) stated that;

- Education is an ongoing process over the length of life. - The pattern of administrative leadership must be participatory, in accordance

with the ideas of Deming and Juran, and others theorist of quality management. - The understanding between the workers must be given attention with the

application of control theory - Continuous improvement of the output of the educational process. - Optimal use of human and material resources available. - Provide services, including full needs of the beneficiary of internal and external. - Provide better morale for all employees. - Provide tools and standards to measure performance. - Reducing the cost with the achievement of educational goals in the social

demand .

Characteristics of TQM in the educational process


The application of quality system in the educational institution requires:

Conviction that the full and complete understanding and commitment by local officials in the ministry.

Propagation of the organizational culture and organizational climate on quality in the educational institution down to the school.

Continuing education and training for all individuals on the level of the ministry or the school level.

Coordination and activation of communication between departments and divisions in the horizontal and vertical levels.

The participation of all parties and all personnel engaged in efforts to improve the quality of the educational process.

Establishing an information system - a thorough and effective quality management at both central and school.

The above principles affect and directly on the elements of a quality which can be summarized the following matters:

Apply the principles of quality. The participation of all in the process of continuous improvement. Identify and clarify a work or what it calls regulatory actions.

Akpan. C. P. & Esirah, E. (2005). Strategies for Realistic Quality Assurance in Knowledge Generation in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria. In N. Ezeh & N. Onyegegbu (eds).

AL bana Riyaad(2007). Total Quality: concept, foundation and applying in Suadia Arabia schools

Al-Nabawy, (1995).Applying Total Quality in Public Schools. Egypt.

Atkinson, P(1996). Total quality management, cultural change: the right foundation for Total Quality Management, translated by Mr. Fattah Numani, Centre for the professional expertise of the Department in 1996.

Asim, A. E & Okon, J. E. (2005). Strategizing For Realistic Quality Assurance in the Nigerian University System. In D.N. Ezeh & N. Onyegegbu (eds). Knowledge Generation and Dissemination: Issues and Challenges in Nigerian Universities. Enugu: Pearls & Gold.

Bonstingl, J (2004),(3rd ed) Schools of Quality.Sage Publications Ltd:Uk.

Szanto, A (2003) .Available on Andras Szanto Site

Application of TQM in the educational institutions

References


Cavanaugh C. (2010). Distance Education Quality; University of North Florida, USA.

Crosby, P.B. (1979), Quality Is Free, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, .

Deming, W.E. (1986), Out of Crisis, MIT, Cambridge, MA, .

Ghellab,K.H. (2000) The application of TQM in the educational sector Professor at the University of Fayoum

Harvey, L., Newton, J. (2004), "Transforming quality evaluation", Quality in Higher Education, Vol. 10 No.2, pp.149-65.

Hassan Muhammed(2004), Quality Assurance in learning .K.w. Education Research Center.

Jablunsky. Joseph. Total Quality Management, TQM implementation: an overview, c 2 Arabization Numani Mr. Fattah, the center of professional expertise of the Department "Mick" Giza, Cairo, 2000.

Juran, J.M. (1989), Juran on Leadership for Quality: An Executive Handbook, Free Press, New York, NY, .

Kamal Hassan Ghellab The application of TQM in the educational sector Professor at the University of Fayoum

Maduewesi, E. J. (2005). Benchmarks and Global Trends in Education. Benin City, Nigeria. Dasylva

Okebukola, P. (2005). Quality Assurance in the Nigerian University System. Keynote address Presented at the 2005 Fellowship Seminar /Award of the Curriculum Organization of Nigeria held at the University of Jos, Nigeria on 6th April, 2005.

Rhodes, L.A. (1992). "On the road to quality", Educational Leadership, Vol. 49 No.6, pp.76-80.


( 15 )

الحىجيه الفني

و الحربية الخاصة

Supervision

& Special education


Braille

Sample texts in Braille

Transliteration: "Be kind to others"


Supervision, as a field of practice, has the goal of ensuring quality teaching and optimal learning for students. In its current context, supervision can be seen as a tool for fostering improvement in instruction, enhancing learning outcomes for all students and promoting professional improvement for educators. Supervision is a long- standing function in public education. It has evolved over time and is conducted in many formats, but is applicable to teachers of all students, including teachers of students with disabilities.

With the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Law, students with a wide range of disabilities in Kuwait gained access to education in Special Education Schools. The qualified students with disabilities were entitled to a free appropriate education that emphasizes special education and related services. Such students require instructions and services that are specially designed to meet their unique educational needs, which may include cognitive, physical, social and emotional needs. Students with disabilities can be instructed in diverse educational settings, such as resource rooms, self contained classrooms, general education classrooms, alternative schools, hospitals and homes. A range of personnel, including special education teachers, paraprofessionals, general education teachers, speech therapists, physical therapists and councilors, may provide special education and related services. The requirements of the idea point to the need for supervision of special education instruction.

Additional aspects of the current educational system create a need for supervision of special education instruction and support the need for further study of the topic. Recent reform movements such as inclusion, site-based management and accountability initiatives demand that educators target positive outcomes for students. Supervision is one tool that may assist teachers in improving instruction and targeting those outcomes.

A second issue that implies a need for supervisory interactions is the shortage of certified special education teachers. The lack of administrative and supervisory support has been identified as a factor related to teacher attrition ( Billigsley, 1993 ). Teachers of students with disabilities seek out interaction with supervisors who are knowledgeable about issues of disability and about the provision of special education instruction. A greater understanding of the process used in supervising special education instruction I public schools is needed.

A review of the literature related to the supervision of special education instruction reveals that the directors and supervisors in special education schools should have knowledge, skills and values of the job.( Fidler, 1986 & Johnson 1987 ).

Statement of the problem

Theoretical Base/ Relationship to prior knowledge


Supervision is the school function that improves instruction and student learning through direct assistance to, and support of, professional development of teachers. It involves face to face contact, decision, observation, analysis of data and planning of instruction.

Special Education is specially designed instruction to meet the unique educational needs of students with disabilities.

Student with disability is a child who has mental retardation, a hearing impairment including deafness, a speech or language impairment, a visual impairment including blindness, emotional disturbance, orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, an other health impairment, a specific learning disability, deaf-blindness or multiple disabilities, and who, because of that disability needs special education and related services.

Supervisor includes school personnel who provide supervision. Principals, assistant principals, directors of special education,, supervisors of special education or teacher peers who can fill this role. ( Unless the supervision of special education teachers is provided in a coordinated and thoughtful fashion, the teachers may not receive the supervisory support that fosters improvement of instruction ).

Education for students with disabilities may require special materials, teaching techniques, equipment and facilities that are not typically required by most general education students.

Zigmond ( 1997 ) describes special education as " treatment out of the ordinary " and as " something unique and separate from general education " ( p388 ). Special education involves instruction that is designed to meet individual characteristics and learning needs of students.

Example of instructional methods that might be utilized include direct instruction programmes or strategy instruction. Modifications and accommodations to curriculum, materials and instructional methods may need to be implemented. Supervision should improve the delivery of special education to students who have unique educational needs and are served in a variety of educational settings by a diversity of professionals.

The area of supervision of special instruction is problematic and is influenced by the unique dimensions of special education, including student and teacher demographics, varied settings in which special education is delivered, the shared responsibility for leadership of special education and the impact of legislation, policies and reform movements.

Definitions

Current issues influencing the supervision of special education instruction


In his review of literature related to supervision of special education, Swan ( 1998 ) repeatedly calls for collaboration building level leaders and special education leaders for the effective supervision of special education. Initiatives have addressed collaborative training of principals and special education supervisors, but this is not the norm in practice. Many principals do not have the background knowledge about disabilities and their impact on learning. Many never take courses in special education as part of their administrative training, yet most have shared or sole responsibility for supervising special education personnel and programmes in their schools.

Special education supervisors and directors often perform duties that are both supervisory and administrative. Administrative duties including budgeting, compliance with regulations, paperwork and meetings may limit time for supervisory contact and direct consultation with teachers.

Professional commentaries as well as supervision and administration resources include descriptive and prescriptive accounts of the skill and knowledge needed by administrators and supervisors. These accounts also include calls for improved practice.

Pajak ( 1990 ) proposes 12 dimensions of supervisory practice that contribute to instructional improvement or professional growth. These dimensions represent specific areas of knowledge, skills and attitudes identified in supervision literature and apply to educational supervisors at all organizational levels. The identified dimensions include the following:

1. Communication: ensuring open and clear communication among individuals and groups throughout the organization.

2. Staff development: developing and facilitating meaningful opportunities for professional growth.

3.Instructional programme: supporting and coordinating efforts to improve the instructional programmes.

4. Planning and change: initiating and implementing collaboratively developed strategies for continuous improvement.

5. Motivating and organizing: helping people to develop a shared vision and achieve collective aims.

6. Observation and conferencing: providing feedback to teachers based on classroom observations.

Role and responsibility dilemmas

Theoretical basis for the supervision of special education instruction


7. Curriculum: coordinating and integrating the process of curriculum development and implementation.

8. Problem solving and decision making: using a variety of strategies to clarify and analyze problems and make decisions.

9. Service to teachers: providing materials, resources and assistance to support teaching and learning.

10. Personal development: recognizing and reflecting upon one's personal and professional beliefs, abilities and actions.

11. Community relations: establishing and maintaining open and productive relations between the school and its community.

12. Research and programme evaluation: encouraging experimentation and assessing outcomes.

These dimensions of supervision represent technical knowledge and procedural skills, but also seem to emphasize that supervision is about human relations and is a very person-oriented activity. These dimensions are suggested as important for the general supervision of schools. Other sources emphasize additional skills and knowledge competences specific to supervision of special education instructional programmes.

a) Establish programme description.

b) Establish a comprehensive staff development programme.

c) Provide individual assistance to teachers.

d) Develop and/ or modify curriculum.

e) Facilitate the coordination of services and programmes.

f) Facilitate the induction of staff members and evaluate instructional programmes.

Special education is a complex system. 13 disability categories – were defined – under which students may be found eligible for special education and related services. Different

Suggested supervisory tasks for special education

Competencies needed by special education leaders as supervisors


disabling conditions impact learning in unique ways. Educators and researchers have devised particular methods and strategies to utilize when teaching students with varying learning characteristics related to their disabilities. Special education teachers are subsequently trained in these methods and frequently certified by academic institutions to teach students with particular disabilities. In addition to disability characteristics and special instructional techniques, other unique dimensions of special education service delivery exist including legal requirements, itinerancy of staff, related and support services, location of services and delivery models. The complexity of special education service provision raises a practical question: Do all supervisors need to possess knowledge of such disability-specific aspects in order for effective supervision to be provided to special education instruction?

Clouse ( 1993 ) found that special education teachers, when given a choice, preferred to be supervised by persons who had the same area of training and expertise as the area in which they were teaching. Clouse conducted in-depth interviews with 20 special education teachers and six special education supervisors in Pennsylvania . The sample was intentionally varied to include elementary through high school levels. As defined in the study, a supervisor certified in learning disabilities would supervise teachers of students with disabilities.

Generic supervision occurs when supervisors are assigned on the basis of geography, not on disability expertise. In Clouse's study, 17 of20 special education teachers and 4 of 6 supervisors preferred programme supervision to generic supervision models. The teachers felt programme supervision was more conductive to effective communication between teachers and supervisors and thought programme specific knowledge on the part of supervisors was particularly beneficent for new teachers. A teacher who had generic supervision related,

This goes back to the fact that she – her supervisor – is not trained in my area of expertise. When there were some fie lines in my diagnosis or just in observation of the child…… I don't think she can offer as much as someone that might be more specifically oriented to my profession. …… I don't feel comfortable to sit back and bounce off ideas to her. … She just doesn't have the expertise. ( Clouse 1993 p. 65).

Despite their preference for programme supervision, all interviewees suggested benefits of generic supervision as well. They indicated that generic supervision might promote broader knowledge of school and district-wide issues, increase accessibility of supervisors, lessen time and cost, allow for cross-training opportunities and promote greater inclusion in school-wide activities.

Disability specific knowledge


Knowledge of a content area or a disability specialization is important, but supervisors need skills in human relations and management as well. In a study by Fidler (1986 ) he analyzed interview scripts with teachers and supervisors of special education and the study revealed 5 roles, 15skills, 6 knowledge areas, and five values considered important for effective supervision. The top two roles included consultative and supportive roles.

Consultative roles involved providing technical assistance, modeling techniques and providing resources. Supportive roles involve providing emotional support and helping others grow personally. Skills for supervisors of special education receiving the highest ratings in importance included communication, style flexibility, conflict resolution, building rapport and teaming. The knowledge area rated highest by supervisors was personalities, where teachers rated knowledge of technical skills such as instructional methods highest

Supervisors and teachers agreed that honesty was the value rated most highly in importance.

Providing quality special education instruction to students with disabilities is an important goal and is one that is supported by law. Special education instruction is delivered by a range of teachers and in differing settings to students with a variety of disabling conditions. Supervision should enhance the delivery of instruction by special educators and general educators to students with disabilities. The view of literature revealed that the provision of supervision of special education instruction is a complex activity and can be influenced by many factors, including knowledge of the supervisors , numbers of staff, time and role ambiguity.

In a recent report by the Council for Exceptional Children ( USA 2000 ), it was reported that three compelling realities emerged related to special education instruction. The report indicates that many students with disabilities do not receive high-quality education, many teachers teach under conditions that prevent the delivery of high-quality instructions, and many special educators' roles are " fragmented, ambiguously defined and obscured by conflicting responsibilities".

Some of the pressing issues contributing to the lack of high-quality instruction include inadequate district and administrative support, significant teacher isolation, poorly prepared new general and special educators and insufficient focus on improved student outcomes.

Supervisory skills:

Methodology


An action agenda proposed on the conditions for special education teaching and learning calls for every student with disability to receive individualized services and supports from qualified teachers, for teachers who have the knowledge and skills that allow effective practice and for instructional leaders who establish strong expectations for the use of effective practices. Another important element on the agenda is the need for collaboration between general and special education leaders with a clear sense of how this would happen in practice.

- Supervision of Special Education Instruction. A grounded Theory. Debora A. Bays 2001

- Teacher Retention and Attrition. Billigsley 1993.

- The responsibilities of Special Educators. Zigmond 1997.

- Investigating Instructional Leadership for Special Education. Swan 1998

- Instructional Supervision in Special Education. Pajak 1990.

Resources