a content analysis of prairie perspectives: geographical essays, … · 2019. 11. 27. · bernard...

Bernard D. Thraves

ISSN 1911-581439Prairie Perspectives: Geographical Essays 2019, 21: 39–51

A content analysis of Prairie Perspectives

A content analysis of Prairie Perspectives: GeographicalEssays, 1998–2018

Bernard D. ThravesDepartment of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Regina

Prairie Perspectives: Geographical Essays was first published in 1998. Since then a further 19 annual volumes have been pro-duced. Papers appearing in the journal are not restricted to prairie topics or themes. Rather they reflect the research interests of prairie-based geographers. These range from the local to the international. Of the 215 papers published between 1998 and 2018, 151 (70.2%) focus wholly or in part on prairie topics, and 34 (15.8%) on international subjects. Scholarship by students as lone, first, or second authors is presented in 130 (60.5%) papers. Papers are identified in 30 geography sub-disciplines. Among these, papers in biogeography, cultural geography, weather and climate, urban geography, and tourism and recreation appear with greatest frequency. Identifiable research themes or topics include papers on flooding, water resource conserva-tion, climate change, grasslands ecology, and urban planning. Questionnaires and fieldwork are reported on in 67 (31.2%) and 46 (21.4%) papers respectively, with results commonly supported by the use of descriptive and inferential statistics. Papers are liberally illustrated with one or more maps appearing in 158 (73.5%) papers. Photographs, bar charts, line graphs, and scatter-plots are also employed widely in support of research findings. Keywords: authors, locational focus, geography sub-disciplines, research tools, illustrative materials

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Correspondence to: [email protected]

Introduction

Key Messages• Papers range across 30 geography sub-disciplines with those in biogeography, cultural geography, weather and climate,

urban geography, and tourism and recreation featuring most often.• Papersutiliseanarrayofresearchtoolsincludingfieldwork,questionnaires,remotesensing,GIS,statisticalanalysis,labora-

tory analysis, and archival research.• Studentscholarshipisfeaturedinoverhalfthepapers.

Prairie Division of the CanadianAssociation of Geographers(PCAG)was founded in 1977with the departments of geog-raphyatuniversities inManitobaandSaskatchewanidentifiedas founding institutions. In 1980,University ofNorthDakotawasgrantedaffiliatedstatus in theDivision,aswasLakeheadUniversity(ThunderBay)in2011.Thefirstannualconferenceand businessmeeting of PCAGwas hosted byBrandonUni-versity in September 1977 atWasagaming, RidingMountain

NationalPark,Manitoba.Since thenmeetingshavebeenheldannually with member institutions serving as hosts in rotation. Between1977and1997selectedpapersfromtheannualmeet-ings were published by the hosting institutions in several dif-ferent geographic series and in various formats. For example, in1979UniversityofReginahostedtheannualmeetinginFortSan,Saskatchewanwithpapersfromthemeetingpublishedasvolume 3 of Regina Geographical Studies (Seaborne 1980).Similarly,BrandonUniversityhostedthe1995meetinginDau-phin, Manitoba. Papers from that meeting were published as

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volume1ofBrandon Geographical Studies(WelstedandEver-itt 1991).While this arrangementworked satisfactorily, a de-sire to improve access to the scholarship of prairie geographers and to standardize the format of proceedings created pressure to publishthemunderasingletitle.Thissituationresultedinthecreation of a new journal, Prairie Perspectives: Geographical Essays.Since1997,printingandpublicationofthejournalhavebeenentrustedtotheDepartmentofGeography,UniversityofWinnipeg,whilecopyrightofeachvolumehas remainedwiththehostinginstitutions.Thecontentanalysisthatfollowstracestheevolutionofthejournal,thestatusandaffiliationofcontrib-uting authors, the locational and sub-disciplinary focus of their papers, and the tools used in conducting and illustrating their research.

Evolution of Prairie Perspectives

ThefirstvolumeofPrairie Perspectiveswaspublishedin1998followingPCAG’s1997meetinghostedbyUniversityofWin-nipeg in Portage la Prairie. Since 1998, the journal has been

publishedonanannualbasisexceptin2015wheninsufficientsubmissions were received. During this time several innovations have led to changes in the appearance and accessibility of the journal.Foremostamong thesehasbeen thedecision takenatthe2009annualgeneralmeetinginRussell,Manitobatoceasepublishingthejournalinpaperformat.Startingwithvolume13in2010allissuesofPrairie Perspectives have been published online and made available through open access. Publishing on-line and adoption of enhanced publishing software has made the journal available to a potentially unlimited readership, reduced annual publication costs, enabled use of a larger page format with greater standardization of print layout, and made it easier to incorporatecolourimages.Thelatterhasbeenespeciallybenefi-cial for papers displaying remote sensing images, cross sectional diagrams, and other complex illustrations. Other innovations havefollowedtheleadofthe‘parentjournal’—The Canadian Geographer. For example, keywordswere first includedwithpapers in 2002 (volume 5), and contact details for authors in2007(volume10)(Table1).Unfortunately,untilrecentlyuptakeoftheseinnovationswasnotuniversal.Thissituationreflectedthechangeineditorshipthataccompanieseachvolume,thelack

Table 1 Chronology of PCAG meeting locations, hosting institutions, and associated publication record of Prairie Perspectives, 1997 to 2018

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of communication between editors, and the absence of any edi-torialoversight.Theappointmentofaneditor-in-chieffollowingtheMelfortmeeting in2016hashelpedeliminate theseprob-lems and has provided greater overall consistency in editorial standards.

In2018(Volume20),twoadditionalfeatureswereincludedin Prairie Perspectives. First, news from the member depart-ments in the Division was presented under the banner ‘Across theDivision.’Theintentofthissectionistorecordsignificantnews from each department such as appointments, retirements, major program initiatives, awards, faculty and student achieve-ments,andotherimportanteventsandmilestones.Theexpecta-tionisthatthereportingperiodshouldreflectactivityintheyearprecedingtheannualmeetingofPCAG.Thesecondnewfeatureprovides brief biographical notes on contributing authors under thebanner‘About theAuthors.’Theintentof thefeatureis toraise theprofileofauthors,especially thosewhoarenewfac-ulty members or students, and to provide readers with a means by which they might more easily recognize or collaborate with them.

The number of papers published in Prairie Perspectives hasfluctuatedovertheyearsandhasdeclinednoticeablysincetheheadydaysof theearly2000s (Table1).During the latterperiod consideration was given to publishing two volumes of papers each year, an option which was soon rejected when the additional cost and editorial commitment was determined. Incontrast, the decrease in submissions over the last decade has caused some concern over the long-term viability of the jour-nal.Theretirementofmanylong-servingfacultymemberswithsignificantpublicationrecords inPrairie Perspectives appears linked to this decrease.Not surprisingly, thedemise in recentyears of other regional geography journals such as the Great Lakes Geographerin2006andtheBulletin of the Association of

North Dakota Geographers in2013hasheightenedawarenessof this concern.

Status and affiliation of authors

Prairie Perspectives is not a front line journal. As such it is rela-tivelymore accessible to individuals seeking their first publi-cation.Of the 215 papers published between 1998 and 2018,130(60.5%)present thescholarshipofstudentseitheras lone(14.0%),first(32.6%),orsecond(14.0%)authors.Studentau-thorship is found in all volumes. For purposes of analysis, lone and first authors of papers are identified as either academics,students, or other professionals (e.g., planning consultants).Onthisbasis,110ofthe215(51.2%)paperswereauthoredbyacademics,100(46.5%)bystudents,andfive(2.3%)byotherprofessionals (Figure1).Amonguniversities inManitobaandSaskatchewan,thenumberofstudentauthorshipswasgreatestatBrandonUniversitywith21papers, and least atUniversityofReginawith15papers.StudentauthorshipsfrominstitutionsbeyondPrairieDivisionalsoaccountedfor15papers.

Most papers in Prairie Perspectives reflect theresearchofacademicsandstudentsatthefiveuniversitiesinManitobaandSaskatchewanplus theUniversityofNorthDakotaandLake-headUniversity.Figure2showstheacademicaffiliationofpri-mary(loneorfirst)authors.ClearlyauthorsfromtheUniversityofWinnipeg andBrandonUniversity have helped sustain thejournalandtogetheraccountfor104(48.4%)ofthe215paperspublished.Figure2alsoshowsthatthereisatendencyforthedistribution of papers to favour hosting institutions. For exam-ple, in2003UniversityofWinnipeghosted theannualPCAGmeetingandin2004accountedforeight(44.4%)ofthe18pa-pers published in volume 7.However, this relationship is far

Figure 1 Number of papers by author status

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fromuniversalorconsistent. In1998,UniversityofSaskatch-ewanhostedtheannualmeetingbutin1999accountedforonlytwo(14.3%)ofthe14paperspublishedinvolume2.Incontrast,BrandonUniversityaccountedfor8(57.1%)papersinthatyear.TherelativelyhighandconsistentnumberofpapersproducedbyfacultyandstudentsfromBrandonmaybeattributed,atleastin part, to the central location of the institution within the Di-vision, and to the comparative ease with which its faculty and students can attend conferences hosted by other institutions. However,thisfactorwouldnotaccountforthestillhighernum-berofpaperspublishedbyfacultyandstudentsatUniversityofWinnipeg,whichoccupiesarelativelyeccentriclocationwithintheDivision.Morelikelythehighnumberofpapersassociatedwithbothinstitutionsreflectsthestrengthoftheirundergraduatehonours programs and the cooperation and encouragement pro-vided by faculty to students in support of publication.

Locational focus of papers

Papers published in Prairie Perspectives are not restricted to prairietopicsorthemes.Rathertheyreflecttheresearchinterestsof prairie-based geographers, which may range from the local totheinternational.Consequently,only138of215(64.2%)pa-persfocusexclusivelyonprairietopicswithafurther13(6.0%)papers addressing topics which combine or contrast prairie and non-prairieenvironments(Table2).Forexample,thelatterin-cludesMcGregoretal.’s(2004)studyoftheroleofgovernmentincrossboundarydiffusionofHutteritecoloniesfromtheUnit-ed States toCanada between 1917 and 2003. Paperswith aninternationalfocuscomprise34of215(15.8%)papers,feature24countriesorterritories,andallcontinentsbarringAntarctica(Figure3).TheyincludeKeandDale’s(2004)richlyillustrat-ed presentation postulating that an extensive ice sheet covered much of the Mongolian Plateau during the late Quarternary. Pre-

sumably,paperswithaninternationalfocusreflecttheproductof sabbatical leaves and the predilection of geographers for va-cationsspentinexoticplaces.Finally,sixof215(2.8%)papershavenospecificlocationalfocus.ThesepapersincludeSylves-tre’s(1999)studyofaging,andBell’s(2002)studyofGIS.

Sub-disciplinary focus of papers

Geography is at once a diverse and integrating discipline inwhich a large number of sub-disciplines can be identified.Areadingofthe215paperswasconductedtoassesstherelativecontributionofvarioussub-disciplines to thebodyofwork inPrairie Perspectives. In total, 30 sub-disciplines were identi-fied.However,assessingtherelativecontributionofeachsub-discipline poses an immediate problem.Somepapers, for ex-ampleMcGinn’s(2000)studyofglaciotectonicfeaturesintheGlacialLakeProvenBasinoftheRidingMountainUplands,areeasily placed within a single sub-discipline, in this case glacial geomorphology. In contrast, other papers range across twoormoresub-disciplines.Forexample,WisemanandBerta’s(1998)paper on indicator species analysis draws on themes in both bio-geography and natural resource management.

Howthenshouldtherelativecontributionsofsub-disciplinestothebodyofworkinPrairie Perspectivesbemeasured?Twoapproachesaretaken.Inthefirst,acountofoneisgiveneachtimeasub-disciplineisidentified.IntheexamplesgivenabovetheMcGinnpaperscoresacountofoneforglacialgeomorphol-ogy,buttheWisemanandBertapaperscorestwo,oneeachforbiogeographyandnaturalresourcemanagement.Repeatingthisprocedure across all papers and summing the counts for each sub-discipline produces the unweighted counts presented col-umnbofTable3.Fromthisitispossibletoconcludethatbioge-ographyandculturalgeography,eachwithacountof33,makethe greatest single contributions to the overall disciplinary con-

Figure 2 Academic affiliation of primary authors

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Figure 3 International focus of papers

Table 2 Locational focus of papers

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tent of Prairie Perspectives. Conversely, regional planning with acountofjustonemakestheleastcontribution.Thisapproachgeneratesatotalcountof398forallsub-disciplines.

Thesecondapproachsimplyallotsacountofone toeachpaper and in cases where more than one sub-discipline is identi-fiedthecountforeachisdividedbytheirtotalnumber.ThusintheexamplesgivenabovetheMcGinnpaperretainsacountofoneasonlyglacialgeomorphologyisidentified,butintheWise-man andBerta paper both biogeography and natural resourcemanagementareeachassignedacountof0.5.Similarly,forpa-perswherethreesub-disciplinesareidentifiedeachisassigneda count of 0.33, and in papers with four sub-disciplines each is givenacountof0.25,andsoon.Whenthisweightingprocedureis applied in all papers where multiple sub-disciplinesareidentified,thetotalcountforallsub-disciplinesaddsto215,thesamecountasthenumberofpapers(Table3,columnd).Asaresult of the procedure the counts are reduced for all but three sub-disciplines. Also, some change is observed in the rank order of thesub-disciplines.Most noticeably the ranks offrontier settlement (−9), historical geography(−7), and social geography (−7) are reducedwhilst the ranks of glacial geomorphology(+12.5)andtransportationandcommunication(+6.5)areincreased(Table3,columnf).Over-all, however, the relative contribution of the 30 sub-disciplinestothebodyofworkinPrairie Perspectivesshowsonlymodestchange.Irre-spective of which counting procedure is adopt-ed,thesamesub-disciplinesarerankedwithinthetopsix.Confirmationofastrongrelation-ship between the two counting procedures is providedbyaSpearman’srankcorrelationofrs=0.880.

Research themes

Inadditiontotheirsub-disciplinaryfocusmanypapers can be grouped by specific researchthemesor topicssuchasflooding,watercon-servation, climate change, grassland ecology, andurbanplanning.Inthecontextofflooding,thedynamicsofRedRiverfloods,bothhistoricand recent, are the subject of several papers by Rannie (1998, 2002, and 2003). Elsewhere,Haque and Rahman (1998) andHaque et al.(2001)havefocusedonpublicexperiencesofrecentfloodingeventsintheRedRiverValley,andon institutional responses to thefloodingwhich show evidence of poor communication between experts and members of the pubic. As partof the response to repeatedfloodevents,Fraser and Storie (2013) examine a range ofgeospatial indicators to determine where for-

Table 3 Relative contribution of geography sub-disciplines to the body of work in Prairie Perspectives

mer wetlands in southern Manitoba might be re-established and newonescreatedaspartofaprogramoffloodmitigation.

Water resource conservation is a vital concern in prairieenvironmentswherewaterdeficitsanddroughtconditionscon-stituteaperennialriskandmayintensifyundercertainclimatechangescenarios.Studiesfocusingonwaterresourceconserva-tioninSaskatchewanincludeWangandPatrick’s(2014)criticalassessmentoffive sourcewaterprotectionplans.Still inSas-katchewan,Kitamura et al. (2018) stress the need for greatercommunity-researcher collaboration in maintaining water secu-rity. In relatedwork,Paton et al. (2007) focus onwastewaterreclamationandre-use in theClearLakewatershedofRidingMountainNationalPark,Manitoba.Elsewhere,Patrick(2009)

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Table 4 Research tools adopted by authors

identifies capacity-related factors that constrain source waterprotectionat the localwaterpurveyor level inBritishColum-bia’sOkanaganValley.

Investigatingtheimplicationsofclimatechangeformsare-current theme throughout Prairie Perspectives.Heetal.(2005)assesstheeffectsofenhancedUV-Bradiationoncropproductiv-ityinChina.InnorthernSaskatchewan,LuoandPiwowar(2007)mapchangeinwildfireriskattributabletoexpectedtemperatureand precipitation regimes under future climate change scenarios. Inbroadly similar research,Baidoc andCornwell (2016) turntheirattentiontoCanada’seasternborealforestwheretheymea-surefire ignitionpotential under twoclimate scenarios.Awayfromthestrictlyphysicalrealm,ChowdhuryandHaque(2008)review the communication gap between experts and the public ontherisksassociatedwithclimatechange-inducedheatwavesinWinnipeg.

Not surprisingly perhaps, papers focusing on grasslandsecology form a recurrent theme in Prairie Perspectives.Somehistorical context to the expansion of prairie agriculture at the expenseofnaturalgrasslandsisprovidedbyRannie(2001)inhisdiscussionof the “GrassFireEra”of late18th to the late19th century. With reference to the current era, Black et al.(2005) examinephotosynthesis rates of native and introducedgrassspeciesonslopedanduplandsites in theWestBlockofGrasslandsNational Park (GNP). In related research inGNP,Guoetal.(2005)assessthesuitabilityoftheNDVI(normalizeddifferencevegetation index)and theLAI (leafarea index) forestimating plant biomass and moisture content of mixed-grass prairie.Thesusceptibilityofthemixed-grassprairietoclimatechange isstressedbyPiwowar (2009)andpromptshissearchfor environments, indicator species, and remote sensing data of suitable resolution that will best signify such change.

Urbanplanningandenvironmental issuesarediscussed inseveralpapersonWinnipeg.Theseexploretheriseandfallofthecity’smodernisturbanrenewalproject(WarkentinandVa-chon 2010), parking issues in the downtown (Vachon 2012),theeffectofneoliberalizationinplanningpolicy(WidemanandMasuda2013),andurbanrevitalization(Snyderetal.2006).InBrandon,Morton (1999) examines public perceptions and at-titudes towards the operation of a chemical plant located to the east of the city.

Research tools

Inspection of the 215 papers indicates that authors have em-ployed a wide variety of research tools in conducting their re-search(Table4).Ofthese,theprominentadoptionofstatisticalanalysiswould seem to reflect the legacyof the ‘QuantitativeRevolution’andanacceptedneed toaddprecisionandclaritytoanalysisirrespectiveofsubjectmatter.Inmanypapersindi-vidual research tools such as fieldwork orGIS are not foundin isolationbutareappliedalongsideothers.Table5providesapairwisesummationoftheresearchtoolsdescribedbelow.Itshows,forexample,thatofthe46papersinwhichfieldworkisreported,22alsoincludetheuseofinferentialstatisticalmeth-

odsbutonlyonepresentsarchivalresearch.Thetableconfirmsa strong association between the use of descriptive statistics and all other research tools.

Adoption of descriptive statistics including simple counts, indices, andmeasuresof central tendency is identified in127(59.1%)papers(Table4).Pairwiseanalysisofallpossiblecom-binations of research tools shows that descriptive statistics are foundinassociationwithsecondarydatain50papers,andwithinferential statisticsmethods and fieldwork in over 40 paperseach(Table5).Inferentialstatisticsarerecordedin55(25.6%)papers(Table4).Pairwiseanalysisreveals that inferentialsta-tistical methods are found most commonly with descriptive statistics (45 papers), and to a lesser degree in papers report-ingfieldwork(22), remotesensing(18),anduseofsecondarydata(18)(Table5).Inferentialstatisticalmethodscomprisebothparametric and non-parametric analyses.

Awiderangeofparametricstatisticalanalysesisidentified.Asingleexampleofeachshouldsufficetoillustratetherangeof topics and environments investigated by prairie geographers. Startingintheagriculturalsector,QuiringandBlair(2000)usemultiple regression analysis to assess the utility of teleconnection indicesinforecastingcropyieldsinSaskatchewan.IntheDonRiverwatershedofOntario,Sadowski(2002)appliesbivariatelinear regression analysis to investigate relationships between chloride concentrations from road salting and the abundance andspeciesdiversityofamphibians.Lewisetal.(2002)employPearson’sproduct-momentcorrelationanalysisininvestigatingthepatternofcrimeinBrandon,Manitoba.Elsewhere,severalstudies combine correlation and linear regression analyses, and testforsignificanceusingtheStudent’sT-test.Thesestudiesin-cludeScottandOrlandini’s(2002)analysisofpointsourcepol-lutionofsoilswithcopperandzincfromtheHudsonBayMin-ingandSmeltingCompany’s(HBM&S)base-metalsmelterinFlin Flon, Manitoba. Among other parametric statistical meth-ods, principal components analysis is applied byHansen and

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Table 5 Pairwise frequency of research tools adopted by authors

Hemmasi(2001)toexplorelevelsofdevelopmentamongstatesoftheOrganizationofIslamicConference(OIC);andanalysisofvarianceisusedbyCaronetal.(2016)inevaluatingmultiplesourcesofsedimentinthelowerLittleBowRiver,Alberta.

Therangeofnon-parametric tests identifiedisequallyim-pressive.Thefollowingprovidesjustafewexamplesthat,onceagain, illustrate the diversity of research conducted by prairie-based geographers. Startingwith chi square analysis, Hansen(2004)applies the technique incontrasting theworkplaceandsocioeconomicadjustmentchallengesofmaleandfemaleBos-nianrefugeesresettledinFargo,NorthDakota.Awayfromthehuman realm,Werner et al. (2013) apply a two-sample Kol-mogorov-Smirnovtestinestablishingthehomogeneous-hetero-geneous vegetation transition as an indicator for shoreline map-pingatBirdCoveontheHudsonBaycoastline.Inananalysisoflargeprairiecities,WoutersandPeters(2007)useSpearman’srankcorrelationtoexaminetherelationshipbetweenAboriginalsettlementpatternsandvarioushousingcharacteristics.AtBran-donUniversity,SpinneyandKerr(2018)turntheirattentiontothe classroom where they apply both Spearman’s and Kend-all’srankcorrelationanalysesinassessingstudentperceptionsontheeffectivenessofclickersinenhancingtheirengagementand achievement in an introductory physical geography class. MovingtothePacificcoastofBritishColumbia,MalcolmandDuffus (2003) employ aMann-WhitneyU-test in contrastingthebackgroundknowledge andmotivationofwhalewatcherspartakinginexcursionsfromVictoriaandTofino.OntheAssini-boineRiverinBrandon,TerryandMcGinn(1998)useaWilcox-onmatched-pairssigned-rankstesttocomparedailysuspendedsediment loads recorded at three sites to assess the effectiveness ofafloatingturbiditybarrier.Lastbutnotleast,HendersonandPiwowar (2007) turn theirattention tonorthernSaskatchewanwheretheyemployaKruskal-Wallis(analysisofvariance)H-testtodetermineifthereareanydifferencesinAVHRRNDVI(advanced very high radiation radiometer normalized difference vegetation index)values for selectedmonthsover aperiodofseveralyears;andinrelatedanalysistheyapplyaKolmogorov-SmirnovD-testtoconductpairwisetestingofthesamedataset.

Questionnaires and related research instruments such as sur-veys,interviewswithkeyinformants,focusgroupdiscussions,andparticipantobservationare reportedon in67 (31.2%)pa-pers(Table4).Ofthese,37employdescriptivestatistics(Table5).Lesser associations are identified for theuseof secondarydata (13), essays and reviews (11), and inferential statistics(10).Amongthepapers,DilleyandLindberg(2009)employacombinationofparticipantobservationandquestionnairewithsnowball sampling to investigate the motivation and experi-enceofsurfersonLakeSuperior.Everittetal.(2005)reportoninterviewswithkey informants regarding thestatusofserviceprovision for senior residents of selected towns in Manitoba and Saskatchewan.InSaskatoon,FedecandArchibald(1999)sur-veyusersof theMeewasinTrail todetermine theirneedsanddesires.Notleast,inParaguay,CipkoandLehr’s(2006)studyofUkrainiansettlementaspart thatgroup’sglobaldiaspora isinformedbyinterviews.Otherexamplesofquestionnairesandrelated research implements can be found inMorton (1999),Lewisetal.(2002),ChowdhuryandHaque(2008),andSpinneyandKerr(2018).

Presentation of secondary data is identified in 59 (27.4%)papers(Table4)ofwhich50(84.7%)employdescriptivestatis-ticsand18(30.5%)inferentialdataanalysis(Table5).Theuseofsecondarydataiswideranging.Frequentlyemployedsourcesinclude national statistical agencies, government reports, and publishedacademicworks.Amongthepapers,BohiandKozma(2008) refer to records of theDominionBureau of Statistics,andsubmissionsbytheCNRandCPRto theRoyalCommis-siontoInquireintoRailwaysandTransportationinCanadaintheir evaluationof interwar rail construction inSaskatchewanandAlberta. South of the border, Kingsbury (2016) employsdata from theMinnesotaDepartment ofEducation, theNorthDakotaGISHubDataPortal,and the2010USCensus tode-termine suitable school placements for teacher education candi-dates.InGermany,SiemerandMatthews-Hunter(2017)accessBerlinOpenDatatoconstructaseriesofmapsshowingtheevo-lutionofgentrificationinthecity.Stilloverseas,Hathout(2004)drawsonrecordsofStatisticsSouthAfrica,reportsintheSouth

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African Daily News,andpayrollrecordstoquantifyandexplainthe movement of doctors from the public to the private sector in SouthAfrica’shealthcaresystem,andtotheiremigrationfromSouthAfrica.

Essays,reviews,viewpoints,andrelateditemsarepresentedin58(27.0%)papers(Table4).Ofthese,descriptivestatisticsare found in16 (27.6%)papers, andquestionnairesor relatedtoolsin11(19.0%)papers.Otherresearchtoolsaremuchlessevident,andfieldwork,GISandlaboratoryanalysisarenotre-corded at all (Table 5).Examples of essays and related itemsincludePaul’s (2008)descriptionof thechallengingoperatingconditionsandgrain/raillandscapeoftheNorthernPlainsRail-roadashetravelsitsroutefromThiefRiverFalls,MinnesotatoKenmare,NorthDakota.InManitoba,Beattie(2016)recallsthepost-WorldWarIIinitiativeoftheManitobaTravelandPublic-ityBureautopromoteanantimodernisttourismexperienceasaboosttoeconomicgrowthandstability.ElsewhereinManitoba,BautistaandUdarbe(2001)guidethereaderthroughthelifehis-toryoftwoFilipinoimmigrantfamiliesinWinnipeg.AgaininWinnipeg,Golby(2000)providesacriticalreviewoftheemer-gence of gated communities. Other essays include critical as-sessmentsofadultentertainmentestablishments(SelwoodandKohm1998),utopias(Zubrycki2007),theWorldTradeCenter(PatrickandMacDonald2012),andprairiewhiteness(Herman2017).

Fieldwork,typicallyinvolvingsampling,measurement,andinstrumentation,isreportedin46(21.4%)papers(Table4).Ofthese,descriptivestatisticsare identifiedin43(93.5%)paperswith inferential statistical methods (22), laboratory analysis(21), and remote sensing (18) alsocommonly reported (Table5).Mostpapersreportingfieldworkpursuetopicsinglacialgeo-morphology, biogeography, hydrology, or soils. For example, McGinn (2018) transports the reader to the lateWisconsinan(20,000to11,000BP)toexplainthecreationofforcedmean-dersandglaciofluvialdepositsintheMcFaddenValley-PoloniaTrenchoftheRidingMountainUplands,Manitoba.AgainintheRidingMountainUplands,Burton andMcGinn (2008) inves-tigate the limnological and macronutrient regimes of pothole lakes todeterminetheirsuitabilityforcreatingasportfishery.Richea(2002)setouttodeterminenaturalstreamflowandthefrequencyofhistoricalfloodsintheDuckMountainregionofManitoba.Scott(2000)measuressoilaciditydownwindoftheHBM&SsmelterinFlinFlon.FieldworkisalsoevidentintheaforementionedworksbyTerryandMcGinn(1998),Sadowski(2001),Scott andOrlandini (2002),Werner et al. (2013), andCaronetal.(2016).

Remotesensingisidentifiedin41(19.1%)papers(Table4).Pairwise analysis of research tools shows that descriptive statis-ticsareemployedin30(73.2%)ofthesepapers(Table5).Otherfrequent associateduses are identified for inferential statistics(18) andfieldwork (18).Applicationsof satellitederiveddataarefoundinHendersonandPiwowar’s(2007)aforementionedstudyofborealforestresponsetomoisturestress.InGrasslandsNationalPark,Yangetal.(2011)selectnineexperimentalplotsto test theassumption that theyhavesimilarvegetation(LAI)conditionspriortoconductingagrazingexperiment.InMoose

Jaw,Saskatchewan,Travlandetal.(2017)employhighresolu-tion aerial photographs to identify land cover/land-use informa-tionpriortorecommendingsuitabletrailsitesintheWakamowValley.AgaininMooseJaw,Pengetal.(2018)comparefloodzonesdefinedbyhistoricaldataandpointcloudLIDARdata.Other papers employing remote sensing includeSimpson andHathout (1998),Guoetal. (2005),Piwowar (2009), andDoffandRandall(2017).

GISareappliedin30(14.0%)papers(Table4)ofwhich19(63.3%)includeuseofdescriptivestatisticsand15(50.0%)ap-plyremotesensing(Table5).PapersapplyingGISincludeDoffandRandall’s (2017) development of anurban forest benefitsmodeltooptimizetreeplantinginThunderBay,Ontario.AlsoinOntario,Buck(2009)appliesGISanalysistoassessthebathym-etryoftheSt.MarysRiverchannelasdepictedinacartographicrecordspanningfourcenturies.InsoutheasternManitoba,Smithet al. (1999) employGIS toproduce a seriesofmaps tracingtheprogressofUkrainianpioneersettlementbetween1896and1940.Simpson andHathout (1998)build aGISmodelwhichis sensitive to engineering, environment, and social consider-ations in determining an optimum route for an all-weather road connectingFirstNation communities in the remote areas eastof LakeWinnipeg.Other applications ofGIS technology canbefoundintheaforementionedstudiesbyLewisetal.(2002),Yangetal.(2011),Werneretal.(2013),Travlandetal.(2017),andPengetal.(2018).

Archival-based research is evident in 29 (13.5%) papers(Table4),ofwhich11alsoemploydescriptivestatistics(Table5).Amongthese,Rannie(2006)turnstoeye-witnessaccountsandhistoricalmaterialsinHudson’sBayCompanyArchivesanddiaries, and letters in Archives of Manitoba to identify wet years intheeasternprairiesandnorthwesternOntarioduringthe19thcentury.McGregorandLehr(2016)searchArchivesofMani-toba school formation files to provide a detailed cartographicrecord of the agricultural settlement of the Canadian prairies be-tween1870and1930.Hamilton(2002)conductsasearchofNa-tionalArchivesofCanada,SaskatchewanArchives,andSociétéHistoriqueSaint-Bonifacerecordstoexplainthepatternoflatenineteenth and early twentieth century francophone settlement in southwesternSaskatchewan.SelwoodandBrayshay (2007)reviewHudson’sBayCompanyArchivestointerpretthesignifi-canceofGovernorCooper’svisittotheeasternArcticin1934.OtherarchivalresearchisevidentinSmithetal.(1999),Rannie(2001,2002,2003),Hanuta(2002),andBuck(2009).

Laboratoryanalysisisidentifiedin22(10.2%)papers(Table4).Of these, descriptive statistics andfieldwork are each em-ployedin21(95.5%)papers,andinferentialstatisticalmethodsin10(45.5%)papers(Table5).Thecloseassociationbetweenlaboratoryanalysisandfieldworkisnotsurprising.Itisevidentin the aforementioned papers by Scott (2000), Scott and Or-landini (2002),Sadowski (2002),BurtonandMcGinn (2008),andCaronet al. (2016).Other examples areprovidedbyHa-nuta(2002)whoinvestigatestherelationshipbetweentreeringwidths and monthly mean precipitation in bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) stands in Birds Hill Provincial Park, Manitoba;andbyKotowichandHardenbicker(2014)whoanalyzethein-

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fluenceofagriculturalland-usechangesonsedimentdepositionintwoalluvialfansintheQu’AppelleValley,Saskatchewan.

Illustrations

Perhaps more than academics in other scholarly disciplines, ge-ographers tend to employ a wide range of illustrations in sup-portof theirresearchfindings.Useof20different typesof il-lustrationisidentifiedinthe215papers(Table6).Theyincludemaps, photographs, various types of graph, and remote sensing images.Of thepapersunder review,184 (85.6%) includeoneormore illustrations.Beyond this, assessing the relative con-tributionofthevarioustypesofillustrationtothebodyofworkin Prairie Perspectives posesaproblem.Essentially therearetwo approaches by which illustrations can be counted. First, they can be counted strictly in accordance with their captions. Inthis‘limited’approach‘Figure1’wouldcountasoneillus-tration,and‘Figure2’countasasecondillustration,andsoon(Table6,columnb).Thisseemslogicalenoughexceptthat inmanycasesmultipleillustrations—whethermaps,photographsoranyothertypeofillustration—arepresentedasasinglefigurewhereastheycouldequallybecountedasmultiplefigures.Anexampleofwherethisoccurs is inKeandDale’s(2004,201)presentationof twomapsasasinglefigure,despiteeachhav-

ing a distinct cartographic style and showing the distribution of glacial landforms in two quite separate locations—China andtheUnitedStates.AsimilarsituationoccurswhenScott(2010,74–76) includes photographs showing before and after viewstodepictthedevastatingimpactoflaharscausedbySuperTy-phoonReminginthePhilippines.Examinationofthe215papersindicates that there is little consistency among authors in assign-ingmultiple illustrations toeitherasinglefigureor toseveralfigures.Becauseofthis,asecondapproachisproposedinwhichallmultiple illustrations are counted as separate figures.This‘expanded’approachresultsinanincreaseinthecountofmanytypesofillustration(Table6,columnd).However,therelativerankofeachillustrationtyperemainslargelyunchanged(Table6,columnf)withaverystrongSpearman’srankcorrelationof rs=0.944recordedforthetwocounts.Onecanconcludefromthis that the above approaches have much the same merit in as-sessing the relative contribution of the various types of illustra-tiontothebodyofworkinPrairie Perspectives.

Unsurprisinglyperhaps,irrespectiveofwhichcountingap-proach is applied,maps are identified as the singlemost im-portant tool by which prairie geographers have illustrated their research. Maps identifying study areas are presented in 157(73.0%)papers.Photographshavealsobeenwidelyused.Theyappearin42(19.5%)papers,andofteninlargenumbers.Whentakentogether,thefrequentinclusionofmapsandphotographs

would seem to express the clear intent of au-thorstofirmlyplacethereaderintheresearchenvironment.Bar charts and line graphs, andillustrations combining both, also appear with regularity. Collectively, maps, photographs, bar charts,andlinegraphsaccountfornearly80%of all illustrations irrespective of which count-ing approach is used. Many other illustrations including histograms, population pyramids, andpiediagramsappearmuchlessfrequently.Finally,illustrationsareentirelyabsentfrom17(7.9%)papers.Thelatterincludeasuiteofpa-pers which focus on geographical elements in theliteraryworksofMargaretLaurence(Payne2001), the diary of Elizabeth Posthuma Sim-coe (Murnaghan 2012), the spiritual writingsof theT’ang dynasty poet Li Po (Holub andSimpson-Housley2001),andthesenseofplaceexperiencedbyGreyOwl(ArchieBelaney)inCanada’sprovincialnorths(Simpson-HousleyandWilliams2002).

The field trips

Field trips have formed an integral part of PCAG annual meetings from the start. Typi-cally, they have been organized by the hosting institutions and presented on Saturday after-noons following the morning paper sessions. The first field trip guides to be published in

Table 6 Comparatives frequency of illustrations appearing in Prairie Perspectives

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Prairie Perspectivesappearedin2003(volume6),butforsomeyearsthereaftertheywerepublishedonlyoccasionally(Table7).Since2014(volume17),fieldtripguideshavebeenpublishedmoreregularly.Inadditiontotheirintrinsicvalueasguidestoaspects of local and regional geography, the guides help serve as arecordofPCAG’sactivities.Sadly,however,althoughagroupphotographhasoftenbeentakenduringfieldtrips,ononlyoneoccasion (2007)hasaphotograph showingassembledpartici-pantsbeenincludedinthejournal(volume11).Consequently,arecordofthisfeatureofPCAG’sactivitieshasbeenlost.Moreoptimistically, it ishoped that futurefield tripswillbe recog-nized for theirmerit and historical significance, and continuetobepublished inassociationwithallPCAGmeetings.Also,perhaps thought should be given to dusting off and updating field trip guides from earliermeetings,which until nowhaveremained unpublished.

Conclusion

Sincefirstpublicationin1998,Prairie Perspectives: Geograph-ical Essays has provided a medium for research conducted by prairie-based geographers. As indicated above, papers have been published across a wide spectrum of geography sub-dis-ciplinesandresearchthemesreflectingtopics inbothphysicaland humangeography. Selected papers provide evidence of awide variety of research tools and illustrative devices employed indeterminingandpresentingtheresultsofresearch.Thejour-nal has provided an important platform for students and young academicsseekingtheirfirstpublications.Periodicinnovationsin content and layout, plus the adoption of online publication, have added rigour to the journal and improved its accessibility. Prairie Perspectives has survived in an era in which other re-gional journals have ceased publication. Attention now needs to focus on encouraging manuscript submissions and maintaining thejournal’shighstandardofcontentandpresentationasexhib-ited in recent volumes under the guidance of its editor-in-chief.

Baidoc,R.,andA.R.Cornwell.2016.Usingfinefuelmoisturecodesto understand the effects of climate change on the eastern boreal forests of Canada. Prairie Perspectives18:42–49.

Bautista,D.,andJ.Udarbe.2001.FromManilatoManitoba:FamilyhistoryandFilipinomigration toWinnipeg.Prairie Perspectives 4:232–242.

Beattie,H.A.2016.‘Howtolivetobe100…withManitoba’shelp!’Natureandantimoderntourisminpost-warManitoba.Prairie Per-spectives18:85–91.

Bell,S.2002.GISforthepeople:Cognitiveerrorsanddatarestrictions.Prairie Perspectives5:308–317.

Black,S.,X.Guo,andC.Zhang.2005.Evaluationofphotosynthesisrates of introduced and native species in a mixed grassland ecosys-tem. Prairie Perspectives8:1–10.

Bohi,C.W.,andL.S.Kozma.2008.InterwarrailconstructioninSas-

katchewan andAlberta:An evaluation.Prairie Perspectives 11:45–70.

Buck,P.L.2009.Snapshotsofchange:ApplyingGIStoachronologyof historic charts of theSt.MarysRiver,Ontario andMichigan.Prairie Perspectives12:1–22.

Burton,A.W.,andR.A.McGinn.2008.Limnologicalandmacronutri-entregimesinpotentialsportfishery‘potholelakes’ofsouthwest-ern Manitoba. Prairie Perspectives11:131–171.

Caron,M.,D.A.Lobb, J. J.Miller,K.Liu,andP.N.Owens.2016.SedimentfingerprintingintheLowerLittleBowRiverusingCs-137asatracer.Prairie Perspectives18:50–56.

Chowdhury,P.D.,andC.E.Haque.2008.Knowledgeofenvironmen-talriskandcommunicationgapsbetweenexpertsandthepublic:Thecaseofclimatechange-inducedheatwavesinWinnipeg.Prai-rie Perspectives11:99–117.

Cipko,S.,andJ.C.Lehr.2006.UkrainiansettlementinParaguay.Prai-rie Perspectives9:31–46.

Dilley,R.,andG.Lindberg.2009.SurfingLakeSuperior.Prairie Per-spectives12:115–122.

Doff,B.N., andT.A.Randall. 2017.Optimizing co-benefits of theurbanforestusingaGIS-basedurbanforestbenefitsmodel.Prairie Perspectives19:12–27.

Everitt,J.,M.Kolba,andM.Rosenberg.2005.Healthyplaces?Service

Table 7 Field trip locations and publication record, 2002 to 2018

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