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A Comparative Analysis of Aspects related to Water and Sanitation in

South Africa (Cape Town) and Australia (Melbourne)

Ryan Marsh

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A Comparative Analysis

Of

Aspects related to Water and Sanitation

In

South Africa (Cape Town)

And

Australia (Melbourne)

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Executive Summary

The most essential thing on earth is water yet some countries and communities are

struggling to access quality and quantity water for drinking, washing, cooking, bathing

and irrigating crops. Two of the regions that faced water crisis is Melbourne and Cape

Town. The current report will explore on the innovations, strategies and challenges used

in Melbourne state in dealing with water and sanitation. This is compared with the

challenges and strategies of water and sanitation in Cape Town.

The practicability of the approaches was attained by exploring on the case studies of

two coastal urban cities where out of the projected problem in Melbourne, they have

come up with strategies to tackle the current issue. These strategies and

innovations will be compared to their effectiveness on the challenges of water and

sanitation in Cape Town of drought, inadequate education of professionals and the

public, and pressure on sanitation and drinking water.

The first objective for the study is to compare and examine the current strategies and

innovations both in Melbourne and Cape Town. In response to Millennium Drought

between 1997 and 2010, Melbourne undertook drastic cuts on the consumption rate by

50%. The water consumption rate in Melbourne in 1997 was 167,000 liters per person

per year to 86,000 by 2011 (Hemati et al., 2016). The report illustrates that even after

the drought, Melbourne did not bounce back to a high water consumption rate but

maintained. Some of the strategies employed by Melbourne included voluntary and

mandatory changes in water use where residents were fined by city officials for day time

car washing and lawn watering. In contrast to Melbourne strategies, Cape Town which

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is a poorer city cannot campaign and enforce for water efficient dishwashers and

washing machines as their issues is more on the system, plumbers and leaks.

The second objective for the study was to compare the prevailing strategies against

indicators of new regionalism. The new regionalism-based approach to drinking water

was applied to identify myriad of manipulating factors using varying mechanisms to

encourage and support portable water systems. The approach comprises of integration,

place, multi-level governance, and innovation. In Melbourne, an integration approach

was applied where by all residents were involved. Similarly, Cape Town adapted the

same strategy to deal with Day Zero crisis by ensuring each resident used 50 liters per

day.

The third objective is to seek feedback from the case study on the practicability of

proposed strategies implemented in Melbourne and how the challenges may or may not

solve the issues of water and sanitation in Cape Town. Majority of actions and

strategies applied by Melbourne to solve the issue of Millennium Drought may be used

as a road map by Cape Town. This includes water recycling, use of grey water for non-

potable purposes, desalination plants and investment on water infrastructure. However,

due to the financial situation in South Africa, Cape Town may not be in a position to set

billions and millions on water infrastructure.

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary 2

Introduction 7

1. Location of Cape Town and Melbourne 8

MELBOURNE 9

Melbourne’s water supply system 9

Melbourne water systems 12

i. Collection of Water 12

ii. Storage of Water 12

iii. Water Treatment 13

iv. Transfer of Water 13

Water Treatment 16

Sewerage System 17

Recycled Water 19

CAPE TOWN 20

The Water Supply Network of Cape Town 21

Water Governance in Cape Town 22

Water Treatment, Supply and Sanitation 23

Policies for Water in Cape Town 26

Water Crisis in Cape Town South Africa 29

Water Reticulation in South Africa 32

Plumbing System in South Africa 35

Strategies 36

Use of Dual Water Reticulation System 37

Desalination 37

Drought Management in Cape Town 41

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Ways in Which Cape Town can built a Water Resilient City 45

SUPPLY-SIDE MEASURES 46

Greywater Systems 46

Augmentation of Centralized Water Supply Systems 46

Rainwater tanks 48

DEMAND-SIDE MEASURES 49

Education Programs Targeting Schools and Homes 51

Conclusion 52

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List of Figures

Figure 1: An illustration of the comparison of availability and use of water between Melbourne and Cape Town. In the chart, it is clear that Melbourne is better in providing water to its population in comparison to Cape Town. 8 Figure 2: Average (2000-2015) comparison of water availability in Cape Town and Melbourne 9 Figure 3: Waterway in Melbourne 11 Figure 4: Main sources of water in Melbourne 11 Figure 5: Melbourne’s Water System 15 Figure 6: Illustrating the water catchment in Melbourne 16 Figure 7: Main features of Melbourne sewerage system within the city 19 Figure 8: Residents negotiating their way through around a dried-up section of the Theewaterskloof dam near Cape Town 20 Figure 9: Amount of water treated in varying water treatment plants 24 Figure 10: How water is drying in Cape Town 27 Figure 11: treated effluents in Cape Town 28 Figure 12: Water System in Cape Town 28 Figure 13: sources of contamination in the reticulation system in South Africa 34 Figure 14: Temporary desalination in Cape Town 40 Figure 15: Proposed Desalination Process for Cape Town 41 Figure 16: Melbourne’s water budget illustrating water changes in regard to storage (percentage of total capacity as of June 30), inflow (GL/y), water usage (L/p/d), municipal demand (GL/y), and environmental flows (GL/y). 42 Figure 17: System for tapping storm water in Melbourne 45 Figure 18: Amount of recycled water used per sector (agriculture, residential, industrial/commercial, and councils) and specific irrigation schemes (South East Outfall, Eastern Irrigation Scheme, and Werribee Irrigation District) 49 Figure 19: Typical Water Conservation activities throughout the supply chain 50

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List of Tables

Table 1: Comparison of Cape Town and Melbourne 25

A Comparative Analysis of Water Supply between Cape Town in South Africa and Melbourne in Australia

Introduction

Approximately 40% of the world population suffers from water scarcity and the

situation is projected to worsen due to global warming. According to World Water

Council (2018), one in four people by 2050 is expected to face recurring or chronic

water shortages. The current report will explore on Melbourne and Cape Town.

Melbourne in Australia suffered the 'Millennium drought' between 1997 and 2009 which

has led to the city slashing its per capita water use by 50% to install recycling plants and

desalination.

A comparative analysis between Cape Town in South Africa and Melbourne in

Australia will be conducted as both countries are facing threats in water crisis. Some of

the aspects to be examined in both cities include the influx of people in to the cities and

its effect on the ability of the cities to offer the residents with adequate water supply and

sanitation. The study will also explore the reticulation of portable water as well as the

infrastructure of waste water which will include the plumbing system in the cities. In

addition, the case study will compare the projected guidelines and frameworks put in

place to sustain the supply of water in regions stricken by drought. The study will also

explore the implementation processes for the projects that are geared in improving

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the sanitations and plumbing systems in impoverished rural communities in the two

cities.

1. Location of Cape Town and Melbourne

The author chose two case studies for the current report. They include Melbourne in

Australian and Cape Town in South Africa. The global location of the two regions is

illustrated in the figure below:

Figure 1: Illustrates the global location of Cape Town, South Africa and

Melbourne Australia

Figure 2: An illustration of the comparison of availability and use of water between Melbourne and Cape Town. In the chart, it is clear that Melbourne is better in providing water to its population in comparison to Cape Town.

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Figure 3: Average (2000-2015) comparison of water availability in Cape Town and

Melbourne

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MELBOURNE

Melbourne’s water supply system

According to Melbourne Water (2018), Melbourne is one of the cities with water of

highest quality. The water industry in Australia is now in a mature phase of its evolution

(Mercer and Lloyd, 1986). This phase is characterized by more emphasis on water

recycling, conservation, demand management, and realistic pricing instead of

construction of supply projects, capital‐intensive, and large‐scale, as in the past.

Figure 4: Waterway in Melbourne

The Melbourne water system according to Mercer and Lloyd (1986) uses the concepts

of circular and; linear water systems. The Melbourne city has started on a complex

water system strategy due to the challenges it’s facing. The challenges include a

growing and changing region as well as a changing and variable climate.

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Figure 5: Main sources of water in Melbourne

According to Melbourne Water Corporation (2017) the population in Melbourne in the

coming 50 years is projected to continuously grow. The population growth is not only on

the metropolitan Melbourne but also around the edges. Due to this, there is need for the

water company to produce safe, adequate and affordable water for home and

commercial use requiring the wetland and the waterways to receive water they require

in thriving. In addition, a thriving and variable climate is significant in the planning and

managing of the water system. This is especially due to the regular droughts in

Australia.

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The Melbourne water systems have set their attention to economic regulations where

they check the capital investments and its effect on the charges and the prices to

consumers. Previously, little attention was paid on the economies, public acceptance

and technological resilience of water desalination and recycling after drought subsided.

Melbourne water systems

i. Collection of Water

The sponge-like soils in Melbourne catchment areas help in filtering and holding rain

water. The tapped water is then released to the rivers slowly to feed the storage

reservoirs for the city. Majority of water catchment sites in Melbourne produces clean

water that requires minimal treatment due to limited access by the public. Other sources

of water collection especially during crisis include: North–South Pipeline and Victorian

Desalination Plant.

ii. Storage of Water

The storage reservoirs in the city have the capacity of holding water for about five years.

This long duration is important in water purification as it helps to remove impurities due

to the breakdown of materials over time. The system is interlinked which helps the

transportation of water if need arises. For example, Melbourne water system may help

in directing less water to their treatment plants that are more expensive to run or

remove water from a reservoir during heavy rains.

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iii. Water Treatment

For safe drinking water, water from the reservoirs is treated in water treatment plants.

Majority of Melbourne water requires little treatment as it is from less contaminated

areas. However, water sourced from open catchment areas requires full treatment.

iv. Transfer of Water

The treated water is then transported throughout the suburban Melbourne through large

pipes referred as water mains to reservoirs that are smaller. The small reservoirs

distributed in different localities in the city are used to store water for a few days

to make sure consistent distribution of water even during high demand. By use

of small pipes, water is distributed throughout the city to regional and metropolitan retail

water companies. In addition, smaller pipes are used to transport water to businesses,

schools, hospitals and homes across Melbourne. As illustrated in figure 6, the water

supply of Melbourne is interconnected and complex where the water system of

Melbourne is made up of:

38 service reservoirs

12 minor treatment plants

2 major treatment plants

10 storage reservoirs

156,700 hectares of catchments and

many kilometers of pipes

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The working principle of Melbourne water system is that it is vital to start with a highest

quality source than treating the water to the appropriate standards. This has made

Melbourne to be among the systems producing the highest quality water and among the

five cities globally with well protected catchments. The reservoirs receive water from the

forests through the streams which ensures enough water during droughts. For example,

along Thomson River there is Thomson Dam which is about 130 km in Grippsland at the

east of Melbourne. This dam, has a 19 km long underpass inflowing Great Dividing Range

into the Upper Yarra Reservoir and then onto Silvan where it is

dispersed for drinking (Melbourne Water, 2018).

Figure 6: Melbourne’s Water System

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Figure 7: Illustrating the water catchment in Melbourne

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Water Treatment

Melbourne produces safe drinking water through treatment and disinfection of the water

before entering the water system. The type of treatment varies depending with the

source of water where some only requires disinfection while other

sources need complex treatment. The water system in Melbourne applies full treatment

process which in inclusive of filtration before disinfection takes place. The first stage in

treating the water is coagulation chemicals (liquid aluminum sulphate (alum)) are

introduced to water to help the small particles and bacteria to stick together and form

large particles (Melbourne Water, 2018). The large particles are then introduced to the

second stage of floatation or clarification which involves floating or sinking particles

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where they are separated from the water for easy removal. The type of plant determines

if they will apply diffusers, which create fine bubbles which stick with particles making

them float or mechanical settling basins, called clarifiers.

The remaining particles are eliminated through filtration. These particles are removed by

membranes or filters after water passes through them. Some of the filters include:

membrane filters with billions of microscopic poresand gravity media filters with layers of

coal and sand. Infiltration is followed by disinfection either through the addition

of ultraviolet light, chloramine (chlorine and ammonia), or Chlorine to destroy any

disease-causing bacteria. Although the amount of Chlorine added in water varies from

one plant to another, the amount does not exceed one milligram per liter (0.0001%).

Other process includes the addition of fluoride to prevent tooth decay. The

recommended amount of Fluoride according to Health (Fluoridation) Act 1973 is less

than one milligram per liter (Melbourne Water, 2018). To neutralize the PH of the water,

soda ash, caustic soda or lime is used due to their low PH in comparison to the Fluoride

and Chlorine previously added. Addition of lime is also beneficial in preventing

household fittings and pipes from corrosion.

Sewerage System

All waste waters in Melbourne go to either Easter Treatment Plant or Western

Treatment Plant in Victoria. Melbourne's Sewerage System is involved in the collection,

transportation, treatment and disposal of sewage produced in a large part of the

Melbourne metropolitan area. The sewerage system produces bulk sewage which is

charged to three retail water business: Yarra Valley Water, South East Water, and City

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West Water (Melbourne Water, 2018). The waste water in the plants is treated by use of

one among the three lagoon systems. One lagoon system comprises of ten lagoons

where sewage enters allowing the bacteria present to break to down the organic matter.

In the first lagoon, the sewage has a lot of sediments but as it flows through each

lagoon, the water becomes clear and cleaner. The systems contain two types of

lagoons, aerobic and anaerobic due to the differing environment for each form of

bacteria. However, the two forms of bacteria are beneficial as they aid in breaking down

the organic matter in sewage treatment Brown, Jackson, and Khalifé (2010). Figure 6

illustrates the main features of Melbourne sewerage system. Different sewerage

systems are used in the eastern treatment plant from the western treatment plant. The

effluents from the eastern system are released at Boags Rocks to the environment

while the South East Water's treatment plants releases their treated effluents to

Hastings, Mornington, and Rosebud (Engineers Australia, 2014).

Figure 8: Main features of Melbourne sewerage system within the city

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Recycled Water

Melbourne is highly recognized for recycled water highly treated sewage applicable for

varying non-drinking purposes. According to Melbourne Water (2018) the system

produces the largest Class A in Australia of recycled water. Class A is the highest grade

of recycled water in victoria. In Victoria, recycled waste water is used in: doing the

laundry, washing cars, flushing toilets, watering parks, gardens and sports grounds,

irrigating crops, and firefighting. The recycled water is produced both in the Western

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and the Eastern treatment plants where they are later supplied to retail water

companies supplying to businesses and homes. Some of the areas that are accessing

Melbourne recycled water include: Cranbourne housing estates, Eastern Irrigation

Scheme, Cranbourne, Werribee Employment Precinct and Werribee Tourist Precinct

(Water, 2005).

CAPE TOWN

Figure 9: Residents negotiating their way through a dried-up section of the

Theewaterskloof dam near Cape Town

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The Water Supply Network of Cape Town

The City of Cape Town (CCT) is one of the Western Cape Water Supply System

(WCWSS) which sources water from a system of dams supplying water for agriculture

and surrounding urban. The system entirely depends on rainfall. The system comprises

of the three largest dams which are managed and controlled by National Department of

Water and Sanitation (DWS) (Muller, 2017). The DWS is responsible for implementing

and managing the schemes for water resources in attempts of meeting the water

demand for agriculture, mining, industries, and cities. The plan for the system by

the DWS indicates a 1 in 50 year’s level of assurance meaning that during drought with

1:50 year’s severity or more, there is need for restrictions to cut the amount of use

(Blersch and Plessis 2017).

The Guardian (2018) explains that South Africa is facing threats of physical water

scarcity by 2025 where the recent drought in the country is an illustration of its socio-

economic development. This is due to the great impact that the drought specifically hit

the agricultural sector broadening the trade deficit after the country incurred loss from

maize exportation. The agricultural sector was greatly hit where they

lost approximately 370,000 jobs in the fourth quarter of 2015. The drought led to

increased food prices resulting to consumer inflation in the country and

pushed approximately 50,000 persons below the poverty line. A long-term impact of the

drought was great effect on the economic growth by having a decrease in 0.2% in

2015 (The Lancet Planetary Health, 2018). It is crucial to note that Cape Town and the

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South Africa water situation is not an issue of the future but a current issue requiring

urgent resolutions.

Globally, freshwater are sourced by rainfall./ however, in Cape Town and South Africa

at large, there is low rainfall and low per capita water of ~500 mm average annual

rainfall, in comparison to other countries with 843 m3 water per capita per annum.

According to World Water Council (2018) water supply for a country should be equal to

30% of the runoff particularly the waste water. Majority of water in South Africa is

sourced by dams where only 10% of the water is sourced from underground which is

unavailable especially during famine and drought (Winter, 2010). Another potential

water source in Cape Town is desalination which is mostly disadvantageous as it is an

energy-intensive process and highly expensive. The demand of water in Cape Town is

rapidly increasing with agricultural activities topping up with 63%, seconded by

municipal at 26% and industrial with 11% (The Lancet Planetary Health, 2018).

Water Governance in Cape Town

In Cape Town, water is regulated by the municipal council and the national council in a

given area. Some of the institutions regulating and protecting water supply and

resources include: Water User Associations, Catchment Management Agencies, and

Dept. of Water and Sanitation. The Lancet Planetary Health (2018) identifies the

importance of having good governance of water at the root which is the process of

water from the source, to the pipes, the taps, and the sewers.

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In contrast to Melbourne water crisis which was caused solely by drought, the water

crisis in Cape Town is more political than as a result of drought. The local government

has been questioned on their attempts of averting the water issue in Cape Town. The

Western Cape according to The Conversation (2017) is the only province in South

Africa headed by Democratic Alliance which is the opposition party. Due to this, there is

a complicated association between Western Cape and national government. This

resulted to challenges while preparing for drought like failure to respond or acknowledge

the municipal and provincial calls for help which blocked timely interventions, erroneous

water allocations to agriculture, and wasteful expenditure in the national Department of

Water and Sanitation.

Water Treatment, Supply and Sanitation

The Water and Sanitation Department in Cape Town is fitted out with water assets

worth R58 billion, inclusive of three major dams (Steenbras Upper, Steenbras lower

and Wemmershoek) and eight smaller dams, 20 000 km of pipes in the water and sewer

reticulation network, 38 maintenance depots, 3 marine outfalls, 23 wastewater treatment

facilities, 400 pump stations, 25 bulk reservoirs, and 12 water treatment works (Appiah,

2011).

The water system supplies approximately 880 000 m3 of water to customers in one

day. The water system in Cape Town in one year experience about 3 200 pipe bursts

and 8 500 new water connections (Blersch, and Plessis, 2017). Some other roles for the

water and sewerage system department in Cape Town include: preventing pollution to

the water and storm water system, recycling and saving water and regulating water use,

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provision of water and sanitation to informal settlements, maintaining reticulation

systems, ensuring excellent quality of our water and treating water. The figure below

illustrates the amount of water treated in various plants

Figure 10: Amount of water treated in varying water treatment plants

The quality of water in Cape Town is monitored and controlled operationally

by WTPS as well as Scientific Services Branch. This water according to Department of

Water Affairs (2001) has a supply assurance of 97% in terms of the Department of

Water & Sanitation and Raw Water Supply Agreement. The population of Cape Town

is about 3.8 million and is supplied through approximately 1.1 million households. The

table below illustrates a comparison of water supply in Cape Town and Melbourne

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Table 1: Comparison of Cape Town and Melbourne

CAPE TOWN MELBOURNE size 948 mi² 3,858 mi² Population (2017) 3.5 million 4.4 million Population density 1400 people/km² 1560 people/km² ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH

0.8% 3.7%

Average household Income

1.7 k 26.9 k

UNEmployment Rate 19.4% 6.2% WATER TARIFFS R16,54 per kl R22,16 per kl Investment in water systems

≤ R60 billion in assets

≤ R30 billion in projects

≤ R200 billion in assets

≤ R300 billion in projects

Education Facilities 8 Higher Education 8 Higher Education GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

103$ billion 356.2$ billion

average temperature 16.7°C 14.7°C Drought 2015-Present 2000-2008 Average Water Consumption

Average Water Consumption

1.1 Billion liters per day

Geography Semi-Arid Semi-Arid

Policies for Water in Cape Town

Globally, the water resource management legislation and policy in South Africa is one of

the most progressive regulations. Although several progresses are seen globally in the

act, there are questions on its impact and benefits to the residents at the ground.

According to Appiah (2011), Cape Town is one of the cities affected by water scarcity in

the world. By summer, it is reported that approximately four million residents queue

guided by armed guards to collect water which is one of the most scarce commodity in

Cape Town and surrounding cities (Department of Water Affairs, 2001). The dramatic

urban crisis according to Appiah (2011) is influenced by climate change, a record

drought, and population growth. There is several warning from leaders indicating that

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the residents are likely to face "Day Zero” of water. This day was at first indicated to

be in mid-April but has been pushed further to beginning of August where the city will

shut off all; taps at businesses and homes as a result of perilously low volumes at the

reservoirs. This can be illustrated by the image below which is an illustration of the main

water supply in Cape Town at Theewaterskloof Dam, which is running dry.

Several questions are underway on ways in which the city will make water accessible in

the wake of Day Zero to prevent anarchy. For several years there have been no reports

of a shutdown of such a size in a cosmopolitan city. However, urban cities from South

America to North America, from Asia to Australia are facing severe drinking-water

shortages as a result of climate change, population growth, and overdevelopment.

The water situation in Cape Town has led to installation of 200 emergency water

stations at gathering spots like grocery stores. Each emergency water stations are

supposed to serve about 20,000 residents (Carden, 2008). Other strategies identified

for implementation by authorities in Cape Town include storing water at emergency

water at military installations and has made it illegal to use taps to water gardens, wash

cars or fill pools

Figure 11: Barren reservoir in Cape Town

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Figure 12: Effluent treatment plants in Cape Town

Figure 13: Water System in Cape Town

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Water Crisis in Cape Town South Africa

Cape Town according to Muller (2017) has pushed Day Zero to 2019 as dams fill up in

the country. The Day Zero was supposed to be August 2018 where taps in the city

would run dry prompting people to queue for water. Two years ago, a drought hit Cape

Town that was triggered by El Niño which greatly affected the economic growth and

agricultural production in South Africa (Department of Water and Sanitation City of Cape

Town, 2018). One of the cities that were greatly hit is Cape Town particularly due to lack

of good subsequent rains in the region worsening the water shortage situation. The

residents of Cape Town have been surviving with a stringent water use restriction

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which currently is at 50 liters per day per person (GIBSON, 2018). There have been

reports of improvement of the water situation in Cape Town.

Department of Water and Sanitation City of Cape Town (2018) explains that Day Zero

for August 2018 was announced by the government in 2017 by taking unprecedented

gamble due to the shortage of water in the country. The announcement of Day Zero in

Cape Town led to panic and water stockpiling which in turn increased the specter of civil

unrest and a reduction in tourism bookings. Gibson (2018) explains that Cape Town

started the campaigns for conserving water through restrictions at point of use, a

strategy that has worked were the residents are restricted to 50 liters of water

per person. This is in contrast to the daily water usage per person per day in Melbourne

of 161 litres per person per day in 2016/17 (The Guardian, 2018). The government has

regulated this through hefty fines for a household exceeding this limit or installation of

meters which shuts after a household attains their limit.

The situation in Cape Town has resulted to residents showering standing over buckets

to recycle or reuse the water. Other ways are by limiting toilet flashing to one time a day

and recycling washing machine water. Water restriction in Cape Town led to a reduction

in consumption in mid-2017 of 600m liters per day to 507m liters per day by April 2018

(Brooks, 2018).

According to Brooke (2018) Day Zero was calculated by calculating

the maximum evaporation (based on wind and temperature) and current agricultural

practices and urban use. This equation deliberated both man-made and natural

conditions. According to PWC (2017), Cape Town was able to avoid or delay Day Zero

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to 2019 by combining the efforts by the residents and good rainfall. These factors are

the reason why the city is still having Day Zero threats as change in new adopted

behaviors on water rain and reduction in rainfall may result to drought and hasten Day

Zero situation.

In Cape Town, the residents were restricted to two minutes shower, no watering

gardens and swimming pools were viewed as a disgrace (Gibson, 2018). The

government went to the extent of a former mayor (Dan Plato) making house calls and

shaming water offenders where he introduces the list of 100 top water offenders.

However, these restrictions bore fruit as they were able to reduce water usage by half.

Nevertheless, the government warns that if they fail to be stricter on water usage, Day

Zero may approach sooner (The Guardian, 2018).

The Day Zero in August 2018 was averted not singly by the winter rainfall but as a result

of incredible co-operation of the inhabitants as well as human and technological

interventions initiated by the Cape Town municipality to reduce the consumption rate.

One strategy was the extensive and dedicated awareness, communication and

behavioral change campaigns which encouraged the behavior changes among

residents. For the persons contravening the restrictions, the city installed water demand

management devices. In addition, ongoing roll-out of pressure management which has

led the city to at least save 62 million liters in a day due to the constructed pressure

zones (The Guardian, 2018). Also, Cape Town used a holistic approach to maximize all

water resources alternatives within a short time like increased extraction from springs

and temporary desalination.

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One proposed way of regulating water use is the increase in water usage tariff from

27% by tiring the water prices in relation to average water use. Such measured will

result to double the price of water from $2.10 to $3.20 (26 rand per kiloliter to 40 rand)

(The Guardian, 2018). However, increasing the tariffs has been voted against both by

the residents and the businesses (The Guardian, 2018). There are continuing debates

on the real cause of the water crisis in the city. According to analysts, the water situation

in Cape Town is as a result of a combination of factors including: politicking in a

contested region, poor infrastructure planning and climate change.

One of the profound causes is that the storage system was not comparatively operating

with the current population growth in the city. According to Chutel (2018) there has been

a rapid population growth in Cape Town from 2.4 million in 1995 to 4.3 million people in

2018. In the same duration of rapid population growth, Cape Town has only built one

major dam the Berg River Dam in 2009 which only increased storage by 15%. This is an

indication of lack of focus on the water management system and the governments as a

result of personality politics and politicking blames. However, critics argue that the

problem in the Cape Town is not as a result of storage facilities but the rainfall regimes

and strategies and innovations of managing water (The Guardian, 2018).

Water Reticulation in South Africa

South Africa has embarked on a massive infrastructure development in the water

system. However, the country still has a long way to go as they need strategies to

control the quality of water through the water system designs that require putting in

water supply projects. The need for effective designing is because of the water scarcity

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situation in South Africa which requires effective utilization of water. Therefore, the

water system design should be aimed at supplying water to a vast number of users in

a location where there is a reliable source. Page, Abu-Mahfouz, and Mothetha (2017)

highlights varying documents that are significant in designing water systems in South

Africa:

SANS 1200: Code of Practice for the Design of Civil Engineering Services

available at www.sabs.co.za

Technical Guidelines for the Development of Water & Sanitation Infrastructure

freely available at (www.dwa.gov.za)

Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design which is freely available

at website (www.csir.co.za) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

The reticulation system in South Africa has first tackled the issue of regional scheme

which supplies water to a large-scale area has been redesigned to branched network

configuration. This system comprises of a long bulk pipeline supplying water to a series

of reservoirs which via reticulation supplies water to villages through public standpipes

to homesteads. Therefore, the reticulation process in Cape Town comprises of only one

path from source to standpipe. One advantage of this type of system is that it is less

expensive to start. However, Chutel (2018) argues that such a reticulation system has

several challenges like:

Fluctuations in water demand resulting to high pressure oscillations.

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Future extensions may result to pressure issues

Taste and odor issues may result from stagnation or accumulation of sediments

for long duration in the pipes

Potential danger of contamination as a result of some pipes staying for long

without water due to irregular situations as illustrated in the figure below

Low reliability

Figure 14: sources of contamination in the reticulation system in South Africa

However, these issues can be rectified to ensure that the problem is rectified through a

looped network

Fluctuations of water demand are not in position to provide great effect on the

fluctuations of pressure

The system receives water from different water systems to reduce long

stagnation on the pipe

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In case of system maintenance, they are concerned receives water from, other

directions

Looped system will ensure easier extensions to developing or new regions as

well as ensuring adequate pressures in the system

Plumbing System in South Africa

It is illegal in South Africa under Water Services Act to install any plumbing components

that fail to comply with specific components highlighted in SANS 10254 and 10252.

However, this law does not prohibit the sale and import of non-compliant products just

their installation (Chutel, 2018). The compliance of the plumbing by laws is maintained

by the local authorities who ensure all plumbers are registered, performs in-site visits,

and maintains schedules of approved products. However, Ziervogel, Shale and Du

(2010) argue that Cape Town does not fully enforce the plumbing related laws. Some of

the reasons for lack of enforcement include: a severe shortage of technical staff at local

government level, lack of commitment to this aim, and inadequate understanding of the

need for maintaining high technical standards.

According to Ziervogel, Shale and Du (2010) the local government of Cape Town

in average has three civil engineering professionals (technicians, technologists and

engineers) per 100,000 populations. This is in contrast to the number of civil

engineering professionals of approximately 22 engineers per 100,000 populations in

Melbourne. Due to this inadequacy of civil engineers in the Cape Town authority, the

local government cannot be in a position to provide even the basic infrastructure

services. Due to this, management and enforcement of plumbing legislation is not one

36

of their priorities. There is need for dramatic changes in the enforcement of legislation in

South Africa to ensure improvement in future.

There is a high level of site leakages where according to a study conducted in Cape

Town among 189 randomly selected properties indicated that at least 59% of the

properties had on-site leaks. The average level of leakage in Cape Town was

identified as 30 kl/month or 40.7 l/h. The average rate of leaks for all properties was 17

kl/month or 24.2 l/h. flats laid at blocks showed a large frequency of leakages (Jacobs

& StrijdomII, 2009).

Cape Town requires installing high quality plumbing system that will minimize the rate of

spillage and effective water use (SANS 10400-P, 2010). The Civil engineers in South

Africa should be equipped with qualified personnel to control

and monitor responsibilities as well as enforcing regulations.

Strategies

There is need for transparent processes through coördinated actions as well as

shared decision-making allowing all stakeholders to be actively involved in the

formulation of the plan and the implementation of water management activities,

innovations to eliminate the impact of droughts or climatic changes and improvement on

all efforts of water management.

37

Use of Dual Water Reticulation System

In 2009, several civil engineers in South Africa including JE van Zyl, JR Adewumi and

AA Ilemobade from the universities of Johannesburg and Witwatersrand prepared a

report entitled “Assessment of the feasibility of using a dual water reticulation system in

South Africa” (Ilemobade, Adewumi & van Zyl, 2009). However, after sending the report

to Water Research Commission, it was questioned if the system would be feasible for

the country by question why high quality portable water to be used for landscape

irrigation and toilet flushing which has caused questioning on its sustainability in South

Africa.

Although a dual system is feasible for South Africa, Watercare Services (2013) argues

that the environment is not materialized and the misuse of water in the country. The

advantage of a dual system is that it allows recycling of non-potable water and allows

consumers to enjoy 60% discount. According to a report by Ilemobade, Adewumi and

van Zyl (2009) the water crisis in Cape Town has forced the country to enhance

sparingly water usage among residents of potable water. To avert Day Zero, the

residents in South Africa should adopt a dual system whereby they will not use potable

water to flush their toilets.

Desalination

The process of desalination helps in separating dissolved salts as well as other minerals

from water. There are three methods of desalination pressure, electrical and thermal.

The Victorian desalination is the only source of water not requiring rainfall which makes

it significant in meeting the needs of Melbourne residents. The Victorian Desalination

38

Project which is the biggest desalination plant in Australia cost AUD 4.8 billion and

supplies 450,000 m3 of drinking water per day (SUEZ's Degremont Water, 2018). The

plant receives its power from renewable energy

The water desalination plant in Melbourne was announced in 2007 after Millennium

Drought due to low levels of water storage which was at its lowest of 16.5%. The plant

delivers up to 150 billion liters of high potable water every year which is about 65% of

what is needed by the residents (van Zyl, Lobanga, Lugoma & Ilemobade, 2008). The

desalination water system is crucial in meeting the demand of the growing population in

Melbourne as well as the extreme effect of changing climates. During droughts, the

municipal of Melbourne have tackled the issue of solely relying on water restrictions by

using other water sources like: recycled water, storm water, and desalination.

The plans that were put into action in the years 2010 to 2012 include the construction

of a new desalination plant to provide water for Melbourne and its surrounding cities and

towns. The plant generates up to 150 billion liters of water. In addition, Victoria’s Water

Grid was expanded by constructing the Sugarloaf Pipeline which transfers 75 billion

litres of water. Melbourne’s Eastern Treatment Plant was upgraded to produce up to

100 billion liters of tertiary treated recycled water suitable for non-potable residential,

industrial, agricultural and environmental uses. Water conservation measures such as

the Water Smart Gardens and Homes Rebate Scheme which contribute to Melbourne

households using water more wisely and efficiently by providing a range of rebates for

rainwater tanks, greywater systems and dual flush toilets were also intensified

to ensure sustained water management by the public (Edokpayi, Odiyo, and Durowoju,

2017).

39

The process of desalination is one of the strategies that South Africa requires to adapt

to ensure water supply during droughts and not relying singly on water restrictions. The

Government of South Africa publicized that it would invest in the greater use of recycled

water, water desalination and storm water through an A$1 billion (R10.3 billion) urban

water infrastructure fund (Jacobs & StrijdomII, 2009). A temporary desalination is

illustrated in the figure below

Figure 15: Temporary desalination in Cape Town

40

South Africa built two desalination plants Strandfontein and Monwabisi’s desalination

plant. Each of the plant has been producing 2 ML/d from April 2018. However, Cape

Town cancelled the proposal of building Cape Town Harbor desalination plant but there

are ongoing plans on strategies to increase water production this plant was projected to

produce approximately 50ML/day. These augmented sources are projected to supply

approximately 40% of the current daily fresh water needs in Cape Town (Paarl, 2018).

The projected desalination supply is comparatively similar to Melbourne’s which is one-

third of Melbourne’s needs (33.33%)(Melbourne, 2018).

Figure 16: Proposed Desalination Process for Cape Town

41

Drought Management in Cape Town

The current innovative strategies in Melbourne were influenced by the Millennium,

Drought. The city that houses approximately 4.3 million persons is in

a position to distribute enough and quality water to its residents. This section will

explore on ways water engineers in Melbourne effectively responded to the Millennium

Drought to formulate short-term and long-term strategies to boost the availability

of water in the city (Baudoin, 2017). This will also include ways in which South Africa

particularly Cape Town can borrow some of the strategies to ensure efficient water

supply in the city.

The water demand in Melbourne have been reduced through a combination

of strategies including restrictions, water conservation programs and emergency drops

in the environmental release of water to streams. However, the water companies in

Melbourne did not have independent price-setting powers thus did not apply

water pricing as a tool for drought demand management. The figure below illustrates the

water budget for Melbourne.

Figure 17: Melbourne’s water budget illustrating water changes in regard to

storage (percentage of total capacity as of June 30), inflow (GL/y), water usage

(L/p/d), municipal demand (GL/y), and environmental flows (GL/y).

42

The adoption of technical innovations in Melbourne was facilitated by institution

arrangements that allowed an integrated response from water authorities

to millennium drought. The water sector in Melbourne is currently overseen by State

Ministers of Water, Environment, and Health, and Treasury. The Water Act in Australia

allows the minister of water to offer a clause in relation to how the system is operating

through the adoption of Drought Response Plan (DRP).

The success of 2001 Water Demand Management/Water Conservation (WDM/WC)

Strategy which was later revised in 2007 explains that the City of Cape Town (CCT)

through its interventions postponed the crisis of water in the city. However, in 2014,

economic growth and population increase increased the demand of water in the

region. The national Department of Water and Sanitation and CCT relies heavily on

Western Cape Water Reconciliation Strategy (2007), that recognized 4 water supply

augmentation schemes as illustrated in the figure below

43

Among the four, two of the systems involves aquifer use and groundwater source but

have rather not been used in South Africa but postponed severally as the country has

been able to meet the demand. Nevertheless, the current crisis in Cape Town opens the

needs for including the two schemes in the system. According to Baudoin (2017) the

state of emergency in Cape Town has opened a reconsideration of developing

groundwater from Table Mountain Group aquifers and Cape Flats. The Cape Town

mayor, Patricia de Lille recently announced that the city is preparing a “Water

Resilience plan” which will tackle all the issues related to water.

Nationally, South Africa has put strategies and policies to deal with the water crisis

resulting from drought conditions. Some of these policies include: the Drought

Management Plan of 2005, the National Disaster Risk Management framework of 2005,

and the Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002. The day Zero was prevented by

three things: the residents of Cape Town, highly skilled engineers and professional staff,

and pre-existing water demand management program. The elements helped Cape

Town to reach winter rainfall without running out of water. The risk of drought and

famine in South Africa is tackled by the bulk water supply authorities. The current crisis

in South Africa and particularly Cape Town is a sign that water restriction policies are

not sufficient to solve water scarcity in the region (Brooks, 2018).

Similar to Melbourne, Cape Town installed water demand management devices for

residents contravening water restrictions. Cape Town introduced a program for leaks

repairs to reduce the loss of water particularly in water indigent areas. Another effective

strategy that Cape Town borrowed from Melbourne is steep tariff hikes. Another

44

borrowed strategy from Melbourne was the use of a holistic approach (The Executive

Deputy Mayor, Alderman Ian Neilson, 2018).

As stated earlier by the mayor, the city is preparing a “Water Resilience plan” which will

tackle all the issues facing the city and future strategies and policies of tackling the

issue. Although the plan’s details are not yet on the system, the mayor has stipulated

some of the goals of the plan including: managing all the urban water (treated water

effluents, rivers, and groundwater and stormwater) through an integrated process.

One long-term solution in the plan is groundwater storage and harvesting stormwater

which will improve resilience and address the drought risk.

In order to build resilience in Cape Town, the city will require addressing drought,

climate change and flooding during winter. This can be effectively attained through

Water Sensitive Urban Design which will contain strategies that campaign for efficient

water use like using storm water and putting more focus on sustainable development.

This process is successful in Melbourne. The system for tapping storm water is

figuratively illustrated below

Figure 18: System for tapping storm water in Melbourne

45

The Water sensitive urban design (WSUD) in Melbourne applies better urban design

and planning of reusing stormwater to stop it from entering the waterways through

mimics on natural water cycle.

Ways in Which Cape Town can built a Water Resilient City

1. Make use of green or natural infrastructure in the water system which serves as

natural barrier against water related risk like drought and flooding

2. Break down of the silos isolating water related departments from government

departments, like community organizations and civil society, and spatial planning

and disaster risk management, to boost more informed and inclusive planning

3. Building a water-related resilience a city requires a more flexible institution that is

able to respond proactively and quickly to changes

46

According to Gude (2017) treated water used for non-portable uses like flushing toilets

and irrigation reduces the total amount of potable water used in residential by 20%. This

strategy would thus be effective in saving water usage of portable water in the city.

However, this system is criticized due to some challenges like limited institution capacity

and water quality concerns.

SUPPLY-SIDE MEASURES

Greywater Systems

Greywater is water that is gently used in washing machines, tubs, showers and

bathroom sinks. This water does not combine with fecal matter either from washed

diapers or toilets. In Melbourne, grey water systems were installed in Inkerman Oasis

(2.5 ML/year in 2009/2010) residential units. However, at households, the grey water

system is not suitable for drinking as it is untreated and thus used for irrigation

purposes.

Augmentation of Centralized Water Supply Systems

Some of the central systems used in augmenting water in Melbourne include

i. Construction of North–South Pipeline which holds r 75 GL of water a year from

the Goulburn River and cost approximately AU $700 million

ii. Construction of the Wonthaggi Desalination Plant, which stores 150 GL of water

an year and cost AU $6 billion

47

iii. Constructing Tarago Reservoir in 2009 which holds 21 GL/year and cost AU $97

million

The supply of water in Melbourne was increased between 2005 and 2009 by the use of

recycled water after the launching of two major Class A recycled water schemes, the

Eastern Irrigation Scheme and the Werribee Irrigation District (WID) Scheme. The

reliance on recycled water was exacerbated by the frequently higher salinity of river

water compared with recycled water during periods of low flow.

Because Melbourne's 4.4 million people consume about 376 GL (2017) of portable water

annually, even modest efforts to substitute storm water runoff for portable supply. Bio-

filters (also known as rain gardens and bio-infiltration systems) are one technology well

suited for storm water use in Melbourne; in addition to reducing portable demand, such

systems have many co-benefits for human and ecosystem health. While bio-filters are

used for on-site retention and infiltration of stormwater, their product water was not

typically used for potable substitution before 2009. However, after the drought, about a

dozen stormwater harvesting projects have been completed mostly to irrigate gardens,

sports fields, and golf courses.

In 2013/2014, the Office of Living Victoria allocated AU $50 million to alternative water

projects, mostly to building systems to capture, treat, and use storm water runoff

for portable substitution

Rainwater tanks

Following the millennium drought, Melbourne used rainwater tanks to capture and store

rainwater from the roofs to tanks. This innovation increases the amount of water supply

48

especially in drought stricken areas which receives high rainfall. The rain is

trapped directly from the roof and is less contaminated in comparison to storm water

hence requiring less complex treatment process. Estimating the volume of potable

substitution achieved by the purchase and installation of rainwater tanks is

complicated by their decentralized nature and the variability of demand across users. The

percentage of households in the State of Victoria with rainwater tanks increased from

22.7% in 2015 to 34.6% in 2016 (Abedelkareem, 2017). Rainwater tanks are popular

because they allow residents to support their ornamental plants and gardens despite

water restrictions that curtailed the use of municipal water for irrigation. The figure below

illustrates the amount of recycled water used in Melbourne

49

Figure 19: Amount of recycled water used per sector (agriculture, residential,

industrial/commercial, and councils) and specific irrigation schemes (South East

Outfall, Eastern Irrigation Scheme, and Werribee Irrigation District)

Melbourne’s Living Victoria Water Rebate Program also provided rebates for rainwater

tanks ranging from $850 to $1500, depending on their size and end uses. A 2013 survey

found that rainwater tank use in Melbourne is divided primarily between residential users

(68%) and industry, schools, and councils (32%).

DEMAND-SIDE MEASURES

Millennium Drought in Melbourne reduced the rate of water consumption by half

between 1997 and 2012. Some of the efforts applied by Melbourne to reduce water

usage include:

50

i. Increasing funding for stormwater and rainwater harvesting

ii. Implementing water conservation measures comprising of rebate program for

water efficient appliances

iii. Imposing water use restrictions

iv. Conducting television, radio, billboards, and print media advertising campaigns

that promotes water conservation

v. Reducing environmental flows to rivers

According to Alkaisi, Mossad, and Sharifian-Barforoush (2017), if Melbourne did not

embark on these measures, it would have drained by 2009. Although the city had in

place pricing strategies, it did not apply the technique. The inclined block tariff which

comprises of 3-tiers with ever-increasing unit price for example is used in Yarra Valley

Water where persons using many units pay more. Setting of price in Melbourne is not

based on drought for demand management purposes as Melbourne water companies

do not have an independent price-setting power. In contrast, they set price in regard to

adequate financial return for the water retailers.

Figure 20: Typical Water Conservation activities throughout the supply chain

51

Education Programs Targeting Schools and Homes

Both Cape Town and Melbourne have engaged in education programs which targets

homes and schools. In 2006, the Victoria Government launched the School Water

Efficiency Program (SWEP) to identify leaks and evaluate water use in public schools,

and to promote water education. By 2009, 1737 schools joined the program. An estimated

269.1ML/year was saved from 2006 to 2009. The Learn It! Live It! The program was also

established to promote water education and awareness in primary and secondary

schools, which had 324 committed schools by 2011. The Water Smart Behavior Change

Program developed in 2007, and by 2009, Melbourne water retailers worked directly with

52

140,000 households to show water saving habits in the home. Assessing the impact on

water savings has been a challenge (Bourblanc, 2017).

Conclusion

Similar to majority of other municipalities, Cape Town is facing uncertain and variable

hydrological regimens especially due to anticipated climatic changes. The recent water

crisis that had almost resulted to Day Zero in Cape Town requires prompt and strategic

innovation and water management. Cape Town can borrow some of the strategies from

Melbourne a City with effective water innovations and technologies following

the Millennium Drought. I believe that the situation in Cape Town can be rectified

by adopting Melbourne strategies. Melbourne applies a more diversified water supply

portfolio approach that works within the physical (built) infrastructure and sting natural

(ecological) to increase the city’s drought resilience both at short-term and long-term.

Cape Town should adopt this process in opposition to costly large-scale bulk surface

water supply schemes or exclusive reliance on WDM/WC.

This will comprise of scaling up sustainable urban drainage projects and groundwater

abstraction while enhancing ‘fit for purpose’ water reuse solution, wastewater reuse, and

groundwater recharge and protection. Currently, Cape Town has been extensively

applying demand management to curb the rapid demand growth in the city which in turn

has reduced the adoption of more diversified strategies. The systems have been impeded

by general hesitation to integrate alternative sources into the water supply system and

short planning horizons in drought management as a result of future uncertainties.

53

Another strategy that Cape Town should borrow from Melbourne is aquifer protection and

sustainable groundwater development for urban recharge zones. Some of the strategies

that Cape Town can adopt in protecting the aquifer include managing the quality

of stormwater, land use changes, and identification of groundwater protection zones to

be excluded from developments. Some other strategies that are effective in Melbourne

that require adoption include the use of the dual water supply system whereby potable

water will be supplied in one system while the other system will distribute non-potable

water. Another issue that is prominent in Cape Town is lack of civil engineers as illustrated

4 engineers in Cape Town are in charge of 10,000 people while in Melbourne, 22 civil

engineers are responsible for 10,000 residents. Additionally, the plumbing system in Cape

Town is questionable as illustrated by the amount of water wasted through leaks in

comparison to Melbourne. One of the effective strategies in Melbourne is that the city

enforces all policies of water and sanitation unlike South Africa which although prohibits

the installation of non-compliant products, it does not prohibit their import and sale in the

country. Therefore, the comparative report of Melbourne and Cape Town illustrates the

water management system and plumbing system in both cities and ways in which Cape

Town can adopt some of the innovations to better their system and prevent water crisis

in future through collaborative management.

54

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