a child acquires any natural languages within a few years
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A child acquires any natural languages within a few years, without the aid of analytical thinking
and without explicit grammar instruction as taught in school. Sakai (2005:815) thus, ascribes the
origin of grammatical rules to an innate system in the human brain. Important aspects of language
are not acquired from experience; they are already present in the mind (Cook & Newson
1996:102). This is consistent with Chomskys theory of Universal Grammar (UG) which claims that
humans are innately endowed with universal language-specific knowledge (Chomsky 1977:2, 63).The concept of UG was resorted to because it was believed that children could not learn their first
language so quickly and effortlessly without the help of an innate language faculty to guide them
(Mitchell & Myles 2004:55). All human beings share part of their knowledge of language; UG is
their common possession regardless of which language they speak (Cook & Newson 1996:1-2).
Linguists regard speaking, signing, and language comprehension as primary faculties of language,that is, innate or inherent and biologically determined, whereas they regard reading and writing assecondary abilities (Sakai 2005:815). The above description implies that L1 is acquired during the
first years of life through such primary faculties while children are rapidly expanding their linguistic
knowledge. In contrast, reading and writing are learned with much conscious effort and repetition,usually at school. This ability may be influenced by cultural rather than biological factors.
Cook and Newson (1996:104) elucidate Chomskys Universal Grammar when they maintain thatacquiring English means discovering how it fleshes out the properties of UG which are alreadypresent. Furthermore, Saville-Troike (2006:18) also adopts a Chomskyan stance of Universal
Grammar when she argues that the initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate
capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may beavailable only in some limited ways. In addition, Mc Gilvray (2005:117) encapsulates the theory ofUG by emphasising that learners acquire a grammar of the language and that the cognitive principleswhich learners employ is a set of universal principles collectively called Universal Grammar.
Saville-Troike (2006:2) maintains that second language acquisition (SLA) refers to both the study ofindividuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as children,and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language
(L2), even though it may actually be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also commonly
called a target language (TL), which refers to any language that is the aim or goal of learning(Saville-Troike 2006:2).Ellis (2000:3) defines SLA as a way in which people learn a language other than their primary
language, inside or outside of the classroom. According the traditional definition, SLA takes place ina setting in which the language to be learned is the language spoken in the local community (De Bot,Lowie & Verspoor 2005:7). Therefore, for example, an IsiZulu speaker learning English in an
English medium school is generally referred to as a second language learner.
Although there are a variety of approaches to SLA, the literature review will focus on Cumminss
Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis, Krashens Monitor Model, the Dynamic Systems
Theory, and Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory of the Mind. These approaches, to the researcher s
knowledge, were found to have caused much concern and debate among linguists and
researchers. Some approaches will be complementary and some contrasting.
2.3.1 Indonesian Chinese
Indonesian Chinese are an overseas Chinese group whose ancestors emigrated from
China to Indonesia through commercial activities. Ancestors of the Chinese Indonesian migrate
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in waves for thousands of years ago. Their role appears several times in the history of
Indonesia, even before the Republic of Indonesia declared and established. The records of
China stated that the ancient kingdom in the archipelago has been closely linked with the
ruling dynasties in China. It is the factor which then fosters trade and traffic of goods and
people from China to the archipelago and vice versa.
Maritime trade drove early migration patterns of the Chinese into the Malay
Archipelago, in addition to the 1293 Mongol invasion of the island of Java and expeditions led
by mariner Zheng He in the 15th century. The bustling interaction trade in southeast China's
coastal areas is causing a lot of people who also feel the need to sail out to trade. The main
goal at the time was Southeast Asia. Because shipping is very dependent on the monsoons,
then every year the traders will settle in the territories of Southeast Asia who visited them. So
forth any merchant who decides to settle down and marry local women, there are also traders
who returned to China to keep trading. When European explorers began arriving in Southeast
Asia in the 16th and 17th centuries, they established ports of trade in the region and began
interacting with Chinese traders and merchants who were already present. After the Dutch
East India Company established Batavia (now the capital city of Jakarta) as its headquarters on
Java in 1609, it became a hub of trade between China and India. In order to expand their
colony, the Dutch contracted laborers from the Fujian and Guangdong regions of southern
China. For the next 300 years, members of the Hakkien, Hakka, Teochew, and Cantonese
ethnic groups entered the Dutch East Indies as construction and plantation workers, miners,
and artisans. Emigrant communities emerged in more industrialized nations beginning in the
second half of the 20th century. In general, the ethnic Chinese are more urbanized than the
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indigenouspribumipopulation, though significant rural and agricultural communities also exist
outside the main islands.
Indonesian Chinese (commonly referred to as orang Cina, Tionghoa, or Peranakan
Cina) in Indonesia is one of the ethnic in Indonesia. Usually they call themselves by the term
Tenglang (Hokkien), Tengnang (Tiochiu), or Thongnyin (Hakka). In Mandarin they are called
Tangren (Hanzi: Tang people). This is consistent with the fact that the Chinese-majority
Indonesia came from southern China who refer to themselves as Tang people, while the
northern Chinese refer to themselves as Han people. Nearly all Chinese Indonesians are either
patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants or new immigrants born in mainland China.
Most of the Chinese people in Indonesia settled on the island of Java. Other areas where they
also settled in large numbers than in urban areas are: North Sumatra, Bangka-Belitung, South
Sumatra, Lampung, Lombok, West Kalimantan, Banjarmasin, and some places in South
Sulawesi and North Sulawesi. Indonesia's 2000 census reported more than 2.4 million self
identified ethnic Chinese citizens, or 1.2 percent of the country's population at the time.
Although the number of Chinese society is less than population groups ofpribumi, their
presence as citizens of the city of Medan, North Sumatra will be easily characterized, namely
by looking at Chinese characters displayed to their residence, that is, in almost all shopping
centers and along roads in the city are the houses where they lived and also where they
opened their business. In addition to those who always receipts Hokkien dialect as a language
in everyday conversation among themselves, in the midst of other residents. In line with the
situation in China itself, the Chinese community in Medan and North Sumatra is also
composed of various tribes, but in a state of everyday tribal issues are not prominent. So there
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is only one entity in a civilized society which is not one faction of the ethnic ties that are
organized in a single organizational structure as the common case, except social groups in
terms of religion and death.
2.3.2 Hokkien Dialect
2.3 Childrens Mother Tongue
2.3 Language Acquisition
****The term 'acquisition' whose verb is to acquire originally means to come into possession or
control of often by unspecified means (Meriam Webster Dictionary). Clark (2003:409) stated that
within acquisition, researchers need to account for both continuity and change in what children knows
about their language. Krashen (1990: 112) made a distinction between acquisition termed as language
knowledge that develops incidentally as learners focus on meaning in comprehensible input and
learning termed as knowledge about language gained through formal instruction or met linguistic
analysis. Further to the difference between learning and acquisition is that learning is taken as
conscious process (e.g: classroom) of attaining a language usually from a classroom where a teacher
holds most of the roles while acquiring is regarded as unconscious process of attaining a language
learning is through tutoring while acquiring is through nurturing.
****Language acquisition followers led by Krashen have even conducted a research supporting
their comprehensible input. In support to this theory Block (2003: 94) reviewing several studies in which
young L2 learners read or were read to in the target language. The findings consistently showed that
students who had access to more reading activities learned more of the second language than student
in audio lingual instruction. Moreover, he said that it is a subconscious process. Language on the other
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hand is a conscious process, and is the result of either a formal language learning situation, or a self-
study program.
****These study however, although aware of the difference. will not differentiate the process
between the two rather concentrate on the result already gained by the subject. Instead of relying on
the process the study relies more on the product oriented.
It has been argued by Menyuk (1999:5) concluded that the optimum age of acquiring another
language is in the first ten years of life because it is then that the brain retains its maximum "plasticity"
of flexibility (the plasticity metaphor suggesting as it does that the brain is like a lump of plasticine that
gradually hardens with age, seems a favored one among the investigations of the critical period). It is
suggested that at puberty the brain loses its plasticity and the two hemisphere of the brain become
much more independent of each other and the language function is largely established in the left
hemisphere. The critical period hypothesis argues that after these neurological changes have taken
place acquiring another language become increasingly difficult if not impossible. She explained by
examples: pre-school children produced sentences, which are incomplete (not understandable),
functionally complete, simple, and simple with phrase, compound, complex.
****The criticism by Goodluck (1996: 188) to the critical period hypothesis in itself supports this
theory at least at the area of pronunciation. Goodluck (1996: 188) criticizes that it is partially correct to
suggest that- acquisition is easier for younger children in fact pronunciation is the only area where the
younger the start the better.
****Additionally, Goodluck (1996: 193) suggests "While the age does riot alter the route of
acquisition. It does have a mark effect on the rate and the ultimate success. The research result is: both
number of years of exposure and starting age affect the level of success. The number of year's exposure
contributes greatly to the overall communicative fluency; of the learners, but starting age determine
the levels of accuracy, achieved, particularly in pronunciation.
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****A native - like mastery of a target language is very rarely attained. even when learners
begin foreign instruction at an early age. There are man reasons for this. One is that learners in a
foreign language environment usually have only the teacher as a model of a proficient speaker, all
other input comes from peer learners whose levels of English mastery is somewhat similar with their
own language, and learners who hear and understand each other inevitably reinforce some of the non-
target aspects of their shared inter language.
****In spite of the pro and contra above, it can be still concluded that learning a second
language at an early age, after a good control of' her first language, especially before puberty is more
beneficial. Of course the cart age of learning needs to be supplemented with constant exposure to the
target language and high quality of the teaching and high learner participation plus the language
talent will generate the higher possibility to achieve native like mastery or at least near native like
mastery of a target language.
2.4. The Acquisition of Early English Words by the Subject.
****Before going directly to the discussion of English as Second language the writer would first
discuss the finding from the first language acquisition. It has been found out by Clark (2003:81) that
early words in children speech are from the following categories such as people, food, body parts,
clothing, animals, vehicles, toys, household objects, routine and activities or states. These are certainly
very logical and relatively a general truth to a child as those are things they first see touch or even use
so consequently in terms language input or vocabulary those are the first words they are exposed to.
****Although those categories of early words are originally for the first language acquisition
setting, but they can also be logically relevant to second language acquisition in this case Indonesian
speaking child acquiring English as a second language. This finding, still in the setting of first language
acquisition is also supported by language production measured by the Mc. Arthur as quoted by Clark
(2003:81).. infant and toddler (1;0 1;6) communicative development inventories (Denson et al.
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1994:9293) Naturally, what young children talk about, not surprisingly, are what is going on in their
surrounding: the people they are with and see everyday; their toys and small household objects they
can manipulate; food they can take control by themselves; clothing they can put on and get off by
themselves; animals and vehicles, both of which move and so attract their attention, daily routines and
activities; and some sound effects.
****As in the case of English as second language in the research conducted in Swede by Hever,
by it was concluded from the investigation that after learning English for four, five and six years the
number of words acquired are successively 1500, 3500 and 7000 words.
****Additionally another very relevant reference is that proposed by Dolch (1960) as quoted by
Power (http://rww.btinternet.com/%7etedpower/esl 0220.html.) This is especially closely related as
this 1960 BSV A basic sight vocabulary by Dolch 220 words had considerable influence in the teaching
of reading at elementary level in USA. The basic words in Dolch list are:
A, about, after, again, all, always, am, an, and, any, are, around, as, ask, at, ate, away be,
because, been, before, best, better, big, black, blue, both, bring, brown, but, buy, call, came,
can, carry, clean cold, come, could, cut, did, do, does, done don't, down draw, drink, eat, eight,
every, fall, far, fast, find, first, five, fly, for, found, four, from, full, funny, gave, get, give, go,
goes, going, good, got, green, grow, had ,has, have, he, help, her, here, him, his, hold, hot, how,hurt, if, in, into, is, if, its jump, just, keep, kind , know, laugh, let, light, like, little, live long, look,
mode, make, many, may, me, much, must, my, myself, never, raw, no, net, paw, of, off, old, on,
once, one, only, open, our, out, over, pick, play, please, pretty, pull, put, ran, read, red, ride,
right, round, run, said, saw, say, see, seven, shall, she, show, sing, six, sleep, small, so, sonic,
soon, start, stop, take, tell, ten, thank, that, the, their, them, then, there, these, they, think, this,
those, three, to, today, together, too, try, two, under, up, upon, us, use, very, walk, want,
warm, was, wash, we, well, went, were, what, when, where, which, white, who, why, will, wish,
with, work, would, write, yellow, yes, you, your.
2.5. Types of Words
****Before going further on the review, of lexical and grammatical words it is important to first
discuss the definition of word although it is not to discuss how
words are best defined theoretically.
http://rww.btinternet.com/~tedhttp://rww.btinternet.com/~tedhttp://rww.btinternet.com/~tedhttp://rww.btinternet.com/~ted -
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****Defining the word is something difficult because the definition in the writing setting is
different from that in spoken. Even in the same setting the definitions of the word are still different in
different purposes or and focuses as well as on its representation of the truth it expresses or purely
formal criteria. One of the definitions of the word which is limitedly relevant to writing related criteria
presented by Jackson (2000:48):
****The first type of definition relies mainly on writing traditions that s eparate by spaces
sequences of letters or characters. It must be pointed out that these separations do not always
correspond to functional realities.
****Another type of definition considers the indivisible unit of thought serving as the most
important criterion. Their definition also falls into three possible alternatives as quoted by Jackson
(2000:48) in the following:
1.
The word as represented in writing represents a thought unit or a psychological unit: this is the
most common case, the easiest to observe and which, unfortunately may make us forget the
others. Examples are names of objects: table, house, abstractions: courage faith, intelligence,
adjectives: tall short, verbs : cat, sleep.
2.
The word forms one block but includes two units of thoughts: e.g. farmer, rethink, spoonful.
3.
The psychological unit exceeds the limit of the graphological unit and spreads over several
words; the word is only an element of the real unity, which is then a more complex unit : e.g. allof' a sudden, as usual, coconut
****In tills research, however, the definition of the word will not be brought to theoretical
discussion of how words are best defined. Instead the definition of word will be approached from two
categories i.e.: lexical words and grammatical word, the distinction between the two must be handled
with care though.
2.5.1 Lexical Words
In this research lexical words are those which are classified by Jackson (2000:50):
In most general terms lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They have fairly
independent meanings and may be meaningful even in isolation or in series. Classes of lexical
words contain hundred or even thousands of members and they form open classes. The
example of these lexical words such as flower in isolation is having an independent meaning as
well as in the series of flower, fragrance, bottle and stone.
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****Lexical words can be called also as Open Words Classes (it is word class, lexical classes, or
in traditional grammar parts of speech) is linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items),
which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behavior of the lexical item in question.
Common linguistic categories include noun and verb among others. It uses the terms noun, verb.
adjectives', and adverbs.
2.5.2 Grammatical Words
****Jackson (2000.50) proposed that
Grammatical words are elements like prepositions, articles, conjunctions, forms indicatingnumber or tense and so on. Such classes contain relatively few members and the addition of
members is rare. They constitute closed classes or closed sets.
Another term to called grammatical words is Close Word Classes of categorizing common
words is by using preposition, conjunction, determiner (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative, and
possessive), article, (prepositions), pronouns, contractions, cardinal numbers are categorized as closed
word classes.
To sum up, that there are two types of words, lexical and grammatical word. Lexical word is regarded
also as the open word classes and the grammatical word is regarded as close word classes.