a corpus-based analysis of code-switching in the oral

Acorpus-basedanalysisofcode-switchingintheoraldiscourseofShona-Englishbilinguals

by

FaithChiedzaChapwanya

Adissertationsubmittedinfulfilmentoftherequirementsforthedegree

MAinLinguistics

intheDepartmentofAfrikaansatthe

UNIVERSITYOFPRETORIA

FACULTYOFHUMANITIES

Supervisor:Prof.H.J.Bosman

August2016

©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa

ii

Declarationbycandidate

‘IherebydeclarethatthedissertationsubmittedforthedegreeMALinguistics,atthe

UniversityofPretoria,ismyownworkandhasnotpreviouslybeensubmittedtoany

otherinstitutionofhighereducation.Ifurtherdeclarethatallsourcescitedorquoted

areindicatedandacknowledgedbymeansofacomprehensivelistofbibliography’.

FaithC.ChapwanyaAugust2016


iii

Acknowledgements

Myutmostgratitudegoestothefollowing:

• MyhusbandMikeforhislove,supportandencouragement.Thankyoufor

believingthatIcanconquermyfearsanddomorethanIeverimagined.

• MychildrenNyashaandNokufortheirloveandunderstanding.Youkeepme

goingboys.

• MyparentsEdmonandElizabethMufanebadzaforimpartinginmethevalueof

education.

• Specialthankstomysupervisor,ProfessorNerinaBosmanforherguidance.

Thankyouforallthecommentsandfeedbackthroughoutthisstudy.Youhave

helpedmebroadenmyhorizons.

• ThefinancialassistanceoftheNationalResearchFoundation(NRF)towardsthis

researchisherebyacknowledged.Opinionsexpressedandconclusionsarrivedat

arethoseoftheauthorandarenotnecessarilytobeattributedtotheNRF.


iv

Abstract

Bilingualism is one of the by-products of globalization andmigration. As people from

differentethnicitiescomeintocontact,theirlanguageswillinfluenceeachother.People

learn a second or third language in different environments leading to their linguistic

proficiency levelsbeingdifferent. Inconversations involvingbilinguals, code-switching

maybeprevalent.Thispractiseofalternatingbetweentwoormorelanguagesduringa

speechacthasbeenofgreatinteresttoresearcherswithvariousmodelsandhypotheses

beingproposedtoexplainit.

Although code-switching has been studied extensively in literature, indigenous

languages such as Shona have received less attention. This study aims to determine

whetherthemarkednessmodelofcode-switchingcanbeappliedtoShonaoraldiscourse

(speech).Ananalysis isdonetoascertainthenature,occurrenceandcharacteristicsof

code-switching in the speech of Shona-English bilinguals. Participants who attended

formaleducationforatleasttenyearswereselectedforthestudy.

Inordertoinformonthetheoreticalbackgroundandonpreviousstudiesthatdealtwith

code-switching, a literature review was conducted. The study used semi-structured

interviews,aclozetestandrecordingsasdatacollectionmethods.Datawasanalysedto

determine the applicability of the markedness model to the compiled corpus. Data

analysiswasalsoaidedbyWordSmith,(corpusanalysissoftware).

Results of the analysis seem to suggest that themarkednessmodel can be applied to

Shona-English code-switching. In addition, an analysis of the corpus usingWordSmith

showedfrequentlyusedEnglishwordsandcollocationsandconcordancesof thecode-

switched words. An examination of the collocations and concordances shows the

contextsinwhichthecode-switchedwordsappear.


v

Keywords

Code-switching

Markednessmodel

Corpus

Bilingualism

Code-mixing

Borrowing

Nonceborrowing

Translanguaging

Multilingualdiscourse

Maxim

Collocation

WordSmith


vi

Listofabbreviations

A:Advanced

O:Ordinary

P:Participant

R:Researcher

Exam:Examination


vii

Listofacronyms

ALLEX:AfricanLanguagesLexicalproject

ALRI:AfricanLanguagesResearchInstitute

CS:Code-switching

CM:Code-mixing

M-S:Myers-Scotton

LRMA:LanguageResourceManagementAgency

PanSALB:PanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard

OCP:OxfordConcordanceProgram

TACT:TextAnalysisComputingTools

BNC:BritishNationalCorpus

ESFSLDB:EuropeanScienceFoundationSecondLanguageDatabank


viii

Transcriptionconventions

Intranscribingrecordedconversations,thefollowingsymbolswereusedbasedon

Jefferson’stranscriptionconventions(2004).

{LG}:Laughter

{NS}:Backgroundnoise(e.g.bangingofspoons,chairsmoving)

{BC}:Backgroundconversation

{BR}:Audiblebreathingsounds,sighs

(.):Briefpause

(...):Longerpauselastingmorethan3seconds

--:Person’snameornameofaplace

(()):Inaudible

{CG}:Coughingorgrunting

-:Incompleteword


ix

TableofContents

Declarationbycandidate..............................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................iiiAbstract.............................................................................................................................................iv

Keywords............................................................................................................................................v

Listofabbreviations......................................................................................................................viListofacronyms.............................................................................................................................vii

Transcriptionconventions........................................................................................................viiiC h a p t e r 1 Overview..............................................................................................................11.1 Introductionandbackground.....................................................................................................11.2 LanguagesofZimbabwe................................................................................................................11.3 Shonalanguage................................................................................................................................21.4 EnglishuseinZimbabweanschools..........................................................................................31.5 AbriefdiscussionabouttheMarkednessModel..................................................................41.6 Problemstatement.........................................................................................................................51.7 Motivation..........................................................................................................................................51.8 Assumptions......................................................................................................................................61.9 Researchquestions.........................................................................................................................61.10 Objectivesofthestudy................................................................................................................71.11 Arrangementoftopicsinthisstudy.......................................................................................7

C h a p t e r 2 Code-Switching:Atheoreticaloverview...................................................92.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................92.2 Ahistoricaloverviewofcode-switching...............................................................................102.2.1 Twomainfocalareas.............................................................................................................................102.2.2 Threemainfocalareas..........................................................................................................................112.2.3 Coiningofthetermcode-switching................................................................................................11

2.3 Earlytrendsincode-switchingresearch..............................................................................112.3.1 BlomandGumperz’scontributiontocode-switching.............................................................132.3.2 CriticismofGumperz’sapproachtocode-switching...............................................................15

2.4 Definitionofkeyconcepts.........................................................................................................152.4.1 Code-switchingandCode-mixing.....................................................................................................162.4.2 Whycode-switchingisdifficulttocharacterize.........................................................................162.4.3 Intrasententialcode-switching.........................................................................................................182.4.4 Intersententialcode-switching.........................................................................................................202.4.5 Othertermsproposedforcode-switching...................................................................................212.4.6 Multilingualdiscourse...........................................................................................................................212.4.7 Translanguaging......................................................................................................................................222.4.8 Borrowing/Lexicalborrowing.........................................................................................................242.4.9 Nonceborrowing.....................................................................................................................................27

2.5 Bilingualismasaconditionforcode-switching.................................................................282.5.1 Bilingualism...............................................................................................................................................292.5.2 Classificationofbilingualsinthisstudy........................................................................................32


x

2.6 Sometheoriesandhypothesesproposedtoexplaincode-switching.........................322.6.1 TheMatrixlanguageprinciple...........................................................................................................322.6.2 Freemorphemeconstraint.................................................................................................................332.6.3 Equivalenceconstraint.........................................................................................................................342.6.4 TheMatrixLanguageFramework(MLF)......................................................................................352.6.5 ExampleofastudyofShona-Englishcode-switchingusingtheMLF...............................36

2.7 TheMarkednessModel..............................................................................................................372.7.1 Thenegotiationprinciple....................................................................................................................392.7.2 Communicativecompetence..............................................................................................................402.7.3 Predictionsaboutcode-switchingfromthemodel..................................................................41

2.8 Maximsproposedbythemarkednessmodel.....................................................................422.8.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim............................................................................................................422.8.2 Marked-choicemaxim..........................................................................................................................452.8.3 Exploratorychoicemaxim...................................................................................................................482.8.4 Thedeferencemaxim............................................................................................................................492.8.5 Thevirtuositymaxim............................................................................................................................50

2.9 HowtheMarkednessModelhasbeenappliedtoCSdata...............................................502.10 CriticismoftheMarkednessModel.....................................................................................512.11 Code-switchinginSouthernAfrica......................................................................................512.11.1 Code-switchingtoaccommodateothers....................................................................................522.11.2 Finlayson,Calteaux&Myers-Scotton..........................................................................................53

2.12 Code-switchingasacommunicationstrategyinsomeschools..................................532.13 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................55

C h a p t e r 3 Corpususeinlanguagestudies..................................................................573.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................573.2 Corpuslinguistics.........................................................................................................................573.3 Corpus..............................................................................................................................................583.4 Corpus:Abriefhistory................................................................................................................603.4.1 Argumentsagainsttheuseofcorpora...........................................................................................62

3.5 Considerationswhendesigningacorpus.............................................................................623.5.1 Representativeness................................................................................................................................623.5.2 Diversity......................................................................................................................................................633.5.3 Size.................................................................................................................................................................63

3.6 Corpustypes...................................................................................................................................633.6.1 Generalcorpus..........................................................................................................................................633.6.2 Specialisedcorpus...................................................................................................................................643.6.3 Spokencorpora........................................................................................................................................643.6.4 WrittenCorpora.......................................................................................................................................65

3.7 Someofthetoolsusedincorpussearchandretrieval....................................................653.8 Examplesofcorpuscompilationprojects............................................................................663.8.1 TheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC).................................................................................................673.8.2 EuropeanScienceFoundationSecondLanguageDatabank(ESFSLDB).........................673.8.3 LanguageResourceManagementAgency(LRMA)ofSouthAfrica...................................683.8.4 ThePanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard........................................................................................68

3.9 TheShonacorpus.........................................................................................................................693.9.1 TheALLEXprojectandTheAfricanLanguageResearchInstitute(ALRI).....................69

3.10 Closingremarksaboutcorpuscompilation......................................................................713.11 Characteristicsofcorpus-basedanalysis..........................................................................713.12 Corpus-basedanalysisandcode-switching......................................................................71


xi

3.13 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................73C h a p t e r 4 Methodology.....................................................................................................744.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................744.2 Researchdesign............................................................................................................................754.2.1 Qualitativeresearch...............................................................................................................................754.2.2 CharacteristicsofqualitativeresearchaccordingtoDornyei(2007)..............................754.2.3 Triangulation.............................................................................................................................................784.2.4 Limitationsofaqualitativeresearchdesign...............................................................................78

4.3 Corpus-basedanalysis................................................................................................................804.3.1 Strengthsofcorpus-basedanalysis.................................................................................................814.3.2 Disadvantagesofcorpus-basedanalysis.......................................................................................82

4.4 Researchplan................................................................................................................................824.4.1 Stage1:Theoreticalresearch-Aliteraturereview...................................................................824.4.2 Stage2:Empiricalresearch:Researchgroup(participants)...............................................834.4.3 Sampling......................................................................................................................................................834.4.4 Researchsiteandparticipants..........................................................................................................83

4.5 Methodology(datacollectioninstruments)........................................................................844.5.1 Semi-structuredinterviews................................................................................................................844.5.2 ClozeTest....................................................................................................................................................864.5.3 Participantrecordingsofinformalconversations....................................................................864.5.4 Researcherrecordings..........................................................................................................................874.5.5 Challengesduringtheselectionofparticipantsandhowtheyweredealtwith..........884.5.6 Transcription............................................................................................................................................894.5.7 Corpuscompilation................................................................................................................................90

4.6 DataAnalysis..................................................................................................................................904.7 Ethicalconsiderations................................................................................................................904.8 Limitationsofthestudy.............................................................................................................914.9 Assumptions...................................................................................................................................924.10 Summaryofchapterfour........................................................................................................92

C h a p t e r 5 Dataanalysis,resultspresentationandinterpretation....................935.1 Introductiontodataanalysis...................................................................................................935.2 Resultspresentationandinterpretation.............................................................................94Thefollowingabbreviationswereused:..............................................................................................945.2.1 Thecompiledcorpus.............................................................................................................................945.2.2 EnglishLanguageproficiency............................................................................................................945.2.3 Theparticipants.......................................................................................................................................975.2.4 Clozetest..................................................................................................................................................106

5.3 ApplyingthemarkednessmodeltothecompiledShonacorpus..............................1065.3.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim.........................................................................................................1075.3.2 SequentialunmarkedCS...................................................................................................................1075.3.3 Unmarkedcode-switching...............................................................................................................1105.3.4 Marked-choicemaxim........................................................................................................................1155.3.5 MarkedCSanditsfunctions............................................................................................................1155.3.6 Exploratorycode-switching............................................................................................................121

5.4 BorrowedwordsinShona.......................................................................................................1215.5 Thenatureofcode-switchinginspokenShona...............................................................1235.5.1 Code-switchingoccurswithinsentenceboundaries............................................................1235.5.2 Shona-Englishcode-switchingoccursoutsidesentenceboundaries............................1255.5.3 Code-switchingappearstobeorderly........................................................................................125


xii

5.5.4 Concordances.........................................................................................................................................1265.5.5 FrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpus.........................................................................128

5.6 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................131C h a p t e r 6 Conclusionsandrecommendations......................................................1336.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................1336.2 Conclusionsdrawn.....................................................................................................................1336.2.1 Subproblemone....................................................................................................................................1336.2.2 Subproblemtwo...................................................................................................................................135

6.3 Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus..................................................................................1366.4 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................1366.5 Limitationsofthestudyandimplicationsforfurtherresearch.................................1376.6 Contributionsofthestudy.......................................................................................................1376.6.1 Corpus.......................................................................................................................................................1376.6.2 Addingtoempiricaldata...................................................................................................................1386.6.3 AbetterunderstandingofShona-Englishcode-switching.................................................138

6.7 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................138Bibliography................................................................................................................................139


xiii

Listoftables

Table2-1Borrowedwords(Source:Ngara,1982:74-76)............................................................27Table4-1Cities/areaswhereparticipantscamefrom...................................................................84Table5-1Summaryofparticipants’responsestointerviewquestions...................................96Table5-2Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus..............................................................................122Table5-3FrequentlyusedEnglishwords..........................................................................................129Table5-4FrequentlyusedShonawords.............................................................................................129Table5-5Collocations..................................................................................................................................131


xiv

ListoffiguresFigure5-1Participants’agegroups.......................................................................................................103Figure5-2Genderofparticipants...........................................................................................................103Figure5-3AgeoflearningEnglish.........................................................................................................104Figure5-4Levelofeducation...................................................................................................................104Figure5-5Englishuse..................................................................................................................................105Figure5-6ConfidenceinusingEnglish................................................................................................105Figure5-7Employmentstatus.................................................................................................................106Figure5-8Concordancesoftheword“this”......................................................................................127Figure5-9Concordancesof“but”...........................................................................................................128


1

Chap te r 1 Overview

1.1 Introductionandbackground

Globalisation andmigration have resulted in the mixing of people from different

cultures.Itisinevitablethataspeoplefromvaryinglinguisticbackgroundsinteract,

theirlanguageswillinfluenceeachother(Myers-Scotton,1993a;Clyne,2003).This

is especially true for the global south including Zimbabwewheremore than one

languageisspoken(Myers-Scotton,1993a;Mumpande,2006;Garcia,2009;Ndlovu,

2009).Myers Scotton estimates the number of Bantu languages inAfrica to be at

least300.Code-switching(CS)isoneoftheby-productsoflanguagecontactwhich

includeborrowinganddiglossiaamongothers.

1.2 LanguagesofZimbabwe

Severallanguagepolicydocumentswhichareusedasguideshavebeenformulated

inZimbabwe(Ndlovu,2009).Oneofthemisthe1987EducationActofZimbabwe.

Although the policy has been revised, it continues to mirror the 1987 Act

(Mumpande, 2006). Shona andNdebele being indigenous languages are accorded

thestatusofnational languages.Shona is spokenbyaboutseventy-fivepercentof

thepopulationwhilstNdebeleisamothertongueforaroundsixteenpercentofthe

population(Ndhlovu,2009;Mberi,2009).

Theexactnumberof languages spoken inZimbabwe isdebatable.This isbecause

there isno clearcutdistinctionbetweenwhat canbe considereda languageand a

dialect(Wardhaugh&Fuller,2015).Forexample,Ndhlovu(2009)putsthenumber

atcloseto twenty.Thondhlana(2002)puts thenumberatseventeenwith3being

main languagesand fourteenminority languages.Ndhlovualso concurs that there

areatleastfourteenminoritylanguagesinZimbabwenamelyKalanga,Tonga,Sotho,

Barwe, Chewa, Venda, Xhosa, Setswana, Nambya, Shangani, Chikunda, Nyanja,


2

HwesaandSena. Of these,Kalanga, Shangani, Chewa,Venda,Tonga, andNambya

are officially acknowledged as minority languages (Thondlana, 2002; Mumpande,

2006).

1.3 Shonalanguage

ShonalanguageisheavilyindebtedtoClementDoke(1931).Heplayedanimportant

roleinitsunification,standardisationanddevelopment.Hecarriedout:

A thorough study of the language position throughout the country, with a

viewtoadvisingthegovernmentuponauniformorthographyandapossible

unificationofdialects for the standardizationof anofficial language for . . .

theShonaspeakingpeoples(Doke,1931:1).

One of Doke’s recommendationswas that the term “Shona” be used to refer to a

groupofdialectsspokeninZimbabwewhichhebelievedtobemutuallyintelligible

(i.e.speakersofdifferentShonadialectscanunderstandeachother).Wardhaugh&

Fuller (2015) note that mutual intelligibility is the mostly used benchmark to

distinguishbetweendialectsandlanguages.

Doke observed that people who spoke Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Manyika and

Ndauwereabletounderstandeachother.Hence,heconsideredthemtobedialects

of the one language which he unified under the name Shona. This could be the

reason why Myers-Scotton (1993a) refers to Shona as a “constructed language”

becauseitcameaboutowingtoithavingbeenunifiedbyDoke.Chimhundu(2005)

suggeststhatalthough theetymologyoftheterm“Shona” isspeculative, it isnow

widelyaccepted.

“Shonaistheofficiallyrecognizedlanguagewithastandardizedorthographywhich

hasbeenrevisedacoupleoftimes”(Ngara,1982:17).NgaraalsonotesthatShona

doesnothavethecapacitytobeusedasalanguageoflearningandteachingandin

many other domains due to its lack of development in terms of terminology.

However, there have been attempts to develop Shona terminology. One notable


3

attemptistheworkdonebytheAfricanLanguagesLexical(ALLEX)project,which

nowformspartoftheAfricanLanguagesResearchInstituteALRI)attheUniversity

of Zimbabwe. Some of the products of the ALLEX project include monolingual

dictionaries, corpora and medical dictionaries. The work of the ALLEX project is

discussed in detail in Section 3.9. Currently, Shona has grammar books, spelling

books,dictionariesandabundantliterature.

1.4 EnglishuseinZimbabweanschools

English has gained prominence in Zimbabwe because it was imposed during

colonialismattheexpenseofindigenouslanguages.Becauseofthewidespreaduse

of English especially in business and in schools as a language of learning and

teaching, thishasresulted in indigenous languagesbeingusedmarginally (Mutasa

2006).

As inmost countries inSouthernAfrica,English is the lingua franca inZimbabwe.

African languages are mostly confined to pre-school and early primary school

(Mutasa,2006).Dueto lackof infrastructure the languagesarenotpromotedpast

thefourthgrade.Kamwangamalu(2012),sharesthesameviewpointnotingthatin

mostcountriesinSouthernAfrica,theformercoloniallanguageisusedineducation.

The few countries in Africa which have adopted indigenous languages for use in

educationandbusinessareTanzania,Somalia,Sudan,EthiopiaandGuinea(Magwa,

2006).

InZimbabweEnglish is considered tobe thevehicle forupwardmobility socially,

economically,andpolitically.ManyschoolsopttouseEnglishfromgradeonewith

thehopethatlearners’linguisticperformanceimprovesastheymovefromgradeto

grade. This has resulted in different levels of bilingualism.Ogutu (2006) suggests

thattheuseofEnglishasalanguageofteachingandlearningresultsinithavingan

advantage over other languages in terms of use and acquisition. “Zimbabwe, like

many African countries, tends to follow the policy of using the former colonial

language (English) as the official language of much of parliament, trade and


4

industry, the mass media and education” (Thondlana, 202: 32). Magwa (2006)

shares the same sentiments when he notes that the failure of Zimbabwe to use

indigenous languages in education and business is impeding on the country’s

development.Ogutu(2006)citesstudieslikeUNESCO(1953)andBamgbose,(1984)

whichshowthebenefitsofmothertongueeducation.

Infurthereducationandtraininginstitutions,thedominanceofEnglishisevidenced

bytherequirementthatstudentsareexpectedtohavepassedEnglishwithgradeC

orbetterforthemtobeconsideredforentranceintotheseinstitutions.Incontrast,

learnerscanoptnot tostudy indigenous languagesatOrdinary level,which is the

equivalent to grade 10 and grade 11 in South Africa. This has not helped in

promotingandimprovingtheuseofindigenouslanguages.Mutasa(2006)isofthe

notionthatthelimiteduseofAfricanlanguagesisduetothedifficultyfacedintrying

toharmonizethelanguages.

After independence, learners in primary schools did not pay school fees and the

government launched the 1983 literacy campaign. This resulted inmore learners

includingadultlearnersattendingschool,leadingtoincreasedliteracyrates.Thisis

attestedbyareportfromtheMinistryofEducation,SportsandCulture(1997-2007)

whichshowedan increase in the literacyrate from63percentat independence in

1980to97percentin2002.However,recentchallengesinthecountryseemtohave

reversed the gains made during the first two decades of independence (Shiza &

Kariwo,2011).

WithEnglishbeingdominantinZimbabweansociety,onewondershowthespeech

ofaShona-Englishbilingualisimpacted.

1.5 AbriefdiscussionabouttheMarkednessModel

SincethisstudywillbebasedontheMarkednessModel(MM),abriefreviewofthe

modelherewillsuffice.AcomprehensivediscussionoftheMMisdoneinsection2.

7. Myers-Scotton (1993a) developed the MM to explain the socio-psychological

motivations for code-switching. She suggests that “speakers have a sense of


5

markednessregardingavailablelinguisticcodesbutchoosetheircodesbasedonthe

personaorrelationswithotherswhichtheywishtohaveinplace”(Myers-Scotton,

1993a:75).Themodelisdevelopedonthepremisethatspeakerschooselinguistic

codesnotbecauseofthesocietalconventionsbutbecausetheythinkcarefullyabout

theoutcome.SequentialunmarkedCS,unmarkedCS,markedCS,andexploratoryCS

occuraccordingtotheMM.

1.6 Problemstatement

AlthoughCShasbeenwelldocumentedgloballyandparticularlyinSouthernAfrica,

little attention has been paid to Shona-English CS from a socio-functional

perspective.AlthoughMashiri(2002)studiedCSinthespokenlanguageofShona-

Englishbilingualstudentsat theUniversityofZimbabwe, the focusofhisresearch

was the morpho-syntactic structure of Shona and English. He looked at four

grammatical categoriesnamely,descriptiveadjectives,nouns, locatives, andverbs.

As a theoretical framework, he used the Matrix Language Framework (MLF) to

analysecorpusdata.

AlthoughMyers-Scotton’sMarkednessModelhasbeenveryinfluentialinCSstudies,

themodel(inotherwords,thestudyofCSfromasocial-functionalperspective)still

needstobeappliedtoShona-EnglishCS.

Inordertounpacktheproblemstatement,twosub-problemshavebeenidentified:

Subproblemone:Myers-ScottonproposedtheMMtoexplainsocialmotivationsfor

CSandnotedthatthemodelawaitsfurthertesting.

Subproblem two: There ismore thanoneperspectiveonCSavailable to scholars

andallofthemshouldbeexplored(inparticular,inrelationtoShona-EnglishCS).

1.7 Motivation

Research inCS fromShona toEnglishhas focusedonCS inschoolsandCS froma

grammaticalperspective.Notenoughattentionhasbeenpaid toShona-EnglishCS


6

from a socio-functional viewpoint. That is why this study seeks to describe the

nature,occurenceandcharacteristicsofCSintheoraldiscourse(speech)ofShona-

English bilinguals. Furthermore, when Myers-Scotton proposed the MM, she

highlighted that “the model and its predictions await further testing” (Myers-

Scotton, 1993a: 154). This study is novel and interesting because it seeks to test

furthertheapplicabilityofthemodeltoShonaCS.

AlthoughthereisaShonacorpusofalmost2,5millionwordsthatwascompiledby

the ALLEX project starting in 1992, access to the full corpus is difficult. There is

limited online access and one can only search for specific words and results are

generatedforamaximumof1000words.IwrotetotheALLEXprojectcoordinators

requestingaccess to thewholecorpusbut Ididnotgetpermission toaccess it. In

addition, the corpus compiled by theALLEX project comprises of speech samples

from Shona speakers of different ages and from people of diverse linguistic

backgrounds.. Anyone who could speak Shona as a first language was free to

participate intheproject. Incontrast, thisstudyfocusedontheoccurenceofCS in

the speech of Shona-English bilinguals who has attended formal education for at

least 10 years. Therefore, the ALLEX corpus is not ideal to use for answering

research questions in this project. That iswhy I compiled a spoken corpus using

speech samples of Shona-English bilinguals in order to determine the nature and

characteristicsofCS.

SincethereislimitedcorporainspokenShona(alessresourcedlanguage),theoral

corpuswasusedasalinguisticresource.

1.8 Assumptions

Regardingthesocial functionsofCS, IassumethatthemarkednessmodelofCSas

explainedbyMyers-ScottonwillapplytoallinstancesofCSinmydataset.

1.9 Researchquestions

Thefollowingresearchquestionswillbeusedasaguideinthisstudy;


7

1. WhatisthenatureofCSinspokenShona?

2. DoestheMMofCSapplytothecompiledShonacorpus?

3. What functions do the code-switches serve in the contexts in which they

appear?

1.10 Objectivesofthestudy

Flowing frommyassumption insection1.8,andresearchquestions insection1.9,

thisstudyaimstodothefollowing:

• TodemonstratetheuseoftheMMasaheuristicinstrumentinanalysingand

interpretingmydataset.

• Toanalysethenature,occurenceandcharacteristicsofCSbymakinguseof

corpusanalysissoftware.

• Inordertodotheabove,tocompileacorpusofspokenShona.

1.11 Arrangementoftopicsinthisstudy

Chapter1isanintroductorychapterdealingwiththebackgroundofthestudy.Two

subproblems are identified in order to unpack the problem statement. The

motivationforundertakingthisstudyisexplained.Theaimsofthestudyaswellas

theresearchquestionsarediscussedinthischapter.

Chapter2providesa literaturereviewofCSand the theoriesandhypotheses that

havebeenproposedbyresearcherstoexplainCS.Particularattentionispaidtothe

markedness model of CS. Key concepts are defined in this chapter. Some of the

studiesthathavebeenconductedusingtheMMarehighlighted.ThefunctionsofCS

arealsopresented.

Chapter 3 reviews literature on corpus linguistics in general and corpus-based

studiesinparticular.Keyconceptsaredefined.Thereisadiscussionaboutwhatto


8

considerwhendesigningacorpus.Typesofcorporaareexplainedandexamplesof

corpuscompilationprojectsaregiven.TheexistingShonacorpusisdiscussed.

Chapter4presentstheresearchdesignusedinthisstudyincludingitsstrengthsand

weaknesses. The methodology used to collect data is discussed. There is also a

discussion about the challenges encountered during data collection and how they

weredealtwith.

Chapter5focusesondataanalysis,presentationandinterpretation.Dataisanalysed

todeterminewhethertheMMofcode-switchingappliestothecompiledcorpus.The

corpus, interview transcripts, and the cloze test are analysed. In addition, the

compiled corpus is queried using WordSmith tools. Data analysis assisted in

answeringresearchquestionsthatwereposedinthestudy.

Conclusionsdrawnfromthisstudyarediscussedinchapter6.Theconclusionsare

basedontheresearchquestionsthatwereposedinordertodealwithsub-problems

identified in the study. In addition, recommendations are made and attention is

drawntolimitationsofthestudy.


9

Chap te r 2 Code-Switching:Atheoreticaloverview

2.1 Introduction

CShascomealongwaysinceresearchersstartedgaininginterestinthesubject.Itis

difficult to pinpoint the scope of what CS encompasses hence one can encounter

contradictions in literature (Bullock & Toribio, 2009). Even the way the term is

written in literature is different. Some researchers write the term as one word

(codeswitching)andothersputahyphen inbetween (code-switching).This study

willusethelatterversionofthewordbutwillspelltheterminthesamewayasitis

usedinliterature.

CShasbeenexploredusingdifferentapproacheswhichwillbediscussedinSection

2.2.ResearchershavebeenadoptingdifferenttermswhendiscussingCS.Thistrend

hascontinuedwiththerecentintroductionoftermssuchas“multilingualdiscourse”

and “translanguaging”. These terms are explained in Section 2.4. This study

investigatesCSthroughasociolinguisticperspective.Acorpusisexaminedtostudy

thenatureandoccurrenceofCS.

A variety of theories and hypotheses have also been proposed to account for CS.

They include, Myers-Scotton’s Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model and the MM

(1993a,1993b),andPoplack’s(1980)freemorphemeconstraintascitedbyMyers-

Scotton (1993b). These theories and hypotheses have contributed to a better

understandingofthesubjectalthoughresearcherstendtodisagreeonsomeissues.

ThetheoriesandhypothesesarediscussedfurtherinSection2.6.

Inordertoinformontheresearchthathasbeendonepreviously,thischapterwill

coverthetheoreticalframeworkofthestudy.AliteraturereviewfocusingonCSwas

conducted and this process continued throughout the duration of the research. It

wasusedtoinformthetheoreticalframework,togainabetterunderstandingofthe

trends inCS researchover the years and to identify any gaps in literature. It also

assistedwithinformationabouthowsimilarstudieswereconducted.


10

The history of CS research is discussed noting early studies that have been

conducted.Keyconceptsincludingcode-switching,borrowing,bilingualism,theMM

and corpus are defined providing examples where necessary. There is a brief

discussionofnewtrendsinCSresearch.Adescriptionofcorpuscompilationworkin

ZimbabweandSouthAfricawillbedone.

Inaddition, someof the theoriesandhypothesesadvancedby researcherswillbe

discussed.Inparticular,sincetheMMwillbethebasisforanalysingShona-English

oral discourse in order to determine whether the model is applicable, a

comprehensivediscussionabout theMMwill bedone.CS is alsodiscussed in and

outsidetheschoolcontext.Furthermore,thestudywillpayattentiontosomeofthe

studiesdoneusingacorpus-basedanalysisofCS.

2.2 Ahistoricaloverviewofcode-switching

Overtheyears,CShasbeenwidelyresearchedfromdifferentanglesthroughoutthe

world. Bullock and Toribio (2009) assert that research into CS has been at the

forefront of all the language contact phenomena. The approaches employed by

researchers are varied as evidenced by the different focus areas. There are some

researcherswhobelievethatCSresearchfocusesontwomainareasandotherswho

considerCSresearchtobecentredonthreemainapproaches.Theseapproachesare

explainedbelow.

2.2.1 Twomainfocalareas

According to Auer (1998), CS research has mainly focused on two perspectives

namely the sociolinguistic and the grammatical perspectives. Auckle & Barnes

(2011),summarisedthesetheoreticalframeworksasthegrammatical(eg.Poplack,

1981, Belazi et al. 1994) and the socio-functional framework (Bentahila 1983,

Myers-Scotton1993a,Mukenge&Chimbarange2012,Wardhaugh&Fuller2015).

Boztepe(2005)highlightedthattheapproachescomplementeachother.Thus, the

approaches are not in conflict with each other. He notes that, whereas the

grammatical studies attempt to determine the structure and morphology of CS


11

utterances, thesocio-functionalstudies“attempttoexplainwhybilingualspeakers

talkthewaytheydo”(Boztepe,2005:3)

2.2.2 Threemainfocalareas

Researchers like Kamwangamalu, (1989) and Bullock & Toribio (2009) note that

therearethreemainfocalpointsinCSresearchnamelystructural,psycholinguistic

and sociolinguistic. They suggest that the structural approach dealswithwhat CS

can uncover about the makeup of a language and that CS occurs in an orderly

mannerandthecode-switchedutterancesconformtothegrammaticalrulesofthe

main language. Bullock and Toribio (2009) explain that the psycholinguistic

approach to CS deals with the mental processes that are involved with bilingual

speech. The psycholinguistic approach also deals with how switched speech is

processed (Kamwangamalu, 1989). Concerning the sociolinguistic approach, they

note that the approach is mainly focused on the social factors that support or

impedetheoccurrenceofCS.

2.2.3 Coiningofthetermcode-switching

Alvarez-Cáccamo(1998) isof theopinionthat the initialcoiningof thetermcode-

switchingwasdonebyJacobsonin1952.Jacobson,Fant&Halle(1952)ascitedby

Alvarez-Cáccamo(1998)usedtheterm“switchingcode”toexplaintheuseofmore

than one language in a conversation. Thereafter, the term “code-switching” was

used.

2.3 Earlytrendsincode-switchingresearch

BeforethetermCSwascoined,studieswerealreadybeingcarriedout.AlthoughCS

wasmentionedinsomeearlyresearcharticles,itlargelywentunnoticedbecauseit

was explained in passing as a miniscule topic (Myers-Scotton, 1993a). One such

example is Stewart (1968 as cited by Myers-Scotton 1993a). Although Stewart

focused on diglossia, he discussed Haitian Creole-French CS. Even though John


12

GumperzwentontobecomeoneofthemostinfluentialresearchersinCS,hisearly

researchwaslargelyunrecognizedbecauseitwasdoneaspartoflargerdiscussions.

CSwasonceconsideredalinguisticimpairement.Thisisevidencedbysomeofthe

early studies inCS (e.g.Weinreich,1953).Weinreich rejectedCSas speech that is

producedbyanincompetentinterlocutor.Heconsideredusingtwolanguagesinone

sentence to be taboo and to signify imperfection. Weinreich believed that if an

individual used more than one language in a sentence, this was an indication of

failuretomasteragivenlanguage.

TheattitudespilledovertoclassroomsasBoztepenotes:

In the caseof bilingual classrooms, thenotionof semilingualismembodies

itself in the formofnegative teacherattitudes towards studentswhocode-

switchinclassroominteraction.CS,aswithanystigmatizedlanguagevariety,

isseenasadeviationfromsomenorm(Boztepe,2005:3).

But this perspective has changed over the decades as CS has become one of the

major research field in linguistics. A quick check on the Internet produces many

articles focusing on CS from a wide range of perspectives. This interest from

researchershashelpedshedmorelightonthesubject.Bullock&Toribio(2009)are

of the view that CS does not show that one is unable to distinguish between

languagesbut shows the creativityenabledbybeingable to speakmore thanone

language.

According to Kamwangamalu (1999),most of the early studies on CS focused on

Spanish-English CS in theUnited States. He refers to studies done by Espinosa in

1911onSpanish-EnglishCSasoneoftheinitialstudiestotakeparticularinterestin

CS.Espinosa(1911)investigatedSpanish-speakingcommunitiesinNewMexicoand

Colorado.Fromthedatacollected,Espinosanotedthatspeakers’useofbothSpanish

andEnglishduringconversationswasacommonoccurrence.Healsoindicatesthat

thelanguagemixtureswerenotonlyconfinedtothespeechoftheuneducatedbutit

happenedacrossthesocialstrata.AccordingtoBenson(2001),atatimewhenthe


13

majority of researchers did not view CS as a subject worth studying, “Espinosa

identified CS as cutting across levels of education and socioeconomic classes”

(Benson,2001:30).Someof theexamplesofCSspeechgivenbyEspinosa include

utterancessuchas“Youbetsi”,“Hellocompadre”(Espinosa,1911:17).

Research into Spanish-English CS has carried on from the days of Espinosa as

demonstratedbyrecentjournalarticlesonthesubject(e.g.Moro,2015).Moronotes

thatCSisprevalent intheHispanicsociety intheUnitedStatesandthat it isoften

referred toas “Spanglish” (referring to themixtureof SpanishandEnglish).Moro

observesthatSpanish-EnglishCSisrifeinmediumslikemovies,music,ontelevision

andinliterature,tomentionafew.

AlthoughearlyresearchonCSfocusedonSpanishandEnglish,CSresearchhasgone

global.Studiescontinuetofocusonawiderangeoflanguagesindifferentcountries

throughouttheworld(Kamwangamalu,1999).AccordingtoMyers-Scotton(1997),

initial research in CS during the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the reasons

behind CS (e.g. Gumperz, 1982; Auer, 1984). Attention shifted to the syntactic

structureofCSinthe1980s(e.g.Poplack,1980,1981,Sridhar&Sridhar1980).

InAfrica,andparticularlyinSouthernAfrica,alotoflanguagescomeintocontacton

adailybasis.ThishasledtoscholarsstudyingCSasalanguagecontactphenomenon

in different settings. An immense number of published books and journal articles

that focus on CS attest to the amount of attention that has been given to CS as a

subject (e.g. Finlayson & Slabbert, 1997; Myers-Scotton, 1993; Kamwangamalu,

2000;Mashiri,2002).

2.3.1 BlomandGumperz’scontributiontocode-switching

Myers-Scotton(1993a)considersBlomandGumperz’sarticlepublishedin1972to

beamajor turningpoint inCS research.Their study investigatedCSbetween two

Norwegiandialects.TheirresearchtriggeredalotofinterestinCSbetweendifferent

languages.ThisinteresthelpedestablishCSasoneofthemostresearchedlanguage

contactphenomena.


14

Owing to his pioneering work, John Gumperz is considered to have been an

influentialscholarinthestudyofCSfromasocio-culturalperspective.Thatiswhy

Myers-ScottonbelievesthatGumperziscitedalotinCSresearch.AccordingtoNilep

(2006)Gumperz’sresearchonCSandcontextualizationhasinfluencedresearchin

sociolinguistics,linguisticanthropologyandthesociologyoflanguage.Forinstance,

Myers-Scotton(1993a) isofthenotionthatGumperz’sproposalthathelpedshape

MM is that, speakers use language in a variety of ways in order to convey their

intended message. They engage in conversation by using different strategies to

achievetheirgoal.Gumperz(1982)introducedtheconcept“discoursestrategies”to

refer to the way speakers choose to use language. He notes that when speakers

engageinaconversation,theyconsiderthesituationathandinordertodetermine

therightcommunicationstrategy.

In this sense, Gumperz was one of the first of a now growing group of

sociolinguists who view linguistic choices as dynamic events. That is,

speakers are no longer seen as influenced by situational factors inmaking

theirspeechchoices(Myers-Scotton,1993a:57).

Because of this view, Myers-Scotton believes that Gumperz motivated other

researchers into considering CS as a skilled performance culminating in the

publication of articles on CS (e.g. Jacobson, 1978, 1986; Lance, 1970 as cited by

Myers-Scotton, 1993a). Gumperzwasmotivated by Dell Hymes in developing his

hypothesis whereby linguistic choices can be explainedwithin their sociocultural

framework.

Blom&Gumperz’s1972articleresultedinthefollowing:

• Therewasafloodofcoursesinlinguisticsdepartmentsleadingtoextensive

useof the textbook(TheGumperzandHymesreaderof1972).Thishelped

increaseresearchintoCS.


15

• Blom & Gumperz advanced CS as skilled performance unlike other

researchers like Weinreich (1953) who had dismissed it as incompetent

speech.TheduoexaminedCSasasubjectworthytoberesearched.

• Their use of situational andmetaphorical switching to describeCSmarked

theintroductionofanall-encompassingapproachtothestudyofCS.Myers-

Scotton (1993a) notes that in spite of the contradictions in the way these

termswereused,theyhelpedotherresearcherstobetterunderstandCS.

2.3.2 CriticismofGumperz’sapproachtocode-switching

Myers-Scotton,(1993a).Myers-ScottonnotesthatsomescholarscriticisedGumperz

forsuggestingthatcodescanbeinterpretedsimilarlyinallconversationswhenhe

usedthe“wecodes”against“theycodes”.Criticsarguethatcodechoicescannotbe

uniformly interpreted. Pride (1979), as cited byMyers-Scotton (1993a) criticised

Gumperzforgivingconflictingdefinitionsofmetaphoricalandsituationalswitching

and for not examining similarities between the two types of CS. Another bone of

contentionisGumperz’slackofclarityonCSasacreativestrategy.Hedidnotmake

it clear whether individual behaviour depends on social norms (Myers-Scotton,

1993a).DespitethecriticismlevelledagainstGumperz,hehelpedtomotivateother

researchers to investigate CS. It does not therefore come as a surprise that some

researchers believe that Blom and Gumperz’s article in 1972 helped to positively

shapetheCSresearchlandscape.

2.4 Definitionofkeyconcepts

By looking at definitions given in literature, one can note that the key concepts

described below have varying definitions given by researchers. This is not

surprisingbecause,

aswithanyaspectoflanguagecontactphenomena,researchonCSisplagued

by thorny issues of terminological confusion. Not all researchers use the

sametermsinthesameway,nordotheyagreeontheterritorycoveredby


16

terms such as CS, code-mixing, borrowing or code- alternation (Boztepe,

2005:4).

Garcia &Wei (2014) share the same views and state that linguistics is a subject

which has a lot of debates and disagreements about the conceptualization of

language. But regardless of the different interpretations, research is contributing

towardsabetterunderstandingoftheseconcepts.

2.4.1 Code-switchingandCode-mixing

AccordingtoWardhaugh,(1992)duetotheneutralityoftheterm“code”,itcanbe

used todenotea languageora languagevariety. “The term “code” canbeused to

refer to any kind of system that two ormore people employ for communication”

(Wardhaugh,1992:89).Whenthetermiscombinedwithswitching,itindicatesthat

thereisalternationbetweenthetwosystemsusedbypeopletocommunicate.

Despite the amount of research into CS, a universal definition of the term has

remained elusive leading tomuch debate and argument (Moro, 2015). Bullock &

Toribio (2009) note that the term CS constitutes a number of language contact

phenomenasothatmakesgivingastraightforwarddefinitionofCSdifficult.Bullock

& Toribio further state that coming up with a unified definition of CS has been

difficult due to the fact that researchers explore the subject from a variety of

perspectives. Even thoughwemay encounter different terms in literature, “these

terms, different from each other yet in many ways similar, represent a view of

languageasasocialresourcewithoutclearboundaries,whichplacesthespeakerat

theheartoftheinteraction”(Creese&Blackledge,2015:21).

2.4.2 Whycode-switchingisdifficulttocharacterize

Differences in opinion arise from defining the term “code-switching” and what

constitutes CS. Researchers adopt a definition that suits their research. Thus, in

literature,oneislikelytoencounteradefinitionforCSasitisusedinthecontextof

theresearch.Inthisstudy,CSisimpliedtoencompasscode-mixing.Thatiswhythe


17

termsCSandcode-mixing(CM)aredefinedtogetherinthissection.Despitethelack

of consensus, one will also find that some researchers do agree on the same

definition or definitions. According to Bullock & Toribio (2009), defining CS is

problematicbecauseofthefollowingreasons:

(a) ThereareanumberoflinguisticitemsthatcanbegroupedunderCSmaking

an absolute definition elusive. Linguistic items such asmorphemes, single

words,phrasesandwholesentencescanbereferredtoasCS.

(b) The people who produce code-switched utterances may have achieved

varying levels of linguistic proficiency making their CS patterns to be

different. The differences in setting during conversations may lead to

contrastingoutcomes.

(c) CShappensbecauseofavarietyofreasonsincludingtofilllinguisticgaps,to

signifyone’sethnicity,toachieveacommunicativegoalandtoshowangeror

authority. Due to the varied nature of these reasons, giving a clear

characterizationofCSbecomesproblematic.

Myers-Scotton(1993a:4)definesCSas“theselectionbybilingualormultilingualsof

forms from an embedded language in utterances of amatrix language during the

same conversation”. She further notes that conversations that includeCS arewell

organisedandshowdiscourseharmonythesamewayassentencescontainingone

language.Althoughdifferent languages, vernacularsor stylesof a language canbe

involvedduringCS,thisstudyisfocusedonCSthathappensbetweenlanguages.

Some scholars distinguish between language alternations that occur within the

samesentence(intrasententialCS)andoutsidesentenceboundaries(intersentential

CS)(e.g.Myers-Scotton,1993a;Muysken,2000).Inthisstudy,intersententialCSand

intrasentential CS are discussed when determining the nature of CS in spoken

Shona.


18

The term “CM” is also used by some researchers to refer to language alternation

withinsentences(e.g.Kamwangamalu,1989)Heassertsthattheswitchedelements

canrangefromsinglewordstowholesentences.Therefore,Kamwangamalu(2000:

92)distinguishesbetweenCSandCMnotingthat,“CSreferstolanguagealternation

acrosssentenceboundariesandCMrefersto languagealternationwithinsentence

boundaries”.Anotherdefinitiongivenisthat“CM”referstotheuseofmorethanone

language in smaller units of speech, while “CS” refers to the alternation of codes

usinglargerunitsofspeechsuchaswholeclauses(Heugh,2013).Sridhar&Sridhar

(1980)andAuer(1999)similarlydistinguishbetweenCSandCM.InthisstudyCS

willbeusedtorefertosituationswherebyspeakerschangebackandforthbetween

twoormorelinguisticvarietieswhileengagedinadialogue.Theterm“CS”willbe

usedtorefertobothCSandcode-mixing.Thus,thestudywillrefertoCSthatoccurs

within sentence boundaries as intrasentential CS and that which occurs outside

sentenceboundariesasintersententialCS.

2.4.3 Intrasententialcode-switching

“Intrasentential CS occurs within the same sentence, from single morpheme to

clauselevel”Myers-Scotton,1993a:4).Theswitcheditemcanbeonewordormore.

ThefollowingexamplesillustrateintrasententialCS.

Example1

Intheconversationbetweentwoboys,thereisCSbetweenSwahiliandEnglish.

Kalenjin:Kwetusisimtuhawezikuletajokeskamahizo.Fathersiomtuwakuchezea.

Kablayakw-endajob,a—na-makesureeverybodyisoutofbed.

“Atourhomenoonecandothesekindsof jokes.Fatherisnotamantoplaywith.

Beforehegoestowork,hemakessurethateverybodyisoutofbed.”

Kikuyu:Mimisikuhizini-kousedku-amkaveryearly iliniendeshule intime.Hata

wakatiwaholidaysminihuamkajustthesametime.


19

“Thesedays I’musedtowakingupveryearlyso that Iget toschool in time.Even

duringholidaytimeIusuallygetup(at)justthesametime”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:

3)

Intheaboveconversation,thetwoboysengageinCSbetweenSwahiliandEnglish.

Theyarefromdifferentethnicities(KalenjinandKikuyu).

Example2

Wardhaugh&Fuller(2015),giveanexampleofsentencesmainlyfromonelanguage

(Spanish) but containing nouns and verbs from a different language (English) as

examplesofCSoccurringwithinsentences.Thecode-switchesareshowninitalics.

D:Mefaltanmikingymiqueen.

“Iammissingmykingandmyqueen.”

S:Esquekickó,maestra.

“Whathappenedisthathekickedmeteacher.”

(Wardhaugh&Fuller,2015:97)

Example3

Ngara(1982:97)usesthefollowingsentencestoillustrateShona-EnglishCS.

Iyendiyetroublecauser.

“Sheisthetroublecauser.”

Hwahwahunopindarightthrough.

“Thebeergetsrightthrough.”

Vanhuvachovaridevoidofsenseambuya.

“Thosepeoplearedevoidofsensegranny.”

In the above examples, CS occurswithin the same sentence. The English phrases

“troublecauser”,“rightthrough”and“devoidofsense”occurinsentencescontaining

Shona.


20

Example4

Kamwangamalu(1989)usesthetermCMtodescribeincidentswherespeakersuse

morethanonelanguagewithinthesamesentenceduringaconversation.Frenchis

showninitalics.TheconversationisbetweentwoZaireanwomenfriends.

Ekomayoawaoyebisingaimobalinayoa-téléphon-akayodeuxfoisparjour,nasix

heures du matin, na minuit, après-minuit. Soka a-téléphoner yo, dzamati kisi ya

bangungiopomperndakomobindampobanabalalatiintangookozanga.

“Youtoldmeyourselfthatyourhusbandcallsyoutwiceperday,atsixa.m.andat

midnight.Butjustafterhismidnightcall,yousprayinsecticideinthehousesothat

thekidssleepdeeplyuntilthemomentyou’llbeback”(Kamwangamalu,1989:149).

2.4.4 Intersententialcode-switching

Intersentential CS occurs when switching occurs outside sentence boundaries

(Myers-Scotton, 1993a). Kamwangamalu (1989) prefers to use the term

“intersententialCS”torefertotheprocessofalternatinglanguagesoutsidesentence

boundaries only.He uses the termCM to refer to alternations that happen inside

sentencesasexplainedinthesectionabove.

Example1

Kamwangamalu(2000)givesanexampleofEnglish-SiswatiCSasfollows:

“Heistalkingabouttwoschoolsoutofhowmany?Kudlalelwanikojwavelengabatali

labangasebenti?”

“He is talking about two schools out of howmany?Why are unemployedparents

madefoolsof?”

The example given by Kamwangamalu shows CS occurring outside sentence

boundaries.Althoughhecalls thisCS, itwillbereferredtoas intersententialCS in

thisstudyinordertodistinguishitfromintrasententialCS.

Example2


21

If we consider that “code-switching is the use of overt material (from single

morphemestoentiresentences)fromlanguageBinlanguageAdiscourse”(Backus

&Dorleijn,2009:76),thefollowingexamplefitsthisdefinition.CSbetweenSwahili

andEnglishisillustratedbelow.

Kikuyu:Hayamamboyamvuatuwachetu.Sisihatunauwezo.Wecandonothing.

“Let’s just leave these matters of the rain. We dont have any power. We can do

nothing”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:4-5).

In the above case, language B (English) is used in the discourse of language A

(Swahili).Sothesentence;wecandonothingisanexampleofintersententialCS.

2.4.5 Othertermsproposedforcode-switching

According toMoro(2015), since there isnoagreedupondefinitionofCS, thishas

resultedinscholarsproposingvaryingtermsthattheyusetoexplainthislinguistic

behaviour.SomeofthetermsusedtorefertoCSinclude;“code-mixing”,“language

switching”,“codeshifting”,“languagealternation”,“languagemixture”amongothers

(Benson, 2001). Other terms that some researchers have adopted recently are

multilingual discourse and translanguaging. The terms will be discussed in the

followingsubsections.

2.4.6 Multilingualdiscourse

According to Wardhaugh & Fuller (2015) researchers have recently adopted the

termmultilingualdiscourseinsteadofCS.ThishasledtoCSbeingusedlessoftenin

research studies. “Multilingual discourse” is employed to encompass various

linguisticpatterns.

In most multilingual settings, there are no strict or explicit guidelines for

whatlanguagetospeak.Peoplemustselectaparticularcodewheneverthey

choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from that code to

another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances

(Wardhaugh&Fuller2015:96).


22

Wardhaugh&Fullergivean illustrationofEnglish-Germanmultilingualdiscourse.

TwogirlschoosetousebothEnglishandGermanduringtheconversation.

I:Iii,youknabberonyourfinger.

“Ick,youchewyourfinger(nail).

K:No,Idon’t,thisoneisbrokeoff.

I:Ekelig.

“Gross”(Wardhaugh&Fuller,2015:96).

2.4.7 Translanguaging

With the dawn of a new century, linguists started looking at how speakers use

language. Some scholars haveproposed the term “translanguaging” to explain the

act of using more than one language. The term “translanguaging” was coined by

Garcia(2009).

Translanguaging is the act performed by bilinguals of accessing different

linguistic features or variousmodes ofwhat are described as autonomous

languages in order to maximise communicative potential (Garcia, 2009:

140).

According to Garcia, although translanguaging includes CS, it encompasses other

thingsaswell.Shenotesthatitisawayoflookingatbilingualismnotbycentering

on the languages but by observing bilinguals as they communicate so as to get a

betterunderstandingof them.Researchersbelieve that languagesare intertwined.

Thereforeanindividualdoesnothaveindependentsystemsforeverylanguagethat

heorsheacquires(Heugh,2013). Thesimilarview issharedCanagarajah(2013)

whoadvocatesagainsttreatinglanguagesasseparateentitiesandnotesthatwhen

languagescomeintocontact,theyinfluenceeachother.

According to Heugh, translanguaging encompasses CM and CS and targets the

techniques employed by people when they alternate between languages during

conversations. “The significant difference is that the new concept, in this case,


23

focusesmainlyon theprocess and activity and situation (the “how” and “where”)

rather than on the “what” and “how” of CS and code-mixing language practices”

(Heugh,2013:360).

Creese & Blackledge (2015: 30) give the following example of a conversation

betweenstudentsandateacherinvolvingPunjabiandEnglish.

Shaan:SaumvaarmairTVdekhiya.

“OnMondayIseeTV”.

Kirpal:[toShaan:]dekhiyasi?

“DidyoueatonMonday?”

Simran:Yeah,youhadtohaveroti(chapatti).

Kirpal:[laughs:]Mairrotidaalnaalkhaadisi.

“Iatechapattiwithlentils”.

Creese&BlackledgeexplainthattheuseofPunjabiandEnglishintheconversation

assistsstudentstoderivemeaningfrombothlanguages.Thisshowsthatlanguages

have integrated systems. Translanguaging seeks to explain how speakers use

differentlanguagestomakesenseofwhattheyhearandtoconveymeaning.Thus,

translanguaging seeks to explain multilingual conversations starting from the

speaker.

Translanguaging does not view the languages of bilinguals as separate

linguistic systems. The term stresses the flexible and meaningful actions

throughwhichbilingualsselectfeaturesintheirlinguisticrepertoireinorder

tocommunicateappropriately(Velasco&Garcia,2014:7).

In translanguaging, languagesare interdependentoneachotherand they forman

integratedsystem.

Translanguagingisviewedasameansofdiscussingwaysinwhichpeoplewhouse

morethanonelanguagecommunicate.Thisviewdeviatesfromearliersuggestions


24

by researchers such as Bloomfield (1927) and Weinreich (1963) who regarded

bilingualstohaveseparatesystemsforeverylanguagethattheyacquire.

Song (2015) explains that, lately, the term “translanguaging” has been used to

account for thedeliberate and strategicuseof two languages inorder to enhance

understandingofbothlanguages.

2.4.8 Borrowing/Lexicalborrowing

Borrowingorlexicalborrowingis,

theintroductionofsinglewordsorshort,frozen,idiomaticphrasesfromone

variety into another. The items in question are incorporated into the

grammatical systemof theborrowing language.Theyare treatedaspartof

the lexicon, take on its morphological characteristics and enter into its

syntacticstructures(Gumperz,1982:66).

ThisviewissupportedbyBullock&Toribio(2009)whoclaimthatthemorphology

and phonology of the borrowed word is altered to suit that of the borrowing

language. They illustrate their viewpoint using the Japanese word basubaru that

wasborrowedfromEnglish“baseball”.

Backus & Dorleijn (2009: 77) define lexical borrowing as “the process whereby

words from a lending language become entrenched as conventionalwords in the

receivinglexicon.”TheygiveexamplesofDutchTurkishwordsuitgaan“togoout”,

opleiding “school”, afstuderen “to graduate”, and Hemelvaart “Ascension Day as

words that were originally Dutch but have been frequently used and are now

establishedinDutchTurkishlanguage.

Kamwangamalu (1989) believes that borrowing occurs when words, clauses or

sentencesare loaned fromone language toanother for several reasons, like to fill

lexicalgaps.


25

Although there is no clearcut distinction between borrowing and CS, some

researchers seem to agree that the borrowed item’s morphology, phonology and

syntactical structure sometimes changes to that of the borrowing language

(Gumperz,1982;Kamwangamalu2000).

Taking the preceding definition into consideration, the list below provided by

Kamwangamalu(1999:260)showsexamplesofborrowingfromEnglishtosiSwati.

SiswatiEnglish

ibholaball

lisakasack

lisethishirt

sikilwaschool

irabharubber

ThereisnoconsensusregardingwhatconstitutesasthedifferencebetweenCSand

borrowing.Asmentionedpreviously, the study of language contact phenomena is

fraught with controversy (Myers-Scotton, 1997). The two language contact

phenomenaareintroducedintoalanguagesoastohelpspeakersarticulateduring

communication.AccordingtoMoro(2015),oneoftheareaswherethereisnoclear

cut distinction is between lexical borrowing and CS. There are researchers like

Poplack (1980) and Myers-Scotton (1993a, 1997) whose opinion is that CS and

borrowingaredistinct.Kamwangamalu(1989)notesthatincontrasttoCMandCS,

borrowedwordsareusedtofilllexicalgaps,forexampleCilubalanguage’smbekeci

“bucket”, mbulanketa “blanket”, and the kiSwahili dereva “driver”. It seems as

thoughresearcherssharethesamesentimentsthatCSandborrowingaremotivated

bytheneedforlinguisticexpressionandthatinbothinstances,thereisinsertionof

itemsfromonelanguageintoanother.Problemsarisewhenitcomestoclassifying

linguisticitemsaseitherCSorborrowing.

CS occurs when a speaker has competence in at least two languages while

borrowingcanhappenintheoraldiscourseofbilingualsandmonolinguals(Myers-

Scotton, 1997; Kamwangamalu, 1999). “Code-switching, by contrast, relies on the


26

meaningful juxtaposition of what speakers must consciously or subconsciously

processasstringsformedaccordingtotheinternalrulesoftwodistinctgrammatical

systems” (Gumperz, 1982: 66). Sridhar & Sridhar (1980) distinguished code-

switchingandborrowingasfollows:

(a) Theswitcheditemsarenotusedtocoverthegapsinthelexiconofthematrix

languageincode-switching.

(b) The phonology andmorphology of the switched items does not change in

code-switchingunlikeinborrowing.

Myers-Scottondisagreeswiththedistinctionmadeabove.Herviewisthatthereis

noclearcutdifferencebetweenthetwoterms.Furthermore,shenotesthat,

Trying to resolve this problemon a structural basis, considering degree of

assimilation, yields no useful results. First, assimilation is a gradient, not a

categoricalconceptandcanprovideusonlywithacontinuumasametricfor

evaluation(Myers-Scotton,1998,159).

In some instances, the borrowed items become part of the vocabulary of the

borrowing language and speakers do not realise that the linguistic item is not an

original part of their language’s lexicon. Heugh (2013) states that “butter” and

“physics”areEnglishwords thatwereborrowed fromLatinwords “butyrum”and

“physica”respectively.TheyhavebecomepartofEnglishlexiconoverthecenturies.

Ngara (1982: 74-76) uses the term “adoptives” to describe borrowed words. He

givesthefollowingexamplesofadoptivewordswhosemorphology,phonologyand

syntaxchangedtosuittheborrowinglanguage.


27

Shona English

chikoro school

dhokotera doctor

bhangi bank

sendi cent

keke cake

chichi church

shuga sugar

ticha teacherTable2-1Borrowedwords(Source:Ngara,1982:74-76)This view is supported by Boztepe (2005) when he claims that there are more

similarities than differences between CS and borrowing. Therefore, he sees no

reasonforcontrastingthetwo.Shonahasitsownfairshareofborrowedwordsas

statedearlier.Inthisstudy,carewillbetakentoidentifytheborrowedwordsinthe

corpusinordernottoconfusethemwithcode-switchedwords.Thiswillbedoneby

listeningcarefullytotherecordedconversations.

2.4.9 Nonceborrowing

Innonceborrowing,theborroweditems’morphology,phonologyandsyntaxdonot

change (Kamwangamalu, 1999). Nonce borrowings are defined as “single lexical

itemsorboundmorphemeswhicharesyntacticallyandmorphologicallyintegrated

into thebase language.Butwhichmayormaynotshowphonological integration”

(Boztepe, 2005: 6). English time expressions and numbers are good examples of

nonceborrowinginShonalanguage.

According to Poplack et al (1988) as cited by Bullock & Toribio (2009), nonce

borrowings can be found in bilingual utterancesmaking it difficult to distinguish

them fromCS. Kamwangamalu (2000) is of the notion that differentiating CS and

nonceborrowingcanbebasedonthelevelofassimilation.Hefurthersuggeststhat

ifalinguisticitemisusedalotinthediscourseofanotherlanguage,itmaybecome


28

integratedintothatlanguageresultinginitbeingusedevenbynon-bilinguals.This

resultsintheitembeingreferredtoasnonceborrowing.Incontrast,ifthelinguistic

itemisnotsociallyintegratedintoalanguage,itisCS.

Thefollowingpassagecontainsnonceborrowingswhichareshowninboldfaceand

CSwhichisshowninitalics.

Teacher: Manje zvakafanana nekuti kana uri kuita grade one manje saka vana

vazhinji vechisikana ku-primaryvanogona sitereki. Vanokasika ku-absorbzvunhu.

Butastimegoeson,vavakuendaku-grade five,six,seven,formonevanononoka

kuitacatch-upmu-ma-lessons.Butoncetheycatchuptheygoahead.

“Nowforexample,itisthesamewhenyouareingradeonenowsothatmanyofthe

girls (understand)muchbetter.Theyhurry toabsorb things.Butas timegoeson,

children go to grade five, six, seven, and form one boys are late to catch upwith

lessons.Butoncetheycatchuptheygoahead”(Myers-Scotton1993a:123-124).

Moreover,Myers-Scotton contends that there are incidenceswhere the borrowed

itemsdonot assimilate into theborrowing language. She gives an example of the

word “town”/“city centre” which has not assimilated into different Kenyan

languagesspokeninNairobi.

2.5 Bilingualismasaconditionforcode-switching

InorderforCStooccur,apersonshouldbeabletospeakmorethanonelanguage.

Themostsignificantfeatureofcode-switchingisthataspeakerneedstobe

fairly proficient in two languages (in otherwords, needs to have bilingual

competence)inordertopracticecode-switching.Aspeakerneedstobeable

to produce a chunk of one language and then switch over and produce

another chunk in the alternative language. CS therefore requires bilingual

competence(Heugh2013:348).

Bilingualism is oneof the conditions forCS to occur.Myers-Scotton (1997), notes

that speakers should be capable of constructing meaningful sentences in the


29

languagesinvolvedinCS.Therefore,CSisrestrictedtobilinguals(Bullock&Toribio,

2009).Thespeakers’linguisticproficiencylevelscanvary.AlthoughCSisperceived

by laypersons as an indication of poor linguistic skills, researchers regard it as

evidence of one’s bilingual proficiency. In the following subsection, I will discuss

bilingualismasaconditionforCSindetail.

2.5.1 Bilingualism

Bilingualism “was long regardedas theequalmasteryof two languages” (Mackey,

2000:26).Weinreichprovidesasimilardefinition:

The ideal bilingual switches from one language to the other according to

appropriate changes in the speech situation (interlocuters, topic, etc.), but

not in an unchanged speech situation, and certainly not within a single

sentence(Weinreich,1963:73).

Bloomfield(1933)definesbilingualismasthemasteringoftwolanguagesatnative-

likelevels.Heisofthenotionthatifapersoncanconverseinasecondlanguageto

theextentthattheycannotbesetapartfromthenativespeakers,thentheyaretobe

called bilinguals. Bloomfield (1927) summed up his viewpoints by providing

linguisticprofilesofsomeoftheNativeAmericanspeakersthathestudied.Among

them was White-Thunder, aged 40, whom he described as not having achieved

favourable linguistic proficiency in both Menomini (his native language) and

English. On the other hand, Little-Jerome is one of the speakers that Bloomfield

regardedasaproperbilingualbecauseheconversedfluentlyinbothMenominiand

English. IfoneconsiderstheexplanationsgivenbyBloomfield, itseemsasthough

most of the speakers he studied had not completely mastered even their native

language. Bloomfield seems to be prescribing the acceptable standard for his

speakersinsteadofdescribinghowspeechwasused.

Haugen(1953)ascitedbyButler(2013)doesnotconsiderabilingualtobeequally

proficient in two languages. Instead, he regards a bilingual as being able to utter

fully formedandcoherent sentences ina second language.ButButler finds issues


30

withHaugen’sdefinitionnotingthatindividuallevelsofsecondlanguageacquisition

vary significantlymaking it difficult tomeasure proficiency levels. Butler advised

againstclassifyingabilingualassomeonewhohasachievednative-likecommandof

a second language since thiswill excludemostpeople.Another reasonhegives is

thatithardtooperationalizenative-likecommand.

Bullock & Toribio (2009) are of the opinion that bilinguals who would have

masteredasecondlanguagetothesamelevelasfirstlanguagespeakersarescarce.

The majority of bilinguals have varying linguistic proficiencies in the second

language.AccordingtoNgara(1982),unlikethefirstlanguagewhichislearnedata

young age, learning a second language can be affected by a number of factors

includingage,motivationandsetting.Bullock&Toribiomakesimilarcomments.

Sridhar & Sridhar (1980) underscore that Weinreich’s (1963) definition of a

bilingual somehow influenced the approaches taken in linguistic research,

particularly in psychology, two decades later. According to Sridhar & Sridhar,

following on Weinreich’s definition of a bilingual, psychologists concentrated on

how bilinguals could manage to keep languages apart. This resulted in CS being

disregarded as a field of study. Producing mixed speech or switching between

languagesduringthesameconversationbecamelinguisticimpairment.

Therehavebeengreat strides in researchonbilingualism.Someresearchershave

proposed that the definition should include a broad spectrum of individualswho

have achieved different levels of linguistic proficiency inmore than one language

(e.g.Butler,2013).Garcia&Wei (2014)definebilingualismasunderstandingand

speakingtwodifferentlanguages.Theyviewmultilingualismasunderstandingand

speakingmore than two languages. As this study is concernedwith bilingualism,

multilingualismwillnotbediscussedanyfurther.

According to Butler (2013), the complexity of bilingualism is evidenced by the

differentapproachesadoptedbyresearcherswhendescribingabilingual.Hefurther

advocates that bilingualism should be viewed as a multifaceted aspect. Linguists


31

offer varying opinions ofwhat constitutes bilingualism. Some researchers believe

thatbilingualismhastobetreatedthesamewayas linguisticproficiencyofwhich

therearevarieddegrees (Butler2013). “Differentbilingualshavedistinctuses, as

wellasvariouslevelsofcompetenceforeachcode”(Hoffman,1991,p.24).

InthecaseofAfricawherethere isatowerofBabel intermsof languagesspoken

throughout the continent, bilingualism is prevalent (Myers-Scotton, 1993a).

Bilingualism is exacerbatedby globalization andmigration.Whenpeoplemove to

otherplaces, theymay learn another language.Ngara (1982) is of thenotion that

therearevariousreasonswhypeopleacquiremorethanonelanguage.Theyinclude

when children speak different languages from their parents, living close to a

differentlinguisticcommunityandschooling.

Lampert(1975)ascitedbyGarcia(2009)suggestedtheuseoftheterms“additive

bilingualism” and “subtractive bilingualism”. According to Lambert, additive

bilingualism results in a speaker being proficient in both his or her first and a

secondlanguage.However,withsubtractivebilingualismanindividualwillloseone

languageandgainanother.Resultantly,theindividualwillonlybeproficientinone

language. Lampert advocated for additive bilingualism noting that it is helpful

sociallyandcognitively.AccordingtoGarcia&Wei(2014:12)“Therearealsomore

extreme positions by some theoretical linguists, who, following Chomsky, believe

thataspeakerhasasetofmini-grammars for lexicaldomains, leadingtodifferent

representationsinthespeaker’smind”.

Butler (2013) notes that the current trend is that researchers utilize a

comprehensive definition of bilinguals to include people with different linguistic

abilities in two languages. In this research, bilinguals were considered to have

masteredEnglish atdifferent levels. Interviewingpotential participants inEnglish

enabled me to identify participants who could to speak English. From the

interviews,IchosethosewhowereabletoconverseinEnglishnotnecessarilywith

native-likeproficiency.Thisstancewasalso takenbyKamwangamalu(1989)who

suggeststhatthefluencylevelsofbilingualsmayvary.


32

2.5.2 Classificationofbilingualsinthisstudy

This study used Hoffman’s 1991 classification of a bilingual when choosing

participants for the research. Most learners in Zimbabwe are exposed to English

when theystartgradeone.Theycontinue touse itat schoolandby the time they

finishformsix,theywouldhaveusedEnglishasalanguageoflearningandteaching

foratleast10years.Itisassumedinthisstudythatlearnerswouldhavereacheda

high levelofproficiency inEnglishasa second language in form fourso that they

canbeconsideredasbilinguals.

By conducting interviews in English and asking participants to do a cloze test, I

gainedabetterunderstandingof their levelofEnglishproficiency.Although these

arenotenoughtodeterminetheproficiencylevelsofbilingualspeakers,theyhelped

duringtheselectionprocess.ParticipantswhofailedtoconverseinEnglishandwho

didn’tgetatleast12outof14intheclozetestwerenotconsideredforthestudy.

2.6 Sometheoriesandhypothesesproposedtoexplaincode-switching

SincethisstudywillfocusontheMM,abriefdiscussionaboutsomeofthetheories

andhypothesesthathavebeendevelopedbyscholarsovertheyearsintheirefforts

toexplainCSwillsuffice.

Researchers,intheirquesttoexplainCS,applydifferenttheoriestodifferentCSdata

(VanDulm,2009).Resultantly,when these theories andhypotheses are testedon

different data, they may be supported or disputed. Despite all this, “the

identificationofvariousconstraints,thoughsometimescontroversial,hasinspireda

greatdealofworkinsyntax,morphologyandphonology”(Nilep,2006:2).

2.6.1 TheMatrixlanguageprinciple

TheMatrixlanguageapproach,ortheMatrixLanguagePrinciple(MLP)proposesthe

following:


33

In CS there necessarily is one language, the matrix language, whose

morphosyntacticstructuredetermineswhatlinguisticelementsoftheother

language, the embedded language, can (and how they should) be

codeswitched(Kamwangamalu,1999:268).

According to Kamwangamalu, there is a matrix language and an embedded

languageinCSspeech.Thelanguagethatcontributesmoremorphemesinaspeech

utterance or in a speech sample is the matrix language. In other words, the

morphemesofthatlanguagewilldominateinthespeechsample.Takingthecurrent

studyintoconsideration,thematrixlanguageisShonaandtheembeddedlanguage

isEnglish.

2.6.2 Freemorphemeconstraint

One of the earliest contributions to linguistic aspects of CSwasmade by Poplack

(1980,1981).Thefreemorphemeconstraintproposesthat“aswitchmayoccurat

anypointofthediscourseatwhichit ispossibletomakeasurfaceconstituentcut

and still retain a freemorpheme” (Poplack 1981: 175).www.grammar.about.com

definesafreemorphemeas“awordorelementthatcanstandaloneasaword”.This

canbecontrastedwithaboundmorphemewhichcannotbeconsideredasaword

on its own. According to the free morpheme constraint “no switch is allowed

betweenaboundmorphemeofonelanguageandalexicalformofanotherlanguage

unlessthelatterhasbeenphonologicallyintegratedintothestructureoftheformer”

(Mashiri,2002:48).MashirigivesasentenceasanexamplemarkingwhereCSwill

bepermittedbythefreemorphemeconstraintwithaforwardslash(/).

Uya/pano/shamwari/yangu.

Comeheremyfriend.

Poplack (1981) suggests that full sentences canbe switchedoncondition that the

sentenceconsistsofatleastasinglemorphemeinEnglishandSpanish.Considering

thispremise, repetitions, conjoined sentences, interjectionsand full sentences can


34

be switched. The following example was given by Poplack to show CS between

SpanishandEnglish,

“Ellacantaconcionesinsultandoaloshombres.That’swhyyouneverheardofher.”

[“Shesingssongsinsultingmen.That’swhyyouneverheardofher.”]

(Poplack,1981:176)

Thus,fullsentenceshavebeenswitchedintheaboveexample.

2.6.3 Equivalenceconstraint

Theequivalenceconstraintaugmentsthefreemorphemeconstraint.

Itstatesthatthecodeswilltendtobeswitchedatpointswherejuxtaposition

ofEnglishandSpanishelementsdoesnotviolatethesyntacticruleofeither

language,thatis,atpointswherethesurfacestructureofthelanguagesmap

ontoeachother(Poplack,1981:175).

From theaboveexplanation,CSdoesnotoccurat randompositions ina sentence

buttendstofollowapatternthatwillallowtheembeddedlanguagetomapontothe

matrixlanguage.PoplackgivesthefollowingexampleofSpanish-EnglishCS:

“Itoldhimthatpa’quelatrajeraligero”

[“Itoldhimthatsothathewouldbringitfast.”]

(Poplack,1981:175)

Myers-Scotton(1993b) isof theviewthatconsideringthe freemorphemeandthe

equivalenceconstraints,theequivalenceconstraintreceivedthebulkofattentionin

research so far. She points out that it is because the equivalence constraint was

brieflyandclearlyexplainedmakingiteasiertounderstand.

Despite all the attention, some scholars have questioned the validity of the

equivalenceconstraintinanumberofstudies.Forexample,Kamwangamalu(1989)

argues that the equivalence constraint is not adequate in some contexts like in


35

Lingala and where an object pronoun can be used in place of a direct object as

showninthetwosentencesbelow.

Azako-embrasserJeanne/yepubliquement.

“HehugsJeanneinpublic”.

Azako-yambaJeanne/yenamisoyabato.”

“IembrasseJeanneenpublique”(Kamwangamalu,1989:166)

From the examples above, ye, a direct object can be substituted by an object

pronoun(Jeanne)inLingalalanguage.

Kamwangamalu(1999)observesthatacloserlookatthearticlesthatchallengethe

equivalenceconstraintshowsthatresearchersarguethatitisinsufficientandisnot

ascomprehensiveaspreviouslyasserted.Nonetheless,Poplackandhercolleagues

madegreatstridesintheircontributiontowardslayingthefoundationforresearch

intoCS.

2.6.4 TheMatrixLanguageFramework(MLF)

Myers-Scotton(1993b)developedtheMLFtoexplainthestructureofsentencesin

intrasententialCS.Inthemodel,thematrixlanguageisthedominantlanguageand

the embedded language plays a lesser role. Themodel also states that thematrix

languageistheonethatdictatesmorphemeorderandisthedominantlanguage.Let

us consider the following example taken from speech samples recorded for the

currentstudy(P7representsParticipant7).

P7:Thensomewherekunoukukunechiimbachakadai.Ichihachisichiimbaassuch.

“Thensomewherehereisahouselikethis.Thisisnotahouseassuch.”

The above sentences show that Shona is thematrix language because it provides

moremorphemesinthesentencesandalsodictatesthebasicmorphemestructure.


36

2.6.5 ExampleofastudyofShona-Englishcode-switchingusingtheMLF

Mashiri(2002)studiedShona-EnglishCSinthespeechofundergraduatestudentsat

the University of Zimbabwe. He “explored how morphosyntactic structure

constrainsandintergratesEnglishlexicalitemsandphrasestoformShona-English

mixedconstructions”(Mashiri:245).Inthestudy,Mashirirecordedandtranscribed

60 conversations and analysed them within the MLF. He bases his study on the

MatrixLanguageFramework(MLF)modelproposedbyMyers-Scotton(1993b),also

called theMatrixLanguagePrinciple(MLP)byKamwangamalu(1989).Themodel

statesthatacode-mixedstructureof theembeddedlanguagemustconformtothe

morphologyandsyntaxofthematrixlanguageforittobeacceptable.Inthestudy,

Mashiri described and explained the characteristics of mixed codes in four

grammatical categoriesnamely,descriptiveadjectives,nouns, locatives, andverbs.

Fromthedataanalysis,hesuggestedthattheMLFdoesapplytoCSinShona.

MashiritranscribedspeechsamplesandusedthedatatodescribeCMandtoshow

thatShona-EnglishCMisgovernedbytheMLF.Healsousedthedatatoexplainthat

English phrases and lexical items are integrated into Shona utterances in a

particularpattern.

Findingsineachgrammaticalcategorystudied

Attributive and predicative adjectives- Mashiri gives examples from the data he

collectedtoshowthat theuseofEnglishattributiveadjectives isquitecommonin

Shona-EnglishCM.Data also showswidespreaduseof the auxiliary verbwith the

predicativeadjective.

Nouns- CM by students mostly involves nouns that take the subject markers of

Shona noun classes 5 and 10which are /-ri/and/i-/ (to be) as illustrated in the

followingexample;

Ndinodabiblerangu.

“Ilikemybible.”


37

Locatives- In code-mixed utterances, locatives follow the Shona morphology rule

thatrequiresboundmorphemestobeattachedtonouns.

Verbs- According toMashiri, the study reveals that the inflection of English verb

stemsinShona-EnglishCMfollowsShonamorphologyandsyntax.

Data shows that for a Shona-English code-mixed structure to be acceptable, its

structuremust conform to themorpho-syntactic rules of Shona. One ofMashiri’s

observations is that, theEnglish spokenby students is of considerable lexical and

syntactic complexity and retains its syntax when it appears in mixed utterances.

According to Mashiri, the MLF is an ideal model for Shona-English CM and the

pattern in the data suggests that Shona-English CM is rule governed and code-

mixers,applytherulesthoughunconsciously.

2.7 TheMarkednessModel

SincethisstudywillbebasedontheMM,areviewofthemodelispresentedhere.In

this section, Iwill useMyers-Scotton’s (1993a) book [referred to as (M-S, 1993a)

throughout this section] as reference unlessmentioned otherwise.Myers Scotton

developed the MM to explain the socio-psychological motivations for CS. She

analysed specific transcribedexamplesof conversationsgathered fromKenyaand

Zimbabwe.

The theory behind the markedness model proposes that speakers have a

senseofmarkednessregardingavailablelinguisticcodesforanyinteraction,

but choose their codes based on the persona and/ or relationwith others

whichtheywishtohaveinplace(M-S,1993a:75).

ThemodelwasdevelopedsoastoprovideatheoreticalbaseonwhichCScouldbe

explained.“Usingtheconceptofmarkednessimpliesthatcodechoiceisviewedasa

system of oppositions. This follows from the fact that markedness is used in the

markednessmodelinagradientsense.Thatis,codechoicesfallalongacontinuum

asmoreorlessunmarked”(M-S,1993a:81)Themodelproposesthatspeakershave


38

the inherentabilityto identifycodechoicesasmarkedorunmarked. Ifa linguistic

typeisunmarked,thismeansthatitistheanticipatedvarietyduringaconversation

dependingonwhatsocietyexpectsinagivensituation.Incontrast,markedchoices

areadeviationfromthenorm.Speakerschooselinguisticvarietiesbyweighingthe

effectsofusingsuchvarieties.

The main aim of her study was to explain the benefits of using more than one

language during a conversation. Subfields included in the MM to explain certain

phenomena are sociolinguistics, pragmatics, social anthropology and linguistic

anthropology.TakingacuefromJohnGumperz’sworkwhereheconsideredCSasa

discoursestrategy,Myers-ScottonattemptstopresenttheMMasauniversalmodel

ofCSshowingthatCSisacreativediscoursestrategy.

In developing theDataMM,Myers-Scotton gathered datamainly fromKenya and

Zimbabwe.Amajorviewpointof themodel is that there isanunmarkedchoice in

every speech utterance. This means that there is a code which is expected in a

specificsituation.

AccordingtotheMM,duringaconversation,speakersareawareofwhatisrequired

of them.Wardhaugh&Fuller (2015) assert that theMM states that, speakers are

aware of the acceptable linguistic codes during interactions. Myers-Scotton

considers CS to be valuable linguistic performance which enables speakers to

understand eachother. She alsonotes that not all speakers code-switch the same

way.Markednessisusedtorefertothetheoryandtodescribelinguisticstructures.

According to Boztepe (2005), the MM attempted to include a broad spectrum of

issues and viewpoints into research about CS. In her book,Myers-Scotton gave a

vividdescriptionofthewaybilingualspeakersuselanguagesattheirdisposal.

An important argument of themarkednessmodel is that code choices are

understood as indexing rights-and-obligations sets (RO sets) between

participantsinagiveninteractiontype.TheunmarkedROsetisderivedfrom


39

whatever situational features are salient for the community for that

interactiontype(M-S,1993a:84).

Themodel is developed on the premise that speakers choose linguistic codes not

because of the societal conventions but because they think carefully about the

outcome. TheMM proposes that speakers’ communication intent is accomplished

when they use more than one language. Hence, Myers-Scotton treats CS as a

discoursestrategyfollowinginGumperz’s(1982)footsteps.

Two important concepts to the MM namely the negotiation principle and the

cooperativeprinciplewillbediscussedbelow.

2.7.1 Thenegotiationprinciple

The negotiation principle, modelled after Grice’s cooperative principle of 1975

which explains how people can interact effectively by being cooperative and

understandingtowardsoneanother,viewstheprocessofchoosingcodesduringa

conversationasidentitynegotiations.Thenegotiationprinciplestatesthat,“choose

theformofyourconversationcontributionsuchthatitindexesthesetofrightsand

obligationswhichyouwish tobe in forcebetween speaker andaddressee for the

currentexchange”(M-S,1993a:113).

Thecentralclaimofthenegotiatingprincipleisthatallutterancesmadebyspeakers

showhowcreativespeakersareduringaconversation.Inaddition,whenspeakers

engageinconversation,theyweightheimplicationsofusingeitheramarkedoran

unmarkedcode.Thedecisiontouseanyofthecodesisusuallydoneunknowingly.

ThefollowingexamplecontainsCS.SwahiliisthemainlanguageusedwithEnglish

giveninitalicsinthetranscription.Kikuyuisindicatedwhenused.

Policeman 1: And do you suppose policemen are gods? How else can we restrain

people from stealing except with punishment? Wewe si mtu wa kutuambia vile

tutafanyakazi-tunasheriayetu.


40

“Anddo you suppose policemen are gods?Howelse canwe restrain people from

stealing except with punishment? You are not a person to tell us how to do our

work-wehavegotthelaw.”

Bystander2:Lakiniusiimbemaliyawananchiinthenameofthelaw.

“Butdon’tstealpeople’spropertyinthenameofthelaw.”

Young man: (handing his identity card to the policeman) Hiki ndicho kipande

changu.Sisiapanawatuwabaya.(TohissisterinKikuyu)Njeri!Ndumuiguithie.

“Thisismyidentitycard.Wearenotbadpeople.Njeri!Pleaseconvincehim.”

Policaman 2: Hatuwezi kujaa kama ninyi ni watu wabaya au wazuri ikiwa

hamtatuonyeshalicenceyahiyoplayer.

“We can’t knowwhether you are good or bad people if youwill not showus the

licenceofthisplayer.”

Policeman1:(somewhatwithsympathy)Nowwhydidyoucarrythatrecordplayer

in this way without a licence- and you know very well that it’s dangerous? Sisi

waaskarihatuwezikujaakamaninyiniwezi...

“Nowwhydidyoucarrythatrecordplayer inthiswaywithouta licence-andyou

know very well that it’s dangerous? We policemen cant know whether you are

thievesornot”(M-S,1993a:77).

Myers-ScottonnotesthatSwahiliistheexpectedlanguage(unmarkedchoice)inthe

above interaction, but there is a switch to Kikuyu and English during the

conversation. The alternations in language use shown in the example above are

accountedforintheMM.

2.7.2 Communicativecompetence

TheideaofcommunicativecompetencewasproposedbyHymesin1972.

Underlying this concept is the recognition that competent speakers of a

languagehavetacitknowledgeofmorethanjustgrammaticality,i.e.whatisa

well-formedsentenceintheirlanguageandwhatisnot.Inaddition,theyare


41

able to judge the acceptability of a given well-formed sentence in a given

socialcontext(M-S-1993a:79).

Therefore, during a conversation, speakers will be able to distinguish acceptable

utterancesfromlessacceptableones.

AccordingtotheMM,theunmarkedchoiceistheanticipatedlinguisticchoiceduring

aconversationwhilstthemarkedchoiceistheonethatisleastexpected.Themodel

uses the terms “marked” and “unmarked” to assign to code choices. There is no

strictprotocoltodeterminewhichcodesaremarkedorunmarked.Theuniversality

comes in when speakers are able to recognise linguistic choices as marked or

unmarkedinrelationtorights-of-obligationsets.“Rightofobligationset(ROset)is

a theoretical construct for referring towhat participants can expect in any given

interactiontypeintheircommunity”(Myers-Scotton,1998:23).

Gumperz (1982) used the terms “we-code” and “they-code” to describe the two

differenttypesofswitching.Gumperznotesthatthedistinctionbetweenthetwois

thatoneisusedespeciallybymembersofagroupwhosharesomethingincommon

whilsttheotherisassociatedwithcommunicationbetweenthemajorityofspeakers

whodon’tbelong toagroup.Thisdescription influencedtheMMwhendescribing

thetypesofCS.

2.7.3 Predictionsaboutcode-switchingfromthemodel

• UnmarkedCSwillbethepopularchoiceamongspeakersbecauseithelpsto

maintainthestatusquo.

• If a linguistic community is conservative, it will make unmarked choices

duringconversations.

• Statuscontributestothemakingofmarkedchoices.Membersofagroupthat

ismost likely tomove upwards socially and economicallywill likelymake

markedchoices.


42

• Predicting the choice for rich and educated members of a community is

difficult.

• Thewelltodomembersofacommunitywillmostlikelyusemarkedchoices.

• Finally, a sixth prediction regarding interaction type is that more CS will

occur in the least conventionalizedexchanges.That is,uncertain situations,

whereconflictingnormsseemtoapplyandtheirrelativehierachyisunclear,

areprimesitesforCS”(M-S,1993a:154)

Myers-Scottonproposedthefollowingmaximsforthemodelandtheresultingtypes

ofCS.

2.8 Maximsproposedbythemarkednessmodel

Inthissection,IwilldiscusseachmaximproposedbytheMMandthetypeofCSthat

results fromthemaxim.“Markedness istheconceptwhichunifiesall fourtypesof

switching. It figures in speakers’ choices to switch and in the implicatures these

choicesprovidefortheaddressee”(M-S,1993a:149).

2.8.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim

The unmarked-choice reads: “Make your code choice the unmarked index of the

unmarkedROset in talkexchangeswhen theywish toestablishoraffirm thatRO

set” (M-S, 1993a: 114). In other words, the maxim directs speakers to use the

unmarkedchoicetoassertwhat isexpectedinthattypeofexchange.Anumberof

conditionshavetobefulfilledliketheneedforspeakerstobebilingualandthatthe

conversationshouldreflectthatthe interlocuters’knowledgeof linguisticvarieties

issufficientenough.TwotypesofCScanoccur.Theseare,sequentialunmarkedCS

unmarked CS. Myers-Scotton mentions that these two CS types take place under

differentsituationsbuttheirmotivationsaresimilar.


43

2.8.1.1 Sequentialunmarkedcode-switching

SequentialunmarkedCSisinitiatedbyachangeinexternalfactors. “Whenoneor

more of the situational factors change within the course of a conversation, the

unmarkedROsetmaychange(M-S,1993a:114).Myers-Scottonstressesthateven

though the RO set changes, the speaker is the one who can elect to react to the

change.ThemodelpredictsthatspeakerswillwelcomethenewunmarkedROset.

AnexampleisgivenbelowtoillustratesequentialunmarkedCS.Swahiliisgivenin

italics.

[1]Subordinate:(enteringJohnM’sofficeandspeakingtoEdwardMjustafterJohn

Mhassteppedoutforaminute)Wherehasthisguygoneto?

[2]Edward:He’sjustgoneout.Hewillsoonbeback.

[3] John: (to subordinate when he returns)Why did you change the plan of our

standattheshowground?Whorecommendedthechange?...

[4]Subordinate:(lookingguilty)Nobodytoldme.

[5]John:(toEdwardwhensubordinatehasleft:I’vetoldthismanhowtobuildour

stand,buthewentanddidadifferentthing.Ni mtumjeurisana.(Heisastubborn

person.)

[6]John:(callingtoreceptionist)Leteamgenisodaanywe.

“Bringtheguestsodasothathemaydrink”(M-S,1993a:116).

In the conversation above, Swahili andEnglish are used. There is a shift between

Swahili and English as the addressee changes. John uses different languages to

address different people in the conversation.Whenhewants to speak to a junior

employee and to a salesman, he uses English. However, when conversing with a

receptionist, he uses Swahili. Therefore, there is sequential unmarked CS as the

addressee changes. Myers-Scotton states that the structure of sequential CS is

usuallyinter-sententialalternationasin5and6.


44

2.8.1.2 Unmarkedcode-switchingandwhereitislikelytooccur

According to the MM, unmarked CS is the popular type of CS for bilinguals or

multilinguals. “Speaking two languages in the same conversation is also away of

following the unmarked choice maxim for speakers in many bi/ multilingual

communities in certain types of interactions” (M-S, 1993a: 117). This is true in

urbanAfricansettingswherespeakersusuallyswitchbetweenanindigenousanda

foreign language. According to the MM, in unmarked CS, the alternation may be

intrasentential,withinawordorwithinthesamesentence.

UnmarkedCSdiffersfromtheotherthreetypesinthathereitistheoverall

pattern of CSwhich provides the socialmessage, not any single individual

switch. With other CS types, it is the point of the switch itself (and what

follows)whichhassocialimpact(M-S,1993a:149).

TheexamplegivenbelowshowsunmarkedCS:

Shona 1: Unoziva chiri kunetsa. Time iya long back, zvakange zvisinganetsi

waingoendawonotaurakunabursarwaonakutindatoravanhuvakaitasovakaitaso

waona kana uchida vanhu ve-temporary unotangawa-apply ku-Ministryof labour

wopihwavanhuvachowaona.

“Youknowtheproblem.A long timeback, itwaseasybecauseyou justgot to the

bursarandtoldhimthat“Itakeemployedpeoplesoandso”,yousawifyouwanted

people for temporary, first of all you had to apply to theMinistry of Labour, you

weregivenyourpeople.(M-S,1993a:118)

2.8.1.3 Situationswhereunmarkedcode-switchingoccurs

Myers-ScottonhighlightsthefollowingconditionsthatenableunmarkedCStooccur.

1. Thespeakersmustbeofthesamestatusandspeaksimilarlanguages.Thisis

because this kind of switching does not occur where there are socio-

economicdifferencesbetweenspeakersorwhenspeakersdon’tknoweach

other. In this type of CS, the conversation should symbolize that speakers


45

belongtothesamesocio-economicclass.Normally,theconversationswillbe

informalones.

2. LinguisticcompetenceisnottheonlyconditionthatenablesunmarkedCSto

takeplace.Whatismoreimportantisthatspeakershaveanoptiontochoose

thelanguagethattheyconsidertobesuitablefortheinteraction.

3. Althoughspeakersshouldbeabletocommunicateintwoormorelanguages,

their proficiency levels may not be similar. Speakers may have varying

degrees of linguistic proficiency. Myers-Scotton notes that measuring

linguistic proficiency is subject to debate and literature does not provide

clear distinctions on what constitutes proficiency in a language. Different

researchers use varying degrees of linguistic proficiency in their

descriptions.

4. ThedevelopingcountriesareidealforCSduetothemanylanguagesspoken

in thesecountries.Therearedifferentethnicities foundespecially inAfrica.

Usually, the former colonial language is the lingua franca and is used in

business and education. Myers-Scotton notes that the foreign language is

seenasavehicleofupwardmobility.Thiscreatesasituationwhereboththe

indigenous language and the foreign language are used. Unmarked CS is

likely to occur in this situation. According toM-S (1993a), unmarkedCS is

popularamongSpanishspeakersresidinginUSA.

2.8.2 Marked-choicemaxim

Accordingtothemarked-choicemaxim,speakerscan“makeamarkedcodechoice

whichisnottheunmarkedindexoftheunmarkedROsetinaninteractionwhenyou

wishtoestablishanewROsetasunmarkedforthecurrentexchange”(M-S,1993a:

131).Therefore,itallowsspeakerstodisregardthestandardsocietalexpectations.

ThemodelclaimsthatmarkedCScanoccur formore thanonereason.MarkedCS

resultsfromthemarked-choicemaxim.


46

MarkedCSemanatesfromspeakerssettingasidetheexpectedcodeandchoosingto

negotiateanewROset.Themodelstatesthatspeakersknowinglyorunknowingly

assessthebenefitsofusingthemarkedchoiceinsteadoftheunmarkedchoice.

Amarkedchoicederives itsmeaning fromtwosources: first, since it isnot

the unmarked choice, it is a negotiation against the unmarkedRO set, and

second,as“somethingelse”,themarkedchoiceisacallforanotherROsetin

its place, that for which the speaker’s choice is the unmarked index (M-S,

1993a:131).

ThefollowingconversationataruralbarinKenyashowsmarkedCS.Thedialogue

involves Lwidakho dialect, Swahili and English languages. Instances of CS from

LwidakhotoSwahiliandEnglishareshowninitalics.

Farmer:(Lwidakho)Khuinzikhulimenyihanuinzala-.

“AsIlivehere,Ihavehunger-.”

Salariedworker:(Interrupting)(Swahili)Njaagami?

“Whatkindofhunger?”

Farmer:Yenyakhunzirilahanu-.

“Itwantstokillmehere-”

Salariedworker:(interruptingagainbutwithmoreforce)(Swahili)Njaagani?

“Whatkindofhunger?”

Farmer:Inzalayamapesakambuli.

“Hungerformoney.Idonthaveany.”

Salariedworker:(English)Youhavegotaland.

(Scotton,1983:128ascitedbyM-S,1993a:82).

Myers-ScottonexplainsthatduetoSwahiliandEnglishbeingassociatedwithpower,

thesalariedworkerusesthemasasignhisstatus.Thesalariedworkerisregarded

tohaveahigherstatusbythefarmer.HeusesSwahiliandEnglishtoshowhisstatus.

Myers-Scotton further notes that Swahili and English are the marked choices


47

because theyallowspeakers tonegotiatenewROsetsduring theconversation. In

theaboveconversation,thenewROsetsareSwahiliandEnglish.

Instanceswheremarkedcode-switchingmayoccur

(a)Asanexclusionstrategy

According to Myers-Scotton, given the multi-ethnic nature of most countries in

Africa, some people may turn to those who speak a similar language to them in

ordertoidentifywiththeirethnicgroupsespeciallyintownsandcitieswherethere

arealotoflanguages.

(b)Toshowangerorauthority

ThemodelproposesthatmarkedCS isusedtodemonstrateone’sauthority,anger

or irritation. Marked CS is illustrated in the following conversation. Swahili and

Englishareused.

Conductor:Umelipinauliyabasi?

“Haveyoupaidthebusfare?

Youngman:(noresponse)

Conductor:Unaendawapi?

“Whereareyougoing?”

Youngman:NafikaJerusalem.

Conductor:Youmustalwayssayclearlyandloudlywhereyouaregoingtoalight.Ok?

(MyersScotton,1990ascitedbyM-S,1993a:134).

In the example above, the conductor asserts his authority by shifting to English

duringtheconversation.

Myers-Scotton(1988)ascitedbyM-S(1993a:135)givesanexampleofadialogue

betweentwostudents.ThestudentsusetheNdaudialectofShonabutwhenoneof

thestudentskeepsaskingformoney,theotherswitchestoEnglishasfollows:


48

Student:Isaid,andidi.Idon’twant.

(c)Forcreativepurposes

TheMMstatesthatmarkedCSissometimesusedwhenretellinganevent.Thiswill

allowa speaker tobe creativeasheor shemakesmarked choices.Myers-Scotton

illustrates thiswithaKisiimangivinganaccountofhisconfrontationwithpolice.

ThemanrecountsthestoryinSwahiliandthenwhenhetalksaboutwhatthepolice

said,heswitchestoEnglishasindicatedbelow:

Juzinilikuwanatokahukochini,kufikahapa,sijuikwajunctionwaMatumaboRoad,

kufikahaponikapatammoja yukonyumanamwengineyukombele.Basinikaona

watugani.Miminatembeutunatokakwadukanikasikia.“We,kuja.”

“TheotherdayIwascomingdowntherewhenIreachedthe junctinofMatumabo

Road.ArrivingthereIfoundonepersonbehindmeandanotherinfront.Well,Isaw

agroupofpeople,Ididn’tknowwhatsortofpeople.Ijustwentalong(and)coming

fromtheshopIheard,“Youcome.”

(Thestoryends)Akaambiwa,Hapana.Let’sgo.Twende.”

“Andhewastold,“No.Let’sgo.Let’sgo(M-S,1993a:139-140).

AccordingtoMyers-Scotton,theuseofEnglishcreatesadramaticeffectinthestory.

Theauthorityof thepolice is shownby theiruseofEnglish.TheEnglish sentence

“let’sgo”isrepeatedinSwahilibythepolice.

2.8.3 Exploratorychoicemaxim

Theexploratorychoicemaximreads:“Whenanunmarkedchoiceisnotclear,useCS

tomakealternateexploratorychoicesascandidatesfromanunmarkedchoiceand

therebyasanindexofanROsetwhichyoufavour”(M-S,1993a:142).Thismaxim

producesexploratoryCSinwhichspeakersareinadilemmaonwhichcodechoice

willhelpattaintheirsocialobjectives.Shenotesthatexploratorycode-switchingis

theleastusedtypebecausetheunmarkedchoiceisusuallyapparent.

AnexampleofexploratoryCSisgivenbelow.


49

K1:HowareyouMrKaranja?

K2:Fine,niguka.

“Fine,Ihavejustarrived.

K1:Well,pleaselet’stakeonebottle,ga(Swahili)kuondoadustwathought.

“Well,pleaselet’stakeonebottle,alittletoremovethedustfromourthoughts.”

K2:(Swahili)Sawa.

“Fine”.

K1:(tobarwaiter)(Swahili).Letescotchontherockshapa.

“Bringscotchontherockshere.”

Waiter:(Swahili).Nini?

“What?”

K1:Hearhim!Tuskerbeerwarm.

“Listentohim.SomewarmTuskerbeer.”

(M-S,1993a:143)

Inthedialogueabove,theformerclassmates,oneabusinessman(K1)andtheother

a university student (K2) use Kikuyu, Swahili and English. M-S suggests that the

businessman is not sure what language to use when conversing with his former

classmate.ThebusinessmanexploreshischoicesbyusingEnglishwhichisamarked

choiceintheruralsettingandthenSwahiliandKikuyu.Althoughthebusinessman

greets his classmate in English, he responds in Kikuyu and Swahili. The use of

Englishcouldsuggestthatthebusinessmanwantstoimpresshisformerclassmate

sincethereisadifferenceinstatusbetweenthetwo.

2.8.4 Thedeferencemaxim

Ifthesituationrequiresonetoshowrespect,thedeferencemaximguidesspeakers

to shift to a code that shows respect. Speakers change to a code which allows

interlocutorstoshowrespect.Thus,itisusedwhereacodeisdeemedappropriate

undercertaincircumstances.“Whiledeference(meaningrespect) isoftenindicated

byusinghonorifictitlesorindirectrequests,amajorformofshowingdeferenceisto

accommodate oneself to an addressee’s code” (M-S, 1993a: 148). In the following


50

conversation, although his father addresses him in English, the 12 year old boy

respondsinLuolanguageasasignofrespect.M-SnotesthatbyusingLuo,theboyis

acceptingthesuperiorityofhisfather.

Father:Wherehaveyoubeen?

Son:Onyangonendeadluaora,baba.

“I’vebeentotheriver,father.”

(Source:M-S,1993a:148)

2.8.5 Thevirtuositymaxim

The virtuositymaxim guides speakers to use any code for the accommodation of

everybodyinvolvedintheconversation.AccordingtotheMM,thevirtuositymaxim

isusedasanaccommodationstrategyintheAfricansettingswhereeducatedpeople

usetheirfirst languagewhentheyconversewithlesseducatedfamilymembersor

colleagues.

Thedeferenceandvirtuositymaximsaredepictedassupplementingtheunmarked-

choicemaximandthetypesofCSresultingfromthemarerare.

2.9 HowtheMarkednessModelhasbeenappliedtoCSdata

Myers-ScottonanalyseddatathatwasgatheredinZimbabweandKenyatoexplain

andtoprovideevidenceofthemodel’sapplicationinthespeechsamplescollected.

OneofherconclusionswasthatalotofeducatedZimbabweansresidentinHarare

switched between Shona and English. Similarly, Finalyson & Slabbert (1997)

investigatedwhethertheMMappliestocode-switchingutterancesinSouthAfrican

townships.Oneof theirobservationswas that speakers change linguistic codes in

ordertoaccommodateothersandasasignofrespect.ThisstudywillusetheMMas

abasis foranalysingthecorpusbecausethemodeluseddata fromZimbabweand

Kenya to explain the motivations for CS. Therefore, the model is suited for data

analysis.


51

By proposing the MM, Myers-Scotton envisioned that the model can be used to

explain CS universally. But she cautioned that the examples are in no way

generalizable.TheprinciplesgoverningtheMMaretheonesthatcanbeappliedto

CSdataforanalysis. Inthesamevein,thisstudywillusetheMMtodeterminethe

natureandoccurenceofCSinShona-Englishspeech.

2.10 CriticismoftheMarkednessModel

Some researchers have criticised the MM because they say it is lacking in some

respects (Kamwangamalu, 2010). The MM was criticised for using Fishman’s

approach of 1965 and 1972 and for what they perceive to be its weaknesses

(Boztepe2005).NotableamongthemareMeeuwis&Blommaert(1994:417)who

argue that althoughmarkedness is a valuable concept, “analysis of codeswitching

should start, not from an assumption of commonness or universality but on

assumption of variability”. This view is sharedbyBoztepe (2005)whonotes that

there is a lot of debate on whether human action can be a result of conscious

calculation.

2.11 Code-switchinginSouthernAfrica

PayingparticularattentiontoSouthernAfrica,abriefreviewofstudieswillbedone.

In the case of Zimbabwe, Shona-English CS and borrowing began during

colonisation. The trend further developed as more and more people became

educated(Veit-Wild,2009).Nowadays,CSisusedbothinruralandurbanareas in

Zimbabweowingtoincreasedliteracyrates.

Sincelanguagechangesovertime,sodoesCS.Languagesevolvesince“notasingle

individual speaks the same way all the time, nor does anyone, including

monolinguals, use a single register or style in every speech situation”

(Kamwangamalu,2009:259).AlthoughMyers-ScottonuseddatafromZimbabweas

evidencetosupporttheMM,furtheranalysisofcurrentdatatodeterminewhether

themodelcanstillbeappliedtoShona-EnglishCSwilladdtotheMMdata.


52

2.11.1 Code-switchingtoaccommodateothers

TherearesimilaritiesbetweenFinlayson&Slabbert’s(1997)studyandthecurrent

research.Finlayson&SlabbertconsideredwhethertheMMcouldbeappliedtoCS

datafromSoweto,SouthAfrica.TheduoinvestigatedwhethertheMMappliestoCS

utterancesintheSowetotownship.Finlayson&Slabbertanalysed42conversations

andobservedthatspeakerschangelinguisticcodesinordertoaccommodateothers

or as a sign of respect. This view is highlighted by one of the participants in

Finalyson&Slabbert’s studywhoresponded toaquestionaboutwhether there is

anypreferencetothechoiceoflanguagewhenspeaking.Theparticipantreplied;

HakebualeMozulukebuaSezulu,hakebualeMotswanaSetswanaandsohake

bualemothowalanguageengweketryahobualanguageyagagegoreasekeareI

amtryingtobedifficultkebalikeatribalist.

“WhenIspeakwithaZuluIspeakZulu,whenIspeakwithaTswana,Tswanaandso

when I speak with a person with one language I try to speak the language of

him/hersothathe/shecannotsayIamtryingtobedifficultorthatIamatribalist”

(Finlayson&Slabbert,1997:128)

Oneof the conclusions of Finalyson and Slabbert is that CS is used as ameans to

accommodateother speakers inSoweto, SouthAfrica.Anexample given is thatof

threespeakerswhowereengagedinaconversation.TheyswitchedbetweenSotho

andZuluasshownbelow.

Zikhona,maarzonkelezibezikhulunywangabantu.Reamixakaofela.

‘Theyarethere,but,allthesearespokenbypeople.Wemixthemall”(Finlayson&

Slabbert1997:126).

They also noted that English is considered a status symbol among black South

Africans. The more one is educated, the more their chances are of switching

betweentheirmotherlanguageandEnglish.Intheirstudy,adetailedexplanationis

given about the functions of CSwhich include trying to accommodate others and

tolerance.


53

2.11.2 Finlayson,Calteaux&Myers-Scotton

Finlayson, Calteaux&Myers-Scotton (1998) studied how speakers code-switch in

order to accommodate others by focusing on the structural and sociolinguistic

aspectsofCS.Participantsinthestudyhaddifferentfirstlanguages.Theresearchers

used audio and video recordings. The number of years spent in formal schooling

determined the group that one was assigned to. There were two groups of 8

participantseachagedbetween16and24andresidinginTembisatownship,South

Africa. In an attempt to understand the psycho-sociological differences of CS,

Finlayson,CalteauxandMyers-Scottonanalyzedspeechsamplesandconcludedthat

one of the reasons people engage in CS is for them to be considered as being

cooperative. Since people have varying linguistic backgrounds. “engaging in CS

allows speakers to project ‘multiple identities’; that is, speakers can associate

themselveswithmorethanonesocialgroup”(Finlayson,Calteaux&Myers-Scotton

(1998:417).

2.12 Code-switchingasacommunicationstrategyinsomeschools

Although the focus of this study is on CS outside the school context, a brief

descriptionofCSresearchinschoolswillbegiven.CShasbeenstudiedextensively

in African classrooms. Most learners in African schools are not mother-tongue

speakers of English. In schools where they are expected to use English as the

languageoflearningandteaching,theyendupswitchingbetweenEnglishandtheir

native language. According to Boztepe (2005) with all the research into CS in

classrooms, this may be helpful towards a better understanding of the motive

behindthebehaviourandhowitaffectsthelearningprocess.Thefollowingstudies

lookedatCSinschools:

1. Van der Walt, Mabule & De Beer’s (2001) studies in some South African

schools showed that teachers and learnersoften switchbetween their first

languageandEnglish.Chimbgamba&Mokgwathi’s(2011)findingsonCSin

English classes in Botswana show that CS is more common especially in


54

biologyandHomeEconomics classes.Theynote that teachersand learners

constantlyswitchfromEnglishtoTswanaforclarificationpurposes.

2. CSintheclassroomisinresponsetolearners’ functionalneeds,suchasthe

need to bridge the gap between their limited competence in the target

language and the need to allow them to construct knowledge through the

experienceoftheir languageandculture(Chimbgamba&Mokgwathi,2012:

30).

3. CS as a communication strategy in schools was highlighted by Mokgwathi

(2011).SheobservedlessonsinselectedclassroomsinBotswana.Thestudy

confirmedthatCSbetweenEnglishandSetswanawasprevalentregardlessof

theteachers’andlearners’proficiencylevelsinEnglish,age,mothertongue,

amongother things.Mokgwathi alsonoted thatboth teachers and learners

viewed CS as a useful teaching and learning strategy that assisted them to

comprehendcontent.SheconcludedthatCSwascommonincontentsubjects

likeHistory,BiologyandHomeEconomics.Anotherobservationshemadeis

that teachersdidnot encourageCSespeciallyduringSetswanaandEnglish

lessons. Mokgwathi’s conclusions that CS was used for group identity, to

boost the confidence of learners, to show the teacher’s education levels, to

show authority or irritation and to show that one can speakmore than a

singlelanguage,seemtosupporttheMM.

4. InacasestudyofschoolsintheBuheraSouthdistrictinZimbabwe,Viriri&

Viriri (2013) noted that, despite the fact that teachers and learners are

expected touseEnglish, theyoftenswitchbetweenEnglishandShona.The

study concluded that although English was supposed to be used in

classrooms, teachers and pupils often switched to Shona to clarify certain

pointsduringthelearningprocess.CSwasanorminclassrooms.

WhenIwasasecondaryschoolstudentmyself,wewererequiredtoconverseonly

in English especially during school times. There were instances where learners


55

wouldbepunishedforusingtheirmothertongue.Thisresultedinlearnerskeeping

quieteveniftheydidn’tunderstandcertainconceptsbecausetheycouldnotspeak

English.

5. Rose&VanDulm(2006) lookedat themotivations forCSbetweenEnglish

andAfrikaansata secondaryschool.Datawasanalysedusing theMM.The

pairconcludedthatCSisacommunicationstrategyandservesapurposeof

clarifying concepts in classrooms. Their research supported the MM as a

usefulmodelthatcanbeusedtoexplainCS.InthedatacollectedbyRoseand

Van Dulm, they found evidence of unmarked, sequential unmarked and

markedcode-switching.Itiswithinthesameveinthatthisstudyproposesto

analysespeechsamplesfromShona-Englishbilingualsinordertodetermine

whethertheMMcanbeappliedtoShona-EnglishCS

2.13 Conclusion

Thecurrentchapter focusedonreviewing literature inordertobetterunderstand

research that has been done on CS in Africa, especially in relation to the MM. A

historical overview of CS was done noting the early studies that helped lay the

foundation for CS research. Key concepts were defined noting the differences in

opinionsbyresearchersregardingthedefinitions.

SincetheMMisimportantinthecurrentstudy,adetailedexplanationofthemodel

wasgiven. Inaddition, someof the theoriesandhypothesesproposedbyscholars

were discussed. Also included are some of the studies that have been done to

determinewhethertheMMisapplicabletoCSdataindifferentcontexts.

From the literature review, we can see that the study of CS has gone through

differentstages.Linguistshaveproposedtheoriesandhypothesesinanattemptto

account for this interesting phenomenon. The availability of literature and the

differenttheoriesandhypothesesatteststotheeffortsbeingmadebyresearchersto

unpackCS.DespiteallthedisagreementsaboutCS,researchisopeningupplatforms

forfurtherdiscussion.


56

IsupportBokamba’s(1988)assertionthatabetterunderstandingofCSwillaidin

thequesttoformulate linguistictheory.BystudyingtheapplicabilityoftheMMto

Shona-English CS, it is hoped that this will assist to better understand CS as a

languagecontactphenomena.

Fromtheliteratureconsulted, itcanbenotedthatcode-switchingisavastsubject

withalotoftheoriesandhypotheses.

Still focusing on literature review, the next chapter discusses issues regarding a

corpus-basedanalysis.


57

Chap te r 3 Corpususeinlanguagestudies

3.1 Introduction

Corpora have played a significant role in studies about language. The advent of

computers has promoted research in language use based on corpora and corpus

compilation projects have increased. This chapterwill not seek to give a detailed

explanationaboutcorpuslinguisticsasawholebutabriefoverviewisnecessaryto

providethecontextforthecurrentstudy.Thediscussionwillbefocusedondefining

acorpusandexplainingthestagesthatcorpuslinguisticshasgonethroughasafield

ofstudy.Corpuscompilationprojectswillbediscussedandadetaileddescriptionof

theShonacorpuswillbegiven.Inaddition,studiesthathavebeendoneonCSusing

acorpus-basedanalysiswillreceiveparticularattention.

3.2 Corpuslinguistics

“Corpus linguistics can be described as the study of language on the basis of text

corpora”(Aijmer&Altenberg1991:1).Anotherdefinitionfoundinliteratureisthat

“corpuslinguisticsisperhapsbestdescribedforthemomentinsimpletermsasthe

studyoflanguagebasedonexamplesof‘reallife’languageuse”(McEnery&Wilson,

2001:1).

Researchers study language use using actual texts as they are used in real life

(Baker,2010;McCarthy&O’keeffe,2010).Themainconcernofcorpuslinguisticsis

describingperformance(howlanguageisusedeveryday).

Corpus linguistics is firmly rooted inempirical, inductive formsof analysis,

relying on real-world instances of language use in order to derive rules or


58

exploretrendsaboutthewaysinwhichpeopleactuallyproducelanguage(as

opposed to models of language that rely on made-up examples or

introspection(Baker2010:94).

AccordingtoMcCarthy&O’keeffe(2010), theemergenceofcorpus linguisticswas

enabledbytechnologicaladvancesinhardwareandsoftwaretowardstheendofthe

20th century. Research questions in corpus linguistics are centred on how people

really use language (e.g. Kennedy, 1998; McEnery &Wilson, 2001; Baker, 2010).

Kennedy,(1998)statesthatcorpuslinguisticsisnowassociatedwiththecomputer,

whichperformstasksatgreatspeed,isdependableandcanmanagelargeamounts

of data. Corpus linguistics is viewed as amethodology by some researchers. For

example,McEnery&Wilson (2001) are of the opinion that corpus linguistics is a

methodologyandnotabranchoflinguistics.

Computers have enabled researchers to store and process huge amounts of texts.

Pearson, (1998) indicates that the approaches of corpus linguistics are corpus

driven, corpus based and data based. The approaches differ in the way they use

corpora.Baker,(2010)supportsthisnotionandsuggeststhat:

Corpus-driven linguists tend tousea corpus inan inductiveway inorder to

form hypotheses about language, notmaking reference to existing linguistic

frameworks.However,corpus-basedlinguiststendtousecorporainorderto

testorrefineexistinghypothesestakenfromothersources(Baker,2010:95).

3.3 Corpus

Therearedifferentdefinitionsofacorpusinliterature.“Traditionally,linguistshave

used the term “corpus” to designate a body of naturally-occurring (authentic)

languagedatawhichcanbeusedasabasisforlinguisticresearch”(Leech,1991:1).

Kennedy (1998: 1) uses the traditional definition, “a body of written text or

transcribed speech which can serve as a basis for linguistic analysis and

description”. The modern definition describes a corpus as “a finite-sized body of

machine readable text, sampled in order to be maximally representative of the


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language variety under consideration” (McEnery & Wilson, 2001: 32). Kennedy

states that the work of researchers becomes less complicated when a corpus is

storedonacomputerbecausetheycananalysethecorpususingdifferentsoftware.

“The corpus provides contexts for the study of meaning in use and, by making

available techniques for extracting linguistic information from texts on a scale

previouslyundreamedof,itfacilitateslinguisticinvestigationswhereempiricismis

textbased”(Kennedy1998:9).Biber,Conrad&Reppen(1998:12)defineacorpus

as“alargeandprincipledcollectionofnaturaltexts”.

The texts found in a corpus may be written or spoken or a mixture of both. In

addition, the corpus can be unannotated (i.e. in their existing raw states of plain

text) or annotated (ie. enhanced with various types of linguistic information)”

(McEnery&Wilson,2001:32).

Leech(1997)isoftheopinionthatforresearcherstobeabletogatherinformation

fromacorpus,thefirststepwillbetoaddinformationtoitbymeansofannotation.

Hedefinesannotationas,

the practice of adding interpretive, linguistic information to an electronic

corpusofspokenand/orwrittenlanguagedata.Annotationcanalsoreferto

theend-productoftheprocess:thelinguisticsymbolswhichareattachedto,

linkedwith, or interspersedwith the electronic representation of language

materialitself(Leech,1997:2).

But he advises against taking annotations as representing absolute reality and

accuracy.Leechpointsoutthatthetextcanbeusedforvariousresearchpurposes.

I agree with McEnery &Wilson’s view that unannotated corpora can be used to

answersomeresearchquestions.Thecorpuscompiledforthecurrentstudyisnot

annotatedbutwillbesuitabletoanalyseanddescribethenatureofCSutterancesin

Shona-EnglishbilingualstherebycontributingtothestudyofShonawhichisaless

resourcedlanguage.


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Sinclair (2004) notes that texts are arranged randomly in a corpus and a corpus

enablestheobservationofphenomenathataredifficulttoobserve.

Therehavebeenalotofprojectsaimedatcorpuscompilationforarangeofgoals.

The size, type and design of a corpus are determined bywhat the corpuswill be

usedfor(Kennedy,1998).

Although theydiffer in theirdefinitionofacorpus, linguistsagreeon the fact that

languageisanalysedusingreallifesamplesfromabodyoftexts.Biberetal.(1998)

notethatageneralcorpuscanrepresentagivenlanguageandtherearemillionsof

wordsinit.Ontheotherhand,aspecialisedcorpustendstobesmaller,numbering

inthethousandsandisusuallyusedtoanswerpreciseresearchquestions.Forthis

study,aspecialisedcorpuswillbeused.

3.4 Corpus:Abriefhistory

The use of corpora in language studies has gone through various stages. Some

scholarsconsiderthe1950stobecrucial for thegrowthofcorpus linguistics. “We

can pinpoint a discontinuity in the development of corpus linguistics fairly

accurately in the late 1950s. After this period, the corpus as a source of data

underwentaperiodofalmost totalunpopularityandneglect” (McEnery&Wilson,

2001:4).

During the1950s, corpus linguistics sloweddownbecauseof criticism fromsome

linguists. Notable among themwasNoamChomsky. “Chomsky suggested that the

corpus could never be a useful tool for the linguist, as the linguist must seek to

model language competence rather than performance” (McEnery&Wilson, 2001:

6). His main concern was rationalism rather than empiricism. Thus, Chomsky

argued that using language samples as a basis for description would lead to an

incompleteanalysissincethesampleswouldnotcontainallthepossiblesentences

ofalanguage.AccordingtoBonelli(2010),thecriticismapparentlymadeitdifficult

forresearcherstousecorpora.


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McEnery&Wilsoncomment thatalthough thepopularbelief is that corpus-based

researchstoppedaltogetherinthe1950sduetodisapprovalonlytoberesumedin

the early 1980s, some researchers continuedworkingwith corpora in the 1950s,

1960s and 1970s. For example, observing naturally occurring data remained the

principalsourceofinformationinthefieldofphoneticsandlanguageacquisition.

Aijmer & Altenberg (1991) and Johansson (1991) believe that Randolf Quirk’s

SurveyofEnglishUsage(SEU)Project,donearound1960,markedthestartingpoint

of corpus compilation. The corpus was not machine-readable. The SEU aimed to

compile “a large and stylistically varied corpus as the basis for a systematic

description of spoken and written English” (Aijmer & Altenberg 1991: 1). The

BrowncorpuscompiledbyNelsonFrancisandHenryKucerain1964isconsidered

tobethepioneeringworkinelectroniccorpuscompilation.

Any account of corpus-based linguistic analysis must take as a reference

point the pioneering Brown University Standard Corpus of Present-Day

AmericanEnglish, commonlyknownas theBrown corpus (Kennedy, 1998:

23).

FrancisandKuceracontributedimmenselytocorpuslinguisticsbecausetheirwork

was done amid heavy criticism and the process of corpus complilation was a

daunting task with limited technology (Kennedy, 1998). Nevertheless, the duo

produced a corpus of almost one million words consisting of written American

English. “Given the enormity of the task and the available technology, this

pioneering work was completed with remarkable speed in that the corpus was

available on computer tape with an accompanying manual by 1964” (Kennedy,

1998:24).TheBrowncorpuscontinues tobeusedbyresearchers throughout the

worldatnocost.Sincethen,therehavebeenanumberofprojectsaimedatcorpus

compilation in different languages. According to McEnery &Wilson (2001), from

1980 up to now, corpus linguistics has grown rapidly aided by the availability of

computers.Someofthecorpuscompilationprojectsarediscussedinsections3.8.


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3.4.1 Argumentsagainsttheuseofcorpora

By using a corpus, we attempt to model performance instead of linguistic

competence.“Chomskyarguedthatthegoalsoflinguisticsarenottheenumeration

anddescriptionofperformancephenomena,butrather theyare introspectionand

explanation of linguistic competence” (McEnery &Wilson, 2001: 12). Even if we

welcome counting and describing features as aims of linguistics, this cannot be

achievedbecausenaturallanguagesareinfinite.

In the case of a spoken corpus, achieving complete accuracy when transcribing

speechisdifficult.“Thechallengeistocomeupwithdecisionsthatensurethatthe

resultant corpus captures the way the language is structured or used” (Chabata,

2000: 81). Although it is difficult to accurately transcribe speech, with due care

takeninthetranscriptionprocess,describinglanguageusingrealspeechsamplesis

farmoreadvantageousthanresearchersdescribinghowlanguageoughttobeused.

3.5 Considerationswhendesigningacorpus

3.5.1 Representativeness

AccordingtoBiber,Conrad&Reppen(1998),whendrawingupacorpus,ithastobe

representative enough so that the proposed research questions are answered

satisfactorily. Kennedy notes that there is controversy regarding the matter of

representativenessinacorpus.

For a corpus to be “representative” there must be a clearly analysed and

defined population to take the sample from. But because we cannot be

confidentweknowallthepossibletexttypesnortheirproportionsofuseina

population, a “representative” sample is at best a rough approximation to

representativeness,giventhevastuniverseofdiscourse(Kennedy,1998:52).

Kennedy further states that regarding a sample of language that may have been

collectedinasingledayasrepresentingaparticularlanguageshouldbetakenwith

a pinch of salt. One has to choose participants carefully. That is why I intend to


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interviewparticipants in order to identify thosewho can communicate inEnglish

proficiently.Usingonlysuchparticipants’languageusewillaidinmakingmycorpus

morerepresentativeoftheresearchsampleinthecurrentstudy.

3.5.2 Diversity

Itisimportanttolookatdifferentregistersinalanguagetobesampled.Biberand

his colleagues suggest that, if the language under investigation has dialects, these

havetobeincludedinthecorpus.Kennedy,1998concurswiththisviewandstates

thattheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)isanexampleofawell-representedcorpus.

3.5.3 Size

Acorpusshouldbelargeenoughtoallowdiversity.Biber,Conrad&Reppen(1998:

250)notethat“everycorpuswillhave limitations,butawell-designedcorpuswill

still be useful for investigating a variety of linguistic issues”. One advantage of a

smallcorpusisthatitallowsforaspecialisedinvestigationoflanguageinaspecific

setting(Koester,2010).Whenlookingatthecurrentstudy,CSwasinvestigatedwith

particularfocusonthelanguageuseofselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.

Reppen(2010)isoftheopinionthatcorporacanbeofvariedsizesaslongasthey

are representative enough and can be used to satisfactorily answer research

questions.Baker(2010)concurswiththisviewandsuggeststhatthethreeaspects

namely sampling, balance and representativeness are important in corpus

linguistics. Thecorpususedinthecurrentstudyconsistedofabout29900words

andissuitablefortheresearchprojectbasedontheabovecriteria.

3.6 Corpustypes

3.6.1 Generalcorpus

Ageneralcorpusrepresentsagivenlanguageandusuallycontainstextsdrawnfrom

differentcategories.Itmayconsistofwrittencorporaorspokencorporaorboth.“A

general corpus is typically designed to be balanced, by containing texts from


64

different genres and domains of use including spoken and written, private and

public” (Kennedy, 1998: 20). Baker (2010) gives theBritishNational Corpus, The

BankofEnglishor theAmericanNationalCorpus as examplesof general corpora.

Oneofthecharacteristicsofgeneralcorporaisthattheyareverylargeandcanbe

collectedandannotatedoveralongperiodoftime.

3.6.2 Specialisedcorpus

A specialised corpus tends to be smaller and is usually used to answer specific

research questions. “Specialized corpora can be smaller and contains a more

restricted set of texts. For example, there could be restrictions on genre (e.g. just

newspaper reporting) time (e.g. just texts that were published in May 1990) or

place/ language variety (e.g. just texts thatwerepublished in Singapore)” (Baker,

2010: 99). Examples of specialised corpora are those compiled by commercial

publishers and corpora collected to answer specific research questions (Kennedy,

1998,Baker,2010).TheShonacorpusthatIcompiledisanexampleofaspecialised

corpus.

3.6.3 Spokencorpora

According toBaker (2010),due to theexpenses involvedand theamountofwork

required inrecording, transcribingandcompilingdata, spokencorpora tend tobe

smaller thanwritten corpora. Leech (1991) notes that when spoken discourse is

being transcribed, the transcriber will be involved in both interpreting and

representing the speech. Due to the time consuming nature of transcription, the

majority of transcriptions are orthographic ones which use standard spelling for

convenience and reserve phonetic transcription for exceptional pronunciation.

Because of the aforementioned reason, some researchers choose to work with

writtencorporainstead.

Aldophs&Knight(2010)concurwithLeech’sviewpointandaddthatcollectingand

transcribing speech samples is demanding but working with spoken corpora

providesaunique insight intohow language isused.This studywillusea spoken


65

corpus, but it should be noted that the above mentioned challenges were also

encounteredduringthecorpuscompilationprocess.

3.6.4 WrittenCorpora

Baker(2010)notesthatawrittencorpusiseasiertocompilethanaspokenone.He

furtherindicatesthatawrittencorpushastobeclearlyencryptedinordertoretain

information about font size, colour andpictures in the corpus. Propelled by how

easy it is to compile written corpora, researchers have been more focused on

analyzing written corpora at the expense of spoken corpora (Adolphs & Knight,

2010).

3.7 Someofthetoolsusedincorpussearchandretrieval

In order to aid corpus analysis, researchers have developed software “The great

majorityofcorpuslinguistshavemadeuseofcommerciallyavailablesoftwareand

freeware available through particular research groups” (Kennedy, 1998: 259).

Kennedyfurthernotesthateachsoftwareproducthasitsownmeritsanddemerits

andresearchershavetochoosesoftwaretousebasedonwhethertheywillgetthe

bestresultsoutofit.Biberetal.notethatalotofsoftwarecanbeusedtoanalysea

corpus thereby allowing research on a variety of topics thatwere previously not

possible to investigate or time consuming.Beloware someof the corpus analysis

toolsasdiscussedbyKennedy(1998).

The Oxford Concordance Program (OCP)- A collection of programs for creating

wordlists,indexesandconcordances.OCPisabatchprogramformakingwordlists,

concordancesandindexes.OCPiscompatiblewithmostmainframesandiscapable

of managing different text patterns. One drawback of OCP is that “it works with

“raw” textandnotwith“indexed” textand thishasconsequences for thespeedof

processing”(Kennedy,1998:260).

Wordcruncher- When it comes to retrieving lexically based features of a large

corpus,Wordcrunchercomesinhandybecauseitisveryfast.


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TextAnalysisComputingTools(TACT)-KennedynotesthatTACTisusedbroadlyin

corpusanalysisresearch.Ithasalsobeenusedindescriptivelinguistics.

WordSmith-MikeScottdevelopedWordSmith in1996.Thissoftware isaccessible

viaOxfordUniversityPress.“Theabilitytoundertakemoredetailedanalysesofthe

frequenciesofconcordanceitemsandtheabilitytoextractcollocationalinformation

easily make WordSmith an attractive package” (Kennedy, 1998: 267). I used

WordSmithtoanalysetheShonacorpusforCSwordsandsentences.

AntConc-Usedtoanalysetext,togenerateconcordances,collocations,wordlistsand

keywordlistshttp://www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc/.

Kennedynotesthattheavailabilityofcorpusanalysisresourcesforusebygraduate

studentsand researchers is limited compared to that available to commercial and

industrialestablishments.Thismaybebecauseofthefinanciallimitationsfacedby

graduatestudentsandresearchers.

3.8 Examplesofcorpuscompilationprojects

Koester(2010)indicatesthattherearealotofcorpuscompilationprojectsthatare

beingdonegloballyandtheyvaryinsizeandnumberofresearchersinvolved.Some

of the corpus compilation projects are carried out for commercial reasonswhilst

othersareminisculeandmaygounnoticed.

There exist a large number of computerized corpora varying in size, design and

researchpurpose.“Thegreatresearchpotentialofferedbythesecorporahasgiven

risetoadramaticexpansionofcorpus-basedresearchthatfewcouldhaveforeseen

thirty years ago” (Aijmer & Altenberg 1991: 2). Kennedy points out that corpus

compilationprojectsdonebyundergraduateandgraduatestudentsareexamplesof

corpus compilation done on a small scale. Although there is a lot of corpus

compilation work being carried out globally, a discussion of a few corpus

compilationprojectswillbedonetounderscoretheprojects.


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3.8.1 TheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)

The BNCwas compiled between 1991 and 1995. In this project, universities and

commercial publishing companies worked together to produce a representative

corpus of spoken and written British English. Currently, there are around 100

millionwordsintheBNC.HalfofthecostsoftheprojectwerecoveredbytheBritish

government. The most recent edition of the BNC was released in 2007

(http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk).

Withtheveryconsiderablecostofsuchacorpuscompilationproject,andthe

involvement of commercial publishers interested in producing better

lexicographicalandgrammaticalreferencebooks,theprojectwasenvisaged

ascontributingtoinformationtechnologyinthe1990sandbeyondthrough

the development of more sophisticated processing of natural language by

computers(Kennedy,1998:52).

It was anticipated that the project would be a benchmark for similar corpus

compilationprojectsinothercountriesandfordifferentlanguages.Thegoalofthe

projectwastodesignarepresentativecorpusofspokenandwrittenBritishEnglish

with a variety of genres and topics. The compilers also wanted the corpus to be

availableasaresourceineducation,academiaandforcommercialpurposes

3.8.2 EuropeanScienceFoundationSecondLanguageDatabank(ESFSLDB)

TheESFSLDBwascompiledtoaidresearchinsecondorforeignlanguages.Acorpus

wascompiledusing“transcribedspeechcollected for the longitudinalstudyof the

learning ofDutch, English, French, German, or Swedish by adult immigrants from

differentlanguagebackgrounds”(Kennedy,1998:42).

In this study, a specialised corpus will be compiled for the analysis of CS in the

speechofselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.


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3.8.3 LanguageResourceManagementAgency(LRMA)ofSouthAfrica

In South Africa, a lot of effort has been put into corpus compilation and

preservation. One example of such effort is the establishment of the Language

ResourceManagementAgency(LRMA)atNorthWestUniversitybytheDepartment

ofArtsandCulture.Oneoftheiraimsis:

Tofunctionasasingledepositorypointforvarioustypesofelectronicdata

oftheofficiallanguagesofSouthAfricaforresearchanddevelopment

purposesinthefieldofhumanlanguagetechnologies

(http://rma.nwu.ac.za/index.php/aims/).

TheLRMA’sdatabasecontainstexts,speechandlanguagerelatedvideosinvarious

languages of South Africa. To date, all eleven official languages of South Africa

namelyAfrikaans,English,Setswana, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu,SesothosaLeboa

(Sepedi), Sesotho, Siswati, Tshivenda and Xitsonga are available in the database.

AlsoincludedareYorubaandDutch.NocorpusoftheShonalanguageisavailableon

theLRMAdatabase.

3.8.4 ThePanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard

ThePanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard(PanSALB)wascreatedbytheSouthAfrican

government to encouragemultilingualism and to develop languages among other

things.PanSALBhaspartneredwithDepartmentsofAfricanlanguagesatanumber

ofuniversitiesinanefforttodeveloptheliterature,lexicographyandterminologyof

African languages. For example, the Department of African languages at the

UniversityofPretoriacompiledacorpusofSouthernNdebeleincollaborationwith

theNational LexicographyUnit (which is part of PanSALB). The corpuswas then

used to compile the Ndebele monolingual dictionary titled “Isihlathululi-Mezwi

seSiNdebele” which was published in 2015. This is an example of a very real

outcome. A tertiary institution (University of Pretoria) assisted PanSALB with

corpuscompilation.


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3.9 TheShonacorpus

The Shona corpus consisting of 2224983 words is the brainchild of the African

Languages Lexical project (ALLEX) project. The corpus is tagged. Itwas compiled

starting from 1992. The Shona corpus is available on

(http://www.edd.uio.no/allex/corpus/africanlang.html). The project is jointly

managed by the University of Oslo and the University of Zimbabwe with the

UniversityofGothenburgbeinganotherparticipantintheprojectsinceitsinception.

Chabata(2000)describestheShonacorpusasageneralpurposecorpusnotingthat

itcanbeusedtoanswerawidevarietyofresearchquestions.TheALLEXprojectat

the University of Zimbabwe was later incorporated into the African Languages

ResearchInstitute(ALRI).ThesubsequentsectionwilloutlinedetailsoftheALLEX

project and the ALRI and discuss the work that has been done by the two in

enhancingresearchintotheindigenouslanguagesofZimbabwe.

3.9.1 TheALLEXprojectandTheAfricanLanguageResearchInstitute

(ALRI)

InZimbabwe,theALLEXprojectstartedcreatingtheShonacorpusin1992.Todate,

thecorpusconsistsofaroundtwoandahalfmillionwords(Chabata,2000).Oneof

theaimsof theprojectwas tocompilecorporaof indigenous languagesspoken in

Zimbabwe that would be used in making dictionaries. The Shona corpus was

compiled from transcribed interviews and conversations.Undergraduate research

assistants from the University of Zimbabwe carried out fieldwork. There are

corpora of Shona and Ndebele languages, the biggest indigenous languages in

Zimbabwe.AcorpusofNambyalanguageisalsoavailable.

Thematerialsforthecorporacomefrombothtranscribedoralinterviewson

variousaspectsoflifeandwrittenliteratureofvariouskinds,whicharelater

encoded or scanned, tagged and parsed before they are stored as text and

soundinelectronicform(Chabata,2007:284-285).


70

Recordingsweredone inavarietyof contexts like churches, schools, lecturesand

socialgatherings.

In2000 theALLEXprojectwas incorporated into theAfricanLanguagesResearch

Institute(ALRI),whichisbasedattheUniversityofZimbabwe.Oneoftheinstitute’s

focusareasisthedevelopmentofindigenouslanguagesofZimbabweconcentrating

mainlyoncorpusdevelopmentandmaintenance.

In addition, some of the ALRI’s research areas include language standardisation,

monolingual lexicography, and language harmonisation (Chabata, 2007). Besides

compiling a Shona corpus, the ALRI has started compiling Kalanga and Nambya

corpora.Todate,theALRIhaspublishedfiveShonadictionariesnamelyDuramazwi

reChiShona (1996), Duramazwi Guru reChiShona (2001), Duramazwi reUtapi

neUtano (2004), Duramazwi reMimhanzi (2005), Duramazwi reDedziramutauro

noUvaranomwe (2007). Two Ndebele dictionaries entitled Isichazamazwi

SesiNdebele(2001)andIsichazamazwiSezomculo(2006)havealsobeenpublished

bytheALRI.OtherworksinthepipelineincludetheShonachildren’sdictionaryand

acomprehensiveShonagrammarbook(http://www.uz.ac.zw/index.php/research-

output).Thepublishingoftheaforementioneddictionarieshasbeenenabledbythe

useofcorporathatwascompiledbytheALLEXproject.Thishighlightstheneedto

continuewithcorpuscompilation.

The success ALRI has achieved in cultivating a love for the indigenous

languages has been shown as evidence of the use of its monolingual

dictionaries by people who traditionally tended to look down upon these

languages(Chabata,2007:290).

TheALRIcontinuestocompiletheShonacorpusaimingtoenlargetheexistingone.

Theworkdoneby theALLEXproject is commendablebecause ithas compiledan

annotatedShonacorpus.Butaccessibilityofthecorpusisaproblembecausethere

is a limit of 1000hitsper searchon theirwebsitewhichwas lastmodifiedon29

October 2003. So it is difficult to access the whole corpus. I contacted the


71

coordinators of theALLEX project and theALRI institute by email on 22October

2014andon24October2014requestingaccesstothewholecorpus.Theemailsdid

notyieldaresponse.

3.10 Closingremarksaboutcorpuscompilation

TheBritishNationalCorpus,theESFSLDBcorpus,andtheShonacorpusdiscussed

above are examples of corpus compilation at macro-level. Kennedy asserts that

therearealotofprojectsinwhichspecialisedcorporaiscompiledonasmallscale

especially to answer specific research questions. From the examples of corpus

compilationworkdiscussedabove,itcanbenotedthatacorpusisfastbecominga

valuable tool in facilitating linguistics research and publishing. In this study, a

corpuswillbecompiledfortheanalysisofcode-switchinginthespeechofselected

Shona-Englishbilinguals.

3.11 Characteristicsofcorpus-basedanalysis

Biber et al. (1998) note that four important characteristics of corpus-based

investigationare:

1. Itisempirical,analyzingtheactualpatternsofuseinnaturaltext.

2. Itutilizesalargeprincipledcollectionofnaturaltexts,knownasa“corpus”as

thebasisforanalysis.

3. Itmakesextensiveuseofcomputers foranalysis,usingbothautomaticand

interactivetechniques.

4. Itdependsonbothquantitativeandqualitativeanalyticaltechniques.

3.12 Corpus-basedanalysisandcode-switching

A number of studies have used a corpus-based approach to supplement other

research methods when analysing CS data as will be done in this study. The


72

followingstudiesusedcorporaasabasisfortheiranalysis.Corpus-basedanalysisis

viewedassupplementingothertraditionalresearchmethods.

(a) Broersma&DeBot(2006)usedacorpus-basedapproachtoempiricallytest

Clyne’s triggering hypothesis for the first time since the hypothesis was

proposedin1967.Thetriggeringhypothesisclaimsthatwordswiththesame

formandmeaningcantriggerCS.Broersma&DeBotusedacorpusofDutch

and Moroccan Arabic bilingual speech. The corpus consisted of speech

samples from three participants who recorded themselves during casual

conversations. Boersma & De Bot’s corpus analysis seems to support the

triggering hypothesis. “The results of a corpus analysis suggest that

triggering takes place at the lemma level, where the selection of a trigger

word enhances the activation of the lemmas of a non-selected language”

(Broersma&DeBot,2006:11).

(b) Turunen(2012)analysedtheEnglishasanAcademicLinguaFranca(EALF)

corpuswhichconsistedofonemillionwords.Heutilisedanalreadyavailable

and tagged corpus. The corpus was compiled using data from transcribed

speechfromTampereandHelsinkiTechnologicaluniversities.Turunenused

discourseanalysisandcorpus-basedanalysistodeterminethefrequencyand

functionsofcode-switchedwordsinthecorpus.AntConcsoftwarewasused

to search and retrieve CS occurrences in the EALF corpus.Microsoft Excel

was used to sort code-switched utterances according to language used,

length of switch and speech event. Turunen notes that of the 165 texts

available in the EALF corpus, 82 texts contained CS utterances. One of the

findings of this study is that CS is used as a communication strategy by

speakers of English as a foreign language. The study also identified word

search, addressee specifications, referential switching and slips as CS

categoriesfoundintheEALFcorpus.

Inthecurrentstudy,acorpus-basedanalysiswasdoneusingthemaximsoftheMM

usingthequalitativeresearchmethodtogetherwithacorpus-basedanalysis.


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3.13 Conclusion

With the advent of computers and the availability of corpus analysis software,

corpuslinguisticscontinuestoexpand(Kennedy,1998).Alotofresearchquestions

thatwerepreviouslydifficulttoanswerarenowbeingprobed.Corpuscompilation

has resulted in the advancement of language description and a lot of dictionaries

havebeenpublishedusingcorpora.“Theuseofcomputerizedcorporaasabasisfor

developingmodels anddescriptions of language and for various applicationsmay

prove to be among themost far-reaching achievements of the language sciences”

(Kennedy,1998:294).

This chapterwas centred on the description of a corpus and corpus linguistics. A

briefhistoryofcorporawasgiven includingwhat to take intoconsiderationwhen

designing a corpus. Some of the tools used in corpus search and retrieval were

mentioned. Examples of corpus compilation projects were given. Also noted are

somestudiesthathaveutilizedacorpusbasedanalysisinCS.

A review of literature done in the previous and current chapters has helped in

informing thisstudyabout thedirectionof research in the fieldsofCSandcorpus

linguistics.

Thefollowingchapterwillfocusonthemethodologicalframeworkofthisstudy.


74

Chap te r 4 Methodology

4.1 Introduction

With thegoal to analyse thenature, occurrenceand characteristicsofCS thenext

stepinmyprojectwastocompileacorpusofspokenShonatobeusedforanalysis.

Theunitofanalysis(whatisbeingstudied)inthisstudyisShona-EnglishCS.

After obtaining approval for my project proposal, I applied for ethical clearance

fromtheEthicsCommittee intheHumanitiesFacultyof theUniversityofPretoria.

Havingbeengrantedethicalclearance,Isetouttogatherdatathatwouldassistme

inansweringthefollowingresearchquestions(cf.Section1.9):


2. DoestheMMofcode-switchingapplytothecompiledShonacorpus?

3. What functions do the code-switches serve in the context in which they

appear?

Thischapterdiscussestheresearchdesignandmethodologyusedtogatherdatafor

analysisinthisstudy.Thestrengthsandweaknessesofusingaqualitativeresearch

designwillbediscussed.Attentionwillalsobepaidtothedescriptionofacorpus-

basedanalysisanditsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Therewillalsobeadiscussion

aboutsamplingproceduresfollowedinthisstudy.IwilldiscussthechallengesthatI

faced during data collection and how I dealtwith them. Specificmethods used to

collectdatawillbediscussed.Also included isabrief explanationabouthowdata

willbeanalysed.Iwillalsoaddressethicalissuespertainingtothisstudy.


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4.2 Researchdesign

The research design for this study is qualitative and can be described as corpus-

based.Iwillfirstdiscussqualitativeresearchandthenelaborateaboutwhatcorpus-

basedanalysisentails.

4.2.1 Qualitativeresearch

Qualitative research encompasses examining features or aspects that are diverse.

That is why Croker notes that, “qualitative research is an umbrella term used to

refertoacomplexandevolvingresearchmethodology”(Croker,2009:5).Leedy&

Ormrodconcurwiththisview:

Qualitative researchers often start with general research questions rather

thanspecifichypotheses, collectanextensiveamountofverbaldata froma

smallnumberofparticipants . . .anduseverbaldescriptionstoportraythe

situationtheyhavestudied.(Leedy&Ormrod,2005:94)

Asaresearchdesign,qualitativeresearchhascertainstrengths,whichmake it the

preferreddesignunder certain circumstances, such as those of the present study.

SincethisstudysetouttoexploretheapplicabilityoftheMMtoShona-EnglishCS,

qualitativeresearchdesignwasdeemedmostsuitable.Ichoseaqualitativeresearch

design because it fitted into what I proposed to do. Dornyei (2007) lists the

characteristics of qualitative research, which I believe make it appealing for my

study. These are discussed below and the relevance for my own study will be

highlighted.

4.2.2 CharacteristicsofqualitativeresearchaccordingtoDornyei(2007)

(a)Emergentresearchdesign

Nofacetofthestudydesignispre-determined.Thisallowsforflexibilityonthepart

oftheresearchertodesignamethodthatheorsheseesfitfortheproposedstudy.

“An important aspect of this emergent nature is the fact that, ideally, qualitative


76

researchers enter the researchprocesswith a completely openmind andwithout

setting out to test preconceived hypotheses” (Dornyei 2007: 37). This allows for

flexibilityintheresearch.Inthisstudy,althoughIsetouttotesttheapplicabilityof

theMM, I entered the research fieldwithanopenmindaboutwhether themodel

canbeappliedwithacceptableresults.

Qualitativeresearchershaveavastamountofdatatouselikerecordedinterviews,

texts and images. For the current study, I used interviews, a cloze test and

recordingstoobtaindata.

(b)Insidermeaning

Qualitativeresearch isconcernedwithsubjectiveopinions,experiencesand

feelingsofindividualsandthustheexplicitgoalofthistypeofresearchisto

exploretheparticipants’viewsofthesituationbeingstudied(Dornyei,2007:

38).

The semi-structured interviews gave participants an opportunity to voice their

opinionswhenansweringquestionsabouttheireverydaylanguageuse.

Since qualitative research requires a lot of labour, qualitative researchers utilize

smallersamplesthanthoseusedbytheirquantitativecounterparts.Thisviewisalso

sharedbyMiles&Huberman(2014).13peopletookpartinthisstudy.Althoughthe

numberwassmall,theprocessofdatagatheringwaslabourintensive. Intotal,12

recordings,whichwereabout30minuteslongeach,weretranscribed.Thisresulted

inpagesandpagesoftranscriptions.

Researchers can give their own interpretation of the data in qualitative research.

Thus, there can be a variety of interpretations of data. “Several alternative

interpretationsarepossibleforeachdataset,andbecausequalitativestudiesutilize

relativelylimitedstandardizedinstrumentationoranalyticalprocedures,intheend

it istheresearcherwhowillchoosefromthem”(Dornyei,2007:38).Inthisstudy,


77

data was analysed by hand and with the aid of WordSmith (corpus analysis

software).

(c)Exploratorynature

Croker (2009) notes that qualitative research can be used to investigate an

unknown phenomenon. This way, a researcher can work on any project with no

predetermined theories or hypotheses. Additionally, qualitative research does not

seektogeneralizefindingstoothercontexts.Idonotseektomakegeneralisations

aboutCS in every Shona-Englishbilingual becausemy studywasdoneon a small

scalewithina certain context.Theaimwas toanalyse thenature, occurrenceand

characteristicsofCSinthespeechofselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.

(d)Makingsenseofcomplexmatters

When there are intricatematters involved, qualitative research helps researchers

understandthembetter.This isbecausearesearchercango intothefieldwithout

pre-determined theories or hypotheses to prove or disapprove. Hence qualitative

researcherscanlearnaboutaphenomenonwhilststudyingit(Dornyei,2007).

(e)Qualitativeresearchersoftenuseasmallsamplesize.

Smallsamplesizesmaymakedatahandlingandprocessingeasier(Leedy&Ormrod,

2014).Asmentionedabove,thisstudymakesuseofasmallresearchsampleanda

small corpus. 13peopleparticipated in this studywith the aimof analysingCS in

Shona-Englishspeech.

(f)Flexibility

Duetotheflexibilityofqualitativeresearch,researcherscanimmediatelyproceedto

carry out additional research. This allows researchers to reach a better

understanding of the concepts under investigation (Dornyei, 2007). The current

study seeks to provide a better understanding of theMM and its applicability to

Shona-EnglishCS.


78

(g)Broadenningofhorizons

Dornyei states that qualitative research seeks to expand our comprehension of

human experience. The data obtained from participants helps to broaden our

horizons. IbasedmyanalysisofCSonthedataobtainedfromparticipantsasthey

wereengagedinnaturalconversation.Dornyeialsoexplainsthat, intheeventthat

thingsgowrong,qualitativeresearchallowsustoadjusttothesituationathandso

that we come up with interesting results. During data collection, two of the

participants withdrew consent when I was about to record their conversations.

Although thiswas frustrating, I regroupedandcontinued to look forotherwilling

participants. The withdrawal of some of my participants did not result in me

recordingfewerparticipants.

4.2.3 Triangulation

Inordertoeliminatebiasinthisstudy,Iusedtriangulation.“Triangulationinvolves

usingdifferentmethodsasacheckononeanother,seeingifmethodswithdifferent

strengths and limitations all support a single conclusion” (Maxwell, 2013: 102).

SomeofthescholarswhosupportusingtriangulationincludeFlick(2009),Rallis&

Rossman(2009)andFriedman(2012).Semi-structuredinterviewsandaclozetest

wereusedinthisstudyinanefforttoeliminatebias.

4.2.4 Limitationsofaqualitativeresearchdesign

Qualitativeresearch in linguisticshas its limitations. In thissection, Iwill refer to

Dornyei’s(2007)listofweaknessesunlessstatedotherwise.

1. Themostcommoncritiqueofqualitativeresearchinlinguisticsisthatsince

the researchwill bebasedona small numberof selectedparticipants, it is

difficult tomake general conclusions aboutwhat is being researched. This

willalsobethecaseinthepresentstudy.

2. Theresearcher’s role inanalysingdata isoftenapointof contention.Some

scholarslikeMiles&Huberman(1994)areoftheopinionthattheabilityof


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the researcher to analyse data will determine the quality of the research

report.Therefore,ifaresearcherdidnotdoagoodjobinanalysingdata,the

qualityoftheresearchwillbeaffectednegatively.Ithereforetookgreatcare

duringtheanalysisstagebystudyingtheconversationandsettings.

3. In instances where a researcher has to observe participants, observer’s

paradox is a drawback. “The aim of linguistic research in the community

mustbetofindouthowpeopletalkwhentheyarenotbeingsystematically

observed; yet we can only obtain these data by systematic observation”

(Labov, 1972: 209). Labov suggested that a researcher has to findways of

overcomingthislimitation.Thus,inthisstudy,Irequestedsomeparticipants

torecordthemselves.Thiswasdoneinordertomakethemascomfortableas

possibleduringrecording.

4. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research lacks methodological

rigour. It lackswell-definedmethods to be followed by researchers. There

arenostandardizedinstrumentsandstrategiestofollow.ButDornyeiargues

thatqualitativeresearchhasbeenmovinginthedirectionofusingrigorous

methods. In this study, carewas takenwith the instruments used tomake

suretheysuitedtheresearchquestions.

5. Qualitative research theories canbe toonarrowor too complex.There is a

dangerofusingdatathatisnotrepresentativeenoughtoproposeatheoryor

hypothesis. Similarly, the comprehensive use of rich data can produce

complextheories.

6. Overall, qualitative research is demanding in terms of time and labour.

Handling qualitative data can require a lot of time. I spent 2 months

gatheringdata from13participants for thisstudy.Theprocesswas fraught

with challenges but I pressed on. Even after gathering the data needed,

processing it is another challenge. As mentioned earlier when I was

discussing its strengths, qualitative research yields large amounts of data


80

whichmaybedifficult toprocess.Transcriptionyieldeda lotofdata inthis

studywhichmadedataanalysischallenging.AccordingtoMiles&Huberman

(2014) frequently, data collected can get so much that it could be

overwhelmingfortheresearcher.

7. One of the major concerns about qualitative research is bias. “When

researchersgointoresearchsettings,theyalsotaketheirownage,ethnicity,

cultural backgrounds, sexual orientation, politics, religious beliefs and life

experiences- their worldview are the lens through which they see their

research” (Croker, 2009: 11). Croker suggests that qualitative researchers

needtobemindfulnottolettheirperceptionsovershadowtheresearchand

to implementmeasures thathelpeliminatebias.Croker recommendsusing

triangulation to minimise the problem of bias. Triangulation involves

“obtainingdifferentperspectivesonaphenomenonbygatheringdata from

different participants, and using data collectionmethods like observations,

interviews,andquestionnaires”(Croker,2009:11). Inasimilarway, Iused

informal semi-structured interviews, a cloze test and recordings to gather

dataforthisstudy.Whenselectingparticipants,Iconsideredthosewhomet

theminimumrequirementofhavingbeenexposedtoEnglishforatleast10

years. No generalisations were made about the way every Shona-English

bilingual code-switches. This study only focused on analysing the speech

samplesprovidedbyselectedparticipants.

4.3 Corpus-basedanalysis

As part of qualitative research design, corpus-based analysis was utilised. “The

corpus-basedapproachprovidesameansofhandlinglargeamountsoflanguageand

keeping trackofmany contextual factors at the same time” (Biber et al. 1998:3).

Bibernotesthatalotofsoftwarecanbeusedtoanalyseacorpustherebyallowing

researchonavarietyoftopicsthatwerepreviouslytimeconsumingornotpossible

toinvestigate.


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4.3.1 Strengthsofcorpus-basedanalysis

Biber et al. (1998) list some of the reasons that make corpus based analysis

favourable.Theyarediscussedbelow.

(a) The corpus-basedapproach canbeused to analyse largequantitiesofdata

andit isnottimeconsuming.Inthisstudy,acorpus-basedanalysiscamein

handyduringdataanalysis.“Withacorpusstoredinacomputer,itiseasyto

find, sort and count items either as a basis for linguistic description or for

addressinglanguagerelatedissuesandproblems”(Kennedy,1998:11).

(b) It is based on observation and language is analysed based on naturally

occuringsamples.Thus,inthisstudy,CSwillbeanalysedbasedonnaturally

occurringspeechcollectedfromselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.

(c) Acorpusthathasbeencollectedusingcertaincriteriaisthestartingpointfor

investigation. Although there is a Shona corpus consisting of almost 2, 5

millionwords,accesstothecorpusislimitedtoonly1000words.Therefore,

IdecidedtocompileacorpusthatIcouldeasilyuseinthisinvestigation.

(d) Thecomputeristhebasicunitforanalysisofthecorpus.AlthoughIanalysed

the corpus by hand, I used a computer to aid in the analysis process,

specificallyWordSmithToolssoftware.

(e) A corpus can be used to answer a range of research questions that are

difficulttoinvestigate.

(f) Quantitativeandqualitativemethodscanbeused in corpus-basedanalysis.

Corpus-basedanalysisisviewedassupplementingothertraditionalresearch

methods like quantitative and qualitative methods. In my case, doing a

corpus-basedanalysisfittedthequalitativeresearchdesignthatIoptedfor.

The qualitative research design together with a corpus-based analysis

enabledme to analyse a Shona corpus of naturally occuring speech and to

determinewhethertheMMappliestoShona-EnglishCS.SinceIworkedwith


82

a corpus, using a corpus-based analysis was helpful because a computer

aidedintheanalysisofdata.

4.3.2 Disadvantagesofcorpus-basedanalysis

1. Thecompiledcorpusmaybetoosmalltoansweranyresearchquestion.This

maycreateproblems for theresearcherwhenanalysing it.However, “there

arenohard rules regardinghow largea corpusought tobe, insteadsize is

dictatedbyanumberofcriteria.Oneofthesecriteriaconcernstheaspectsof

language that the corpus is used to investigate” (Baker, 2010: 95-96). The

corpusthatIcompiledwasadequateforansweringmyresearchquestions.

2. According to Biber et al. (1998), a corpus that is not representative and

diverseenoughmakesitdifficulttosatisfactorilyanswerproposedresearch

questions. Therefore, one has to choose participants carefully. For this

reason, I went to different locations to recruit potential participants and I

vettedthembeforethedatacollectionstarted.

4.4 Researchplan

Inordertoanalyseanddescribethenature,occurrenceandcharacteristicsofCSina

Shonacorpus,theresearchwascarriedoutinstages.

4.4.1 Stage1:Theoreticalresearch-Aliteraturereview

A literature review was conducted and this process continued throughout the

duration of the research. Itwas used to inform the theoretical framework and to

gain a better understanding of the trends in CS research over the years and to

identify any gaps in the literature. It also assisted with information about how

similarstudieswereconducted.Therefore,thisstudymadeuseofboththeoretical

and empirical insights.A report on the comprehensive literature reviewabout CS

andcorporathatwascarriedout is found inChapters2and3of thisdissertation.


83

Thetheoreticalframeworkofthestudywasexploredandpreviousresearchonthe

subjectwasread.

4.4.2 Stage2:Empiricalresearch:Researchgroup(participants)

“Themaingoalof sampling is to find individualswhocanproviderichandvaried

insights into thephenomenonunder investigationsoas tomaximisewhatwecan

learn” (Dornyei 2007: 26). This view is also shared by Flick (2009) andMiles &

Huberman(2014).

4.4.3 Sampling

Inthisstudy,Iusedpurposivesampling,atypeofnonprobabilitysamplinginwhich

“people...arechosenforaparticularpurpose,forinstance,wemightchoosepeople

whowe have decided are “typical” of a group” (Leedy&Ormrod, 2014: 221). 13

participantswhowereatleast18yearsoldandwhomettheminimumrequirement

ofhavingbeenexposedtoEnglishasasecondlanguageforat least10yearswere

selectedtoparticipateinthestudy.

4.4.4 Researchsiteandparticipants

DataforthisstudywascollectedinseveralpartsofZimbabwebothruralandurban.

In urban areas like Harare and Masvingo, people from different linguistic

backgroundscomeintocontacteverydayleadingtolanguagecontactsituations.

Afterobtainingconsent, I setout todetermine thepotentialparticipants’ levelsof

English language proficiencies. 13 people participated in this study. Among them

were5malesand8 femalesagedbetween18and67years. I travelled toHarare,

GutuandMasvingotosolicit forparticipants. Ichose togo toHararebecauseasa

capital city of Zimbabwe, there are people fromdifferent cities and villages living

andworkingthere.Masvingotownis297kilometresfromHarareandGutuis100

kilometres fromMasvingo. In order to get a diverse sample, I alsowent to some

villages in Gutu. Obtaining consent from participants was one of the major

challengesofmystudy.


84

At the University of Zimbabwe, I randomly approached students requesting their

participationinthestudy.Mostofthemwereunwillingandjustignoredme.Despite

this,Imanagedtoget2studentstoparticipate.Aftertalkingtothemfurther,Iasked

themif theyknewanyoneelsewhocouldbewillingtotakepart inthestudy.The

studentsassistedmeingettingmorepotentialparticipantsfromthesuburbswhoI

thenmanagedtointerest.Allinall,5peoplefromHararetookpartinthestudy.In

Masvingo and Gutu, the same method of randomly approaching people was

employed. Iapproachedpeople in theeveningafter theyhad finishedwork. Ialso

went to a church and a school and solicited for participation. Some people had

reservationsaboutbeingrecordedbutIalsomanagedtogetconsentfromothers.In

avillageinGutu,4peopleagreedtotakepartinthestudy.Theother4participants

camefromMasvingo.Table4-1showscities/areaswhereparticipantscamefrom.

City/area Numberofparticipants

Harare 5

Masvingo 4

Gutu 4

Table4-1Cities/areaswhereparticipantscamefrom4.5 Methodology(datacollectioninstruments)

With the explanations done consent form signed, the next stepwas to determine

whether the potential participants met the minimum requirements by doing

interviews in English, administering a cloze test and recording conversations. Up

next,Iwilldiscusstheinstrumentsusedfordatacollection.

4.5.1 Semi-structuredinterviews

Afterobtainingconsentandhavingagreedonthetimeandplacefortheinterview,I

interviewed some participants in pairs. I did informal interviews with potential


85

participantstodeterminetheirage,mother-tongue,schoolingbackgroundandtheir

generallevelofEnglishproficiencyamongotherthings.Theinterviewsweresemi-

structured.Thismeansthat,

although there is a setofpre-preparedguidingquestionsandprompts, the

formatisopen-endedandtheintervieweeisencouragedtoelaborateonthe

issues raised in an exploratory manner. In other words, the interviewer

provides guidance and direction but is also keen to follow up interesting

developments and to let the interviewee elaborate on certain issues

(Dornyei,2007:136).

Semi-structured interviewswere appropriate for this study because they allowed

me to get the biographical information that I needed, at the same time allowing

participantssomeflexibilitytoaddmoreinformationtotheirrepliesiftheywished.

ThiswasevidentwhenIwasdoingtheinterviews.Someparticipantswerekeento

elaborateandemphasisecertainpoints.Participantswerealsomadeawarethatthe

interviewswouldbeinEnglish.Iexplainedthatthereasonfortheinterviewwasto

obtain biographical information and to determine their level of English language

proficiency.Theinterviewswererecordedonmyphone’svoicememos.Ialsotook

somefieldnotesaboutthedateandplaceoftheinterview.Inaddition,Inotedthe

gender and age of the interviewees. This information was valuable for the data

analysisprocess.TheinterviewquestionsareavailableinappendixA.

“Themostobviouschallengeoftheinterviewisthatitiseasytodobuthardtodo

well, the process of becoming an effective interviewer demands considerable

sensitivity, self-critical awarenessandopenness to change” (Richards,2009:195).

As I interviewedpotentialparticipants, I realised thatsomeweregivingone-word

answers tomyquestions.Togetmore information, Iasked follow-upquestions to

potential participants if they had not answered the question satisfactorily. Onmy

part,asIinterviewedmoreandmorepeople,IcouldseethatIwasgettingbetterat

interviewing.Henceconductinginterviewsitwasalsoalearningprocessforme.


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4.5.2 ClozeTest

A cloze test (available in appendix B) was given to participants in order to

determinetheirmasteryofEnglishaftertheinterview.Iusedtheclozetestavailable

onwww.englishdaily626.com.Participantswereaskedtofillintheblankswiththe

wordsthatbestcompletetheEnglishpassagegiven.Thiswasdoneforexploratory

purposestodeterminetheparticipants’knowledgeofEnglish.Peoplewhoscoredat

least 12 out of 14 were considered for participation in the study. All potential

participantspassedandnoonewasexcludedafterwritingtheclozetest.

4.5.3 Participantrecordingsofinformalconversations

Once someone had passed the cloze test and had demonstrated somemastery of

Englishintheinterview,thenextstepwastorecordtheirconversations.Recording

ofactualconversationwastheprimarydata.

Using machines for recording renders the documentation of data

independentofperspectives-thoseoftheresearcheraswellasthoseofthe

subjectsunderstudy.Itisarguedthatthisachievesanaturalisticrecordingof

eventsoranaturaldesign(Flick,2009:294).

I provided participants with a phone on which to record their conversations. 6

participantsrecordedtheirownconversations.Ishowedparticipantshowtorecord

themselves. Participant recordings were done in order to limit the effects of

observer’s paradox, which is one of the weaknesses of qualitative research.

Participants were advised to carry on with their day to day activities while

recording.Theconversationswererecordedfor2daysandvariedindurationfrom

20to30minutesperday.Irequestedparticipantstonotifymeimmediatelywhen

therecordingwasdonesothatIwouldgoandcollectthephone.Thedateandtime

ofrecordingwereautomaticallyrecordedonthephone.Foranonymitypurposes,I

usedtheletter“P”andanumbersymboltoidentifyparticipants.Participantswere

numberedfromP1toP13afterarecording.Therecordingstookplaceinavarietyof


87

settings like at the participants’ homes, workplaces and at the river. In total, 6

recordingsareavailablefrom7participantswhorecordedthemselves.

4.5.4 Researcherrecordings

Irequestedtorecord6participantsmyselftoenablemetowritefieldnotes.These

werehelpfulduringthedataanalysisprocess.Someoftheinformationinfieldnotes

includes the following;date, physical location, topic, gender, age, education, social

status, the setting, context, body language among other things. On the day of the

recording, I askedparticipants tocarryonwithwhatever theyweredoingwhile I

recorded. I put the phone on a strategic position between participants then

positionedmyselfafewmetresfromtheparticipants.Iwantedparticipantstobeas

comfortableaspossiblesothattheywouldnothesitatetoengageinconversations.

Theinfluenceoftheresearcheronthesettingorindividualstudied,generally

known as reactivity is a problem. Eliminating the actual influence of the

researcherisimpossibleandthegoalinqualitativestudyisnottoeliminate

thisinfluencebuttounderstanditandtouseitproductively(Maxwell,2013:

124-125).

This view is also shared by Flick (2009) who further notes that participants are

expected to simply forget that they are being recorded and carry on with

conversations. At first, participants hesitated but later on as their conversations

progressed, I could see that they were more relaxed. I tried not to look at the

participants as theywere talking so that theywould not feel as if Iwas studying

their every actions and conversations. I also concentrated on writing field notes

duringtherecordingprocessinordertodistractattention.Iusedawatchfortime

keeping.Whentheconversationshadreached30minutes,Istoppedrecordingand

thankedparticipants.Iwouldthenrequestparticipantstosuggestaconvenienttime

forasecondrecording.Thetotalnumberofrecordingsdoneis6.


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4.5.5 Challengesduringtheselectionofparticipantsandhowtheywere

dealtwith

Theprocess of choosing participantswas not smooth sailing. I encountered some

difficultiesduringtheprocess.Theseare:

• Finding participants was challenging. When I was writing my project

proposal,Ihadreadfromliteraturethatfindingparticipantswasoneofthe

challenges in qualitative research, for example Flick (2009). But I thought

thatwiththesmallnumberofparticipantsthatIintendedtouse,itmightbe

a bit easy. Nonetheless, it seemed as though I was looking for a bigger

numberofparticipantsbecausetheparticipantswereelusive.

• Another challenge related to the abovementionedwas theunwillingness of

people to participate in the study. Participants were required to read and

signtheletterofinformedconsent.Ininstanceswheresomeparticipantshad

agreed to listen tomy request, it was hard to convince people to sign the

letter. When I approached potential participants and explained my

intentions, some of them expressed unwillingness to be recorded citing

anonymity issues and time constraints. Most people that I approached

requestedtimetoconsidermyrequestandpromisedtogetbacktome.For

some, thatwas the last time I talked to themwhilst others later agreed to

participate. All in all, obtaining consentwas a challenge. But as I talked to

potential participants, I learned that they needed assurances that their

privacywas guaranteed during and after the study. Some feared that their

recorded conversations might end up on the social media. I explained to

them themeasures that Iwill take to safeguard their privacy and that the

purposeoftheresearchwastoobtainaMaster’sdegree.Thus,withalittlebit

ofpersuasion,Imanagedtogetparticipants.

• Withdrawal of consent: Although some participants consented to being

involved in the study, they laterwithdrew their consent.Thiswas the case


89

withtwoofthepotentialparticipants.AlthoughImadefollowupstotryand

convince them otherwise, they did not change their minds. This was time

consumingonmypartbecauseIhadtolookforotherpossibleparticipants.

During this researchproject, I havegainedvaluable lessons aboutpatience

andenduranceinordertoachieveone’sgoals.

• Time limitations: Even after setting the time for recording some of the

participants,IhadinstanceswhereIhadtoreschedulethemeetingbecause

theparticipantsweresuddenlynotavailabletoberecorded.Thismeantthat

Ihadtowaitforthemtogetbacktomewithanewappointment.Idecidedto

start transcribingtherecordingsthat Ialreadyhadwhilewaiting foranew

appointment.Thisway,Iwasmakingsomeprogressinmyresearch.

4.5.6 Transcription

Finally, the interviews and recordings were transcribed in order to have an

electroniccorpusavailabletostarttheanaylsis.Abroad,orthographictranscription

(that is, not phonetic) was done. The internationally accepted protocol for

orthographic transcription was followed. I transcribed the recordings onto a

Microsoft word document. Standard Shona spelling was used for transcribing

recordedconversations.AdetailedexplanationaboutstandardShonaspellingwas

provided in chapter one of this study. The transcription process was time

consuming but itwas necessary because it enabledme to get a corpus out of the

recorded conversations. Thus, the recorded speech samples are now available as

transcribed speech and also in electronic form as a corpus. Included on the

transcription is the pseudonym of participants, age, gender, occupation, date and

placewhererecordingtookplaceanddurationoftherecording.Inthetranscripts,I

includedhesitationmarkersandfalsestarts.Transcriptionsoftheconversationsare

included in appendix C. After transcription, I translated the conversations from

Shona into English. Thiswas a time consuming exercise. Transcription “is a time

consumingprocessparticularlyifthetextalsoneedstobetranslated-dependingon

thequalityoftherecording,transcribingaone-hourinterviewcantakeasmuchas


90

5-7hours”(Dornyei,2007:246).Leech(1991)alsosharesthesameview.Allinall,

transcribing all the recordings kept me busy for 2 months. Transcription

conventionsusedareavailableonpageviii.

4.5.7 Corpuscompilation

Thecorpuswascompiledusingtranscriptionsofspeechsamples.Datawasdrawn

from13participants.AllparticipantshadusedEnglishasasecondlanguageforat

least 10 years. Some participants recorded themselves and I recorded others. By

recording some participants, I managed to gather some field notes that were

valuableduringthedataanalysisprocesslikesetting.Intotal,thereareabout29900

wordsinthecorpus.

4.6 DataAnalysis

Anarrativeanalysiswasdoneonthecollecteddata.Igaveanarrativeaccountofthe

biographicalinformationofparticipants.DatawasanalysedusingWordSmithtools.

Imadeawordlistofall thewordsfoundintheShonacorpus.Fromthewordlist, I

could see the most frequently used words, concordances and collocations. This

allowedmetostudythewordsinthecontextsinwhichtheyappeared.Thewordlist

alsoprovidedwordsthatIusedtosearchforCSoccuringintheShonacorpus.Data

wasalsoanalysedtocheckwhethertheMMappliestoit.

4.7 Ethicalconsiderations

Participation in this studywasvoluntaryandanonymous.Participantsweremade

aware that they were taking part in a Masters research project and that data

gatheredwill be used in this project only. I provided participantswith a consent

form highlighting the reasons for the study and asking for their permision to

paticipateinthestudy.Participantswereinformedthatthepurposeofthestudyis

toanalysethespeechsamplesforcode-switchingoccurences.Inotifiedparticipants

that I will provide results of the study to them upon completion if they wish. In


91

order to preserve the confidentiality and anonymity of participants, the following

stepsweretaken:

• As indicated earlier, no names of participants were used during

transcription.Participantsweregivenpseudonyms“P1”,“P2”,upto“P13”.

• Namesofplacesandanyinformationthatcouldleadtotheidentificationof

participantswereleftout.Thiswillbeexplainedfurtherinthetranscription

conventions.

• Ididnottranscribeincidenceswhererecordingscontainedchildren’sspeech.

Thiswasinlinewithsomeparticipants’requests.

• The recordings, transcripts and cloze tests will be kept in a safe in the

AfrikaansdepartmentattheUniversityofPretoriaforarchivepurposes.

4.8 Limitationsofthestudy

• Althoughsemi-structuredinterviewsandaclozetestwereusedtodetermine

the linguistic proficiency levels of participants, this does not provide a

complete picture of participants’ levels of linguistic proficiency. However,

this was a secondary aim and doing purposive sampling enabled me to

choose participants who met the minimum requirement of having used

Englishforatleast10years.

• ThisstudydidnotseektomakegeneralisationsaboutthewayeveryShona-

English bilingual code-switches. The corpus that I compiled is not big and

diverseenoughtomakegeneralisationsaboutthesubject.Inthisstudy,focus

wason the selectedparticipantswhowerebetween18yearsand70years

whohaveacertainlevelofproficiencyinEnglishasasecondlanguage.

• Due to time limitations and financial constraints, the corpus was not

annotated.


92

• Itwasassumed insection1.8 that theMMcanbeapplied toShona-English

CS.Thiscouldleadtobiasonthepartoftheresearcher.Theassumptionmay

leadtotheresearcherfindingexamplesfromthecorpusthatdonotsupport

themodel.

4.9 Assumptions

Regardingthesocial functionsofCS, IassumethatthemarkednessmodelofCSas

explained by Myers-Scotton will apply to all instances of CS in my data set. In

addition,participantswhowereable toconverse inEnglishduring interviewsand

whoscoredatleast12outof14intheclozetestwereconsideredasbilinguals.As

notedearlierintheliteraturereviewchapter,scholarsusedifferentmeasureswhen

considering whether a person is bilingual or not. Scholars like Kamwangamalu

(1989),asserts that the linguistic competenceofbilingualsmayvary.So,a similar

approachwasadoptedinthisstudy.

4.10 Summaryofchapterfour

Adiscussionofqualitativeresearchmethodandacorpus-basedanalysiswasdone

inthischapter.Eachmethodusedtocollectdatawasexplained.Adescriptionofthe

challengesfacedduringdatacollectionwasgiven.Alsonotedwerethestepstaken

totryandsolvetheproblems.Attentionwaspaidtoethicalissues,limitationsofthe

studyandassumptions.

Thenextchapterwillpresenttheresultsofthedataanalysis.


93

Chap te r 5 Data analysis, results presentation and

interpretation

5.1 Introductiontodataanalysis

In this chapter, I analyseddata thatwas collected for this study to determine the

nature, occurrence and characteristics of CS in a Shona corpus. Interview

transcripts, theclozetestandtranscriptsofrecordingswereanalysed. Inaddition,

thecompiledcorpuswasqueriedusingWordSmithtools.Dataanalysisassisted in

answeringthefollowingresearchquestionsthatwereposedinthestudy:


2. DoestheMMofCSapplytothecompiledShonacorpus?

3. What functions do the code-switches serve in the contexts in which they

appear?

The corpus was analysed by hand to determine the nature, occurrence and

characteristicsofCS.AnanalysiswasdonetoascertainwhethertheMMappliesto

thecorpusandtoestablishthefunctionsofCSinthecontextsthattheyappear.This

processwasaidedbytheuseofWordSmithToolssoftware,

a set of tools by Mike Scott . . . compatible with PCs running Microsoft

windows.The tools enable theuser toproducewordlists andkey-word-in-

context concordances. Other features include the ability to compare two

wordlistsusingthelog-likelihoodstatistic,theabilitytoidentifyandextract

collocationsandwordclustersandanalignerandbrowserforparalleltexts

(McEnery&Wilson,2001:211)

WordSmith tools was used to get information on word frequencies and once a

wordlisthadbeengenerated,thecorpuswasqueriedbyusingaselectionofEnglish


94

search words in order to generate concordances. I used English search words

becauseIwaslookingforinstancesofCSfromShonatoEnglish.Thisallowedmeto

studythewordsandnearbyphrasesinthecontextsinwhichCSoccurred.

5.2 Resultspresentationandinterpretation

Thefollowingabbreviationswereused:

Researcher(R)

Participant1toParticipant13=(P1toP13)

Due toanonymity issues,allparticipantswerenumbered from1 to13.Therefore,

theywill be referred to by their allocated numbers fromP1 to P13. All instances

whereCSoccursareillustratedinitalicsandalltranslationsfromShonatoEnglish

are shown by the use of double quotation marks. Some of the examples which

illustratethetypesofCSarenumberedinboldsquarebrackets[].

5.2.1 Thecompiledcorpus

Asexplained inSection4.5, transcribed speech sampleswereused to compile the

Shona corpus totalling about 29 900 words. The corpus was used as a linguistic

resource.Fromthecorpus,Ilookedforinstanceswhereparticipantsswitchedfrom

Shona toEnglish.Thecorpuswasmostlyanalysedbyhandchecking for instances

wherelanguagealternationoccurred.Inaddition,IusedWordSmithToolssoftware.

ImadeawordlisttoseethefrequentlyusedwordsandtoseewhichEnglishwords

wereusedinthecorpus.IqueriedthecorpusbyusingaselectionofEnglishsearch

words in order to generate concordances. This process allowed me to study the

wordsandnearbyphrasesincontext.

5.2.2 EnglishLanguageproficiency

Semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to determine the English

proficiency levels of selected participants. The interviews assisted in determining


95

whether participants were competent in English. M-S (1993a: 119) notes that

“while speakers must be relatively proficient in the two (or more) languages

involved, the degree of proficiency is open to question.” In the same vein, in this

study, participantswho could produce complete English sentenceswere selected.

This section will analyse participants’ responses to interview questions. They

acknowledged that they sometimes code-switched between Shona and English

during conversations. Shona was the first language for all participants and they

learned English as a second language at school. Participants had all undergone

formal education for at least 10 years. All participants used English to answer

questions.Althoughsemi-structured intervieweswere inadequateon theirown to

measurethelanguageproficiencylevelsofparticipants,theirusehelpedbecauseit

enabledme topick themost suitableparticipants.Table5-1 showsa summaryof

participants’responsestointerviewquestions.


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Whatisyourfirstlanguage?

WhendidyoustartlearningEnglish?

Howfardidyougowithyourformaleducation?

DidyouuseEnglishalotatschool?

DoyoustilluseEnglisheveryday?

DoyoufeelconfidentusingEnglish?

Participant

Shona

Other

Grade1

Nurseryschool

Aftergrade1

Form4only

Form4andtertiaryeducation

Form6only

Form6andtertiaryeducation

Yes

No

Yes

No

Sometimes

Yes

No

P1 P P P P P P

P2 P P P P P P

P3 P P P P P P

P4 P P P P P P

P5 P P P P P P

P6 P P P P P P

P7 P P P P P P

P8 P P P P P P

P9 P P P P P P

P10 P P P P P P

P11 P P P P P P

P12 P P P P P P

P13 P P P P P P

Table5-1Summaryofparticipants’responsestointerviewquestions


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5.2.3 Theparticipants

In this section, biographical information collected when participants were

interviewedtoascertaintheleveloftheirEnglishproficiencyispresentedbyusinga

narrative.Thestudyinvolved5malesand8femaleswiththeiragesrangingfrom18

to67years.Amongsttheparticipantswere4studentswhowerestudyingatvarious

tertiary institutions like colleges and universities. 5 people involved in the study

wereformallyemployedwithprofessionssuchasadoctor,ProvincialProgrammes

Coordinator, teacher, builder and retail services. A high school student, a retired

teacherand2housewiveswerealsoinvolvedinthestudy.

5.2.3.1 Participant1and2

Thiswasajointinterview.P1,a40yearoldProvincialProgrammesCoordinatorat

andP2,a35yearoldnursingstudentbothstartedlearningEnglishatgrade1.While

P1did formaleducationup toOrdinary level,P2wentup toAdvanced level.Both

participants said theyusedEnglisha lot at school.On thematterofwhether they

still converse in English everyday, P1 said she used it everyday at herworkplace

whilst P2 answered that she used English sometimes but not everyday. Both

participantssaidthat they feltconfident tocommunicate inEnglish.SinceP1’s job

wasamanagementposition,thiscouldexplainwhyshesaidshefeltmoreconfident

to speak in English than in Shona. This is because she is responsible for chairing

meetingsandseminarsinEnglishatthecompanythatsheworksfor.

5.2.3.2 Participant3

P3 is an 18 year old high school student who started learning English when she

startedgrade1anddidformaleducationuptoAdvancedlevel(equivalenttograde

12inSouthAfrica).ShesaidshestillusesEnglishalotatschoolduringherstudies.

WhenaskedabouthowconfidentshefeltusingEnglish,theparticipantresponded

that she felt very confident. This can be attributed to the fact that P3 is still

attendinghighschoolandsinceEnglishisamediumofinstruction,sheusesitmore

oftenatschool.


98


Participant4didformaleducationuptoformfourandwentontoateachertraining

college.The67yearoldretiredteacherindicatedthathelearnedEnglishatschool

whereitwasthemediumofinstruction.WhenaskedwhetherhestillusedEnglish

everyday,herepliedthatheusedEnglish“casually”.Itookittomeanthatheused

English less often. On the matter of whether the participant felt confident to

converseinEnglish,hesaidhedidfeelconfident.

Fromtheobservationsmadeduring the interview, therewere instanceswhereP4

hesitated to answer in English and then switched to Shona. For example, when I

askedhimwhenhestartedlearningEnglish,heansweredinShona;

P4:Goreharitsvetwi?

“IsitIdon’tputtheyear?”

TheresearcheralsoswitchedtoShonawhenreplying;

R:Uummunokwanisakutsvetakanamuchiziva.

“Uumyoucanputitifyouknow.”

Considering the above conversation, CS seems to be used to seek clarity or

understanding.ThedialoguehasbeengoingoninEnglishbutwhenP4wantssome

clarity on the issueunderdiscussion, he switches to the language that he ismost

comfortableusing.

5.2.3.4 Participant5and6

Unlikehercounterpartwhostarted learningEnglishwhenshestartedgrade1,P6

learnedEnglishatcrecheornurseryschool.P5’sformaleducationgoesuptoform4.

She thendid further education andobtaineda teachingdiplomaandadegree.P6

attendedformaleducationuptoform6.BothparticipantsusedEnglishalotduring

theirschoolingdays.Asateacher,P5saidsheusedEnglishoftenwhenconducting

lessons.ShealsoindicatedthatherEnglishwasimprovingsinceshealwaysspokein

English at school. In contrast, P6, a 30 year old housewife, rarely uses English to


99

communicatebutwhenshedoes,shefeelsveryconfidentusingit.Thisisindicated

bythefollowingresponsethatshegave;

P6:Yes,yes.(laughs)Tinoitazvekusvisvinakanatadaisu.(laughs)

“Yes,yes.(laughs)Wedoitproperlyifwewantto.”(laughs)

Intheconversationbelow,thereisCSfromEnglishtoShona.

R:DoyoufeelconfidenttocommunicateinEnglish?

P5:Aa I do, I do.MyEnglishhas improveda lotbecause I amalways speaking in

English when I am at school. Inotoita problem kana ndava kuno kumusha. Vanhu

vanozotiunodada.

“Aa I do, I do. My English has improved a lot because I am always speaking in

EnglishwhenIamatschool.ItbecomesaproblemwhenIamhereathome.People

willsayIamtooproud.”

The above example shows P5 switching from English to Shona. Despite being

notified that the interview would be conducted in English to determine the

proficiencylevelsofpotentialparticipants, incidentsofCSliketheoneabovewere

recorded.

Since this study focused on peoplewho could speak both English and Shona, the

interviewprovided evidenceof the communicative competenceof theparticipant.

P5 and P6 could communicate proficiently in both Shona and English. P5 started

answeringthequestioninEnglishbutswitchedtoShonawhenshewasexplaining

her reservations about speaking in English at home. She was afraid that people

wouldconsiderhertobepompous.Soinordertoshowthesensitivityofthesubject,

P5 used Shona. This seems to suggest that P5 has assigned roles to the two

languagesshespeaks,withEnglishbeing reservedmainly forworkandShona for

homeinteractions.


100


P7, a 40 year old academic, was the participant with the highest tertiary

qualification. He did formal education up to PhD level. He said he used English

regularly at school since all subjects except Shona were taught in English.

ConcerningifhestillusedEnglisheveryday,P7saidthatheusedEnglishhalfofthe

timeinconversationsandthathefeltconfidentusingit.


The25yearolduniversitystudentstartedlearningEnglishwhenhewas6yearsold.

HeattendedformaleducationuptoAdvancedlevel(equivalenttograde12inSouth

Africa). He used English everyday and still communicated in English on a regular

basis.Heindicatedthathedoesn’tfeelconfidentspeakinginEnglish.Whenprobed

furtheraboutthereasonforthathereplied;

P8: Aam aa I still need to kuti ndirambe ndichi- like kuva, kushandisa chirungu

changuzvakanaka.

“AamaaIstillneedto,tokeep,tobe,touseEnglishproperly.”

The above reply shows P8 switching between Shona and English in the same

sentence (intrasentential CS). He started answering the question in English but

switched to Shona upto the end of the sentence. There is an incomplete word,

“ndichi-”andahesitation,“aa”whichseemstosuggestthatP8wasnotsureabout

thelanguagetousewhenansweringthequestion.Hisreplywasthathestillneeds

topolishuponhisEnglishuse.CSisusedinthiscasetoexplainapoint..Thisseems

tosuggestthatP8feelsmoreconfidentspeakinginShona.

5.2.3.7 Participants9and10

Both participants learned English at school. P9, a 49 year old builder’s formal

education level is formsix.He thenobtainedadiploma inbuildingandcarpentry.

P10,a27yearolduniversitystudentdidformaleducationuptoform6.Bothused


101

Englishalotatschool.P10explainedthatstudentsweremadetowearacow’shorn

aspunishmentforspeakingShonaduringschoolhours.

P10:Aayaawedid,wedid. Irememberwewereforcedtospeak inEnglishevery

timeatschool.TheyhadnineaaIthinkthecowhornthatweweremadetowearif

everwewerecaughttichitauraShona.

“Aa,yeswedid,wedid.IrememberwewereforcedtospeakinEnglisheverytime

atschool.Theyhadnine,aaIthinkthecowhornthatweweremadetowearifever

wewerecaughtspeakingShona.”

On thequestionofwhether they stilluseEnglisheveryday,P9andP10’sanswers

differed.P9saidthathepreferredEnglishandthatitalsodependedonwhohewas

talking to. P10 indicated that the university he attended had people fromdiverse

linguistic backgrounds. Therefore, it was difficult to speak in Shona since some

studentsdon’tunderstandit.

Both participants said they felt confident to converse in Englishwith P10 adding

thatsinceheconversesinEnglishallthetimeatuniversity,itnowseemsnaturalto

speakinEnglishallthetime;

P10: Yes yes. Aa because I communicate in English a lot at U Z. Zvatovamuropa

nokutimostofthetimeyouareforcedtocommunicateinEnglish.

“Yesyes.AabecauseIcommunicateinEnglishalotatUZ.Itisnowahabitbecause

mostofthetimeyouareforcedtocommunicateinEnglish.”

ItisinterestingtonotethatalthoughP10claimsthatforhim,usingEnglishduring

conversationsseemsnatural,hisreplycontainsCSfromEnglishtoShona.Although

the sentence has a mixture of both English and Shona words, the words are not

organised randomly but follow a coherent pattern and the sentencemakes sense.

ThisseemstosupportGumperz’s(1982)claimthatCSisadiscoursestrategy.


102

5.2.3.8 Participants11and12

P11,a26yearoldretailworkerbeganlearningEnglishingrade1.ForP12,whoisa

highschool student,English learningstartedaftergrade1. I shouldhave followed

upon this answer to find out when exactly after grade 1 did she start learning

English but I didn’t. This can be considered as a weakness on the part of the

researcher because I could have learned more about the participant’s learning

experience.

P11 attended school up to form 6 whilst P12 went up to form 4. Like the other

participantsinterviewedinthisstudy,bothparticipantsusedEnglishalotatschool

during lessons. P11 indicated that she doesn’t use English everyday and that she

doesnot feel confident speaking itbecause it isdifficult.This canbeattributed to

her jobas a shopkeeper. Sheworksat a shop in a rural areaand itmightbe that

mostofhercustomersmostlyuseShona.P12notedthatsheusedEnglisheveryday

butdidnotfeelconfidentspeakinginEnglish.


For the 53 year old housewife, English learning commenced at school. She did

formaleducationuptoformfourandwentontodoadressmakingcourse.Shesaid

spokeShonaallthetimeandseldomusedEnglishduringconversationsanddidnot

feelconfidentspeakinginEnglish.

Fromtheabovediscussionabout interviewsconducted, it canbenoted that there

was CS both within sentences (intrasentential CS) and outside sentences

(intersententialCS).Asmentionedearlier,theinterviewswereconductedinEnglish

todetermine theEnglish languageproficiency levelsofparticipants. It canbesaid

thatallparticipantswereabletoconverseinEnglishandthattheyunderstoodthe

languagewell.English-ShonaCSisprevelantintheinterviews.

Figure 5-1 to Figure 5-7 provide a summary of the biographical backgrounds of

participantsandanoverviewofparticipants’responsestointerviewquestions.


103

Figure5-1isarepresentationofparticipants’agegroups.

Figure5-1Participants’agegroups

Belowisfigure5-2showingthegenderdistributionofparticipants.

Figure5-2Genderofparticipants

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5

18-25years 26-35years 36-45years 46-55years 56+years

Num

bero

fpar9cipants

Agegroups

5

8

Males Females


104

Figure5-3illustratesparticipants’responsestothequestion,“whendidyoustart

learningEnglish?”

Figure5-3AgeoflearningEnglishBelowisasummaryofthelevelofeducationofparticipants.

Figure5-4Levelofeducation

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Grade1

Nurseryschool/creche

AGergrade1

Numberofpar9cipants

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Form4("O"level)

Form6("A"level)

Secondary Te9ary


105

Figure5-5representsparticipants’responsestothequestion:“Doyoustilluse

Englisheveryday?

Figure5-5EnglishuseFigure5-6showsparticipants’responsestothequestion,“doyoufeelconfidentto

communicateinEnglish?”

Figure5-6ConfidenceinusingEnglishTheemploymentstatusofparticipantsisshowninFigure5-7below.

6

2

5

Yes No Sometimes

9

4

Confident Notconfident


106

Figure5-7Employmentstatus

5.2.4 Clozetest

In addition to semi-structured interviews, the cloze test helped determine which

participantsweremoresuitedtobeselectedforthestudy.Therewere14questions

whichrequiredparticipantstofillintheblankspacesusingthewordstheythought

weremostsuitabletocompletethesentences.Allparticipantspassedthetestwith

atleast12outof14.

5.3 ApplyingthemarkednessmodeltothecompiledShonacorpus

Inthissection,thefollowingresearchquestionswereconsidered:

• DoestheMMapplytothecompiledShonacorpus

• What functions do the code-switches serve in the contexts in which they

appear?

Thecompiledcorpuswasanalysedtodeterminewhether theMMapplies to it. .A

wordlist generated was used to manually search for English words. The English

wordswerethenenteredintoWordsmithtoseethecontextinwhichCSoccurred.

As mentioned in chapter 2, the MM is developed on the premise that speakers

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Formalemployment

Ter9aryeduca9on

Highschool Housewives Re9red

Num

bero

fpar9cipants

Employmentstatus


107

choose linguistic codes not because of the societal conventions but because they

thinkcarefullyabouttheoutcome.Accordingtothemodel,speakersfollowthefour

proposedmaximsresulting in four typesofCS.This sectionwill consider the four

maxims and whether the types of CS proposed by M-S do in fact appear in the

spokenShonacorpus.

5.3.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim

Asdiscussed inchapter2, theunmarked-choicemaximguidesspeakerstousethe

unmarked choice to assert what is expected in that type of exchange. Data was

analysedtodeterminetheoccurrenceof twotypesofCS(sequentialunmarkedCS

andunmarkedCS)resultingfromthemaxim.

5.3.2 SequentialunmarkedCS

TherewereincidencesofCSthatoccurswhensituationalfactorschangeduringan

interaction.TheMMstatesthatsequentialunmarkedCSoccursforexample“when

theparticipantmakeupofaconversationchangesorwhenthetopicisshifted.”(M-

S,1993:114)TheMMpredictsthatsequentialunmarkedCSmayoccurtoshowthe

seriousnessofthesubjectunderdiscussion.Thisistrueintheexample[1]whereP4

isdiscussingtheimportanceofrespectingGod.

[1](Setting:Fatherandchildarediscussingdifferentissuesathome.)

P4: Saka we don’t want to, to lose that opportunity of respecting God. Ee

ndakambotauranavakomanaava.Ndikati imimizvomotokoniwamanjendechekuti

ifyoudon’twanttorespecthanzvadzidzenyuidzi,Godwillneverrespectyou.

“Sowedon’twant to, to lose that opportunity of respectingGod. I once talked to

theseboys. I saidwhatyouare failing is if youdon’twant to respectyoursisters,

Godwillneverrespectyou.”

P3:Mm.

“Yes”

P4:Isu,inichandinokumbiraini,eezvandodakutaurapanoapandechokutiwemust

pray.Prayerisveryimportant.


108

“WhatIask,whatIamsayingisthatwemustpray.Prayerisveryimportant.”

SinceP3andP4arefatherandchild,theexpectedlanguageinthisconversationis

Shona.This isbecausethefatherandchildsharethesamefirst language.Toshow

the change in tone and the seriousness of the matter under discussion, the

father switches to English when talking about prayer and respecting God. The

sentences;“wedon’twanttolosethatopportunityofrespectingGod”,“Godwillnever

respectyou”and“prayerisveryimportant”areexamplesofsequentialunmarkedCS.

[2](Colleagues)

Inanotherconversation,P11andP12arediscussingthepastinShona.

P12:--akanyararahaanarough.

“--isquietandisnotrough.”

P11:{LG}

P12:Ungazvikwanisaizvozvo?

“Canyoutoleratethat?”

P12:--anotiuchidakumutengeraanengeachikutuka.

“Whenyouwanttobuysomethingfor--,shescoldsyou.”

P11:--anotokutuka.Hanziiwe--iwe.--ka.{LG}

“--scoldsyou.Shesaysyou--.”

P12:(laughs)Haahaiwa.

(laughs)“WellIdon’tknow.”

P11:Unotozosekazvakokutihaavamwevanhuka,Mwaringaavaregererezvokwadi.

{LG}Aa--arirough.Unotovirirwawatoshaudwa.

“You just give up and say may God forgive her. {LG} Aa -- is rough. You end up

shouting.”

P12:Aa.

P11:--ndiyeanozivakutivanhuvaku-,avavanhuvakuruava.

“--knowsthatthesearegrownups.”

P12:Mm,haa--isasoftguy.

“Yes,well–isasoftguy.”


109

P11:Pamwezvichachinjaotaura.

“Maybeitwillchangewhenhestartsspeaking.”

P12:Aazvochinja.

“Aaitwillchange.”

P11:Aneeavakuti-.

“Hewillbesayingthat-“

P12: Zvochinja haiwa. Kanoto- ka- ka- ka- ndakaona panda ndichiti usadaro.

Kakachiramba.

“Itwillchange.Hewill,IsawitwhenIwassayingdon’tdothat.Hewasrefusing.”

P11:{LG}

P12:Sakahaazvakatooma.Butheisasoftspoken.

“Soitisunbelievable.Butheisasoftspoken.”

P11:Kanozokurirwanekusataura.

“Hegetsoverwhelmedbythefailuretospeak.”

P12:HisfatherismissingoutIthink.Heisasweetguy.Imean--nothisfather.{LG}

P11:{LG}Yohweeaaya.{CG}Musandisetsazvangu.

{LG}“Goodness.{CG}Don’tmakemelaugh.”

P12:{CG}Imeanhe,shuwaheismissingout.Heisasweetguy.

“Imeanhe,yesheismissingout.Heisasweetguy.”

P11:--.

P12:Mm.

“Yes.”

Whenthesubjectchangestoachild’sbehaviourandtheabsenceofthechild’sfather

in [2], P12 switches to English. Since P11 and P12 are ethnic brethren, the

unmarked (expected) choice for them in this casual conversation is Shona.

Sequential unmarked CS here is caused by a shift in the topic under discussion.

Although P12 switches to English, P11 still uses Shona when replying. This is

evidencetosuggestthatbothP11andP12arebilinguals.Bilingualismisoneofthe

conditionsproposedbyMyers-ScottonasaconditionforCStooccur.


110

5.3.3 Unmarkedcode-switching

As noted by M-S (1993a) speakers in many urban African communities switch

between a foreign language which will be the official language and their first

language.The foreign language isusually learnedat school. Itwas the case forall

participantsinthecurrentstudy.InunmarkedCS,“speakersengageinacontinuous

pattern of using two (ormore) languages, often the switch is intra-sentential and

sometimeswithinthesameword”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:117).Inthisstudy,there

isalotofunmarkedCSrecordedintheconversations.UnmarkedCSoccurredinall

theconversationsrecorded for thisstudy.TheMMstates that forunmarkedCS to

occur,speakersshouldbebilinguals.AllparticipantswereShona-Englishbilinguals

andusedboth languagesduringconversations.Hence this condition ismet in this

study.ThefollowingexamplesshowunmarkedCS.

[3] The following is a dialogue between two sisters, a Provincial Programmes

Coordinator (P1) and a nursing student (P2). They learned English at school and

Shonaistheirmothertongue.ThereisunmarkedCSintheconversations.Instances

wheretheyswitchtoEnglisharegiveninboldface.

P1: Vanhu ini ndakatozvibata ndikazvihwisisa ini. Zviri clear kuti vana chikoro

zvakatodii.

“Ifigureditoutmyself.Itisclearthatchildren’sschoolingwas-.”

P2:Zvakakona.

“Itfailed.”

P1:Mwanaakatoregisterzvaakaregister.Sakawhatnow?

“Thechildregisteredsomething.Sowhatnow?”

P2:Mm.

“Yes.”

P1:Muchatauranemunhumuchadei?Problemyangairipoissolved.

“Whatdoyouwanttalkingtotheperson?Theproblemissolved.”

P2:Ee.

“Yes.”


111

P1:Sowhat?Vana--vanengevachingotipanoneapovachingodii,vanhuvachingoona

kuti vari kufemawo here, zvapera. Iye zvaanofunga kuti attention. Moziva kuti

munhuka?

“Sowhat? -- and companywill bemoving aroundwhilst people check if they are

breathing.Heisanattentionseeker.Doyouknowthataperson-?”

[4]BelowisaconversationbetweenP7a40yearolddoctorandP8,a27yearold

universitystudent.UnmarkedCSisshown.

P7:Yaapapropertyiyoinodakupendwa.

“Yes,thepropertyneedstobepainted.”

P8:Horaiti.

“Alright.”

P7:SoIdon’tknow.Maybekunana,tirimunaaniJune?

“SoIdon’tknow.Maybein,whichmontharewein,isitJune?”

P8:June.

P7:AroundendofJulyorAugust,earlyAugust.

P8:EarlyAugust.(talkstosomeone)(laughs)

P7:Haungambopeyifornhingirikiri.

“Youcannotpayforthat.”

P8:For?

P7:Becausevanhuvaunengeuchipayervachoka,anengeachiitirakutiapedzeainde

kunenext.

“Becausethepeoplethatyoupaywillberushingtofinishandgotothenextjob.”

P8:Ehe.

“Yes.”

P7:Awanemariyake.WhilstiweukazviitirayoucansayItakemytime.

“Togethismoney.WhilstifyoudoityourselfyoucansayItakemytime.”

P8:Wotoratimeyakozvishomanezvishomauchinyatsoonakutizvabudahere.(talks

tosomeoneelse)

“Youtakeyourtimeslowlyseeingifitcomesoutproperly.”(talkstosomeoneelse)


112

Themonthsintheaboveconversation,“June”,“July”,“August”areconsideredtobe

borrowings in this study. Although Shona has terms that refer to these months;

“Chikumi”/“Chikuni”,“Kunguru”,and“Nyamavhuvhu”respectively,theyarerarely

used in conversations. They are more prevalent in the written form than in the

spokenform.TheiruseinthecorpusseemstosupportMyers-Scotton’ssuggestion

thatunmarkedCScancontainborrowedwords.

Example[5]isarecordedconversationbetweenaretailserviceworker(P11)anda

high school student (P12). Their conversation includes Shona-English CS which

occurswithinsentenceboundaries.Therearealsoborrowedwordslike“Maths”and

“TV”.

[5]P11:HanzivakandidzidzisakuverengaMaths?

“ShesaidhetaughtmetoreadMaths?”

P12:Kuverenga insteadofkungoudzwakunziunodaiunodai.Wotoverengawoziva

kutivanodai,vanodaisakaregaindiite.

“Readinginsteadofbeingspoonfed.Youreadandknowwhattodo.”

P11: Ee Maths dzoverengwa. Tiri kuchikoro taingoudzwa kunzi Maths

dzinoverengwa asi unenge usingabvumi hako munhu. Saka -- anogona kudzipasa

Maths.

“YesMaths canbe read.Whenwewere in schoolwewere told that you can read

Mathsbutwerefusedtobelieveit.So--mightpassMaths.”

P12:Haaakafoirawo.Munhuanotiapedzabasaaroundelevenototangakuverenga.

AnozonakirwaneTV.

“Well if she fails it’s her fault. When she finishes work around eleven she starts

reading.ShegetsexcitedbyTV.”

P11:Ee,inga--kavaserious.

“Well--isnowserious.”

The MM proposes that unmarked CS can consist of single morphemes or single

words with speakers alternating between the languages during a conversation.

Example[5]aboveshowsCSoccurringassinglewords(e.g.aroundandserious).


113

ThereareincidencesofunmarkedCSintheconversationbetweenP5,a38yearold

female teacherandP6, a30yearoldhousewife.The twoare talkingabouthealth

issuesandtheirexperiencesvisitingthelocalclinic.

[6]P5:Kogumboririseikoimi?Ndakanzwakutifutimunegumbo.

“Howistheleg?Iheardthatyourlegissore.”

P6:Ririnani.NdakabvakuclinicneChinabutakangondipamapainkillerchete.

“It is better. I came from the clinic on Thursday but she just gaveme painkillers

only.”

P5:Havanaheremishongakwayo?Iish.Vanhuvepaclinicapavanodakutonetsa.

“Don’ttheyhavepropermedication?It istough.Thepeopleatthisclinicarebeing

troublesome.”

P6:VanayoasivakatimishongayachohaisisafekwandirindineBP.

“TheyhavethembuttheysaidthedrugsarenotsafeformebecauseIhaveBP.”

P5:Hoozviya.Sakavakagotimudii?

“OkIremember.Sowhatdidtheysayyoushoulddo?”

P6:Hanziindaikwadoctor.

“Theysaidgotothedoctor.”

P5:Ok.

P6: Ndichatoinda kana ndawana mari yacho. Nekudhura kunoita transport

zvinotodakuronga.

“IwillgowhenIgetthemoney.Withtransportbeingexpensive,itneedsplanning.”

P5:That’swhyndakangandaindakuclinicpapakakuvaramwana.Nokuti iishvana

doctorvachovanonetsa.

“That’swhyIwenttotheclinicwhenthechildwasinjured.Becausethedoctorsare

difficult.”

P6: That’s why ndakatangawo kuclinic. Vanodhura vana doctor. Fungai kuti

everytime yaunoinda vanenge vachitoda kuti ubhadhare consultation. Manje ii

ndinoiwanepinhaivasikana?

“That’swhyIalsostartedattheclinic.Thedoctorsareexpensive.Thinkaboutitthat

everytimeyougotheywantyoutopayconsultationfee.Sogirl,wheredoIgetit?”


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In example [6], that’s why, everytime, safe can be classified as CS. In addition to

unmarkedCSbeingevidentin[6],therearealsoborrowedwords.Oneareawhere

ShonahasborrowedEnglishwords to fill lexicalgaps in the language ismedicine.

This is evident in the above conversation where English terms are used. For

example, the speakers used the terms “clinic”, “BP” (Blood Pressure), and

“painkiller”.Thesyntax,morphologyandphonologyofthesewordsdidnotchange.

Onemay argue that “doctor” can be classified as a borrowedword because some

peopleuse it in conversationsoruse theborrowedversion, “dhokuta”.TheShona

wordmeaning“doctor”is“chiremba”butitisnotusedconsistently.Becauseofthis,

I classified “doctor as a borrowed word rather than CS in this study. Borrowed

wordsfoundinthecorpusarelistedinSection5.4.

5.3.3.1 AffixesinShona-Englishcode-switching

Thestudy showssomeEnglishwords thatareprefixedwithShonanounprefixes.

Theprefixesareindicatedinboldface.

[7]P9:Handitibreakdownyaka,yemapaymentswakaionahanditika?

“Isityousawthebreakdownforpayments?”

In Shona, zvakabhadharwa is the word meaning “payments”. One can therefore

consider the above sentence to be an example of CS. Yema- “Of the” has been

prefixedtotheEnglishnoun(plural)“payments”.ThisseemstoshowthatinCS,the

embeddedlanguage,whichisinthiscaseEnglishdoesnotviolatethesyntaxofthe

matrixlanguage,Shona.

[8] P10: Asi munoziva henyu kuti makanyorerana pasi kuti tobhadhara kana

tanyatsogutsikana neeverything zvamunenge maita. Kwete kuti tongokupai mari

takanyarara.

“ButIguessyouknowthatyousignedagreeingthatwewillpayifwearesatisfied

withyourwork.Notthatwewillgiveyoumoneyquietly.”


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TheEnglishword “everything” has beenprefixedwithne-. One can also consider

example[8]tocontainCS.ThereisonlyoneEnglishwordfoundintheexamplebut

inliterature,thereisnoprescribednumberofwordsrequiredforasentencetobe

considered as containing CS. The word “everything” cannot be considered as a

borrowedwordbecauseShonausesthewordzvese/zvosetoreferto“everything”.

[9]P1:Hanzimurumewachoanotomuabuserzvake.

“Iheardthehusbandabusesher.”

Intheexampleabove,“abuser”isprefixedwithanotomu-.WiththeShonaprefixes

added, the oneword createdmakes sense. This seems to further supportMyers-

Scotton’s claim thatCS isnotahaphazardphenomenonbut that speakersuse the

languageattheirdisposalinanorderlymanner.

5.3.4 Marked-choicemaxim

The marked-choice principle states that speakers can use the unexpected code

choice during a conversation. Therefore, it allows speakers to disregard the

standardsocietalexpectations.ThemodelclaimsthatmarkedCScanoccurformore

than one reason like to show anger, authority, annoyance, ethnicity, creativity.

MarkedCSresultsfromthemarked-choicemaximandwillbediscussedbelow.

5.3.5 MarkedCSanditsfunctions

The MM predicted that status contributes to the making of marked choices.

Membersofagroupthatismostlikelytomoveupwardssociallyandeconomically

will likely make marked choices. In addition, the well to do members of a

communitywillmost likelyusemarkedchoices. InmarkedCS“thespeakersimply

disidentifieswiththeexpectedROset”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:131).Myers-Scotton

notes thatspeakersusemarkedCS toshowauthority,ethnicity, levelofeducation

andarangeofemotionslikethatoneisangryorhappy.Lookingatthedataset,let

usconsiderthefollowingconversation:


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CSisusedtoshowangerin[10]betweena67yearoldretiredteacheranda53year

oldhousewife.Theyarearguingabout the focusofa torch.WhenP13argues that

thereiscockroachpoisonwhereP4wantsthetorchtobepositioned,P4surrenders

andleavesthedecisiontoP13.P13thenusesmarkedCStoshowheranger.

[10]P4:Taridzaiuko.

“Focusthere.”

P13:Iii.

“Iii.”

P4:(())

P13:Handitiapapanemushongawemapeteherenhainhai--?

“Isn’tittherewascockroachpoison?”

P4:Aachitsvetaicheropamunotsveta.

“No,putitwherever.”

P13:HaaimiIamnotasaskamu!Hezvo!

“WellIamnotmentallychallenged.Goodness!”

P4: Hamufani kumboti, nokutika kana tichitaura kudai toitira kuti tive newider

knowledgeyokutiiyekanaachiachiindakumushakwake.

“Youdon’thave tosay . . .becausewhenweare talking like thiswewant tohave

widerknowledgeforwhenshegoestoherhome.”

P13:Zvatoperawani.Zvatopera.

“Itisoveralready.Itisover.”

Theslangword“saskamu”usedbyP13meanssomeonewhoismentallychallenged.

TheconversationbetweenhusbandandwifehasbeengoingoninShona.Thetwo

participantsbothabove55yearsofage,areexpectedtousetheirmothertonguein

the rural setting. In the dialogue, Shona is the unmarked code during the

conversation. P13 shows her anger and annoyance by using English, the marked

choice and a slang word. By doing this, she is demanding to be respected as

someonewhocanmakeherowndecision.Theuseof anexclamationmark in the


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transcriptionshowsthathervoiceisraised.WhenP4repliesinShonaandEnglish,

P13revertsbacktoShonaandpleadsthattheconversationtobeover.

OneoftheclaimsmadebytheMMisthathighlyeducatedmembersofacommunity

are likely tomakemarked choices during a conversation. This claim seems to be

trueinexample[11]P7hasaPhDdegreewhilstP8isauniversitystudent. Inthe

conversation,P7usesEnglishtoshowhisauthority.HeisgivinginstructionstoP8

inEnglish.

[11]P7:Somaybeyoujusttakethatreceiptwoindafor-

“Somaybeyoujusttakethatreceiptandgofor-”

P8:Horaitindono,fiftypagore?

“Ok,Iwill,fiftyperyear?”

P7: I think so. So you can pay fees idzodzo. Then aa yaa aam maybe uyo anoita

mapipingakaitapipingyakeakapedza,thenuyootangakuplaster.

“I think so. So you canpay those fees.Then aa yes aammaybe after the guywho

doespippingisfinished,thentheotheronecanplaster.”

P8:Handiti?Mr--.

“Isthatso?Mr--”

P7:Maybetaikwanisakutsvakayokutiakaplasterpafrontnokuisaveranda.

“Maybeifwemanagetogetsomethingtoplasterthefrontandtoputtheveranda.”

P8:Plasterkufront?

“Plasterthefront?”

P7:Mm.

“Yes.”

P8:Aabutmatitopendakahanditi?

“Aabutdidyousaywepaint?”

P7:YaIthinkso.

“YesIthinkso.”

P8:Hoosakait’sliketoregedzakupendathewhole?

“Ok,soit’slikewedon’tpaintthewhole?”


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P7:Yajustleavetheoutside.

“Yesjustleavetheoutside.”

P8:Vongopendakumberi.

“Theyjustpaintthefrontonly.”

P7:Mm.

“Yes.”

P8:Pane,yapanepandakamboonapakapendwa.Itwasnice.(childrentalking)(...)

“Isawthesametypeofpainting.Itwasnice.

P7:MmmbecauseIthinkitshouldbeok.Idon’trememberkapane-

“YesbecauseIthinkitshouldbeok.Idon’trememberifthereis-“

P8:SakapanengepodakungoplastwaIthink.

“SoIthinkitwillneedtobeplastered.”

P7:Yaa,kutopuku.

“Yes,atthetop.”

P8:Yaa.

“Yes.”

[12]P9,abuilderandP10,auniversitystudentarediscussingchildren.Thesetting

isaruralshop.TheduohavebeenconversinginShonabutP9changesthecodeto

English.

P9:{LG}(...)Sakamukomawakoavanevanganikokukukwaariikoko?

“Sohowmany(kids)doesyourbrotherhave?”

P10:Aavanongovanetwoavo.Koimimakazomavanevanganizvamurimi?

“Aaheonlyhastwo.Howmanydoyouhave?”

P9: Haa ini ini vanonetsazve vana. Nekunetseka kwatoita mari ungaramba

uchingotsvagamariuchingopinzachikoro.Haaasihaandinethreezvangu.

“Wellformechildrenaredifficult.Withthewaywestruggletogetmoneyyouend

uplookingforschoolfeeseverytime.Well,butIhavethree.”

P10:Aakomakazoitawechithree?Ndaifungakutimunevavirikaini.

“Aadidyouhaveathirdone?Ithoughtthatyouhavetwo.”


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P9: Haa ndakazoita wechithree, kakomana twenty thirteen but haa zvakabva

zvatoguma. Totosiira imika imi ndimi mava kutofanirwa kuronga mhuri

dzamangwana.{LG}Vanavoku,vanhuvokuuniversityndimimunowanamarikaimi

kana mazotanga mabasa saka ndimi munotozoita vana vakawanda imi. Isu

tingazvigonerwananizveduisumadharamadhara.

“WellIhadathirdone,aboyintwentythirteenbutthatwastheend.Weleaveitto

youtoplanfuturefamilies.Youuniversitygraduateswillgetmoneywhenyoustart

workingsoyoushouldhavemorekids.Wetheelderlycannotmanage.”

P10:Aa isuhere?Zvekuita vana vakawanda zvakatoperakudhara. {LG} Iwon’tbe

able to take care of them. Iwill be verybusy. Saka ah handitomborina plan yokuti

ndiitevanavakawanda.

“Aadoyoumeanus?Havingalotofkidsisathingofthepast.Iwontbeabletotake

careofthem.Iwillbeverybusy.SoAhIdon’tplanonhavingalotofchildren.”

P9: Aa plus inizve ndakazotora mumwe mudzimaizve saka. Handiti unoziva kuti

ndaiva netwo vaya? Asi ndakazoita mumwe. Uyu wandakazoita uyu ndakaita

neumwemudzimaiasihii,hi,hi,barikaharisinyorehaiwawo.

“AaplusItookanotherwife.IguessyouknowthatIhadtwo.TheoneIhadcame

fromanotherwifebutwell,polygamyisnoteasy.”

P10:Aamotoshinga,barikaharisinyorezve.

“Aayoushouldbestrong,polygamyisnoteasy.”

P9:Handagutamuzukuru.Thanksverymuch.

“WellIamsatisfiedmygrandchild.Thanksverymuch.”

P10: Muchitendeiko sekuru haa muchitendei zvenyu. Matombodya here imi?

Mangotoranyamandokudyandokutotimapedza.

“Don’t mention it uncle. Did you even eat? You just ate meat and said you are

finished.”

Example[12]aboveshowstheuseofmarkedCSbyP10toshowhisstatus.Whenhe

ischallengedtohavemanychildren,heobjects.Heconsidershimself tobepartof

theyounggenerationwhohavemovedonwiththetimesanddoesnotwanttohave

manychildren.P10explainsthat“Iwon’tbeabletotakecareofthem.Iwillbevery


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busy.”Toshowthathehascontroloverthematterofhowmanychildrentohave,he

usesEnglish.TheuseofEnglishherecanbeexplainedasshowinghiseducational

status (university student). In example [12], participants used the interjectionaa

severaltimes.

The conversation below [13] between P3, a teacher’s college student and P4, a

retiredteachershowstheuseofmarkedCStoshowhappiness.

[13]P3:Panehembedzachozve.

“Amongsttheclothes.”

P4:Idzodzo?

“Thoseones?”

P3:Mm.

“Yes.”

P4:Uchandipafuti?

“Areyougivingmeagain?”

P3:Ndakupaiwani.Dzirimoidzo.

“Igaveyou.Theyareinthere.”

P4:MyLord!(claps)(alllaugh)Kutindipfekeyakadaineimweinedifferentcolour?

“MyLord!(claps)Formetowearthisoneandanotheronewithadifferentcolour?”

P3:Mm.

“Yes.”

P4:AamyLord!(laughs)

“WellmyLord!”(laughs)

To show his happiness about the clothes that he has been given, P4 switches to

English and claps his hands. Upon listening to the recording of this conversation,

one can hear the pitch of P4’s voice getting high to indicate his happiness. The

phrasesmyLord!andaamyLord!seemtoshowP4’shappiness.

InanotherexampleofmarkedCS found in this study,P9startsexplainingapoint

andthenrepeatsitinEnglishintheconversationbelow.Thisisdonetoreinforceor


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to emphasise thepoint that althoughhe is facing challenges in his business, he is

determinedtokeepgoing.

In[14],P9uttersasentenceinShonaandrepeatsitinEnglish.

[14]P10:Ok,ok.Sakakambaniyenyuirikushandaherenhaibaba?

“Ok,ok.Soisyourcompanystillfunctional?”

P9:Hihaazvakadzvanyamuzukuru.MacustomerndoarikuitamashomabuthaaI

willkeeptrying.ZvasiyananekushandiraumwemunhubutIwillkeeptrying.

Ndongorambandichingoonakutindoitasei.Ndakatoshingirira

handichatombodzoki.Iwillneverlookbacknow.

“Well it isdifficultmynephew.The customersare fewbut Iwill keep trying. It is

differentfromworkingforsomeonebutIwillkeeptrying.IwillseewhatIcando.I

willkeeptryingIwillneverlookback.Iwillneverlookback.”

5.3.6 Exploratorycode-switching

ThistypeofCSoccurswhentheunmarkedROsetisuncertainorwhenspeakersare

doubtfuloftheexpectationsinaconversation(Myers-Scotton,1993a).Accordingto

theMM,exploratoryCSdoesnotfeaturemuchinconversationsbecauseusuallythe

unmarkedchoiceisclear.NoinstancesofexploratoryCSwerefoundinthecorpus.

5.4 BorrowedwordsinShona

AlthoughthisdiscussionisaboutCS,itisinterestingtonotethatthereareborrowed

wordsinthedataset.LetusconsiderKamwangamalu’s(2000)explanationthatthe

borrowed word’s morphology, phonology and syntax changes to that of the

borrowinglanguage.Table5-2containsalistofexamplesofborrowedwordsthatfit

Kamwangamalu’s explanation. The Shona words are given with their English

equivalents.


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Shona English

Shuwa Sure

Fenzi Fence

Majuzi Jerseys

Kicheni Kitchen

Dhora Dollar

Pendi Paint

Bhuku Book

Heti Hat

Sitaira Style

Horaiti Alright

Dhirezi Dress

Hwani One

Hwindo Window

Kosi Course

Bhegi Bag

Dhishi Dish

Zipi Zip

Bhenji Bench

Taundishipi Township

Wikendi Weekend

Table5-2Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus

Whenconsideringthesentencebelow:

P11:Inodiwanhingirikiniiya,sprayiyayemutoilet.

“Thattoiletsprayisneeded”.

Chimbuzi is theShonawordmeaning “toilet”. Insteadofusing it,P11uses “toilet”

whichhasbenprefixedwithyemu-.ThiscanbeconsiderdasanexampleofCSand

notborrowingsinceShonaalreadyhasatermfortoilet.Argumentscanbemadein

support of “toilet” being a borrowedword because chimbuzi is rarely used. The


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difficulty in classifying “toilet” as either an example of CS or as a borrowedword

seems to support the suggestion that there is no clearcut distinction between

borrowing and CS (Kamwangamalu 2000). In this study, “toilet” is classified as a

borrowedword. This is because as indicated in Chapter 2, CS and borrowing are

sometimes difficult to differentiate (e.g. Gumperz, 1982). This view is shared by

Moro(2015)whonotesthattherearedivergentviewsaboutCSandborrowing.The

example below contains aword that can be classified as either CS or a borrowed

word.

TherearesomeShonawordswhichhavebeenborrowedfromEnglishwhichhave

retainedtheirEnglishmorphologyandphonology(e.g.“airtime”,“library”,“square”,

“fleece”, “percent”, “fifty”, “eight”, “fees”, “metres”, “ceiling”, “first”, “fifteen”,

“calculator”,“grade”,“thousand”,and“doctor”).Thistypeofborrowingisreferredto

as“nonceborrowing”inliterature.

5.5 Thenatureofcode-switchinginspokenShona

AnassumptionwasmadeinSection1.8regardingthesocialfunctionsofCSthatthe

markednessmodelofCSasexplainedbyMyers-Scottonwillapplytoallinstancesof

CS in my data set. Data was analysed to determine whether the assumption is

correct.

5.5.1 Code-switchingoccurswithinsentenceboundaries

Fromthegathereddata, itcanbenotedthatCSoccursinsidesentenceboundaries

(intrasententialCS)

Thisistrueofthefollowingsentences;

[15]P9:Atleastwakawanabasa.

“Atleastyougotajob.”


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ThesentencestartsinEnglishandswitchestoShona.Duringthesameconversation,

P9startsasentenceinShonathenswitchestoEnglishbeforerevertingtoShonato

finishthesentence.

P9:Manje havazivi kutimazuvano ukatowana chero basa zvaro youarebetteroff

thankutongogarakumbauchishayazvokuita.

“Buttheydon’tknowthatthesedaysifyougetanyjobyouarebetteroffthansitting

athomedoingnothing.”

P10:Haiwa,vanotodakukuonaiimifacetofacesakatinotofanakuindatose.

“No,theywanttoseeyoufacetofacesoweshouldgotogether.”

Considering the sentence above, the English words “face to face” form part of a

sentence which includes Shona words. This sentence seems to show that

intrasententialCS followsapattern.This isbecausealthoughthere isamixture in

the languages used, the resulting sentence still makes sense and themorphology

andsyntaxofbothEnglishandShonaisretained.

P9:Ok,aslongaspanenyamathenhoraitionefiftyyacho.

“Ok,aslongasthereismeatthenitsfineonefiftyisfine.”

Example [16] shows CS occurring inside sentence boundaries with the sentence

commencing in English, then there is a switch to Shona in the middle of the

sentence.ThesentenceconsistsoffragmentsofShonaandEnglish.

[16] P6: Ii vanhu vanoziva kuti mukando unobatsira especially kana uchida

kukwereta.

“Wellpeopleknowthatcontributionshelpespeciallyifyouwanttoborrow.”

Inthemiddleoftheabovesentence,P6switchestoEnglish.Theword“especially”is

used.InShona,“kunyanya”isthewordthatmeans“especially”.Insteadofusingthe

Shonaword,P6usestheEnglishequivalent.TheoneEnglishwordthatisusedinthe

abovesentence fitsperfectly into thesentencesuggesting thatCS isnota random

andhaphazardphenomenon.


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5.5.2 Shona-Englishcode-switchingoccursoutsidesentenceboundaries

In the corpus, CS occurs outside sentence boundaries (intersentential CS) as

supportedbyexamplesgivenbelow.

[17]P7:Tobeconstructedonsite.Yaa,hazvinabasareseizvi.

“Tobeconstructedonsite.Well,thisisnotimportantatall”.

ThefirstsentenceintheexampleaboveisentirelyinEnglish.ThenP7switchesto

Shonainthesentencethatfollows.Thisshowsthatthetwolanguagesarenotmixed

duringtheswitchandseemstosupportKamwangamalu’s(1999)claimthatCSisa

languagecontactphenomenonthatisavailabletobilingualsandnottopeoplewho

speakonlyonelanguage.

P7:Iwillmakeacopy.Ndinindaivandakunyoraizvi.

“Iwillmakeacopy.Iamtheonewhowaswritingthis”.

P7usesEnglishinthefirstsentenceandthenchangestoShonainthesentencethat

comesafterwards.

Inexample[18]below,thefirstsentenceisinShona.ThenP8switchestoEnglishin

thesentencethatfollows.

[18]P8:Pane,yapanepandakamboonapakapendwa.Itwasnice.

“Thereis,yesthereissomewherethatIsawpainted.Itwasnice.”

Example[18]showsCSoccuringoutsidesentenceboundaries.Thefirstsentenceis

inEnglishfollowedbyaswitchtoShona.

5.5.3 Code-switchingappearstobeorderly

The sentences involved in CS still make sense despite being made up of two

languageswhichhavedifferentmorphology,phonologyand syntax. Ifwe take the

followingexamplefromthestudy,thepointwhereCSoccursisshowninboldface.


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[19]P4:Ee.Sakatheinfluenceyavakadziivavoitdoesn’tworkkuitaunitethefamily.

“Yes.Sothewomen’sinfluencedoesn’tworktounitethefamily.”

Theabovesentence isgrammaticalalthough it containsShonaandEnglishwords.

This shows that CS has not rendered the sentence ungrammatical. Therefore this

seemstosuggestthatShona-EnglishCSappearstobeorderly.

Ifwe consider the sentencebelow, the firstpart is inEnglish thenP4 switches to

Shona.ThetransitionfromEnglishtoShonaseemstobedoneinsuchawaythatthe

sentenceiswellformedandisinaccordancewiththerulesofShona.

P4:Youdenyusthatchanceyokutitivetinoraramawo.

“Youdenyusthatchanceforustolive.”

Inthefollowingsentence;

P12:Mm,haavaka,zvakavaaffectamentally.

“Wellyes,itaffectedhermentally.”

The Shona prefixes zvakava- and suffix -a are added to affect. The word

“zvakavaaffecta”meaning“itaffectedher”iscreated.Theprefixesandsuffixadded

createagrammaticalword.

5.5.4 Concordances

Thecorpuswasquerried forconcordances.Thiswasdone inorder toanalyse the

contextinwhichspecificEnglishwordsappeared.Forexample,concordancesofthe

word“this”areshowninFigure5-8.


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Figure5-8Concordancesoftheword“this”

“This”appearedbothatthebeginningansdinthemiddleofsentences.“This”

appearedinsentencescontainingCSasillustratedinthefollowingsentence:

“Hopethistimezvinorongeka”“Hopethistimeitwillbeorderly.”Concordancesof“but”

“But”wasthemostfrequentlyusedEnglishwordintheShonacorpusasshownin

figure5-9.Itappearedbothatthebeginningandatthemiddleofsentences.Inthe

followingexamples,“but”appearedatthestartofsentences.

P1:Ee.Buthavachaitiwolifeyakanaka.Patoshata.

“Yes.Butshewillnothaveagoodlife.Thereisaproblem.”

Theexamplesthatfollowshow“but”appearinginthemiddleofsentences.


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P9:Istartedtwoyearsagobutndinevanhutwovandirikushandanavo.

“IstartedtwoyearsagobutIhavetwopeoplethatIamworkingwith.”

Considering the sentences above, Shona-English CS seems to appear both at the

startofasentenceandinthemiddle.Figure5-9isascreenshotshowingsomeofthe

concordancesoftheword“but”.

5.5.5 FrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpus

From the wordlist created using the Shona corpus, the 5 most frequently used

EnglishwordsinthecorpusareshowninTable5-3.Thepositionofthewordsinthe

wordlist, frequency and percentage are shown. The English words appeared in

Figure5-9Concordancesof“but”


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sentencescontainingShona-EnglishCSeitherastheonlycode-switchedwordsoras

partofaphrase.

Position Word Frequency Percentage

16 but 135 0.46

18 because 128 0.44

22 I 108 0.37

26 ok 98 0.33

42 it 75 0.26Table5-3FrequentlyusedEnglishwords

In comparison, the 5most frequently used Shona words are shown in Table 5-4

below.

Position Word Frequency Percentage

1 kuti 633 2.15

4 saka 393 1.34

5 kana 334 1.14

7 ini 271 0.92

8 hanzi 259 0.88Table5-4FrequentlyusedShonawords

Data seems to suggest that the 5 frequently used Shona words recorded higher

frequencies and percentages than 5 frequently used English words. Even the

positionofShonawordsonthewordlistwashigherthanthatofEnglishwords.This

maybe because Shona was the matrix language and English was the embedded

languageduringtheconversations.


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The followingdiscussionwill illustratesomeof the frequentlyusedEnglishwords

andtheircollocations.

(i)Because:128entries

ThesecondfrequentlyusedEnglishwordinthecorpusis“because”whichappeared

128times.Someofthesentencesinwhich“becauseappearedareshownbelow.

P11:BecausevanhuvarikunyoraJune.

“BecausepeoplearewritinginJune.”

P4:Sheisnottiredbecausezvokufoneranazvonetsa.

“Sheisnottiredbecausephoningisdifficult.”

(ii)I:108entries

P9:HaaIunderstand,Iunderstandmuzukuru.

“WellIunderstand,Iunderstandmynephew.”

P1:“Inihandinakutauranayeini.Ithinkkungomunyararira.Ignorancepays.”

(iii)Ok:98entries

Okappearedasacompletesentenceinmostsentencesinthecorpus.Itwasusedto

agreeortoacknowledgeapoint.

P9:Ok.Komabasaariseiedegreeraurikuita?

“Ok.Howarejobsforthedegreethatyouaredoing?”

P10:“Ok,ok.”

5.6.6Collocationsofcode-switchedwordsfoundinthecompiledcorpus

Dataanalysisshowsthecontextsinwhichthecode-switchedwordsappeared.This

isshownintheexamplesofcollocationsgivenbelow.

(i)Think:33entries

“Think” collocateswith “I” in 30 instances out of the 33 entries recorded in the

corpus.


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P1:HaaIthinkmwanawake.

“WellIthinkit’shischild.”

P6:YaaIthinkvazhinjivanodakutivajoine.

“Yes,Ithinkmanywantthemtojoin.”

(ii)Know:21entries

“Know”collocateswith“Idon’t”in18instancesoutof21inthecorpus.Someofthe

instancesareshownbelow.

P7:Idon’tknowkutitingadiikoapa.

“Idon’tknowwhattodohere.”

P12:Doyouknowkutihaatsatiswi?

“Doyouknowthatyoucannotcrushthem?”

(iii)Was:8entries

Wascollocateswithitin7ofthe8entriesinthecorpus.ItalsocollocateswithIin1

instance.

P7:Idon’tknowaboutthesamebutapaIwastemptedkutsvetafutiextrabut...

“Idon’tknowaboutthesamebuthereIwastemptedtoputextrabut...”

Thetablebelowillustratescollocationsofthewords“think”,“know”and“was”.

Word Entries Collocation Collocationtimes

Think 33 I 30

Know 21 Idon’t 18

Was 8 It 7Table5-5Collocations5.6 Conclusion

DataanalysishasshownthattheMMisastrongmodelthatcanbeappliedtoShona-

English CS.Data analysis confirmed the assumptionsmade in section 1.8 that the


132

MMofCSasexplainedbyM-SwillapplytoShona-EnglishCS.However,duetothe

morelimitednatureofdatagathered,therewerenoincidentsofexploratoryCSin

the study. According to the MM, exploratory CS is a less popular type because

usually the unmarked choice is apparent during conversations. Since data was

gatheredfromindividualswhokneweachother,theunmarkedchoicewasclear.

In this chapter, data was analysed to determine the nature, occurrence and

characteristicsofCSintheoraldiscourseofShona-Englishbilinguals.Inadditionto

analysing transcripts of recordings, the compiled corpus was analysed using

WordSmithtools.

Data seems to suggest that Shona-English CS occurs both within sentence

boundaries (intra-sentential) and outside sentence boundaries (inter-sentential).

The functions of CS like to showauthority, anger andhappiness, are discussed in

thisstudy.SomeEnglishwordsfoundinthecorpuswereprefixedwithShonanoun

prefixes. It can be noted that some sentences found in the corpus contained both

ShonaandEnglish.

ThefivefrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpusareshownincomparisonto5

frequently used Shona words. The study also shows some of the collocations of

Englishcode-switchedwordsfoundinthecorpus.

It is also interesting tonote thatEnglishborrowedwords appear in the compiled

corpus.Thewordsareeitherusedastheyareortheirspellingsarechangedtosuit

Shonaspellingconventions.

Inthefollowingchapter,conclusions,recommendationsandlimitationsofthestudy

arediscussed.


133

Chap te r 6 Conclusionsandrecommendations

6.1 Introduction

Conclusionsdrawnfromthestudyarediscussedinthischapter.Theconclusionsare

basedontheresearchquestionsthatwereposedinordertodealwithsub-problems

identified. In addition, recommendations are made and attention is drawn to

limitationsofthestudy.

6.2 Conclusionsdrawn

After analysing data, the following conclusions were made concerning the

subproblemsidentifiedinthisstudy.

6.2.1 Subproblemone

Myers-Scottonproposed theMM to explain socialmotivations forCSandnoted that

themodelawaitsfurthertesting.

Inordertodealwithsubproblemone,thefollowingresearchquestionswereposed;

“DoestheMMofcode-switchingapplytothecompiledcorpus?”

“Whatfunctionsdothecode-switchesserveinthecontextsinwhichtheyappear?”

Data seems to suggest that theMM of CS applies to the compiled corpus. This is

evidenced by the occurence of the types of CS suggested byMyers-Scotton in the

MM. The compiled corpus provided evidence of the CS types that are discussed

below.

6.2.1.1 Sequentialunmarkedcode-switching

The study showed that when the situation changed during conversations, some

participantsusedCS.Thisisillustratedin[1].


134

6.2.1.2 Unmarkedcode-switching

Data gathered for this study shows a lot of unmarked CS. All participants in the

study used unmarked CS in their conversations. One of the conditions for the

occurrence of unmarked CS suggested by the MM is that participants should be

bilingual peers. All participants in this study were Shona-English bilinguals and

kneweachother.Therefore,onefindsunmarkedCSinparticipants’conversations.

TheexistenceofunmarkedCSinthecompiledcorpuscanalsobeattributedtothe

educationlevelsofparticipants.Allparticipantschosenforthisstudyspentatleast

10yearsinformaleducationwhereEnglishwasthemediumofinstructionandthey

usedEnglishoftenatschool.

6.2.1.3 Markedcode-switching

Participants used marked CS during conversations in this study. Data seems to

suggesttheuseofmarkedCStoshowanger,annoyanceandhappiness.

6.2.1.4 Exploratorycode-switching

According to the MM, exploratory CS occurs where the unmarked choice is

uncertain.ParticipantswerebilingualpeersandthereforeunmarkedCSwascertain.

ThereisnoevidencetoshowtheuseofexploratoryCSinthisstudy.Thiscanalsobe

attributed to the limited number of participants which might have affected the

diversityofparticipants.

6.2.1.5 Functionsofcode-switchesinthecontextstheyappeared

DataseemstosuggestthatCSwasusedtoshowemotionssuchasanger,annoyance

andhappiness.OtherfunctionsofCSwerenotaddressedbecausetheywerenotpart

ofmystudy.


135

6.2.2 Subproblemtwo

ThereismorethanoneperspectiveonCSavailabletoscholarsandallofthemshould

beexplored(inparticularinrelationtoShona-EnglishCS).

Thefollowingresearchquestionaddressedsubproblemtwo:

• WhatisthenatureofCSinspokenShona?

Afteranalysingthecompiledcorpusandtranscriptionsofrecordings,thefollowing

conclusionsweremade:

(i)Shona-EnglishCSoccurswithinsentenceboundaries

Data showed instances where Shona-English CS occurred within sentences

(intrasentential CS). Examples of sentences found in the corpus were given as

evidence. Some sentences started in English and switched to Shona whilst other

sentencesstartedinShonaandthenswitchedtoEnglish.

(ii)Shona-EnglishCSoccursoutsidesentenceboundaries

Examples drawn from the study seem to suggest that Shona-English CS occurs

outsidesentenceboundaries(intersententialCS).Forexample,aparticipantwould

useShonainonesentenceandthenswitchtoEnglishinthenextsentenceandvice

versa.Thiswasevidentinthesentencesanalysedinthisstudy.

(iii)SomeEnglishwordsareprefixedorsuffixedwithShonaprefixesandsuffixes

The study has shown that Shona prefixes and suffixes are added to someEnglish

words during CS. With the Shona prefixes or suffixes added, the code-switched

wordsstillmadesense.Thisseems tosupportMyers-Scotton’s (1993a)claim that

CS is not a haphazard phenomenon but that speakers use the language at their

disposalinanorderlymanner.

(iv)Shona-EnglishCSappearedtobeorderly


136

Despite speakers using two languageswhich have different rules of grammar, CS

seemed tobeorderly.Thestudyseems to showsentences inwhich the transition

from English to Shona seems to be done in such away that the sentence is well

formedand is inaccordancewith therulesofShonawhich is thematrix language

(mainlanguageusedduringconversations)inthisstudy.

(v)FrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecompilescorpusandtheircollocations

Thewordlistcreatedfromthecorpusshowedthat“but”,“because”,“I”,“Ok”,and“it/

it’s”werethetop5frequentlyusedEnglishwords.AqueryofsomeEnglishwords

found in the corpus generated their collocations. The study has shown that the 5

mostfrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpusdidnothavespecificcollocations

buthadavarietyofcollocations.“Think”,thewordwhichfeatured33timesinthe

corpus collocated with “I” in 30 instances. This was the highest number of

collocationsofanEnglishwordfoundinthecorpus.

6.3 Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus

Although this discussion is about CS, it is interesting to note the existence of

borrowedwordsinthecorpuscompiledforthisstudy.Therewereseveralexamples

drawn from the corpus to show the borrowedwords. The difficulty in classifying

some words either as examples of CS or as borrowed words seems to support

Kamwangamalu’s (2000) claim that there is no clearcut distinction between

borrowingandCS.

6.4 Recommendations

1. ConsideringthatparticipantsswitchedbetweenShonaandEnglishandtheir

conversationsremainedmeaningful,CSseemstobeastrategyemployedby

speakers during conversations and should not be treated as inadequate

speech.

2. TheresearchgroupconsistedofShona-Englishbilingualswhohadattended

formaleducationforatleast10years.Itwouldbeinterestingifstudieswere


137

done to determine whether those who have spent fewer years in formal

educationstilluseCSinthesamemannerastheparticipantsinthecurrent

study.

6.5 Limitationsofthestudyandimplicationsforfurtherresearch

• Duetotimeconstraints,thechoiceofparticipantswaslimitedtothosewho

gaveconsentandwereavailabletoparticipateduetotimelimitations.Some

participants kept postponing the scheduled meetings for interviews or

cancelled the meetings altogether and the researcher had to look for

replacements. If therewasenoughtime, theresearchercouldhaveselected

participantsfromawiderpool.

• Whendetermining the English proficiency levels of participants, this study

reliedoninterviewsandaclozetest.However,thestudycouldnotdetermine

theexact levelofparticipants’Englishproficiency. It couldhavebeenmore

interestingifmorestandardisedtestswereusedbeforeselectingparticipants

forthestudy.

• ThestudyonlyfocusedonShona-Englishbilingualswhohadspentatleast10

yearsdoingformaleducation.Therefore,resultscannotbegeneralisedforall

Shona-Englishbilinguals.

• Sincethecorpususedforthisstudywassmall,furtherresearchwithalarger

corpuscouldproducedifferentresults.

6.6 Contributionsofthestudy

6.6.1 Corpus

AShonacorpusconsistingofabout29900wordswascompiledforthepurposeof

thisstudy.ThecorpusisacontributiontoShonalanguageandcanbeusedby

researchersasalinguisticresource.


138

6.6.2 Addingtoempiricaldata

ThisstudyaddstothealreadyextensiveempiricaldatathatMyers-Scottonreports

on.WhentheMMwasproposed,itwasnotedthatthemodelneededfurthertesting.

ApplyingtheMMtoaShonacorpushasshownthestrengthofthemodel.

6.6.3 AbetterunderstandingofShona-Englishcode-switching

In addition, as Shona is a less resourced language, this studyhas contributed to a

betterunderstandingofShona-EnglishCS.CSisshownasausefuldiscoursestrategy

inlinewithclaimsmadebyotherresearcherslikeGumperz(1982).CSoccursinthe

speechofShona-Englishbilingualsastheynegotiatemeaningduringaconversation.

6.7 Conclusion

SincethereismorethanoneperspectiveonCSavailabletoscholars,thisstudyset

out to analyse the nature, occurrence and characteristics of Shona-English CS by

usingtheMMandcorpusanalysissoftware.Twosubproblemswereidentifiedand

dealtwithusingresearchquestionsproposedforthestudy.InordertotesttheMM

and to unpack the socialmotivations of CS in spoken Shona, a Shona corpuswas

compiledusingconversationtranscriptsof13participants.

Data seems to show that the MM of CS applies to spoken Shona. Sequential CS,

unmarkedCSandmarkedCSwereevidentindatacollectedforthisstudy.However,

there is no evidence of exploratory CS in the corpus but the MM explains that

exploratoryCSrarelyappearsinconversations.ThestudyalsoshowsCSbeingused

to show anger, annoyance, happiness and authority. In the compiled corpus, CS

appearstobeorderly.

CS as a research topic has come a long way from being considered as imperfect

speech to being one of the widely researched language contact phenomena.

Although the subject is fraughtwith disagreements and use of different terms to

refer toCS,more research is shedding lighton thematter.Onewonderswhat the

nextdecadewillproduceintermsofCSresearch.


139

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AppendixA:Interviewquestions

Howoldareyou?

Whatisyourfirstlanguageormotherlanguage?

WhendidyoustartlearningEnglish?

Howfardidyougowithyourformaleducation?

DidyouuseEnglishalotatschool?

DoyoustilluseEnglisheveryday?

DoyoufeelconfidenttocommunicateinEnglish?

Thankyouforyourtime.


151

AppendixB:ClozeTest

Fillintheblankswithwordsthatwouldbestcompletethefollowingpassage.

Jillwas____toherclassslowlyoneday.Shewasworried_____theHistorytestshewouldhaveto__thatmorning.Asshewasreachingtheclassroom,apieceofpapersuddenlyfluttereddownand___nearherfeet.AsJill____atthepaper,herheartnearly_____abeat.ItwastheHistorytestpapercomplete____answers!

Jill'sveryfirstthoughtwasnotto___anyoneaboutwhatshehadfound.Shewouldmemorize _____ theanswersanddoextremely ____inthetest.Aftersomehardthinking,however,sheknewthatitwouldbeavery___thingtodo.Besides,itwouldnotbe____toherclassmates.Inthe____,JillreturnedthepapertoherHistoryteacher,MissJames.

"Thanks,Jill.Ihavebeen_____forit,"saidtheteacher.

Answers

1. Walking7.with13.end

2. About8.tell14.looking

3. Write/take9.all

4. Landed/dropped10.well/good

5. Looked11.bad

6. Skipped/missed12.Fair

(Source:www.englishdaily626.com)


152

AppendixC:ListoftranscribedconversationsThe followingrepresentssamplesof the transcriptionsused in thisstudy. In total,12transcriptionsofconversationsareavailable.

• Transcription1:Participant1and2

• Transcription2:Participant3,4and13





153

Transcription1:Participant1and2

P1: Heater hapana,ini handingazvikwanisi {LG} Motofuka ma motofuka machiranayo. Moramba muchingodaro kusvika adzokera kumusha achivatisa nayo.Kwakutozoitakurakwakuindanayo.

P2: {LG} Ka-- kanoweta. {LG} Ndakaona kunhingikiri -- dzovhura, dzoweta doorrakavhurwa.

P1:Ee.

P2:Iish,ndozvamunoitawo?

P1:Kupiku-(interrupted)

P2:KuHarare.

P1:Aataidiikoisu,taivharahanditi?

P2:Mm.

P1:Aainindaivhura.

P2:--aripo.

P1:Nhaiwe--,inindaivharahereini?

P3:Tangatisingambovhari.

P2:Hezvo!

P1:Aainindangandisingavhari.Ndaitozotikanandodaku...

P2:Aasakazvirinormal?

P1:Inindaitotikanandodakukukumama.

P3:Zvirinormal.

P1:Inindaitotikanandodakuzomamamanjendovhara.

P3:Mhh,ndopomozovharadoor.

P1: Mm, kana kuti -- aripo ndopandaivhara. Mazuva ataivakozve -- waionekwaonekwapamba.

P2:Sakandokutorawigndokuchizadzamumusoro.

P1:Masvikavanhuvakatamazve?

P2:{LG}Zvakarova.


154

P1:Aa,mm.

P2:Butit’sait’sanicehome.

P1:Zvakarovatika...

P2:It’sit’sniceandfriendlythan(interrupted)

P1:Thankuyakuya?

P2:Aiwa,ndirikurevahangukuti.

P1:Horaitikutiyakanaka.

P2:Fortheamountit’sok.

P1:Aachakazo.

P2:Becauseiyaiyahanditiyaivatworooms.

P1:Mm.

P2:Youdon’tneedtworooms.Thisisok.

P1:Mm,chakazomonandikatiaa.Iyeyundiyewakatsvagauyu.

P2:Yowe!Ingavanhuvanokuratakatarisa.

P1:Zvezvisatiaaa.{NS}{LG}

P2:Ndiwewakatsvaga?

P1:Ee.

P2:Uchifamba?(giggling)

P1:Ee.

P2:Hoo?

P1: Ndakatanga kuti first day ndobva ndabva kubasa. Ndobva ndauya, ndobvandatanga kuti kumafive kwatosviba time dzandasvika dziya. Ndokutsvaga,ndokutanga kutsvaga. Ndobva ndainda kucorner uko, mberi uko. Ndobvandatozodzokera kumba late. {LG} Ndobva ndachinosvika ndobva ndatoudza --ndikatipakatipakatipakatipakati.Ndobvaamukawochakacolouriyendobvaaindakwandakaandamuudza.Ndobvaasvika,ndobvaavashaiwa.Uum,wakawanikairipohanditi?

P3:Mm.

P1:Asipaivanevanavechikoro.


155

P2:Vanodii?

P1:Sakatreatmentdzachowoakangoonakutihadziitimagariro.

P2:Hoo?

P1:Hamhenoodzokawondobvaatojingirisajingirisa.{LG}

P2:Sakakuserikunemunhu?

P1:Ndeya--.{LG}

P2:Kuserikunemunhu?

P1:Hee?

P2:Kuserikunemunhu?

P1:Ee.

P2:Ithinkit’sok.

P1: Anga asati ambotsvagazve --. Waitoti a handisati ndambotsvaga. HavanakumbotsvagazvecherokuHararendinindaingotsvagapaya.

P2:Hooit’snewterritoryforher?

P1:Aaauyuwakurauyu.{LG}Ndopandakaonakutiwakura.

P2:Kutotitotsvagawopokurenda?

P1:Eezvake.Sakandakatozotindakudzokandobvaatonditi,ndobvatatomhanyaee.

P2:Makatamasei?

P1:Mhm?

P2:Makatamasei?

P1:Takatsvagamotamutown,rhori.

P2:Ingamakura.

P1: Haa ini ndagara ndakakurazve ini. {LG} MuHarare handiti ndozvi aa . . .(interrupted)

P2:Koiribagiri?

P1:Nderenyuzve,ndiro...

P2:Iri.

P1:--ripi?


156

P2:Iri.

P1:Mornachy?

P2:Ndoriyahe?

P1:NdoriyaMornachyra--.

P2:Okaahoondoraiindisa--kuchikoro.

P1:Ndera--rekuchikoro.Marirememberka?

P2:Irindorawakatengamanjemanje.

P1:Irindorandakatengaku-.

P2:Mhm?

P1:Chimwechachochakatozopambiwawona--haa.

P2:{LG}Asiunofariramapumps?

P1:--?

P2:Ee.

P1:Eendocashyachoinengeiripo.

P2:Ndoinengeiripo.{LG}

P1:Anodamagogo.

P2:Ehezvendakamunzwa--na--kutianodazvegogo.Sakaimariiidzodzi?

P1:Sixdollars.

P2:Hoo,(.)mapumps.Ingaunochengeta,kanakutihadzipfekwi.

P1:Aadzodzodzakaadzapedzisiragoreraperapaya.

P2:Nguvayechandozvendoi-(())

P1:Hadzizopfekekizveee.Sakaikezvinondopadzavakutangakuchishandabecausemunomunotonhora.Haapamajombo(())(interrupted)

P2:Aababavarikunetsekanenyayayemakumbonhingikirikudzingambudzi.Maivanotonetsekawo nemakumbo saka vasimbisisa kuti hanzi tsvagai mari ye-(inrerrupted)

P1:Fenzi?

P2:Yefenzi,aahazvisikutomboita.


157

P1:Eezve,hazviiti.

P2:Becausembudzinemombe.

P1:Inindakaandatozviona.Nokutipanodakuti,kutivagarezvakanakapanodakutipofenzwapoiswagedhe.

P2: Hanzi barbed wire mukatsvaka mabhanduro two. Hino mabhanduro hwanirinoitaeighty-three.

P1:Kupi?

P2: Kunodiwa two saka ah ndonyaya iripo. Haa vari kunetseka nemakumbo vese.Nyayayekumanyirananembudzinemombeiyi.

P1:Mm.

P2: Hino dei vakomana ava dei va zvaa zvichiita taingoti mwenemwe hundredhundredtirithree.

P1:Mose?

P2:Inina--na--.Toitamwenemwehundredtotengamabhanduroedu.Plusvatihanzipanofanirwakupendwa.

P1:Mm.

P2:Sakahundredvopenda.Zvinoiiunoudzaaniwako?

P1: Veduwee kana muchida zvakanaka, siyanai navakomana ava. Munorongeswakuindamusango.

P2:Anongobvuma.

P1:Betteruzivekutihapanahapana.

P2:Haatomborambianongotihoo.

P1:Izvozviukatoindazvonziaamatichiikoimi,matichii,matimarii?Aammhoraiti,monthendtoonana.Mugoiona,anodzimafoni.Ende--futihaanaproblemnomunhu.Unongodzimafoniogara.

P2:{LG}Haaibasa.

P1:Otichinouyachinoonaini.Ndozvaanoita--achizivakutihaumubati.Kanaari--,--nhai?Haahoraitihoraitihoraiti.Unopedzafiftydollarsirorichiitaeighty,mm.

P2: Haa vanoda nhingikiri, vanoda fenzi. Vanototambura chaiko nenyayayekudzingirirananemombe.Samaivatosimbisisakutiveduweenditsvagireiwofenzimundindifenzerewomusha.Zvimwezvesehazvotiriright.


158

P1:Haamaivakatodaro,vaitodaro.

P2:Vakadarokubvalastyearpaya.

P1:Inilastyearndaitozvizivakutipanofanirakuitwaizvozvoasikutizvakazouyawochamhepodzasumukawoukoha.

P2:Aadeivakomanaavovachikwanisakuwanasomethingzvaiitahinoii.

P1: Ndokuchingozo ndokuchingozosara pachena seizvozvi. Zvino hapanachaucharonga.Kungoticherouchifema.

P2:Hauna chaunoronga but ivava ava dei vachinzwisisa taingo taingoitamudememudeme.Hinohapanaanonzwisisa.

P1: Haa hapana. Uyo wakatoitwa takeover na--zve. Uri kungoshandira yokurooranemabhachi.Akatotengamabhachianamaiva--?

P2:Mm.

P1:Aa.

P2:Majasieseakatenga.

P1:Aa,mishongainoshanda.

P2:{LG}Buthaa...

P1:--zvichamupfukirarimwegore.Izvozvozvokutihanzihavandifoneriit’seatingherup.

P2:Ee.

P1:Nerimwe,angataurazvakena--angasekaka.

P2:Hanzivanatetevanguvesehapanaanodakundifonera.

P1:Becauseizvozvoka,cheroiwewewegamufungwadzakokufungakuti(grunts)

P2:Kanandikaindakondonogarasei?

P1:Hapanawaunojairananaye.

P2:Hauna.

P1:Becauseinindinosungaplayzvokutimunhuhaaswederipadhuzeneni{LG}.

P2:{LG}Iweunotosungaplay.

P1: Ini ndosunga play ini zvokuti chero kupfuura nepandirimunhu anotendereranekuseriukoachidacupiripapaanoindanekoko.


159

P2:{LG}Aya.

P1:Ndakatarisazvangundirizii.Wobikazvitiizvakowopedza.

P2:Wobikasadzarako.

P1:Inindosumukandonobikasadzarangundodya.

P2:{LG}

P1: Ndorandinodya sadza rangu randakakura naro ndichirerwa namai vangu.Zveshutsvigiridzenyuidzimunadzo.

P2:Ndozvandaiudzavana--kutiaa.Hoondaiudzamai--madekondikatimai--ka,panoapatakakuratichitidhekariyarewhite.

P1:Mm?

P2:Raiindakunotsvagamuvhunzandadya.Wouyamuvhunzandadyausinamafuta.

P1:Mm.

P2:Wobika,totorovasadzamotoswera.

P1:Mm.

P2:Manheru ndizvozvo. Saka nhasi zvokutimunhu anoramba nemari achidini it’snotnew.EvenkumbakwanguwhenIlookatwhatIhavendototitsk.Inindakakurandichitambudzika saka hazvitombondishamisi kuti paita chikafu chakawandisachinonyimwa nomunhu kana kuti paita munhu ane mari achanditengerawochingwa. Handinei. Pandakasvika kuHarare kwacho, takadya sadza nemurivo.Ndakafa here? {LG} Ndikamuka ndika- ndakaa ndatengawo chichingwa ndikatikamwatiiyedu.Vavavaneshugavavavanezvimasambaneinei.Aavaivanesadzaneufunemasamba.Ndandakanganwa.{LG}

P1:Vaivanei?

P2:Masambavaivanawo.

P1:Nemasamba,ha,zvakaoma.Sakavangavakaomerwavasikana.

P2: Saka vakangonhonga nhongawo zvunhu zvefifteen fifteen dollars ndobvatazotsvagamuriwo.

P1:--,eevaka,havanakufananavakomana.Vakasiyana.

P2:Sakandakamuudza(interrupted)

P1:--ukamusvikiraukati--,kanaanemarizvakeabayekuchikorozviya.

P2:{LG}


160

P1: --, hona zvinhu zvakamira zvakadai, zvakadai, zvakadai. Ane zvaanoita --. Anezvaanoita--.Asikanaainayoanokuudzakutiaamira,kanaachidazvake,mangwanandokupa.Omukaodealerkuchikorokwake.

P2:Mm.

P1:Yaunengewatauraiyoyoanokupa.

P2:Mm.

P1:Kanaichitovapoanotokupayeseagotokupayekombi.Chiindakumba.

P2:Mm.

P1:Asiadaroanotombodealernewechaizvokanaambokupa{LG}

P2:{LG}

P1: Haakupi futi anotombogara because-. Asi zviri nani pana --. -- unorwadzabecausezvaanoita.Anototihaunachiihaahoraiti,iwehaunahereyauinayo.

P2:Ndozokupa.

P1:Tongozotipamonthendndongozokupayese.

P2: Ini handiti ndakanzi ndipeiwo two dollars ndouya ndichikupai manheru butmangwanaachoaitondivhunzayebhazi{LG}yekombi.

P1:Yekuindakumukadzi?

P2:Mm.Uyuachingoshushirazvanzi-

P1:Iyeanengeachingotihuya.

P2:Eehanzihuya.

P1:Anengeachitiunofambanei?

P2:Pataitocrosser,becausekubvaukohanditiunofambanekuseri?

P1:Haachisinamotahe?

P2:Aayakaindakuservice.{CG}

P1:Ndoyaanenge achidira. Kuti -- huya ugare kuno kuitiramota achiinda kubasa.Nokutiwaiidakamotaiya.Zvaingogarazvichitonetsana.

P2: Hino unovhaira nemota isu tinayo. Ini ndaa kudriverka ini. Ndakazoindakumalessons.

P1:Hoo,mavanelicence?


161

P2:Handisati.Ndavanethirteen,ndodakusvikatwentylessonsbutndakutodhiraivha.

P1:Hoo?

P2:Ukatouyakunhingiukondokwanisakutokufambanewe(laughs).

P1:Ingamanaka.

P2:Aandakaonakuti(interrupted)

P1:Drivingndidzodrivingdzinoshainwanadzokubasakwedu?

P2:Aah.

P1:Vanhuvanoshainanedriving.

P2:Uhm?

P1:Unonzwakunzimotadziripoidzi,haudhiraivhi,indanebhazi.

P2:Aahamenowokuti fenzi yacho inofenzwa inoitwa riinibut aa vari kutamburanemombe.Ikezvinomombedzichangosundirwakadzonetsa.

P1:Ichiieightyfive,eighty-fivehere?

P2:Haababavatihanzipanodiwahundredbecausevanozokwidza.

P1:Chii?

P2:Nhingikirizve.(interrupted)

P1:KuikwidzakubvamaGutu?

P2:Ee,vanoitengakazvibhandurozviya.

P1:Hundredhundred.

P2:Ibarbed?Mm.

P1:Komatandaachovanawohere?

P2:Nematanda.Haazvinhuzvachohere.Butmatandaukatengaliketombotikubvapakona kusvika pakona ukaita kana five aka treatwa, amwe unongotsvaga asinakutreatwa.

P1:Mm.

P1:Ivobabakanavachitotihundredvanozivakutotivanotengasei.

P2:Eevatihanziaiwa(interrupted)

P1:Babavakangwarakavaya.


162

P2: Vati hundred inoita nokukwidza but panozodiwa matanda saka pakaita onetwentytotsvaganematanda.Vanhuvachovanodakufu-(interrupted)

P1:Sakaitoitaionetwenty,onetwenty.Ndofungatwofifty,haafifty.

P2:Vanhuvanotodaku-.Kovanhuvachovanofenzavanengevachidamari?

P1:SakayekutotivaindeivokwaGutunokunotranporteritwofifty.

P2:Ivovakatorimisakafutidhirenhiriyariya,bani,fortydollars.

P1:Kuhwinda?

P2:Ee.

P1:Deivachingoregakuhwinda.Havasativaibhadhara?

P2:{LG}Unoitasamai.Hanzinamaimunongorima.

P1:Inihandidiini.

P2: Hanzimunongorima, vanhu vouya vachingouya everymonth vachitipensioneruya ngaachitipa mari dzedu. Mai havadi kuti parimwe. Hanzi siyai becausekunongoitanzaraIdon’tseewhy.

P1:Iniiniinikandakambovaudza.

P2:Hanzindingapata.

P1:Ndakambovagarirapasindikati-.

P2:Hinobabavano,havadi.Hanzihanzindingapata.

P1: Mm, ini ndakambovataurira ndikati no zvokuti hanzi murambe muchitingengenge,munongonorimapazvuruzvenyumogara.

P2:{LG}

P1:Churuchemomo,churuchemomo.

P2:Becausekumbakwakatorimwaka,kwakatotsindikirwa.

P1:Nokutiunonetsekanei,nokutiuchadakusakura.

P2:Butkutsindikirakurirightbecausemashanga.

P1:Anonetsa.

P2:Anonetsa.

P1:Eehaazvaizotovanetsaworsenemombeka?

P2:Haamombevarikunetseka.


163

P1:Butpambapanodakufenzwanokupendwa.

P2:Deindandinemarindai.

P1:Mushawachohaunaki.

P2:Eeaababavanditsanangurirakutimunofanirwakutinofanirwakufenzamusha.Ndodakubvisaiyiyazaramuraini.{CG}Vanodayellow.

P1:Vatevedzerazvevanhu?

P2:Ee,sortoforange.It’syellowgoingfororange.

P1:Iyaiya,paneimwe.

P2:Renhingikiririyarakanzidon’tquit.Riyacardririkumadziro.

P1:Horaitichiyachiyaichi.

P2:Iyoyo.

P1:Yakanakaiya.

P2:Ndoyavanditaridzakutivanoda.

P1:Nokuti--wakatoshinganayo.haatombodinayo.Akatoitorakakutoiisapa-haa.

P2: Saka ivo vanoda kuichinja kunhingikira, kuita yellow. Yellow muraini muyahamuna.Hamenokwakwa--kunei?

P1:Aahakunakunepink.

P2:Sakamurainimuyahamunayellow.Ndoyavanodasortoforange.

P1:Ee,ndozvavanofanirwakuitaizvozvo.

P2:Sakavatihanzithirtydollars.

P1:Pendi?

P2:Mukawanathirtydollarsee.

P1:Aaishoma.

P2:Ishoma.

P1:Haathirtyishoma.Maingotiumweneumwe.

P2:Thirtydollarsunowanagabariyazihombweriya.

P1:Motokwana.


164

P2: Saka rinokwana. Saka a hamenowo kuti. Ivo vati hanzi taura navakomanandikatiii.

P1:Navakomanamai--.

P2:Mm.

P1:Hee,kanamuneairtimekanayefifty.Motombobhajetaairtime.

P2:Plushanditindakambotindichauya.

P1:Airtimeyefifty.

P2: Ndakamboti ndichauyaka kudhara dhara. Ndobva ndamuudza kuti --, -- ndirikuuya. Zvikanzi aa, ndobva atanga kuchindifonera. Ndati hallo obva akata. Kudakuzivakutindirikupi.{LG}Akaitanguvaachidaro.Sakaakaitanguvaachidaro.

P1: Vakomana vanoda une airtimeyako yethir fifty iwe uchida eighty, wowowowobenefitathirty,ha.

P2:Zvanzinamaiindaimunotaurakutimoitaseina--.Ndikatimhai.

P1:Hanzii?

P2:Hanzitauraikutimoitaseinaye.

P1:Pachii?(chewing)

P2:Aavanotivarivarivaitihanzi taurainaye. Inihandidikutauranaye ini. Ithinkkungomunyararira.

P1:Ignorancepays.

P2:Haiwangaangosiiwaakadaro.Becausekukurakwatakaitaka.Handiti takatoonakutifeeshaadinayo?

P1:Mm.

P2:Ndoyatainyanyoda.Taidachikafuhereisu?

P1:Uuum.

P2:Taidafeeskutiapinzewo,sokupinzwakwawakaitwawowopinzawohwani.

P1:--ka?

P2:Ndozvaakarambazveizvozvo.

P1:Feesya--zvakatopera.

P2:Sakatichanetsekerei?


165

P1:Mwanaakatotadzakuindakuchikoro.

P2:Ee,sakatinonetsekerei?(())

P1:Mozivaka?

P2:Ee?

P1: Vanhu ini ndakatozvibata ndikazvihwisisa ini. Zviri clear kuti vana chikorozvakatodii.

P2:Zvakakona.

P1:Mwanaakatoregisterzvaakaregister.Sakawhatnow?

P2:Mm.

P1:Muchatauranemunhumuchadei?Problemyangairipoissolved.

P2:Ee.

P1:Sowhat?Vana--vanengevachingotipanoneapovachingodii,vanhuvachingoonakuti vari kufemawo here, zvapera. Iye zvaanofunga kuti attention. Moziva kutimunhuka?

P2:Anofungakutivachauyachete.

P1:Hanzivanodamarivachandifonerachete.

P2:Ee.

P1:Ivovana--vanofanirakuudzwakunzimusamufonera.

P2:Musamufonera.

P1: Handiti? Ndokutotaurirana kwatingaita. Kokuti vana --, never contact -- anyproblem.

P2: Kana akauya akati pane chinodiwa here munongoti aa hapana monyararabecause-.

P1:Mm.

P2:Ndootreatmentyogayandinotoonabecausemozivaakashaiwa.

P1: Because akaramba achiteverwa kunzi chii achirafura vanhu achiita seika,anozoonasekutindiyeakanyanyakukoshasitereki.

P2:Sepandakaindaaidakutinditichii,ndimutichiuyakunotimbotaura.

P1:Muchimufoneramutihuyaundione.


166

P2:Ehezveaidakutinditaure.

P1:Muchitaurei?

P2:Becausenyayayenhingikiri-

P1:Ya--?

P2:Ndobvandanyararazvangu.

P1:Mozivakutichii?

P2: Saka paakazofona ndichiperekedzwa na-- hanzi aa, achitaura pafoni, hanzindichamboprekedza mai --. Vakutodzokera? Kana kumboti nditaure navo. Inindanga ndisingatodi kutaurawo naye zvangu. But haana kana kumboti nditaurenavo.KanakutindirikuuyakuMbarekuzovaonakanachii.

P1:Mm,muneinazvo.

P2:Zvikanzitosanganakumaten.

P1:Naiyemanje?

P2:Ee.

P1:Oreva--?

P2:Ee,ukumunhuhaanamariyekombi.

P1:Ee,iye--unongohoraachipa--zve.Maiva--ndovanouyakuzotoramari.

P2:Eevakaavatouyazve,kanadzirichokwadi.

P1:Kupata,aiwa-

P2:Kupayya--?

P1: Mm (chewing) asi munozivaka, zvakaoma kudaroka, vanhu vakadzidzakumuiginowamuchazondiudza by end of the year kuti iye -- unohwa sei.Becauseignoranceinorwadza--.

P2:Inomurwadzaka?

P1:Ndakazviona.Inhemahere--?

P2:Mmm.

P1:Makamakamaka.Inomurwadzazvokutiunosvikapakudakuchema.

P2:Kutihamusikudakutauraneni?

P1:Ee.Iniakanditsvagandichi-


167

P2: Because aindibeeperka, aindibeeper izvozvi kuti. Ndaiva ndati ndiri kuuyazvekudhara.Obeeperndotihallootoonakutinumberyangu.Haazivikutindinoroamer.{LG}

P1:Mm.

P2:Handianzihangumacallsbutizvozviirikushandisa(())

P1:Manjeiye.

P2:Inokwanisakuanzikandirimuno.Iyeanofungakutiikaanzwavariku-{LG}(())

P1: --, moziva kuti chinongoshanda panama -- moziva kuti musatuka munhu,munongoignowa.

P2:Babavazvitaurakutihanzisiyanai,ngatichingosiya,siyaizvakadaro.

P1: Ignorance ndomuziva -- kuti inomurwadza. Ivo vana -- variko kumba ikoko,handitihaauyi?Ngavasamufonera.

P2:Mm.

P1:Mozivakutiariegaanofungakuti,kutivanhuvapenyuuko.Chiichirikumboitikakumbauko?

P2:{LG}

P1:Moziva?

P2:Ukumai,ukumaimapiritsi,chiichirikuitika.

P1:Chiichirikuitika?Vanhuhavachambondifoneri.

P2:Havachambonditimari.

P1:Nokutinoisechaiyochaiyoka?Noisechaiyohaibhadhari.

P2:Ee.

P1: Asi munhu ukamusetera table yokuti aiwa chimboitai veduwee, isu tadini.Nokuti ikezvinoproblemhapana.Problem ya--yakatopfuura.Vanhu takatojekerwanazvokutimwanangaaindekwa--imimakapasamuripo.

P2:{LG}

P1: Saka munodei? Haafanirwi kumbotaurwa naye. Unofanirwa kungoignowewa.Naiye--wachovanhuvongonyarara,ziibecausemunga-

P2:Ndakaindandichitindodakunomushaudhabutndakangotihaatsk.

P1:Munodzingirirananemhepo.


168

P2: Unoziva kutimaybe mhepo idzodzo handiti ndaka, maybe ndingadei ndakafazurobutnenyayayokutindakanyararazvanguIsurvived.Unodzingirirananemhepouchifambashuwa.Ndakanyararandikatiaatsk.Becausendaandati-(interrupted)

P1:Haaignorance--inomuuraya.

P2: Mai vanga vanditi hanzi, hanzi kana wasvika kuHarare wotombo, hanziunovadanavesewotangakuvatonga.

P1:Haakutongesei?

P2:{LG}Namaindikatihoraitimhai.

P1:Unotourawauriwe.Unotozoindakun’angaachiti hanzi vayavanofanirwakufa.Saka ukanyarara unondipomeramhosva yei? Ini ndoona kuti hapadi kutaura ini,panoda kunyarara. Ini handimbofi ndakafonera -- kana kumuvhunza ini. Kana --kanakumuvhunza.Tinongonosanganakumusha.

P2:Kubvapayahamunakumbozotaura?

P1:Hatina.

P2:Makatombotsvaga?

P1: Akanditsvaga ndikangota ndichingotarisa hangu ndichingonyarara.Wakanditsvaga--.WakazonditsvagamunaanikoKiri?

P2:Hezvo!

P1:Mm,maivakatozondifoneravachitihanziiwedaviracallya--.

P2:Anonhingikira,unozivazvanoita?Anoudzababanamaikana,seipapaapapauyu--.

P1:Zvakaitika,akatoraadvantage--.

P2:Ee?

P1: Ndomazuva azvakaa zvakatosunga aya aya, paya paya. Saka ndobvandichitotaurananamaindichitoti aazvinhuzvakamirazvakadai zvakadai zvakadaihanditi. Saka iye ndopaaindako ndobva anoudzwa kunzi chii chii chii handiti.Ndobvaafungakutiinikanazvakadaroakandifonerandinodiindinodavira.

P2:Unoanswer.

P1: Ndobva ndarega. Ndobva afona kumba zvikanzi haasi kudavira foni yangu.Ndobva mai vandifonera vachiti davira foni ya-- ati hanzi anoda kukutumidziraimarichiichiichii.Ndikatimuudzeikutiarege.Seizvozvi.Ndakavaudzainivhunzai--uyu.Ndikatimuudzeikutihanzineniregerazvakothankyou.Ndobvaazofollowing


169

dayakaitamazuvazveachitiakagaragaraofona.Tenmissedcalls,elevenmissedcalls.Ndikatihandidaviri.

P2:Hezvo!

P1:Takapedzeranapatakabudamo.Ndobvandatoregera.

P2: Aa ini aindinhingikira, anondifonera. Akambondifonera zvake ku- {LG}akandifonera.{NS}Manjemumwemusindamusenderamessagendichiti--uriku-.Panemusiwandakaandabhoikana.

P1:Anengeanefonizve--.--unojusirwaimariiko?

P2:Ndakandakaandabhoikana.

P1: Line rake reNetone unongofona kusvika pamadiro. Hameno kuti unojusirwahundredherekanakutitwohundreddollars.

P2: Ndokuchindifonerazve zvikanzi, ndamusendera message ndichimuti,handichazivikutiyaivanyayayei,ndatsamwawofuti.

P1:(())

P2:Zvikanzi,aainindikaudzwazvinyayazvokutianodaindinonyangadzwazvokutindobvandasendamessage.Ndobvaafonandichitovamulibrary.Zvikanziaa,iikudakundiudzanyayadzokutihanzi -- ari kuinda.Ndomazuvahanditiuyuangaapuwahundreddollarsna--.

P3:Mm.

P2: Haazvizivi --. Zvikanzi -- ndiri kutomutsvagira hundred dollars yake.Kwangoshota kwangosara hundred dollars yokuti aindise, aindise kunobhadharamunhu.Ndikatihoraiti--.Asingazivikutindotozviziva{LG}

P1:Eeanengeasingazivi.

P2: Hanzi ndiri kugadzirisa. Ndandamuudza kuti gadzirisa zvunhu --, ndiwewatakatotarisachiichiichii.

P1:Aaa.

P2:Zvikanzindirikutogadzirisachiichii.

P1:Anoworsenauya.

P2: Ndokuchidii, ndokuchibva ndanyarara handina kumbozotaura ndichinzwazvinyayaizvozvo.Seipapapamakaitazvamakaitahandinakumufonerakumutichii.Iyeaifungakutichiimai--vachafona.

P1:Ndichafonerwa.


170

P2:Ndobvaabeeper,ndobvandaregakufona.Ndobvaazofona,ndobvandichitihallo,obva akata. Ndobva zvapera izvozvo. Ndobva ambozoshaudha -- mazuva manjemanje.

P1:{LG}Aidakumurova.

P2:--ndokudii?

P1: Ndobva -- aka akakandwa pazheka --. {LG} Hanzi kunongwa kunonzi pazhegwengwendere.{LG}Pazhe.

P2:Adaromanjehanditi.

P1:--ndokusaramumbaakagara.--?–{LG}Hanzina--ndikati-

P2:Hanzi na-- ndakamuti ini I have seen it all. Zvenhamo ndakatoita zvese zvesezvaungandiitira.Sakahapanaanotherwayyaungandiitiraini.

P1:Anengeachidaanengeachidavana--zvevaakapotsaauraya.

P2:{LG}Haiwawousazvitevedzeraiwe--.Ndozvaarisakakutongoiginowa.

P1:Asi--wakapotsaafahaa--aawakarwara.

P2: -- ane shunguzve. -- aiti akachema kumusha handiti haa anoita gore reseachichema.{LG}Ndozvaari.

P1:Hinozvaiti--unestress.

P2:Mm.

P1: Aiva neshungu dzake achirwara. Ini ndopandaiti, ndaingoti ndikadzokawokumbandongoitazvirinaniasindabudakuzhendengendichatodonha.Ndichiudza-- kuti uyuune zvake. {LG} Inindobudapazhendendichiita zvangu.Kubasa chaikokutotihaa.

P2:Saka ipapomanjeatukavana --, --,vana --. --avakundisenderamessage achitindozvaitikakuno.Dzakafungakutichii,haathistime.

P1:Hanzizvakanzihanziiwe--(interrupted)

P2:Chizviuraya.

P1:Ndodakuindanewekumusha,anzikuMbudzihere.

P2:NeNyaradzo?

P1:Eee.Hanzizvakanzi--,iwehaumbondinetsi.

P2:{LG}NokutiuripaNyaradzo?


171

P1: Nokuti uri paNyaradzo. {LG} Ndoinda newe neNyaradzo kumusha ini. Motimunhu?

P2:Sakandokuchidii,ndokuchi-{NS}

P1:UnotihanzindakakuisapaNyaradzosaka{LG}

P2: Aiwazve zvikanzizve, ndukuchifunga chii kuti aa -- vanozo-. Ndobvandaudzwawozvakanakazvikadii,ndobvandatiiminyararai,siyanainazvo.Imhepodziri kutosumuka idzi. Ndobva iye atanga kuchindibeeper aindibeeper. Ndirimulibrarykudaiatobeeper,kudaiatofona.Ndikadaviraanokata.Sakakudakutiiweakukatawobvawafonaback.

P1:Wofonaback.

P2:Ndobvandatihaa.--achitotihaungofoniherekudapanezviriko?Ndikatihaiwa.

P1:Zveiko?

P2:Iyendiyeane,ndakamuudzandikatiiyendiyeaneairtimeyemahara.

P1: Aa -- handiti Netone inenge yakazara? Apa aida kunzwa kuti zvunhu zvaaitazvatazvasvikahere.

P2: Zvataurwa here? Ndobva ndati ii --, ngatinyarare, siyanai nazvo. {NS} Sakapaaingondibeeper ndikati hallo okata. Ndopazvangopera zvakadaro. Sakapandakainda handina kumbomuvhunza kuti wakatukirei vana or wakatukurei --,wakatukirei vasikana vamwe ava? Handina kumuvhunza. Aihuta asingadi kana,achitotimaivayavauya.Ndozvavaitoitazve.

P1:Toitwamahighcourts.

P2:{NS}Mm,kutotimaivayavauya.

P1:Hazvifanirwikumboitwamahighcourts.

P2:AainiIthinkkusiyananazvo.Akatorambahakenemariyake.Whatcanwedo?

P1:Because ini chandakazokwanisa ndechekutora laptop. Ndakatomuudza ndikatindinotohaa.

P2:{LG}

P1:Pakanetsazvevhunzai--uyu.Hinoinindinozomirawofutikanandada.

P2:Ndeyake?

P1:Ndeya--iyi.

P2:Wakatorasei?


172

P1:Saizvozvi.{LG}

P2:Haisiyekubasa?

P1:Kuto,ndeyekubasa.Ndakatoitora.

P2:Ndorevakutihaisiyokubasakwako?Waivanelaptopyokubasakaiwe?

P1:Eendinayo.Ndinembiri.{LG}Yekubasamubhegi.--osaraneimwe.

P2:Hezvo!

P1:Iyindeya--woyemuno,personalcopy.

P2:{LG}Munezvinhingirizvenyu,zvirozvenyu.Ndatofungakutindeyekubasa.

P1:Aiwazve,iyindeya--zveiyi.Vanepersonal.

P2:Personalcopy.{LG}Makaomavanhu.

P1: Iyika iyi, ndoya-- personal copy. Zvayaida kuitwa, -- anga atora chibhegizve.Inzwai,inotovanehistory.

P1:Ndiyeaidakutoitorawo--.

P2:Ndiyeangadaiatovanayoizvozvi.

P1:--,inzwai,--wakatorachibhegipayakamboinda.Ndobvaanosiyachibhegikwa--.Kwakuchiuya, iyi manje iyi ndoyaida kuti ichiinda kwaani, kwa--. Ndoyaakangaakatargeta. Ndobva tazvibata zvedu isu vana batai. {NS} Ndikati -- chibhegichenhingikirichiripai?Aahanditombozivi,ndimimakatochirashaimomo,ndimima.Ndobvandaitora.

P2:Sadzaraita.

P1:Ndikatiforeverything--.

P2:Hootodyirepi?Whereisthetable?

P1:{LG}Tablendoiyoyiiripapo.

P2:Haamaslippers?

P1:Ndikatiforeverything--,chese,chese,chese,chese.

P2:Mamuchitimagwavhaanonzwisamudumbuasiapera.{LG}Vanhu.

P1:Haaisutinodyaporena--.

P2:Hoo?

P1:Asimuchaonamangwana.


173

P2:Mamanyoka?

P1:Munongotivadhiraivhamirai.{LG}

P2:(waterpouring)Haainodziya.{LG}Haaiyiinotopisamunhuchaiko.

P1:Inodziya,wavadziisira?

P2:Haainodziyazvisingamboiti.

P1:Handinakumbodziisaini.{LG}.Avahavadisadzarakawandaava.

P2:Whichiswhich?

P1:Chingotoraichero.Daitavabikiratii.Ndevetii.

P2:Ndangotiaandamwatiihere?{LG}Aaisuzvetiindozvedu.

P1:NdikatitozotadzakuchengetwakanataindakuSouth.{LG}

P2:Iiihaaya.

P1:Tigowanazvimacoffeecofffene-

P2:{LG}Aaa.

P1:Kunohatichazvizivi.

P2:Hamuchazvizivizve?

P1:Zvimacoffeecoffee,chiichii.

P2:Aagorerinorakangooma.


174

Transcription2:Participant3,4and13

P4:Haandandichimbotimumbowanakatimeyokumbodiscussa.

P3:{LG}

P13:Haiwawo.

P4:Hanzimhamhavanamhamhavavowo.

P3:{LG}Yaa.

P4:Handitiiweurimhamha?

P3:Ee.

P4:Unamhamhavakowo.Sakandatihaano,regandimbotioondimbotitaramukeikutimumbokurukura.

P3:{LG}

P4:ButzvinengezvakanakaizvozvonokutitikarambatakangotigoOpano.Unofanakutaura namai namai muchikurukura, muchimbokurukura nyaya dzenyu. Isutinopindawo.

P3:{LG}

P4:Eetotaura.Isukanatotauraka,dzeduhadziiti.Dzangunewe.

P3:Mm?

P4:Haadzangudzedziripublic.

P3:{LG}

P4:Tirimawhistleblower.{LG}Isutisuvanonzimawhistleblowers.Imienyuzvezviriprivatebutinindokwanisakukublower.Ndongotiimimaizvakati,zvakati,zvakati.

P3:Asilightharisikushanda?

P4:Ani?

P3:Lightramunosimboitariya.

P4:Mai?

P3:Light,mwe-ii.

P4:Lightirorakatsva.

P3:Mhm.


175

P4:Ee,sakaharisikushanda.Sakatirikushandisanhingi.Hanzirinodaeightdollars.

P3:Hoo.

P4:Kutirishande.HanzirakatsvamamaTB.Ifo-ifour.

P3:Ok.

P4:Sakarinotitwo,four,six,eightma-manhingiacho,ma-.HanziasikuHararehanzianoitafifty,fifty,fifty.

P3:Ok.

P4:Sakandakaonakutihaa. (( ))Nokuti tatichingotizvekungotungidza tochi. {LG}(.)Haawandishainisamwanangu.

P3:{LG}

P4:Ndandongonzihuyaiku,va--huyaipano.

P3:{LG}Nokutimakapfekajuzidzva?

P4:Haaiwezvakaoma.Irihereiri,hariiti.

P3:Panerimwerakadaro,differentcolourasi.

P4:Rauinaro?

P3:Panehembedzachozve.

P4:Idzodzo?

P3:Mm.

P4:Uchandipafuti?

P3:Ndakupaiwani.Dzirimoidzo.

P4:MyLord.{NS}{LG}Kutindipfekeyakadaineimweinedifferentcolour?

P3:Mm.

P4:AamyLord!{LG}

P3:Panamajuzithree.Majuzitwonesweater,sweaterisinazipi.

P4:Aaunofanakuzondi,unofana.Aakwete.Unofanakundiratidzamwanangu.

P3:Zviripabedpenyu.Ndizvitore?

P4:Chimbotungidzazve.Haunafonihere?

P3:Maivane,ndavapamakenduromai.


176

P4:(())Zvakanakauno.Hapanachunhuchakanaka.

P3:{LG}

P4: Sokuti mwana kana auya. --, togara tichinamata nguva imwe neimwe kuti bewiththosepeople.Haa{LG}Kandichinamatandotangaiwe.Wazvinzwahere?

P3:Mm.

P4:Cherokanandovatandonamata.

P13:--,--!

P3:Mhaa.

P13:Regaitirikutowarirakumbaukokutivanhuvaonekuzorora.

P3:Chimboisailightmhai.

P13:Mazuvanoirirakafairi.

P4:Makendurozveandakupai.

P13:Haaanonetsa.

P4:Haaitai.Anonetsachiizve?

P13:Aandajairakushandanefoniini.

P4:Haa.

P13:Inofutakusvikamangwana.

P4:Imboitaizvamaudzwanomwana.

P3:Vanodakuonahembedzavobaba.

P13:Aandongovapahembedzavo.

P4:Hembedzandapuwandodakudziona.

P13:Munodziona.Idzihembedzenyuidzi.

P4:Eeeusinakuzvarawofanananowakazvara.

P13:Ooidzihembedzenyuidzi.

P4:Musangotutirazve.

P3:Regaindikupeindichiitahwanihwani.{LG}

P4:Haavakomana,kungokandahere.


177

P13:Aa.

P3:Masiyajean.

P13:Hee?

P3:Masiyatrouse.

P13:Regandioneapakuti,iri.Zvemakendurozvonetsa.Ndodakutotiavavawarireti-,vanhuvazorore.{NS}

P4:Ndodakuonazvangu.

P3:Oo.

P13:Zvenyuizvo.

P4:Iri?

P3:Ijean.

P4:Ijean?Aarakanaka,horaiti.

P13:Regandotorarupasandigadzirekumbauko.Handitindozvawataura?

P3:Mm.Irirakangofanananeiroroasiigreycolour.

P4:Hoogreycolour?

P3:Mm,rinezviblue.

P4:Rakanaka.{NS}Aaaa.

P3:Asizi-isamenhingikiri.

P4:Patani?

P3:Eheisame,differentcolour.

P4:Iyindodakuinotengesakushopiyi.

P3:Aa{LG}Mukatengesahandichakuvigiriichunhu.

P4: Horaiti yapera. Handichadi. Handichakutengeseri. Vakomana nhasindandonanaidzanana--zvikanzi.

P3:Nanaani?

P4:--.Hamatihaatrackuit?MyLord.

P3:Kanakukazonyanyakutonhora.

P4:Kwete,kukanyatsakudii?


178

P3:Kukanyanyakutonhoramopfekairi.

P4:Ukabatakudaikao,it’sveryheavy.

P3:Mm.Sakandizvozvozvese.

P4: Aa ndozvataishuvira izvi. Kwete kuti usina kuzvara ofanana newakazvara. Aandarambaini.

P3:{LG}

P4:AamyLord.{LG}Izvizve-,ihwani,twothree,four.

P3:Mm.

P4:{NS}Ndinotenda,ndinotendamwanangu.

P3:Muchitendeiko.

P4:Aakwete,kutendaikokotino,Mwariagoropofadzamwanangu.

P3:{LG}

P4:Eenokutihaungoitiwega.MwarindounotungamirirakutiitaizvindiMwari.

P3:Eendizvozvo.

P4:SakaisuseratichitiwoMwariakutungamirire.

P3:Mhm.

P4: Ehe, kuti urambe uchiita izvozvo. Takanzwa neprogramme dzako. Ndodai,ndodai, ndodai. Ndikati aamy Lord zvunhu zvakanaka. Ee ini ndangozoona avovosvika.{NS}(())

P3:Mm.

P4:Ee.Mwariunongorongazvunhuzvake.Inihandigonikukukondirorayivanangu.Ini kuti ndikuti ita izvi ndigokugona, asi Mwari ndounoti kuti zvunhu zvosezviumbike.Handiti?

P3:Mm.

P4: Kuti zvunhu zvese zviumbike, pane forosi riripo. Ndoda kumbotaura hanguipapa pamusoro pekuti forosi. Mukuru uripo. Nokuti pane zvakasetwa naMwarizvatinongoona. Kuti, kuti unzi first born pazouya second born zvichingoindazvakadai. Kusvikamumwe ozonzi iwe ndiwe nhamba nine urongwa rwaMwarikaurwu.KwetehweduasiurongwahwaMwarihunengehuchingovapo.

P3:Mm.


179

P4: Saka we don’t want to, to lose that opportunity of respecting God. Eendakambotauranavakomanaava.Ndikati imimizvomotokoniwamanjendechekutiifyoudon’twanttorespecthanzvadzidzenyuidzi,Godwillneverrespectyou.

P3:Mm.

P4:Because va-masikirwe amakaitwa imi gwara iroro anoratidza kutiMwari unechokuita nemi. Mukaparadzana matorasika. Nokuti Mwari une creation, unechokuita. Seramuchionamuna -- na-- ava vachi,muchizama kuti vabatane kudai.Oncetheyareseparated.(interrupted)

P13:Ndonhinganikira,ndotorahanguzvemachirandivape?

P3:Mm,mm.

P13:Haa?

P3:Ee.

P13:Horaiti.

P4:Oncetheyareseparatedyouareinfordisaster.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ee, inthesameway, {NS}Thesepeople,especially vakomanaavaeevavaundertheinfluenceofvakadzi.

P3:Mm.

P4: Ee. Saka the influence yavakadzi ivavo it doesn’t work kuita unite the family.Those vakadzi ivava vavo, they were vakau-, vakada. Takavachengete,takavachengeteravarume.

P3:Mm.

P4: Handiti? Tiri vaviri isu takavachengetera varume. Ndoku, wo-, wo-takuchengetera murume, iwewo wakachengeterwawo. {NS} Iwe baba namaikovakatichengeteramukadzi.

P3:Mm.

P4:Saka(())Asiiwemukadzichiregakutiizvihazviitwikumushakomurume.

P3:Mm.

P4:Youdenyusthatchanceyokutitivetinoraramawo.

P3:Izvondatongozvionawopanonhasi,kunohangu.Kweduukovanhuvanongoita.Vakati ndoda kuitira vabereki vangu unongoti horaiti. Zvokuti aiwa hazviitwi aa.Zvokutimunhuanoshingakutihandiiti,hauitirivaberekivakochunhu,hauitiaa.


180

P4:Hauiti.--ndakashamisikanazvoini.Tichangobvako.

P3:Mm.

P4:Kutotipingizhakutiaa,ku.{CG}--kutotipingizhakurambakanachii.

P3: Izvozvi handiti munoziva kuti haana kundiona? Haana kundiona. Haanakutombouyakuzo.

P4:Wakaramba?

P3:Hanzimaivanguvauyasakandirikuonamaivangu.Haanakuuyakuzondiona.

P4:Wakaramba?

P3:Mm,kanakufonakanakudii.Handizivikutiakarambahere.Sakandangobva.

P4:Hoona--?

P3:--ndiyewandandinaye.

P4:Sakawaramba?

P3:Ithinkaramba.--angaachitihanziaindakunoonamaivakeadii.Ndangoonakutianenge aramba. Because azofona achiti kuna -- hanzi chiuya. -- akati regandimboperekedza mai -- vari kudzokera. Anga akutoti chiuya. {NS} Haa -- haa,anotohwisatsitsiuyo.

P4: Aiwa, nyaya iripo ndeyokuti ini ndinongomu, ini chatoi, ini zvanda, zvata,zvatatichirongananamai.Hapenokutiwasiyawarongaseikukunanauku?

P3:Aandangovatengerazvandangowanawo.

P4:Ee.

P3:Ndavatengerachikafunenemuriwo.(phoneringing)

P4:Sakainichandandichifunga.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ndechokuti{NS}(phone)eeiye--, iye--ngaambovhiringidzwanaiye--achinziunofanakundiroora.

P3:Mm.

P4:(())Sakaikozvinoizviwondinoonakuti{NS}nyayadzokuroorwakwake.Eeiye--ndichaitasezvandakaita--.Vakatema--nebhotoropanoapa.Handitimozviziva?

P3:Mm.

P4:Vakaitazvavanoita.Ndikatiaachiitaizvamunoda.


181

P3:Mm.

P4:Sakaikozvinoizvindirikudakuti,ndinosvodaachangoroora.

P3:{LG}

P4:Wemustkeeponprayingnokutivachangoroorana.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ee,kutindiwithdrawe--kutidzokakunokumusha.Ndiwithdrawe--kutihuyaikunokumusha.

P3:Haiwangavagare. Iye--handitihaagariko?Anongo,vanongotogaravega.Regaiangowanapokugaraachiverenga--.

P4:Ini,ini,inininyayairipopanoapa--.

P3:Mm.

P4:Tinotitikahanditiikozvinondagaisanhasi.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ndopackerzvimugorogodizviviri.

P3:Mm.

P4:Handiti?

P3:Mm.

P4:Ndotanhamurivoapondovapa.

P3:Mm.

P4: Then ndomukira kumashop ndovatumidzira kaa ndine dhora. Kaa pasi,tikashaiwadhorarokuvatumidzira.

P3:Mm.

P4:Rokupadhiraivhahazvisviki.Ndovapavogara.Ndozvavanoraramanazvo.

P3:Mm.Sanhasindakavatengerachigrocerychetwentydollarsndikavatengeranhasitendollarsmuriwo.Bhinzine-nematemba.Sakavangavachitihaazvinombochovhasitereki.Dzimwebhinzindatouyanadzokunonamatembandauyanazvo.

P4:Ee.Sakandoimwenyayayatatichitombozamakutaurana-,tichitauranamaiava.{NS}

P3:Mm.


182

P4:Tikatihaaikozvinoit’stooearlykutitirambe.Tititi--hatidi.

P3:Mm.

P4: -- uyu wakarambana nomukadzi wake. Varambana nomukadzi wake ukozvikanetsa.Akauyakunoakagara.

P13:Haandofungandapedza--.

P4:Tikatiisuwedon’tencourage.

P13:Mazvinzwa?

P3:Mm.

P13:Mhaiwee!

P4:Isusuwedon’tencouragekutiiwe--,iwemuroorautodzokerakumushakwako.

P3:Mm.Mhaifoniyangundodakutibatteryndichengetedze.Ndodakudzima.

P13:Hoo.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ndikatiiwekuuyakwawakaitapanowakafambirei?Wakauyanorudo.

P3:Mm.

P4:Zvinozvawakauyanorudorwaperahere?{LG}Ivo--ndikatirwaperahere?Kanarwaperadzokerahako.Zvikahiharuna.

P3:{LG}

P4:Ndikatikanarwusinakuperachigara.

P3:Mm.

P4: Ee, iye -- ndokuzoti after a week ndokuzotevera pano apa. {LG} Nokutindakamuudza inindikati iwe,wakauyapanoapahaunakufambirazvimwezvinhuwakauyanorudo.Rwaperahere?Kanarwaperadzokera.

P3:{LG}

P4:Zvikanziharuna.Ndikatichigara.{LG}Tichitaurirana.Sakandoimwenyayairipopano apa yandai yandandichitaura hangu yandandichida kuti ivo -- ikozvino varipano.Ikozvinovakuwiriranana--chaizvo.

P3:{LG}

P4:Asikutivachengetedzemaikutivazivekutimaivanoda.


183

P3:Chiitaimhai.Ndodakudzimafoniyangu.Mangwanandingatambura.

P13:Yanguinofutakusvikakwaidzahaitani,hainhingihainetsi.

P3:Yanguinonetsamotoiyo.

P4:Taridzaiuko.

P13:Iii.

P4:(())

P13:Handitiapapanemushongawemapeteherenhainhai--?

P4:Aachitsvetaicheropamunotsveta.

P4: Hamufani kumboti, nokutika kana tichitaura kudai toitira kuti tive newiderknowledgeyokutiiyekanaachiachiindakumushakwake.

P13:Zvatoperawani.Zvatopera.

P4:Nokutiiyekanaachiindakumushakwakeunotindoindakumushaukooindazvekumusha. Une misha mitatu. Saka unofana kuziva musha uno kuti wakamira sei.Sakandonyayayandodakuti.Nyayairipondeyokutiinindakatakataurirananamaizvandandichitaurazviya.Vangavasimunozvatambotaurapaya.

P13:Aatorambatichingodzokorora?Ndodzizivanyayadzese.

P4:Vana,takatihazvigoni.

P13:Kudzokororakonetsa,hai.

P4:Kutititivanaavavadzoke.Ndakaandatingavadzoke.

P3:Mm.

P4: Mai vakati kwete. Munenge makutoputsa musha. Isu ngatitumidzire zvunhuzvichidii,zvichiindako.Kanavatihatichinatotumidzira.

P13:Inimwanauyuangaachitaurakutihanzi-

P4:Hinoisutetisinamanjemariyokuzofona.

P13:Aiwamirainditaureini--.

P4:Eechitaurai.

P13:Uyuwakasvikakuhazvanziakaonakuti--haanachunhu.Sakaimisiyanaina--.Haasatiawanazvunhuzvokwanapaari.Sakasiyanaina--.

P3:Aanhingikiri.


184

P13:Ee.

P3:Mariyakeinongotorwanomukadzi.

P13:Eendonyayairipo.Hapanakanachimwe.

P4:Mariinotorwanomukadzika?

P3:Mm.Nezuromutownpatakamusiya. -- inihandinamariyokuzouya.Angaanga,kudaangaanziugonditorafutiundimirire.Becauseiniakanditizazve.

P13:Achishandiswa.

P3:Angaanditizaakatindokuti--undimiriremutown.--inihandinamariyokuzouyakumba. Ndikati aa oo two dollars iyi. Ndobva ndatomuti aa -- chitora. Ndakandakainda ndichinotenga grocery rana--. Ndikati -- tora fanta umo. Akachenamuromo kudai. Ndikati tora fanta umo hanzvadzi umwe. Ndobva atora fanta. Aamaitabasa.Ndokuzouyakumba.

P13:Haa.

P3:Akazofonakumaeight.Ndandatiaachiregaitotsvagahuku--zvaatihanzindouyakumafour. Kana kuuya. Kuda akarambidzwa. Kuzoti naeight ava kufona zvikanzimazodii huku? Tikati aa tazotenga muriwo nematemba tikadya. Aa horaiti. Ndirikuuyamanjemanje.Ndokuzouyaakazosvikandavata.

P13:Heya.

P3:Achitovhunzakuti--vawanamachirahere?Vakavatakupi?

P13:Hinokudero?Arikutamburawo--uyo.

P3:Mangwananindobvandatiinindakuinda.Aitoakatonditaridzawobhukureroorarakeachitindozvandakaitaizvi.Ndokutima,ndikatiaainindirikutodzokeranhasi.Ndodakumboindanekumbandichinoona vanamaindobvandatodzokera. Zvikanziaa regai ndikuperekedzei kuinda kuMbare. Anga asina mari yekombi. Saka inindatobhadharira --. Ndandati ndokutsvagirai murivo kuMbare wozodzoka.Ndabhadhara kombi kuinda kuMbare kusvika. Tasvika kuMbare ndobva ndati aaiwe handina kumbokuona wakadhakwa. Ndongosikuona wakadhakwa. Chii chirikuitika? Asi hauna mari? Oo two dollars iyi unodii, ugodhakwa. Handichazivikukuona wakadhakwa. Aa otoseka. Ndobva andikwidza. Ndobva ati haa horaitibhabhai bhabhai. Ndoona munhu adzoka napahwindo. --, ini handitorina mariyekombiyekudzokerakumba.

P13:Unengeasina.

P3:Ndikamupatwodollars.Aatsk.

P13:Unohwisaurombo--.


185

P3:Ndoshayakutichiiko.Anoshandireiko?

P13:Ichitorwanomunhuwozvake?

P3:Ndamupatwodollars.

P13:Unorwadza.

P4:Aiwa.

P3:Mm.Asiuyoangaachiti,becauseazofona.Pandandichitoperekedzwana--angaachitofonaachitihanziuchirikupi?Zvikanzina--aa--varikudzokeranhasi.Ndodakumbovaperekedza.Sakavaavakutauriranakutitozosanganakumaten.Sakaanodiikumupamariyekombi?Munhuanoshandaanoshaiwamariyekombi?

P13:Uuu.

P3: Asi anomuti huya. Unouya nei? Aa hamenowo kuti chii chiri kuitika pavanhuivava.

P13:Hamehaainizva--wenyuaa.

P3:Hamenowo.

P13:Handimukwanisi.

P3: Saka ini ndandichi, handina kutombozoshaudha --. Ndakangoti aa regaindimusiye.

P13: Ini --mwanawangu. {CG}Kuti ndimu . . .Makuriro aakaita --munomumbaumuachitambudzika.

P4:Eewemustprayfor--.

P3:Mm,haa.

P4:Wemustprayfor--.Wemustprayfor--.

P13:Nokutipapindapfumvuyakaomapamusoropa--iyeye.

P4:Becauseiweuneshuwakutivatetevangatieemariyangundodaeighthundred.{LG}Ndakasekaini.

P3:Kokuzotikuuyamumbamangwanani.--varikuuyanguvai?Hanzitikatiaavarikuuyakumafive.Ndandativana--tisanganekuMbarekumafive.

P4:Iye--?

P3:Hanzindobvaatihoraitindakuenda.--handetinoita.Achizivakuti--varikuuya.Handimuzivi.

P13:Varikudzokaehe.


186

P3: Ndokuinda ndokutoinda. Ndamutown ndakazoona -- akauya ku kuRoadport.Akanditambira.

P13:Heya.

P3:Zvikanziaaatoinda.Hanzimaivakevauya.

P13:Haa.

P3: Kana kufona kuti vatete kana kuti chii, kana kuti chii. Ini ndikati aa ini ndinezvunhuzvangukumbakwanguhandi.Aitindodakuonakutivanodyei.

P13:Unotamburamunhu.

P3: Takadya sadza nemurivo nezuro. Ndaitoda kutenga huku. Ndandatopa vana--mari yehuku ndikazoti aa -- chisarai nesix dollars yacho mozodii mozotengasomething.

P13:Unotamburandiyani?Kurwarauko.

P3:Ndikatindinouyakumbakomunhukutindizodya.

P13:Aahezvo.

P3:Inikwangundinotodya.Chikafuchachochakatowandisa.

P4:Iweplusuchitorasha.{LG}

P3:Ndinotorashakumbakwanguwotondishai tsvinyiranezvine.Todakuonakutivanodyeikanavauyakumbakwehazvanziyavo.

P13:Heya.

P3: Ndakasiya ndatenga grocery ndikatenga zvandakatenga. Ndobva nda- tadyandobvandabva.Nechingwa.Vana--vatomwatiinhasi.{LG}

P4:{LG}Vamwatiinhasi?

P3:Vamwatiinechingwa.

P4:Ndofungazvafara.

P3:Aandakavatengeratwoloavesndikatengazvandakakwanisakutenga.

P13:Haiwawo.Kuswereraizvozvo?

P3:Nhasindavatengerabhinzidzakadai,nematemba.

P4:Dzakawanda?

P3:Ee,zvokutimuriwohavambotamburi.Ndobvandavasiiraimwemari.


187

P13:Aa.

P3: Saka vari vari right. Kwakutadza kana kuti, paafona pacho achitindichambotenge,ndichambo.

P13:HaaregaiamboitazvakezvomuHarare--.

P3:Ndobvaakatandokutosiyananaye.

P13:Achanzwisisa.

P3:Ndikatiaauyuanodakutitiiteshaisanopanoapa.

P13:Mm,achanzwisisa.

P3:Ndikatiini,inikumbakwanguhandishaiwichikafuchokutindingatouyawobvawavigachikafuuchi.

P13:Haanhai(())chaunotamburira.

P3:Huyakwangundikupechikafukanauchichida.{LG}

P13:Aahezvo.

P4:--,inipanenyayayandinodakutinditaureapa.

P13:Haai.

P4:Yakasimbasababa.

P3:Mm.

P4:Eepanenyayayokutitakaindauko.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ichinzivatetevanodaeighthundredkutiagozoperekwa.Hinopanohapaperekwimunhukausingawiriraninana.Ndodakutindikuudzendiwevatete.

P3:Mm.

P4:Kanausingawiriraninanatete.

P13:Aahezvo.

P4:Panohauperekwi.

P3:{LG}Munorambamuroora.Isutadiihedu?Kudaisutonetsa.{LG}

P4:Aaaa.

P13:Aakanahaiwawo.


188

P3:Isutotizwanavaroora.{LG}

P4:Kwetezvenhaiwe,inihandisikudakutimunhuaaaaperekwepano.

P3:Mm.

P4:Ndinomutiunotambirwanani?Inihandimutambiri,avahavamutambiri.

P3: Momuti taura na-- ndovanofanirwa kukutambira. Nokuti izvozvi ndakaindakuHararendikadzokaasinakukanakufonakanakudii.

P4:Ndati,ndati-.

P3:Taurira--kutindirikudakuuyakuzoperekwa.

P4:Kwete.

P13:Unongo,unongofona.Aa.

P4:Tereraunzwezvandataura.Ndatikunzekwako.

P3:Mm.

P4:Haaperekwipano.

P3:Ehezve.Haandashamisikakutihezvo,ndaindakuHarare,--akaroora.

P4:Aa--ndichamufonera.--ndotomundichamufonera.

P13:Hamhenozvenyu.

P4:Ndomutikunzekokutimapi,mataurirananana--.

P3:--vanofanirwakungevaripo.

P13:Haazvinorema.

P4:Hapa,kunzekokuti,aakunzekokuti.

P3:--ndovanofanirwakutotaura.

P4: Mukadzi wako unofana kuwirirana nana . . . kwete, kwete iwe. Handitangikutaura pamusoro pako. Ndongoti ee ndokumbira kuti iwe -- muroora uwiriranenanatete.

P13:Haa,haiwa.

P4:Ndokutizvunhuzvifambe.--,ee.

P13:Haazvonetsa.

P4:--hasbeencapitalised,hwani.--hasbeencapitalised.Hapenokutizvakamoneravanavanguvakomana.


189

P13:Haa.

P3: Isu, isu kwatakaroorwa hatidaro isu. -- vakati --. Izvozvi vana baba namaivakauya. Vakatengerwa hembe, vakatengerwa, vakaindiswa kunoona mhuka,vakanzwiivakanzwii.--idaivanababaidaivana.Ndichingoita.Hapanachandaimbotinoini.Kanaonedayrandootinokanavanababavauya.Asiizvi.

P4:Kuswerazurondakangandina--.

P3:Ee.

P4:--.

P13:Mapensioneer?

P4:--vayavepamusoroava.Zvikanziaa.

P3:Vanokuzivaizve?

P4:Zvikanziaa,zvikanzi--.

P3:Mm.

P4:Haandigerekumboonazvakadaro.Makazvarapaya.

P13:Mapensioneeranonetsa.

P4:Hanzimakazvaramwanausingaiti.

P3:{LG}

P4:Hanziisutoshaiwakuti,hanzikutiumutipapi{NS}kutipakadii.Hanzihaapayapayahatitauriheduisu.Makatiitirabasapaya.{LG}

P3: Ini handitauri. Kana -- vangoti zvakati zvinoitwa. Ndobaba vemushandovanotaura.

P13:Aa.

P3: Maropofadzo anouya. Ipapa pahembe dzandakakutengerai vakandipa marivakati aa kana makuzoinda kumba mozotengerawo vanababa nokuti vanamaivakauyatikavatengera.Ndikatihoraiti,ndobvandatotengahembe.

P4:Sakahanditimunozviona?

P4:Maropofadzo anongouyawo nekuside. Hino kana uchitimunhuwese akashataiwendiwewakanaka.Aangaaite.

P13:Hamenowo.

P4:Isu,inichandinokumbiraini.Eezvandodakutaurapanoapandechokutiwemustpray.Prayerisveryimportant.


190


P6:Mauyanemabhukuachoeseherenhaimaiguru?

P5: (chewing) (.) Ndatora ese. Asi ndinofunga kuti makasara neamwe mabhuku,nebhukuremazitaemamembers.

P6:Kanandimimakasaranawo.Ndinorangarirakutimakazosaramuchiwekamaridzachona--.

P5:Aahoraiti,regaindigonotarisakanapandinodzokera.Kudandakakanganwa.

P6: Kana kuti chingoregai ndione kana ndisina. Regai ndiinde, ndiri kuuyamanjemanje.(.){NS}Aa{LG}aandariwana.Kutokanganwazvangukutindinindinaro.

P5: Yaa ini ndinogarisa mabhuku angu paone placeand ndanga ndiri shuwa kutindimimunawo.Garazviyamamembersavamangani?

P6:Regaitione,regaitione.{NS}MmmtichiverengatheseonesvakajoinaneSundaytavafifteen.

P5:Haavasikana,imikaimi.Ndiyaniaizvizivakutitingawandakudaro.

P6:Iivanhuvanozivakutimukandounobatsiraespeciallykanauchidakukwereta.

P5: Aa regai tione zvakanzi nemadzimai tigadzirise. Gara zviya vakatipa zvinhuzvakawandazvokugadzira.Regaitiionekutitingatanganechipi.

P6:Iingatitangeitasetamariyacho.Zviyatakawiriranamarii?

P5:Fivedollarspamwedzi.

P6:Koyefine?

P5:Dhora,dhorachete.Inindofungakutiishoma.

P6: Yaa I also think fine ishomasa. Yaa but zvinenge zvava kutoda kuvhota kutiiwedzerwe.

P5:Aaok,ok.Ayamamemberseseaya.Chinyoraimamemberseseayaaripanoapaayatigozivazvatinoita.

P6: Haa chingondipai bepa racho ndogozononyora ndava kumba. Zvunhu zvachozvakawandazvinodakuitwa.

P5:Aaok,herobeparachoiro.

P6:Takatidayririfreenderipikutitiitemusangano?

P5:Saturdaymangwananinaseveno’clock.

P6:Naseveno’clock?Okregaindinyore.


191

P5:Ehenaseveno’clock.

P6:Chimwechiichinodakunyorwa?(sneezes)

P5:Mmpanevarumevayavanodakujoina.

P6:YaaIremembermadzimaiakaramba.

P5:Asizvehaavakatitombomiriranextmeetingtozodecider.

P6:Inihanguhandionichakaipakanavachibhadhara.Kanavachingobhadharamaridzavovakasiyaneinavamwevanhu?

P5: Vakadzi munovaziva imi. Havadi zvinhu zvinopindwa navarume. Vanodakutomboitazvamakuhwahavo.

P6: Vangaita sei nyangwe ndimiwo? Dzose itsvimborume, havana kana vakadzi.Sakavariright.

P5:YaaIthinkvazhinjivanodakutivajoine.

P6:Hopevanobvumirwakujoina.{CG}

P5:Kointerestyeanengeakweretatakaiisapamarii?

P6:Yakanzifivepercentformembers.Asivasirimamembersaatenpercent.(...)

P5:Ikezvinopanefiftydollarsinofanirakudzokamonthend.

P6:Aamiraitimbo,aamiraitimbopedzanezveinterest.

P5: Ok, takati kana member ikasadzosa within a month tinofanira kubhadhara,inofanirakubhadharatenpercentinterest.

P6:Eekanaangoregakubhadharabackanobvaabhadharayemanon-members.Sakamatififtydollarsndoinofanirakudzoswamonthend?{CG}

P5:Eendiyocheteinodzokamonthend.

P6:Ok.Ndivanaanivakaikwereta?

P5:Ii,ii--vanetwentydollars,--vanethirtydollars.

P6:Kouyanyayayeparty.

P5:ThisyeartakatitoitamunaNovember.Ndopanodavanhuvakawandakuitaparty.

P6:Committeeyokubikandiyoiyi.

P5: Last year vakagona asi vakanonoka kutipa lunch. Takaa tofa nezhara isu.Takatozoponanekuindakumashops.


192

P6:Aavanhuvaidhishavaivavashoma.Ndopakaitaproblem.

P5:Haaimiimiimi,nyangwezvakadarovanhuvofanezharaherevauyakuparty?

P6:Thistimefivendovanhuvachaita.Kuchaitwanavanhufive.

P5:Haaok.Hopethistime zvinorongeka.Nokuti uumvasikana lasttime ndakabvandanezharachaiyochaiyo.Vanhuvakacomplainerzvisingaiti.

P6:Aahoraitihoraitihoraiti.Thistimezvichanaka.

P5: Kubank vakati vanoda vanhu three. Saka ini nemi then chairwoman ndiyewechithree.

P5:Aaok.Inindinengendirifreenechitatu.Sakatokwanisakuindanechitatu.

P6:HoraitindichatauranamaiLeotionekutitingaitachitatuchachohere.{CG}

P5:Mozondifoneramuchindiudzakanamatauranamai--vacho.

P6: Haa ok. This year ndofunga tikasiya mari yakati oo patinokandirana kuitiraJanuarydiseasevasikana.Vamwetinemafees.

P5:Aaee.Goreraperavanhuvakatamburazvisi,vachishayakwekukwereta.

P6:{LG}Nenivondakatambura.Feesdzangadzakandiwandirazvisingaiti.

P5:Sakatingasiyamariisokuonakwenyu?

P5:Uuumngatitiithirtydollarsndoyatosiya.

P6:Aainoitasezvohomweyeduineonethousandfivehundred.

P5:Vanhuvakasiya{NS}aa,threehundred,threehundredndoinoitakwetethirty.

P6:Aahoraiti,horaiti,horaiti.

P5: Saka ndizvo zvese handiti zvatatichifanirwa kugadzirisa? Regai ndimboonamubhukuracho.

P6:Yaaregaindioneworangubhukurinoiri.(...){NS}{CG}Haachikosorovasikanachikosorochanetsa.

P5:Yaa.MungatangakukosoraikezvinokuzotiApril,panoperaJunemuneemanzwakwazvo.

P6:Haahamheno,hamheno,hamheno.({NS}YaaIthinkndozvese.Eeimichisainaiapa.

P5:Aahoraitiregaindisaine.{NS}Ndonyoradateranhasi?

P6:(...)Yaadateranhasi.


193

P5:Aahoraitivasikana,iniregaindiinde.Aiwa,imimofanirwakusainawohanditi?

P6: Ee regai ndisaine apapa. Ndichauya kuzotenga muriwo mangwana kumbakwenyu.Ndakanzwakutimunemuriwousingaiti.

P5:Mangwana,mozouyanechinamangwanahandipo.

P6: Horaiti ndokuonai nechina chacho. Asi ii vasikana matondiomesera.Ndandichidamuriwozvisingaitindisatindadzokerakuchikoropaholidaypanoapa.{LG}AamakazvinzwaherekutiNyaradzoirikuuyane,irikuuyaneChina?

P5:Eendakazvinzwazvichitaurwa.Haainihaa.

P6:Zvirinanitijoinevasikana.

P5:Haashuwa.VeNyaradzovanengevanobatsirasitereki.Makaonakutiparufurwa-- vakaita zvinoyemurika chaizvo chaizvo? Ndiyani aimboziva kuti vanhu vanofaraparufuveduwee?

P6:Ndakazviona.That’swhyndichidakujoinaNyaradzo.

P5:InihangundakaitaluckyndakajoiniswaNyaradzonemwanawangu.{CG}

P6:Aahoraiti.Ndibaba--kanivakakujoinisai?

P5:Ehee,atovanetwoyearsachiitamapayments.

P6:Iivasikanaaatatova,tisutegatasarasaka.Regaitingojoinawoveduwee.

P5: Haa shuwa joinai. Pamusha pakaita nhamo hapadi kuti vanhuvazonyanyotambura. Nyaradzo inopa even bhazi rinouya nevanhu verufu kanamunhu afira kutaundi. Saka zviri nani chaizvo chaizvo. Ndakaatenda mafuneralsakawanda eNyaradzo. Haa haushori veduwee vasikana. Hautomboshori zvachose.Vanhuvanozivazvavarikuita,zvavanengevachiitaivava.

P6:Aahoraiti,tongozonzwakwamuri.

P5: Haa horaiti zvakanakai. Ko dhibhamoziva kuti ririkoMondayhere kana kutiririkorimwezuva?

P6: Uuum dhibha aa regai ndione. Regai nditarise pachibhuku chedhibha.Ndirikuuya.{NS}

P5:{CG}{NS}(...)

P6:Yaandariwana.DhibhaiMonday.

P5:Aahoraitimaitabasavasikana.Tongozonzwakwamuri.Aapanezvandandichidakumbokuvhunzaifuti.Iindakanzwakutimaimbodzidzisavanhukusonakaimi.

P6:Iivasikanazvazvemakore.Aandakazvipedzisiraninety.Nineteenninetychaiyo.


194

P5: Aa ndandichida kungodzidziswa zvishoma shoma zvokusona ma, zvokutindingoonakugadzirisahembe.Nokutiiivazukuruvanguvawandisa.Vavavaviriavavarikunetsakuchengeta.Vanobvarurazvisingamboiti.

P6:Aahoraiti.Mamuchidakudzidziswazvariini?

P5:Aacheropamunengemakasununguka.Inindakasunungukaanytime.

P6: Yaa zvotoda ndatombodzidzira futi nokuti uum haa vasikana ava makore,makorechaiwochaiwo.

P5: Hii veduwee musadaro kani. Vazukuru vangu vangafamba neshuku chaiyochaiyo.Haandatamburanokutengamabhurugwanehembeini.

P6: Aa mirai tione, mirai tione. Mm maybe Svondo nokuti ndikabva kuchechindendiri free zvangu. Saka kana muchikwanisa kuuya svondo tokwanisakuzogadzirisazvedu.

P5: Haa horaiti vasikana, mungaita basa ii. (claps hands) Ndanzwa vasikana.Zvizukuruzvanguzvinobvaruraizvozvozvisingaiti.

P6:Hoosakamurikugaranavazukuruvenyumazuvano?

P5: Haa mai vacho ndakati vamboinda kunotsvaga basa avo. Chimwanazvechakakurumidza kuita vana sakahii ndakangoona kuti akagara agozovei panyika?Hazvimbobatsirikana.

P6:Aamakatogona.Varumevamazuvanovanotsvinya,kutsvinyakudaro.

P5:Takatozozvizivakutianemukadziwakenhumbuyatovapofivemonthssakaheyi.Iyewo mwana wangu ndomuudza kuti chisiyana nemurume womunhu haadi.Kutoindashuwakunopuwaimwemimba.Haandakangotida,ndakadarodzii.Sakandakangoonakutiiihapanazvandingatomboita.Kutotoravazukuruoindaonotsvagachikoro. Hanzvadzi yakati inomubhadharira kana akagona, college. Saka aa kanaangopasawomathsdzachohanzvadziyakatiinobhadharacollege.Sakaiitotongorwakutiakanyoragorerino,collegeozoindanextyear.

P6: Aa zvotova nani kana achizowana anobhadharira. Nokuti ii vamwe havadizvokubhadhariravanhuvanengevambotambisanguvayavoseizvozvo.

P5:Sakandouyanei?Ndouyanemachineyachoherekanakutitozoshandisayenyu?

P6:Aazvirinanikuuyanemachineyenyubecause inindendichiita,imimuchiitawo.Saka tinokurumidza kupedza kana. Ndandichifunga kuti tikangoita one day, then,tikaswererathenmokwanisakuzonozviita.

P5: Haa vasikana vasikana, vasikana, maita henyu zvokwadi. Hopehandizokudisappointiyi. Nokuti hiish zvokusona zvinotondinetsa chaizvo chaizvo.Vakangonditengeramushiniwakangogaramumba.Sakaiivanonzwanokutaurakutidzidziraikusona,dzidziraikusona.Sakaiishzvonetsa.


195

P6: Aa ndakambovadzidzisa madzimai akawanda emuno mese umu. Ndinindakavadzidzisakusona.

P5: Aa ndakazvinzwazve nembiri. Ndakakunzwai nembiri ndosaka ndatouyakwamuri.Ndakakunzwainembiriyokugonakusona.

P6: Yaa. Gov, gov, government yaimbobatsira sitereki. Imagine kuti vakangotoravanhuvakatihuyaimusone,huyaimudzidze,huyaimudzidziswekusona.Saka iishndakaandakawandirwazvisingatomboiti.

P5: Hoo? Haa ndakazvinzwazve kuti vazhinji ndimi maka, ndimi makavadzidzisakusona.(...)Aavasikana,regaindionekutindodiipanoapa.Panechimwechachirimunjeredzangu.Chiiko?Mmfoninhambadzanguhanditimunadzo?

P5:Yaandinadzo,ndinadzo.Imidzangumunadzowohere?

P5:Eehaandinadzo,ndinadzo.Iitongozosanganapatino,patinoindakwaGutu.Thentozoronga from there. Asi kusona vasikana ndiri kutouya handitomboitizvokutamba.

P6:{LG}Aahoraiti,horaiti,tongozoonamauya.

P5:Komumundamakakohwazvakadiikogorerino?

P6:Iigorerinozvaivananivasikana.Mvurayakatombonayazvokutimapanioseayaatakaatakaitawinterhaatakatowanazvakatiwandei.

P5:Hoo,aandoonamakatosumudzanengaranizveapa.

P6: Ee aa takatosumudza nengarani.Plus tikawedzera chelastyearhaa tinofamba,tinombochovha.

P5:Nokuti iimakazvinzwakutiparadiozvirikunzigorerinokunenzara isingaiti?Sakahiimusatombotengesazvenyu.Nzarayachoirikohaitomboiti.Varikutoplannerkutengachibagekunedzimwenyika.

P6: Yaa ndakazvinzwa zvangu paradio kuti vari kuplanner kutenga chibage. Iizvakaoma vasikana. Hamheno. Vazhinji vakanonoka kurima vakashaiwa zvachosekanachokugochavakachishaiwa.

P5: {LG} Zvakaoma. Ini ndakatozopona nechokugadheni asi haa kukohwa chaikohandina. Ndingada kukureverai nhema. Handina kana kutombokohwa zvachose.Chemu, chemugadheni ndochandakatongoita, takatongogocha nokudya kusvikachapera. Saka hii tisu vamwewo vachatotenga gore rino. Imi muno, kanamuchingozotengesamototifungawo.

P6: Yaa, hamheno. {LG} Handi, aa handisati ndataura nababa. Kana ndikatauranababatikanzwakutivanefungwadzipindichakuudzai.AsihaaIthinktinotengesanokutiiichatiwandeiendeisutirivashomakaisu.


196

P5:Aahoraiti.Musatombondikanganwavasikanaveduwee.Ndinganetsekazvachosechosenevazukuruvanguvakawandaivava.Imihenyumurivashoma.(...)

P5: Pfuurai muchitanha magwavha kana muchimada mumuti umo kugadheni.Anonakachaizvoarikoawoemukatimuchena.

P6:Hoozviyamunemagwavha.Aandaitofungakutiakaperaini.Enyuanosvikatimeinoachiriko?Haamugere,makagarikaimi.

P5: Haa anosvika time ino achiriko but haa kunzwisa mudumbu.Haumbozonyanyomadya.Unongozotizvishomashomawotoregazvako.

P6: Aa horaiti regai nditovigira vazukuru vangu. Vanomadawo magwavhazvisingaiti. Vanowana chinovanyaradza. Kuchikoro uko hii, akapera asatiatomboibva even. Unotonyara kuti somunhu waticha woswera uchirega vanavachipinda muorchard vachingodya magwavha pamadiro here. Unozoita sousiriresponsible. {LG} Ha shuwa unozoita sousiri responsible. Vanhu vese vanengevangokutarisakutindovayavanevanavanodyamagwavhamambishi.{LG}Yaaregaitiindetinotanha.

P5:Miraindimbovharamadoor,ndivharemadoor.Mbudzidzachodzonetsa.(...)Aahoraitihandeihedu.

P6:Mm,ok.{NS}(...)Haahoraiti,horaiti,ndirikuuya.Ndabaiwa.

P5:Mabaiwa,masosokahi?

P5:Haatsinechaidzochaidzo,itsine.

P6: Aa sorry, sorry, sorry. Ndofanirwa kutopakura ipapa. Aa kukanganwa.Ndofanirwa kunogamuchira baba vari kudzoka nhasi. Saka ii, imi chingopfuurainomugadhenimuchingonhonganhongawo.Iniregaindimbodzokerandirongedzerekutindiindekubusstop.

P5:Aahoraiti,pariright.Tokuonai,tozokuonai.Mongozondifonera.

P6:Aahoraiti,zvakanaka.

P5:Aamaitabasa.Ndozokuonai,bhabhai.


197


(Thereisbackgroundnoisefromcutlery,potsandplatesthroughouttherecording)

P7:Unokwanisakuitamalinesokutiapaneapa,thenukuneuku.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:(...)Tichamunetsaakareakatihandizvigoni.

P8:{LG}Kutihaaakakuudzaikutihaa.

P7:Kutihaazvinhuzvenyuizvihaiwahandizvigoni.

P8:(())

P7:Oranotangakutihanzihazviiti.

P8:Yaa.{LG}

P7:Kutihazviiti.(())

P8:Hoo{LG}kutyamumvuri.

P7:Mm.{NS}Mmndazozvimbirwazvino.

P8:Zvaa-

P7:Sakaiyiregandindinoifotokopa.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Iwillmakeacopy.Ndinindaivandakunyoraizvi.

P8:Hoo.Aandoyamakashandisapamakauya?

P7:Ee.

P8:Hoo.Maorriginalsayamakamaona?

P7:Ithinkso,yah.Handitizvangazvirimufile?

P8:Eemufileso.

P7:Mm.{NS}Izviyoucankeepizvi.Maybepaweekendwewillseekutitinga-

P8:Totsvakazvipi?{NS}

P7:Mhamhandovaivairatidzakubhoikanakutihanzimurikudelayer.

P8:{LG}Haa.

P7:Hanzizvinhuzvenyuzvamamiramvurainonayamanjemanje.


198

P8:{LG}

P7:--anodzokerakuchikoro.

P8:Haa,ivova-

{BC}

P7:(talkstoanotherperson)

P7:Usaudzavanhu.{LG}

P8:Yaa.

P7:Kusvikazvanyatsoita.

P8:Yaa.

P7:Kanawakuzoita,inonzichii,homewarmingorwhatever.

P8:Housewarming.

P7:Housewarming,thenwozotaura.Koiyiwangawaionaiyi?

P8:Yaa.

(childplaying)

P8:Mapictures?

P7:Ndoplanyayo.

P8:Horaiti.(childtalking)Yaa,it’sverybig.{LG}

P7:Manjendozvirikudakudelayershopmanje.

(Childtalking)

P8:Shop?

P7:Mm.

P8:Hoo.

P7:Becausezveseonetime.{LG}

P8:Hazvizobudi.

P7:Hazvibudi.

P8:{LG}Horaiti.

P7:Sakapictureiyi,ndouku.


199

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Sakaichichakabudikirandeichi.

P8:Ok.

P7: Saka somewhere pano apa haa chongova chiimba chakangoita chiimba chisinanebasarose.

P8:Mhm.

P7:Thensomewherekunoukukunechiimbachakadai.Ichihachisichiimbaassuch.Chongova-

P8:Hamheno.

P7:Ndechemazen’e.

P8:Horaiti.

P7: But iyi imba chaiyo chaiyo. Iyi inotova netoilet neone room. Tione mamwemapictureachookufront.

P8:Ndikokauku?

P7:Sakagarageiri.Thenapapashadeapa.Ndoshade.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Toiletndeiyi,bathroom.Iyiibedroominofanirakuvaiyi.Iyiit’sanotherbedroomiyi.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Anotherbedroomiyi,libraryiyi.

P8:Ok.

P7:Mmloungeiyi,dining.

P8:Ok.

P7:Aaaichihanzichinonziscuscullery.

P8:Scullery.{LG}

P7:Ichichiripakonaichi.

P8:Horaiti.Sakaunobvamukicheni?

P7: Mm, then kicheni iyi. So it’s like aa pane entrance apa kauchibva ku, ukundokufrontuku.


200

P8:Ndokufront.

P7:Parkingiyi.

P8:Thenentrance?

P7: Wopinda mulounge thenpane exit apa inotopinda mudining. Then chiscullerychacho.Thenanotherexitukukanauchidakuindakubedroom.

P8:Horaiti.Hookuseriuku?

P7:Ndokuseri.Mabedroom{CG}onetwothreefour.Sakaapahapanamapictureethisonebutndoothebiggest.

P8:Ndothemainbedroom?

P7:Yaa.{NS}Butinetoiletnebathroom.This,thispartiyiinongovatoiletnebathroombut its big, inotori- {LG} Yaa, so kufront uku ndoo, so hwindo iri ndorokupindamulounge.

P8:Ok.

P7:Ayamahwindotwoawa.

P8:Ndoaya?

P7:Yaa.Hazvisitoscalebecausethisloungeisactuallybiggerthanthesetwo.

P8:Horaiti.{LG}

P7:Drawingyachohainakuitwa.

P8:Mait’sjustrough.

P7: Mm. So its mm. I don’t know kana uchiri kuremember patanga tichiuya.(inaudible)Paripopatapfuurapanecurveso.

P8:Mhm.

P7:Ndobvatazotistraight.Paapanepapane-

P8:Chihump?

P7:Mm,likeaboutfourkilometresfromhereuchidzokakuno.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:ThenaafromherekusvikakuYupiit’sten.

P8:Ten.

P7:Sakaunengewabvisafour.


201

P8:Fourkilometres?{LG}Yaabutyakanaka.

(childtalking)

P7:(())Pathisone.

P8:Library?

P7:Library.Somuri,currentownerangaarilawyer.

P8:Hoook.

P7:Sakandosakamabhukuakawanda.

P8:Mabhuku.{LG}

P7: So masherefu hanzi ndiri kusiya aripo. (.) So ndoiyi of which I think maybekudharararirigarage,garage.

P7:Ndobvaavhuragaragekwakuisalibrary.

P8:Ndokuisalibrary.Yaazvogonakudaro.

P7:(...)Andalsondofungaakaiitaofficebecauseukanyatsotarisa,inedoor.Apapanesvigreenapaidoor.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Soyoucanhavedoorrinobvakunzeuchitopindamudining.

P8:Hoohoraiti.Kugadziragadzirawohapanaanokubvunza.

P7:Yaapaneidziit’slikewhateveryouwant.Hapanaanokubvunza.

P8:Yaa{LG}

P7:Sakaukadakutitamoverapatobvatataisagaragefuti.{LG}

P8:Zvinongoita.

P7:Zvinongoitabutaahapananeedbecause-

P8:Yaa.

P7:Icoveredparking,theniyindoolockup.

P8:Yaaiyiinespacemanje.

P7:Mmbecausestanditsonethousandsquaremetres.

P8:Onethousand?

P7:Mm.


202

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Idon’tknowyanamai--kudama.Uchikombeyaneyanamai--yokuMtPleasant.(talkstoanotherperson)Zvakangodakufananahanditi?

P8:Zvakadakufanana?

P7:Yaa.

P8:Haasoit’sbig.{LG}

P7:Yaabecauselikekuseriukuit’sopenspace.

P8:Yaa.

P7: Imba imba yakaiswa pakati. So there is a lot of space kufront, a lot of spacekuback.

P8:Aakutoitagadheni,abigone.(talkstoanotherperson)

P7:Yaaimbairipakatipedzimwe.

(childplaying)

P8:Yaapanedzimwe.

P7:Hamhenopanoapatikakwanisakunhingikira.Aaamprobablyhazviiti.Sopatirindepanoapa.(())Sakaiyoiripakanzi(())

P8:Hoo,ndopairi?

P7:Ndopairi.Miratione.

P8:Roadyatabvanayonhasindeipi?

P7: Iyi. Saka hatina kuzosvika kuroundabout. Tasvika somewhere pane malightsndobvatakonandokutenderera.

P8:Ok,hooiyi?

P7:Mmbuttabvatakadai.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Thencitycentre.Socitycentreirisomewhereapa.SakatapindamunaSikhumani.

P8:Soirisomewhere?

P7: Yaaa somewhere. Mira tione. It’s one, one two two four Yazeni street. (childplaying) Kune, kunemafacility okuti youcan seenhingikiri.Mira tione. (. . .) {NS}Ndakaibvisakani?


203

(Childrentalking)

P7: I don’t know wherever kwayainda. Ndokupiko ikoko? (( )) So patiri it’ssomewhere.SopatirikuindapaT.

P8:Hoo,ok.

P7:Butndopaneimbaidzi.(childtalking){NS}Itshouldbethis,iyi.

P8:Horaiti,thisone.

P7: So chishade chiya chachichionekwa ndeichi.Then pane chimwe chiimba chirisomewhere.(childrentalking)

P8:Ok.Sakaapait’slikepanokwipano.

P7:YaapanetrainIthink.Ndofungaibhazi,ibhazihaisitrain.

P8:Butstill?

P7:Butpanestation,trainstationiyi.Hooyaaiyindotrain.Awamabhaziaya.

P8:Mabhazi.

P7:Patrainstationndeapa.Butmabhaziakaitaserawakambokwirandoaya.

P8:Ee,pabusstop.

P7:Butalsoumu,munopfuuramakombi.

P8:Hoo.

P7:Plusipotionende,somewhereaaitshouldbesomewherehere.(childrentalking)Ukukunemakombi.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Youcouldwalk.

P8:{LG}

P7:Butipapaaripomakombi.Kombiyakachipisa.

P8:{LG}(childtalking)

P7: There should be a way of yokuti unopinda into the street. Handichazivi kutizvoitwasei.Yokutiunopindaintothestreetuchitoona.

P8:Hoook.

P7:Sondozvichatsikirirashop.

P8:{LG}Aa.


204

P7:Idon’tknow.

P8:{CG}Tombomirambijana.

P7:Butaaamparizvinopanodiwaiyoyomapipingyemagetsithenveranda.(childrentalking)

P8:Yaa.

P7: Saka veranda if we are not plastering rokwanisa kuitwa or vanoda kuplasternechepamusoropeveranda?

P8:Yaabecausevaitizvinozonetsakutiuzofambapamusoropemazen’e.

P7: Hoo uchiplaster nhingikiri, ok. (children talking) I think vakatanga nearc iyovaigadzire.Thenfromtheretheycangooutside.

P8:Kutivotanganeoutside?

P7:Becausendandichifungakunhingikira.Kunebasaherekumasideskuplaster?

P8:Kumasideshakuna.

P7:Likeukunouku.

P8:Hakuna.

P7: Because ukainda maGutu muya umuka, mune mamwe mashop asinakutomboplastwamasides.

P8:Ehe,sokumbokusiyakwakadaro.

P7: Kungosiya kwakadaro because kuri kuti vanhu vazovaka mashop avo next toeachother.

P8:Ee.Handitindovakatiudzakuti,vaitichii,thirty.

P7:Mm.Sovanongoitakufront,maybenokuback.Evenkubackkwacho.{LG}Maybekufrontthenvoindamukati.Kufrontkuitirakutivaiseveranda.

P8:Yaa.Aamkokofloorkuisamatiles?Handizivi.

P7:Yaa,ndozvandaifunga.

P8:Ndisingazivikutizvinozo.Hoo?

P7:Aabuthaungaisimatilesakaitaseayaka.

P8:Yaa.{LG}Haa.(childrentalking)

P7:Kunedustrokutimunhuakaakaakapindamushopabvapanzeyoucheckseekutiatsikaakadai.{LG}


205

P8:Plusitseasykubecausekungokorobhachete.

P7:Yaa.(talkstochildren)Idon’tknowkutianoitamaprizeakadiiku--.

P8:Ndandisinakumbochecker.

P7: (talks to someone else) (children talking) Ndisingazivi kuti kana kuri kutiwatorafromhere,angavigikaherekanakuti?(someonetalking)Anengeari,anengearipackedin,becausekunoukuakachipa.

P8:Hoo?Soitmaybecheaperkuisa.

P7:Likeaalikeatoodaayo.Theycouldbeevenfiftyrandpersquaremetre.

P8:Horaiti,fiftyrand.{LG}Aa.

P7:Persquaremetre,ofwhich iyo shop ichii?Aboutnine, ten times aanine,maybeninemetres.

P8:Ninemetres?

P7:Sothat’sninetimeseight,sotimesfiftyrand.Threehundredrands.

P8:Threehundredrands.Thirtydollars.{LG}(childrentalking)

P7:Akachipazvisingamboiti.

P8:Aasoit’scheaperthankuisafloor.

P7:Yaazvotoricheaper.

P8:Yaa.

P7: Maybe you can check kuti ikoko anoita marii. Or we can, we can go kuma,kuhardware. We see around, we write down maprizes. Paunoinda ukowozonokombeya.

P8:Ee.

P7:Kuonakutizvakamirasei.Uchitarisawotypekutiakasimba.Nokutikuneamweanenge ari thin. Okuti akangokanganiswa kutsveta,munhu aka even ukadonhedzabhodhorokudairinotocrackerso.

P8:Hoo.Ndisingazivikutivanoisamatiles?

P7:ZvimwezvunhuIguesszvirieasy.Haunakuudzwanamaikutitakatsvakamufacewa--tikatiatigadzirireceilingakapushirapushira.

P8:{LG}

P7:Ndobvandazopendaininindakapendabathroomreupstairs.


206

P8:Perfect.

P7:Inindotoriprofessional.{LG}

P8:IniIthinkukangoisa,ukangovalikeseriousnezvaurikuitazvinonyatsobuda.

P7:Yaazvinobuda,exactly.

{BC}

P7:Yaapapropertyiyoinodakupendwa.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:SoIdon’tknow.Maybekunana,tirimunaaniJune?

P8:June.

P7:AroundendofJulyorAugust,earlyAugust.

P8:EarlyAugust.(talkstosomeone){LG}

P7:Haungambopeyifornhingirikiri.

P8:For-

P7:Becausevanhuvaunengeuchipayervachoka,anengeachiitirakutiapedzeaindekunenext.

P8:Ehe.

P7:Awanemariyake.WhilstiweukazviitirayoucansayItakemytime.

P8:Wotoratimeyakozvishomanezvishomauchinyatsoonakutizvabudahere.(talkstosomeoneelse)

P7:Itcanbedone.(childrentalking)Ndakapendaiyindokupendairiupstairs.

P8:Hoo?

P7: Saka ya kumwe ndiri kunzwira usimbe. (talks to someone else) (childrentalking)Butvanoitavachohavamboisimask.

P8:Hoo?

P7:Vachovaunotsvakaukatihuyaimundipendere.Vanongouyavachi-{BR}(talkstosomeone else) (children talking) Mmm so maybe ukadiiko? Oh you have to paynhingikiri.Inonzichii?Councilfees.

P8:Councilfees?

P7:Ehe,mutero.


207

P8:Horaiti,yaacouncilfees.

P7:Paipayermudharaitwasfifty.Ndoreceiptyatakakusiiraimweso.

P8:Horaiti.

P7:Ndakaionamufolderrakosomewhere.

P8:Ehe.

P7:Somaybeyoujusttakethatreceiptwoindafor.

P8:Horaitindono,fiftypagore?

P7: I think so. So you can pay fees idzodzo. Then aa yaa aam maybe uyo anoitamapipingakaitapipingyakeakapedza,thenuyootangakuplaster.

P8:Handiti?Mr--.

P7:Maybetaikwanisakutsvakayokutiakaplasterpafrontnokuisaveranda.

P8:Plasterkufront?

P7:Mm.

P8:Aabutmatitopendakahanditi?

P7:YaIthinkso.

P8:Hoosakait’sliketoregedzakupendathewhole?

P7:Yajustleavetheoutside.

P8:Vongopendakumberi.

P7:Mm.

P8:Pane,yapanepandakamboonapakapendwa.Itwasnice.(childrentalking)(...)

P7:MmmbecauseIthinkitshouldbeok.Idon’trememberkapane-

P8:SakapanengepodakungoplastwaIthink.

P7:Yaa,kutopuku.

P8:Yaa.

P7:Idon’tknowkutiverandaropindapapi.Probablyjustaboveairventshanditi?

P8:Yaait’sjustaboveairvents.

P7:Becausemaairventsanengearimuzasikanakutianengeari,ohmaairventsaripamusoro.


208

P8:Aripamusoro.

P7:Soverandashouldbejust,justabovedoorkudai.

P8:Haabutiyeaa.

P7:{LG}

P8:Iyeaitihanziabovemaairventssoakatoita.

P7:Butanofana kuva pamusoro because purpose yawo ndeyekutimhepo ipfuure.Sakaakaindamuzasimeverandathenmhepoinodii?{LG}

P8:Becauseapaaitihanzindaka,becauseanengearimuzasimemeuyu.

P7:Mm.

P8:Akaindapamusoroanengeavapa,anengeavamuseriumu.

P7:Mhm.Wellbut zvebasaherekutiveranda radii.Becauseukatarisakaspaceaka,ndopanengepanemaairvents.

P8:Hoo.

P7:Chidikiichochiichi.(childrentalking)Asaindaapa.Anofanakuuyaapa.SoIdon’tknowkutimatandaeeroofaivapamusoropemaairventshanditi?

P8:Eeangaaripamusoro.

P7:So,thenyobvayangoindanechejustabove.Butkaspacekachokadikisa.

P8: Ee kadikisa. (children playing) Aa haisi nyaya yokuti takazoita uyuyu hatinakuzoitaaccordingtoplanparoof?

P7:AaIdon’tthinkso.

P8:Kutindozvakaaffectaherekanakuti?

P7:Handitindospaceyataitaurayaivaiyihereiyi?Kubvapaneceilingapandospaceyataitaura.

P8:Ehe.

P7:Soinganyanyoaffectachii?

P8:Itwassupposedtobetwo-point.

P7:No,onepoint,onepoint.

P8:Aayangairithreemetres.

P7:Onepointtwoiyi.


209

P8:Aiwa.

P7:Mm.

P8:Itwassupposedtobethree,threemetresisutikaita-

P7:Hookusvikaapa?(phonerings)

P8:Twopointsix,ehe.

P7:Hoook.Soit’stwopointsixapa.Hoook.

P8:Saka.(childrentalking)

P7:Hookutithat’swhy.

P8:Ndisingazivikuti-

P7:Yaabutmaairventshaafanikuindamuzasimeverandaka.

P8:Yaa.

P7: Because akauya apa haa. {LG} Aiwa. (children talking) Hoo hatina kuzosvikakuthreemetresuku?

P8:Mm.

P7:Twopointsix.

P8:Yaabutdziriright,dziriright.

P7:Becauselookingat,Idon’tknowpawaifambamukatiwaikwanisakubataapa?

P8:Aano.

P7:Hazviitibecauseevenifyoulookapa.{NS}Uyuakanyoranorth,ndiyonorthhereiyi?

P8:(childrentalking)North,aaahaisiyo.

P7:Becauseit’s,ukatarisamamiriroakaitashopatthemoment,eastuku.

P8:Mhm.

P7:West,wellit’salmostthough.

P8:It’salmost.

P7:Almost{LG}It’snotexactlybut.

P8:But.

P7:Aaregaitigareuko.


210

P8:Yaa.

(Childtalking)


211


P9:Urirightheremwanangu?

P10:Haandirirightzvangu,makadiibaba?

P9:Kuriseikuuniversitykwakouko?

P10:Aakuribhoo.Aatiripaholiday.

P9:Hoo aa. {LG} zviyamunovhura riini? Unengewavamugore ripi pamunovhuraimi?

P10:Aathirdyearbutaa,ndengendirikuattachmentpatinovhura.

P9:Attachmentforhowlong?

P10:{LG}Aatirikuindagoreresekuattachment.

P9:Gorerese?Haaaaa,wadzidzamufana.

P10:Aa,yaa.{LG}Yayaya.

P9:Sakaunengeuchipeyiwahere iwe?Todamarika isu.Todakumbomwawodoroisu.

P10:Aarightnowkwandakawanahavabhadhariavo.

P9:(...)Kowakadiikutsvagakunobhadharwaiwe?Ungangoshandiramaharahere.Mukoreunohausiwekushandiramaharakaunouyu.

P10: Aa Zimbabwe yacho munongoiziva. Ndotongotenda Mwari kuti ndakawanabasaini.Zvonetsa.

P9:Haamabasaanonetsa.Mabasaari kunetsamwanangu.Ari kunetsa chaizvo.Atleastwakawanabasa.Ndozvakatokoshaizvozvo.

P10: Aa zvinotoda uchiziva someone. Kana uchiziva someone hazvimbonetsi.Unotowanaattachmentkwaunengeuchitobhadharwathewholeyear.

P10: Shuwa here? Aa aa sorry hako. Asi haa chikuru ieducation. Handiti urikuzowanadegreerako,wozozviwaniramariyako.Sakahapanachakamboipa.{NS}

P9: Aa shuwa shuwa. Regai tingoshingirira tipedze. Ini ndakatoita lucky. Vamwetakasvika pakuvhara vasina kuwana attachment yacho ikoko kusingabhadharwiikoko.

P9:Hezvo,hezvo,hezvo,ingazvakaoma.

P10: Aa plus pane vamwe vakatopedza gore vachishaiwa attachment. Zvunhuzvachozvakaoma.Makambanimazhinjiarikuvharakamunoumu.


212

P9:Hezvo,hezvo.Aaatleastwakaitaluckyiwe.Garazviyawakatiunoitahowmanyyears?

P10:Aafouryears.Degreerachorinoperainfouryears.

P9:Ok.Komabasaariseiedegreeraurikuita?

P10:Aakuhealthsectorkuririghthako.Pondinongopedzait’seasykutiuwanebasa.Sakaii,zvotomborinani.

P9:Haaatleastzvirinani.Mostpeoplevanongopedzamadegreevarikutambudzikazvisingatomboiti.Iwekanauriguaranteedbasazvotovanani.

P10:Yaahaamabasaachoarikunetsaasi isukweduuum.Kuhealthsectorkuchirinani.

P9:Ndinemunin’ina,mwanawemunin’inawanguuyuakapedzakuNUSTlastyearnazvinoarikungotsvagabasa.Haazvunhuzvachozvakatoomazvisingaiti,aa.(clapshands) Unoshaya kuti vana vari kumboindirei kuchikoromazuvano kanamabasaachoachinetsakudai.

P10:Akaiteikomunin’ina,mwanawemunin’inawenyu?

P9:Mmm,haandichambozivahere.Akaitamm,hanzichiiko?Financialmanagement,financialintelligencehere,hamhenoikokouko.

P10:Haaukokunonetsaasianengeawanabasaanengeagaramumari.

P9:Hoo,haaok.Hamhenozvazvo.

P10: Haa vazhinji vaka, unenge wagara mumari, haiwa. {LG} Saka makawanaanokubatsiraiherenhaibaba?

P9: Yaa but vapfana vacho vanenge vane, anenge matsotsi ayo. Handisikutombovaonazvakanakaini.

P10:Hindava?

P9: Ndakavati tisangane tironge kuti totanga kuchera foundation riini butvanongondipamaexcuses.

P10:Hamugonikutsvagavamwehere?

P9:Haa,haa.(clearsthroat)ndozvandangandichitofungakuitaizvozviizvinokutiiibasarachoririkusaramumashurezvisingamboiti.

P10:Aakanamuchidandokwanisakukutsvagiraitwovokutimushandenavo.Zvirikwamuri.

P9: Ok. Vakura zvakadii nokuti handidi ku zvokunetswa. Vapfanha vechidikivanonetsakaava.


213

P10:Umwearitwenty-twoumwetwenty-five.

P9:Haaok.Vanonetsakushandanavovapfanhavachoava.Hanzindingaitedhakabhoyi age yangu ino iyi. {LG} Havatozivi kuti unenge watombowana kabasa asivanonetsazvisingamboiti.

P10:{LG}

P9:Manje havazivi kutimazuvano ukatowana chero basa zvaro youarebetteroffthankutongogarakumbauchishayazvokuita.

P10:Aashuwa.Inipandakatangaprojectiyoyindakatoonasokutizvakatondibatsiraespeciallyndiripaholidaykudai.

P9:Haabutbringthemtomorrowthenwewilltalk.Handiti?

P10:Ok,horaiti.Aakucouncilvanodabuildinglicenceyenyu.Sakatoitasei?

P9:Ok,ok.Sakandokupaherekanakutitoitasei?

P10:Haiwa,vanotodakukuonaiimifacetofacesakatinotofanakuindatose.

P9: Hoo aa ok. Wozondiudza kana wava ready tinoinda. Handina kana problem.Licenceyanguigenuinesakahapanazvandombotya.

P10:NdirikufungakutitiindeMonday.

P9:Haahoraiti.Sakatosangananguvaipabusstop?

P10:Aakonineirisei?

P9: Haa yakanaka. Ok. Ha ndendamuka. Mazuvano kuri kudziyaka uku. Sakandokuonapabusstopnaninehanditi?Tokwirananinehanditi?

P10:Eeaananine.Panezvimweherezvamurikudakanakutitongozoonanaipapo?

P9:Yaa,sakatozorongazvepeggingriini?Zvirikwamuri.Inindinongovaavailable.

P10:Aandozokuudzaipatinoindakucouncilbutit’smostprobablyonMonday.

P9:Haahoraitihoraiti.Pakanaka,pakanaka.Tongozoona.

P10:Handitimatoolsenyueseakakwana?

P9: Yaa haa ndinazvo. Ndinazvo zvunhu zvangu zvakakwana. Hapana chandisina.Ndakavaka kakawanda, kwakawandisa. Saka haa ndongotoziva kuti ndofanirwakushandanezvunhuzvangusakazvakakwanazvese.

P10:Aa,thenndokuonaiMondaykanazvakadaro.

P9:Horaitimwanangu.Regandimboonandimborovahwanindisatindadzokera.


214

P10:Aahoraiti,paribhoo.

P9:Ufarisemudhara,handiti?

P10:Kahwani.Aahoondandatokanganwa.Dzokai,dzokai,dzokai.Uummofanirwakumboonaka.Tofanirwakumbovhuramuone.

P9:Haahoraiti.Muchiimbacheduicho?Haaok.Vhuratipindemukati.

P10:Ok.{NS}

P9:Haahoo,haaok.Mmmok.Mmmhaahoraiti.Mabrickshowfar?

P10: Aa takatenga four thousand ari kudeliveriwa nhasi manheru zvese necementyacho.

P9:Haahoraiti,horaiti.Ithinkcementitaifortybags.

P10:Aandakatengafiftybagsdzirikuuyamanheruanoaya.

P9: Haa Ok ok. I will see kuti mameasurements acho akamira sei. Plan yavo iridifferent pane zvese zvanda dzandakaita asidon’tworry ndinogadzirisa. Tinogonakuverengaplanisu.Musatombondityirazvenyu,ndinogonasitereki.

P10:Haamunonyanyozvikudzawoimi.Tangaimaitabasatozokukudzaitirisukwetekurambamuchingozvikudza.

P9:Aaauchaonahakozvemwanangu,uchaona.

P10:Asikanapanezvamunengemusinganzwisisijustletmeknowhanditi?

P9:Ok,Iwill,Iwillbutdon’tworry.Tanga,tagaranarobasairi.

P10: Aa ndosaka ndakachuza imizve. Ndosaka ndakachuza imi. Pavanhu vesevandakapuwathreendakatochuzaimindichizivazvandiri.

P9:Handitibreakdownyaka,yemapaymentswakaionahanditika?

P10:Yaandakaionabutuumhamungatidzisiriwohere?

P9:Aapapipachomuzuku,mwanangu?Papipacho?Handitindakatokuitiraispecial.Ispecialkayandakatokuitirai.

P10:Iii,koplastering,plastering?

P9:Hiihii, zvinebasarakawanda. Ii chibvisaimmmmmmmm. {NS}mmmmmmmm.Chibvisaihoraiti,hundreddollars.

P10:Ii,kotikabvisaonefiftyinsteadzvinodii?

P9:Mhm,mhm,mhm,onetwenty-five.Chibvisaihenyuonetwenty-fivechete.


215

P10:Onefiftykani.Handitifoodtinoproviderhere?

P9:Okas longas pane nyama then horaiti one fifty yacho. Asimunondipa nyamaeveryday.{LG}Todanyama,ndokutitiwanesimbarachorokushandaka.

P10:Aaokonefiftyasimunowanamatembachete.

P9:Hiimunengemandibaya.Ndingamwadororachoseikanandikadyamatemba?Horaitichibvisaonefiftyasimondipabasareroofingne,yaamondiparoofing.

P10: Aa ok inoita. Tozotaura nyaya yeroofing kana. Yaa tozotaura mumwe musiroofingyachotinozotaura.

P9:Horaitisakaimichirongaimuunzwezvesezvinofana,zvatinofanirakushandisazvachozvigarirekunohanditi.

P10:Aaok,ok.Aamadhiramhumunodamangani?

P9:Munemalitresmanganiimi?Munemalitresmangani?Aaaaa.

P10:Tinetwohundredlitresmaviri.Matwohundredlitresmaviri.

P9: Just bring ese ari two because toda mvura yakawanda zvisingaiti especiallypakutangaapa.Pafoundationpanotodamazimvuraasingaiti.Hamhenokutindiyaniachachera.

P9:Aahoraitihoraiti.Aa togadzirisa.Ndouyisa twohundred,matwohundredlitresmaviri.

P9:Horaiti,koanocheramvurayachondiyani?Makamuwanahere?

P10:Haeeee.

P9:Inocherwepimvurayacho?Kuboreholeherekanakutiinobvakukurwiziuko?

P10: Aa that’s the plan kuti icherwe kuborehole. Kana yazoshaikwawo tozoindakumugodhi.

P9: Ok asi kure hmmm. Ndomunzwira tsitsi. Hope munhu wacho haacomplainbecauseuum ,kuresazvisingamboitikukwaurikudakuti icherwemvura iyi.Haisikanafourhundredmetreshereuchisundabhara?Iizvakaoma.

P10:Aawewillsee.Kanaakazvitadzawototoitazvengoro.

P9:{LG}Ndinemunhuanokwanisakuitazvengorokanawakoaramba.Letmeknowchete.

P10: Aa horaiti. Hamheno kuda zvengoro zvingatoshanda. Asi anocherera anengeachingodikwafuti.Hamheno,tichangoona.

P9:Haahoraiti.SoaaIguessyouarereadytostarthanditi?


216

P10:Yaaaslongasmuchi,aslongasmuchishandabasarenyuhaatoOtongoona.

P9: Yaa haa as long as imi muchibhadhara after every stage then tinopedzanokukasira.

P10: Ok aa we will try asi kana zvangonetsawo tinongoitawo zvikwereti zvachoizvozvo.

P9:Sakaiweurikuwatikusvikariiniiwewe?

P10:AamuumtwoSeptemberkanakutilateAugust.

P9:Haamuchirivekuno.Tinengetarovandimabythetimeyaunodzokeraiwe.

P10:Aahopefully.

P9: Mm. Haa ini kana ndatanga something ndotozozorora ndapedza. {LG}Ndozozorora ndapedza ini. Handitomboiti zvokutamba. Tinorova basazvisingatomboiti.

P10:Haabuttakeyourtime.Hatidizvokutimuresve.Takeyourtime.{LG}

P9:Haano,no,no. Ndonyatsoitagraft nemazvobut ndinondino, ndine speed futi.That’swhy vanhu vaunoona kuto vanhu vazhinji vachiuya vachinditora pano apabecauseuumvanozivakutimufaceanorovabasarake.(clearsthroat)

P10:Uumthenndozowanarimwebasakana,kanamukangemaitazvakanaka.Haandowana rimwe basa because ndoda kuti, pane zvatiri kuda futi kutimugadzirisesakatetichingozonzwakwamurihanditi?

P9:Haashuwashuwashuwa?Zvebasandozvatotodakutimariirambeichingopida.Mabasaachoarikunetsazvisingaiti.

P10: Asi munoziva henyu kuti makanyorerana pasi kuti tobhadhara kanatanyatsogutsikana neeverything zvamunenge maita. Kwete kuti tongokupai maritakanyarara.

P9:Haayaayaayaandozvizivamuzukuru,mwanangu.Haandozviziva,ndozvizivahaa.Kanamagutsikanainindikagutsikanawothenhaatobvatabhadharanazvedu.

P10: Aa saka chiverengai contract iyi. Inotsanangura everything chatakawirirana.Beparachoirisakanerimwerachoiri.Sakaimirenyuiri,ranguiri.Kanamaverengamosaina.Kanamasainathenmozondidzosera.

P9:Okhaaregandigozonoverengerakumba.Haawatindinganyanyoverengerakunohere?Zvodakuverengwazvakawandisa.Handitiwanyorachaizvochaizvohereiwe?Sakahaaregaindingonoverengerakumba.

P10:Butmusainemugodzokanaromangwanahanditi?


217

P9: Haa horaiti ndodzoka naro, ndodzoka naro. Saka ndiyani anofana kutangakusaina? Ndiri kuona pane panoda kuiswa signature yakoka apa. Saka ndiyanianofanirwakusainafirstapa?

P10: Uum ini ndinofanirwa kusaina asi kana imi masa, saka ini ndosaina. Regaindisaine.Ndipei,ndipeindisaine.Kanandasainathen,ndipeioo.(penscribbling)Okinindasaina.Nedate regainditsvetedate ranhasi.Yaa, then imimozonosainakanamaverengamagutsikana.Handiti?

P9: Haa horaiti muzuku,mwanangu. Ndongogara ndichingokutimuzukuru nokutiukama hwacho hwakapindanaka. Vana baba vako vanonditi baba, iwe wakunditibaba futi saka haa ukama hwacho hwapindana. Ndokwanisa kuti muzukurukahanditi?{LG}

P10:Okuum,horaitiuum.Chiregaindibayeinihanditi.Asiasikunzekwekutikanamunezvamunodahenyukutititaure.

P9:Haahapachina.Regandimbotendererandichionahangukutipakamiraseithenndozo, tozotaura mangwana. (. . .) {NS} Haa ndaona haa pakanaka. Level yachoyakanaka.Isutongo,tozotauramangwanandokutizvinake.Thenfromtomorrowhaakurovabasa.Usatombondityirazvakokana.Horaiti bhabhai.wonofarisamudhara,horaiti.

P10:Okseeyoutomorrow.


a corpus-based analysis of code-switching in the oral

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