a child acquires any natural languages within a few years

8/10/2019 A Child Acquires Any Natural Languages Within a Few Years

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A child acquires any natural languages within a few years, without the aid of analytical thinking

and without explicit grammar instruction as taught in school. Sakai (2005:815) thus, ascribes the

origin of grammatical rules to an innate system in the human brain. Important aspects of language

are not acquired from experience; they are already present in the mind (Cook & Newson

1996:102). This is consistent with Chomskys theory of Universal Grammar (UG) which claims that

humans are innately endowed with universal language-specific knowledge (Chomsky 1977:2, 63).The concept of UG was resorted to because it was believed that children could not learn their first

language so quickly and effortlessly without the help of an innate language faculty to guide them

(Mitchell & Myles 2004:55). All human beings share part of their knowledge of language; UG is

their common possession regardless of which language they speak (Cook & Newson 1996:1-2).

Linguists regard speaking, signing, and language comprehension as primary faculties of language,that is, innate or inherent and biologically determined, whereas they regard reading and writing assecondary abilities (Sakai 2005:815). The above description implies that L1 is acquired during the

first years of life through such primary faculties while children are rapidly expanding their linguistic

knowledge. In contrast, reading and writing are learned with much conscious effort and repetition,usually at school. This ability may be influenced by cultural rather than biological factors.

Cook and Newson (1996:104) elucidate Chomskys Universal Grammar when they maintain thatacquiring English means discovering how it fleshes out the properties of UG which are alreadypresent. Furthermore, Saville-Troike (2006:18) also adopts a Chomskyan stance of Universal

Grammar when she argues that the initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate

capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may beavailable only in some limited ways. In addition, Mc Gilvray (2005:117) encapsulates the theory ofUG by emphasising that learners acquire a grammar of the language and that the cognitive principleswhich learners employ is a set of universal principles collectively called Universal Grammar.

Saville-Troike (2006:2) maintains that second language acquisition (SLA) refers to both the study ofindividuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as children,and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language

(L2), even though it may actually be the third, fourth, or tenth to be acquired. It is also commonly

called a target language (TL), which refers to any language that is the aim or goal of learning(Saville-Troike 2006:2).Ellis (2000:3) defines SLA as a way in which people learn a language other than their primary

language, inside or outside of the classroom. According the traditional definition, SLA takes place ina setting in which the language to be learned is the language spoken in the local community (De Bot,Lowie & Verspoor 2005:7). Therefore, for example, an IsiZulu speaker learning English in an

English medium school is generally referred to as a second language learner.

Although there are a variety of approaches to SLA, the literature review will focus on Cumminss

Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis, Krashens Monitor Model, the Dynamic Systems

Theory, and Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory of the Mind. These approaches, to the researcher s

knowledge, were found to have caused much concern and debate among linguists and

researchers. Some approaches will be complementary and some contrasting.

2.3.1 Indonesian Chinese

Indonesian Chinese are an overseas Chinese group whose ancestors emigrated from

China to Indonesia through commercial activities. Ancestors of the Chinese Indonesian migrate


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in waves for thousands of years ago. Their role appears several times in the history of

Indonesia, even before the Republic of Indonesia declared and established. The records of

China stated that the ancient kingdom in the archipelago has been closely linked with the

ruling dynasties in China. It is the factor which then fosters trade and traffic of goods and

people from China to the archipelago and vice versa.

Maritime trade drove early migration patterns of the Chinese into the Malay

Archipelago, in addition to the 1293 Mongol invasion of the island of Java and expeditions led

by mariner Zheng He in the 15th century. The bustling interaction trade in southeast China's

coastal areas is causing a lot of people who also feel the need to sail out to trade. The main

goal at the time was Southeast Asia. Because shipping is very dependent on the monsoons,

then every year the traders will settle in the territories of Southeast Asia who visited them. So

forth any merchant who decides to settle down and marry local women, there are also traders

who returned to China to keep trading. When European explorers began arriving in Southeast

Asia in the 16th and 17th centuries, they established ports of trade in the region and began

interacting with Chinese traders and merchants who were already present. After the Dutch

East India Company established Batavia (now the capital city of Jakarta) as its headquarters on

Java in 1609, it became a hub of trade between China and India. In order to expand their

colony, the Dutch contracted laborers from the Fujian and Guangdong regions of southern

China. For the next 300 years, members of the Hakkien, Hakka, Teochew, and Cantonese

ethnic groups entered the Dutch East Indies as construction and plantation workers, miners,

and artisans. Emigrant communities emerged in more industrialized nations beginning in the

second half of the 20th century. In general, the ethnic Chinese are more urbanized than the


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indigenouspribumipopulation, though significant rural and agricultural communities also exist

outside the main islands.

Indonesian Chinese (commonly referred to as orang Cina, Tionghoa, or Peranakan

Cina) in Indonesia is one of the ethnic in Indonesia. Usually they call themselves by the term

Tenglang (Hokkien), Tengnang (Tiochiu), or Thongnyin (Hakka). In Mandarin they are called

Tangren (Hanzi: Tang people). This is consistent with the fact that the Chinese-majority

Indonesia came from southern China who refer to themselves as Tang people, while the

northern Chinese refer to themselves as Han people. Nearly all Chinese Indonesians are either

patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants or new immigrants born in mainland China.

Most of the Chinese people in Indonesia settled on the island of Java. Other areas where they

also settled in large numbers than in urban areas are: North Sumatra, Bangka-Belitung, South

Sumatra, Lampung, Lombok, West Kalimantan, Banjarmasin, and some places in South

Sulawesi and North Sulawesi. Indonesia's 2000 census reported more than 2.4 million self

identified ethnic Chinese citizens, or 1.2 percent of the country's population at the time.

Although the number of Chinese society is less than population groups ofpribumi, their

presence as citizens of the city of Medan, North Sumatra will be easily characterized, namely

by looking at Chinese characters displayed to their residence, that is, in almost all shopping

centers and along roads in the city are the houses where they lived and also where they

opened their business. In addition to those who always receipts Hokkien dialect as a language

in everyday conversation among themselves, in the midst of other residents. In line with the

situation in China itself, the Chinese community in Medan and North Sumatra is also

composed of various tribes, but in a state of everyday tribal issues are not prominent. So there


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is only one entity in a civilized society which is not one faction of the ethnic ties that are

organized in a single organizational structure as the common case, except social groups in

terms of religion and death.

2.3.2 Hokkien Dialect

2.3 Childrens Mother Tongue

2.3 Language Acquisition

****The term 'acquisition' whose verb is to acquire originally means to come into possession or

control of often by unspecified means (Meriam Webster Dictionary). Clark (2003:409) stated that

within acquisition, researchers need to account for both continuity and change in what children knows

about their language. Krashen (1990: 112) made a distinction between acquisition termed as language

knowledge that develops incidentally as learners focus on meaning in comprehensible input and

learning termed as knowledge about language gained through formal instruction or met linguistic

analysis. Further to the difference between learning and acquisition is that learning is taken as

conscious process (e.g: classroom) of attaining a language usually from a classroom where a teacher

holds most of the roles while acquiring is regarded as unconscious process of attaining a language

learning is through tutoring while acquiring is through nurturing.

****Language acquisition followers led by Krashen have even conducted a research supporting

their comprehensible input. In support to this theory Block (2003: 94) reviewing several studies in which

young L2 learners read or were read to in the target language. The findings consistently showed that

students who had access to more reading activities learned more of the second language than student

in audio lingual instruction. Moreover, he said that it is a subconscious process. Language on the other


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hand is a conscious process, and is the result of either a formal language learning situation, or a self-

study program.

****These study however, although aware of the difference. will not differentiate the process

between the two rather concentrate on the result already gained by the subject. Instead of relying on

the process the study relies more on the product oriented.

It has been argued by Menyuk (1999:5) concluded that the optimum age of acquiring another

language is in the first ten years of life because it is then that the brain retains its maximum "plasticity"

of flexibility (the plasticity metaphor suggesting as it does that the brain is like a lump of plasticine that

gradually hardens with age, seems a favored one among the investigations of the critical period). It is

suggested that at puberty the brain loses its plasticity and the two hemisphere of the brain become

much more independent of each other and the language function is largely established in the left

hemisphere. The critical period hypothesis argues that after these neurological changes have taken

place acquiring another language become increasingly difficult if not impossible. She explained by

examples: pre-school children produced sentences, which are incomplete (not understandable),

functionally complete, simple, and simple with phrase, compound, complex.

****The criticism by Goodluck (1996: 188) to the critical period hypothesis in itself supports this

theory at least at the area of pronunciation. Goodluck (1996: 188) criticizes that it is partially correct to

suggest that- acquisition is easier for younger children in fact pronunciation is the only area where the

younger the start the better.

****Additionally, Goodluck (1996: 193) suggests "While the age does riot alter the route of

acquisition. It does have a mark effect on the rate and the ultimate success. The research result is: both

number of years of exposure and starting age affect the level of success. The number of year's exposure

contributes greatly to the overall communicative fluency; of the learners, but starting age determine

the levels of accuracy, achieved, particularly in pronunciation.


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****A native - like mastery of a target language is very rarely attained. even when learners

begin foreign instruction at an early age. There are man reasons for this. One is that learners in a

foreign language environment usually have only the teacher as a model of a proficient speaker, all

other input comes from peer learners whose levels of English mastery is somewhat similar with their

own language, and learners who hear and understand each other inevitably reinforce some of the non-

target aspects of their shared inter language.

****In spite of the pro and contra above, it can be still concluded that learning a second

language at an early age, after a good control of' her first language, especially before puberty is more

beneficial. Of course the cart age of learning needs to be supplemented with constant exposure to the

target language and high quality of the teaching and high learner participation plus the language

talent will generate the higher possibility to achieve native like mastery or at least near native like

mastery of a target language.

2.4. The Acquisition of Early English Words by the Subject.

****Before going directly to the discussion of English as Second language the writer would first

discuss the finding from the first language acquisition. It has been found out by Clark (2003:81) that

early words in children speech are from the following categories such as people, food, body parts,

clothing, animals, vehicles, toys, household objects, routine and activities or states. These are certainly

very logical and relatively a general truth to a child as those are things they first see touch or even use

so consequently in terms language input or vocabulary those are the first words they are exposed to.

****Although those categories of early words are originally for the first language acquisition

setting, but they can also be logically relevant to second language acquisition in this case Indonesian

speaking child acquiring English as a second language. This finding, still in the setting of first language

acquisition is also supported by language production measured by the Mc. Arthur as quoted by Clark

(2003:81).. infant and toddler (1;0 1;6) communicative development inventories (Denson et al.


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1994:9293) Naturally, what young children talk about, not surprisingly, are what is going on in their

surrounding: the people they are with and see everyday; their toys and small household objects they

can manipulate; food they can take control by themselves; clothing they can put on and get off by

themselves; animals and vehicles, both of which move and so attract their attention, daily routines and

activities; and some sound effects.

****As in the case of English as second language in the research conducted in Swede by Hever,

by it was concluded from the investigation that after learning English for four, five and six years the

number of words acquired are successively 1500, 3500 and 7000 words.

****Additionally another very relevant reference is that proposed by Dolch (1960) as quoted by

Power (http://rww.btinternet.com/%7etedpower/esl 0220.html.) This is especially closely related as

this 1960 BSV A basic sight vocabulary by Dolch 220 words had considerable influence in the teaching

of reading at elementary level in USA. The basic words in Dolch list are:

A, about, after, again, all, always, am, an, and, any, are, around, as, ask, at, ate, away be,

because, been, before, best, better, big, black, blue, both, bring, brown, but, buy, call, came,

can, carry, clean cold, come, could, cut, did, do, does, done don't, down draw, drink, eat, eight,

every, fall, far, fast, find, first, five, fly, for, found, four, from, full, funny, gave, get, give, go,

goes, going, good, got, green, grow, had ,has, have, he, help, her, here, him, his, hold, hot, how,hurt, if, in, into, is, if, its jump, just, keep, kind , know, laugh, let, light, like, little, live long, look,

mode, make, many, may, me, much, must, my, myself, never, raw, no, net, paw, of, off, old, on,

once, one, only, open, our, out, over, pick, play, please, pretty, pull, put, ran, read, red, ride,

right, round, run, said, saw, say, see, seven, shall, she, show, sing, six, sleep, small, so, sonic,

soon, start, stop, take, tell, ten, thank, that, the, their, them, then, there, these, they, think, this,

those, three, to, today, together, too, try, two, under, up, upon, us, use, very, walk, want,

warm, was, wash, we, well, went, were, what, when, where, which, white, who, why, will, wish,

with, work, would, write, yellow, yes, you, your.

2.5. Types of Words

****Before going further on the review, of lexical and grammatical words it is important to first

discuss the definition of word although it is not to discuss how

words are best defined theoretically.
http://rww.btinternet.com/~tedhttp://rww.btinternet.com/~tedhttp://rww.btinternet.com/~tedhttp://rww.btinternet.com/~ted


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****Defining the word is something difficult because the definition in the writing setting is

different from that in spoken. Even in the same setting the definitions of the word are still different in

different purposes or and focuses as well as on its representation of the truth it expresses or purely

formal criteria. One of the definitions of the word which is limitedly relevant to writing related criteria

presented by Jackson (2000:48):

****The first type of definition relies mainly on writing traditions that s eparate by spaces

sequences of letters or characters. It must be pointed out that these separations do not always

correspond to functional realities.

****Another type of definition considers the indivisible unit of thought serving as the most

important criterion. Their definition also falls into three possible alternatives as quoted by Jackson

(2000:48) in the following:

1.

The word as represented in writing represents a thought unit or a psychological unit: this is the

most common case, the easiest to observe and which, unfortunately may make us forget the

others. Examples are names of objects: table, house, abstractions: courage faith, intelligence,

adjectives: tall short, verbs : cat, sleep.

2.

The word forms one block but includes two units of thoughts: e.g. farmer, rethink, spoonful.

3.

The psychological unit exceeds the limit of the graphological unit and spreads over several

words; the word is only an element of the real unity, which is then a more complex unit : e.g. allof' a sudden, as usual, coconut

****In tills research, however, the definition of the word will not be brought to theoretical

discussion of how words are best defined. Instead the definition of word will be approached from two

categories i.e.: lexical words and grammatical word, the distinction between the two must be handled

with care though.

2.5.1 Lexical Words

In this research lexical words are those which are classified by Jackson (2000:50):

In most general terms lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They have fairly

independent meanings and may be meaningful even in isolation or in series. Classes of lexical

words contain hundred or even thousands of members and they form open classes. The

example of these lexical words such as flower in isolation is having an independent meaning as

well as in the series of flower, fragrance, bottle and stone.


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****Lexical words can be called also as Open Words Classes (it is word class, lexical classes, or

in traditional grammar parts of speech) is linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical items),

which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behavior of the lexical item in question.

Common linguistic categories include noun and verb among others. It uses the terms noun, verb.

adjectives', and adverbs.

2.5.2 Grammatical Words

****Jackson (2000.50) proposed that

Grammatical words are elements like prepositions, articles, conjunctions, forms indicatingnumber or tense and so on. Such classes contain relatively few members and the addition of

members is rare. They constitute closed classes or closed sets.

Another term to called grammatical words is Close Word Classes of categorizing common

words is by using preposition, conjunction, determiner (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative, and

possessive), article, (prepositions), pronouns, contractions, cardinal numbers are categorized as closed

word classes.

To sum up, that there are two types of words, lexical and grammatical word. Lexical word is regarded

also as the open word classes and the grammatical word is regarded as close word classes.

a child acquires any natural languages within a few years

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