a cappella

- in the chapel (latin)

- vocal without instrumental accompaniment

- Charateristic of middle ages and renaissance

aria

-lyrical song for solo voice with orchestral accompaniment

-often highly emotional and sometimes performed independently

-expresses the character's feelings and emotions

arioso

-a short vocal passage

-more lyrical than a recitative but more modest in scale than an aria

Ars nova

-Latin for "new art"

-title of famous 14th-century treatise by composer Philippe de Vitry

-the term is also used by historians when referring to music in 14th-century France (the 1300s)

-as a result, the previous era became known as Ars antiqua ("old art")

augmentation

-a theme is presented in longer time values

-often the melody becomes twice as slow as the original

-often used in fugal writing

baroque

-from the Portuguese barroco, meaning irregularly shaped or misshapen pearl

-first used as a derogatory term in reference to the overly ornate art of the era

-now applied to art, architecture and music of the 17th and early 18th century

bas

-French for "low" indicating a low level of volume (soft)

-Medieval designation for indoor instruments

-includes dulcimer, lute, psaltery, rebec, recorder, vielle

basso continuo

-important element of Baroque performance practice

-generally involves two performers - one playing the notated bass line, one realizing the harmonies as indicated by the figured bass

-harmonies usually played on harpsichord or organ

-provides harmonic framework

binary form

-two-part form (AB)

-Section A generally ends with an open cadence (e.g. imperfect, deceptive)

-frequently used in Baroque dances and keyboard pieces

cadenza

- solo passage found in concertos and arias

- in the 18th century, it was generally improvised by the soloist

- displays virtuosity of soloist(s)

canon

-from the Greek word for "law"

-strict type of polyphonic composition in which each voice enters in succession with the same melody

-canons in which each voice enters on the same pitch (for example, at the unison) are referred to as rounds

cantata

-a multi-movement choral work

-sacred or secular

-for soloists, chorus, and orchestra

-consists of recitatives, arias, ensembles, and choruses

cantus firmus

-fixed song in Latin

-borrowed material, often from a Gregorian chant

-structural skeleton for new polyphonic composition

-originally found in lowest voice

castrato

-male soprano or alto voice

-subjected to a surgical procedure (castrating) before reaching puberty which prevented their voice from changing

-prominent in 17th and 18th century

-generally used in heroic roles

chamber music

- music for small ensemble (two to ten players)

- one player per part

- usually performed without conductor

chorale

-a hymn tune, associated with German Protestantism

-intended for congregational singing, therefore moved mostly by step or narrow leap

-used as the basis for many genres including the cantata

-sometimes adapted from Gregorian chants as well as from other popular sources

-harmonized for four voices (SATB) by composers such as J. S. Bach

chorus

-adds musical variety to the operatic works of many composers

-singers maybe participants in the plot (group or crowd scenes) or may be set apart from the staging, serving to comment on the scene like a narrator

chromaticism

-from the Greek chroma ("color")

-melodies/harmonies that include all the notes available within the octave

classicism

- pertains to the highest level of excellence

- possessing enduring value or timeless quality

- refers to the cultures of ancient Rome and Greece, as well as the art, architecture and music of the late 18th century

- emphasis on symmetry, balance, and simplicity

clausula

-clearly defined section within discant-style organum

-based on a single word/syllable

-often very melismatic

-new versions (substitute clausulae) were sometimes composed, replacing existing clausulae (ex. Perotin composed new clausulae for Leonin's 2-part setting of the mass)

clavecin

-French term for harpsichord

clavichord

-a small rectangular keyboard instrument

-sound is generated by small metal tangents that strike the strings inside the instrument

-the application of vibrato to the key produced an expressive sound

clavier

-German word for any keyboard instrument other than the organ

coda

- Latin for "tail" (cauda)

- a concluding section reaffirming the tonic key

concertino

-the small group of solo instruments featured in a concerto grosso of the Baroque era

concerto

-a multi-movement orchestral work

-usually in three movements (fast-slow-fast)

-in the Baroque there were two types: solo concerto and concerto grosso

concerto grosso

-Baroque orchestral work

-usually in three movements (fast-slow-fast)

-a group of solo instruments is showcased

consort of instruments

-Renaissance term for instrumental ensemble

-"whole consort" - all instruments from one family, such as a consort of viols

continuous imitation

-a type of polyphony associated with Renaissance style

-a motive or theme is passed from one voice to another

-the series of entries can be referred to as "points of imitation"

-many motives may receive this treatment within a single work

cornetto

-ancestor of trumpet

-developed from cow horn, later made of wood

-outdoor instrument

Countertenor

-high male voice with strong, pure tone

-often heard in early music performance

-falsetto single (out of normal range, fake-voice)

crumhorn

-double-reed wind instrument

-sound produced by blowing into enclosed double reed

-usually in the shape of a "J"

-outdoor instrument

development

- the second main section in sonata form

- themes from the exposition are manipulated through fragmentation, sequential treatment or changes to orchestration

- modulations and increased harmonic tension

- new themes may also be introduced

discant style

-opposite of organal style

-non-cantus firmus voices (upper voices) slower note values

-rhythmic movement of the original is more related to the upper voice than organal style

double

-term used for "variation" (of the theme) in French keyboard music of the Baroque era

double exposition

- used in the first movement of a Classical concerto

- orchestral exposition introduces the principal themes and establishes the tonic key

- solo exposition follows, during which the soloist, supported by the orchestra, restates the first theme and initiates the modulation away from the first key

drone

-sustained pitch or long held note(s)

-provides harmonic support

-common in folk music

dulcimer

-popular Medieval string instrument

-wooden soundbox and gut strings

-strings are struck with small hammers/mallets

-played indoors

estampie

-one of the earliest Medieval dances

-stately character

-involves elaborate body movements

-danced by couples

exposition

- the first main section in sonata form

- two contrasting themes are stated

- the first theme is in the tonic key

- the second theme (or themes) are in a contrasting key, generally in the dominant or relative major

figured bass

-a type of musical shorthand developed in the Baroque era

-numbers are placed below the bass line to show harmonic progression

-performed or "realized" by the basso continuo

-provides the structure for guided improvisation

fugal texture

-a contrapuntal composition based on the principle of imitation

-a theme (referred to as the subject) pervades the entire work, entering in one voice and then another

fugue

-from the Latin fugere, meaning "to flee"

-a highly structured imitative contrapuntal composition

-a single theme or subject prevails

gradual

-4th part of the Mass Proper

-texts of the gradual come from Psalms

-chants sung during this section were usually melismatic and performed in responsorial style

gravicembalo

-Italian term for harpsichord

Gregorian chant

- type of plainchant

- modal, monophonic with unmeasured rhythm

- named after Pope Gregory the Great, associated with organizing the chant repertoire and standardizing mass

- sacred, liturgical music of Roman Catholic Church

- latin texts

ground bass

-Baroque compositional device

-consists of the continuous repeitio

guitarra moresca

-guitar of Moorish (North African) origins

harpsichord

-a keyboard instrument

-sound is generated by small quills inside the instrument that pluck the strings

-often had two manuals (sets of keys)

haut

-French for "high" indicating a high level of volume (loud)

-Medieval designation for outdoor instruments

-includes cornetto, crumhorn, sackbut, shawm

heterophonic texture

-simultaneous variation; the same melody is played in more than one way at the same time

-involves two or more voices, one playing the original melody while another plays an ornamented or embellished version

-added voices are often improvised

hocket

-from French word hocket meaning hiccup

-a melodic line split between two voices

-each voice alternates between notes and rests

-frequently employed in Ars nova style

homorhythmic texture

-in a multi-voiced composition, all voices sing in same rhythm

-a chordal texture (homophonic) results

-coupled with syllabic text setting, this technique delivers the text clearly

-the listener's attention is drawn to the top voice

hornpipe

-lively dance in triple meter

-English origin

-originally associated with sailors

isorhythm

-a compositional device developed in the Ars nova

-"equal rhythm"

-combines melodic patterns (color) with rhythmic patterns (talea)

-color and talea are typically not the same length, overlapping rather than coinciding

Italian overture

- an orchestral genre developed in the early 18th century

- an extended work in three sections: fast - slow - fast; it formed the basis of the Classical symphony

jongleurs

-multi-talented medieval entertainers (not composers)

-lower social classes

-court jesters, musicians, storytellers, carriers of gossip

libretto

-the text of an opera, oratorio or cantata

-usually not written by the composer

-often based on a play, novel or an episode in history

lute

-ancestor of guitar

-middle-Eastern origin

-plucked, fretted, string instruent

-frequently accompanying singers

Mannheim School

- group of composers active at the court of Mannheim, Germany in the latter half of the 18th century

- leading figures included Karl Stamitz and Christian Cannabich

- developed the orchestral crescendo and rocket theme

- exerted a strong influence on the composers of the Viennese school

Mass

-the most important service in the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church

-includes prayers, readings from the Bible, and a re-enactment of the Last Supper, referred to as the Eucharist or Holy Communion

Mass Ordinary

-unchanging prayers of the Mass

-the components are: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei

Mass Proper

-changing, variable prayers of the Mass

-linked to Church calendar

-sections include: Gradual, Introit, Communion, Alleluia, Offertory

Medieval pipe

-ancestor of flute

-wind instrument with three holes

-blown through mouthpiece

melismatic text setting

- many notes for each syllable

- more elaborate form of text setting (hard to tell the word)

menuet

-a popular dance of the Baroque (and Classical) eras

-French origin

-elegant dance in triple meter

-moderate tempo

Minnesinger

-German = singer of love

-German equivalent of Medieval troubadours and trouveres

modal counterpoint

-polyphonic texture based on modes

-counterpoint - from Latin punctus contra punctum ("note against note")

modes

- scale patterns distinguished by their unique order of tones and semitones

- used in music of Ancient Greece

- the source for melodies in Middle Ages and Rennaissance

- usually called original Greek names (ex. Dorian, Mixolydian, Aeolian)

modified sonata form

- an abbreviated sonata form

- contains an Exposition and Recapitulation but no Development

- developed by composers in the 18th century

monody

-"one song"

-a new style which developed in the late 16th century

-a single vocal melody with simple instrumental accompaniment

-allowed for greater expression of emotion and clarity of text

monophonic chanson

-French: song (chanson)

-from troubadour/trouvere tradition

-Popular in 12C and 13C

-sometimes with improvised accomp.

monophonic texture

- mono = one

- music consisting of one single line (referred to as "voice")

- no harmony

- no accompaniment

monothematic exposition

- in sonata form: Theme 2 is a transposed version of Theme 1

- frequently employed by Haydn

motet

-vocal work with or without instrumental accomp.

-sacred or secular

-usually anonymous, often polytextual in 13C

musica ficta

-Latin for "false music"

-performance practice applied in modal music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance

-performers raised or lowered pitches by chromatic semitone to avoid undesirable intervals

-much like modern-day accidentals

nakers

-Medieval percussion instruments

-middle-Eastern origin

-played in pairs

-resemble small kettledrums

neumatic text setting

- several notes (2-4) for each syllable of text

neumes

- earliest form of notation in Western art music

- small notational symbols show music direction

- later in the shapes of square and diamonds positioned on staff which represent pitches

oboe d'amore

-a mezzo-soprano oboe

-pitched lower than a regular oboe with a pear-shaped bell

oboe da caccia

-an alto oboe

-built in the shape of a curved hunting horn but with a pear-shaped bell that gave the sound an outdoor quality

opera

-Italian for "work"

-drama that is sung

-combines vocal and instrumental music with drama (staging and acting), visual arts (costumes and scenery), and often dance

-created in Italy around 1600 and remains one of the most popular forms of musical entertainment

-components include recitative, arias, ensembles, and choruses

Example: The Marriage of Figaro by W. A. Mozart

opera buffa

- Italian comic opera

- sung throughout with no spoken dialogue

- featured down-to-earth characters, fast-paced plots, farce, and sexual innuendo

opera seria

-Italian for "serious opera"

-sung throughout

-generally based on historical and mythological subjects

oratorio

- large scale choral work

- generally based on sacred subjects

- performing forces include vocal soloists, chorus, and orchestra

- performed in a concert setting without scenery, costumes, or acting

ordre

-French term identifying Baroque dance collecions

-often contained numerous miniature dance pieces

organal style

-style of free organum where non-cantus firmus voices (upper voices) uses faster note values

-notes from original are sung by lower voice in long notes

-"sustained-note organum"

organum

- general term for polyphony-based plainchant

- between 9th century to 13th century

- vocal music where new melody/melodies are added to existing Gregorian chant (cantus firmus)

- early styles maintained primary intervals between voices (P4, P5 and P8)

- later featured more independent melodic parts, more variety of intervals

ornamentation

-applied by the performer during repeats or da capo/dal segno sections

-ornaments could take the form of appoggiaturas, trills, mordents, etc.

ostinato

-Italian: persistant/obstinate

-rhythmic/melodic pattern repeated for a long time

overture

- an orchestral work preceding an opera or oratorio

- frequently in sonata form

- in the 18th century, composers frequently quoted themes which would be heard later in the opera

piano quintet

- chamber ensemble consisting of piano and four other instruments

- most common grouping is piano with string quartet, although other combinations are possible

- also refers to a composition written for five instruments

Plainchant

- plainsong

- roots in Judaic tradition

- monophonic, modal melodies

- relatively narrow melodic range, no big leaps

- unmeasured prose rhythm

polyphonic texture

- poly = many

- two or more melodies or voices heard at the same time

- "contrapuntal texture"

portative organ

-Medieval portable keyboard instrument

-small keyboard activates high-pitched pipes

-sound generated through pumping bellows

-sometimes called organetto

positive organ

-originated in 14th century, but remained popular through Renaissance

-slightly larger than portative organ, but still portable, like a piece of furniture

-had one keyboard, no pedals, and small pipes

psaltery

-popular Medieval string instrument

-trapezoidal wooden soundbox with gut strings

-strings plucked with fingers or plectrum

-played indoors

rebec

-Medieval indoor instrument

-pear shaped, bowed, string instrument

-has three strings

-played on the arm or under the chin

recapitulation

- the third main section in sonata form

- first and second themes are both restated in the tonic

recitative

-a speech-like, declamatory style of singing

-used for dialogue and to advance the plot

-more lyrical than speech, less lyrical than song

-replaced with spoken dialogue in some styles of opera

recitativo accompagnato

- a speech-like, declamatory style of singing supported by instrumental ensemble or orchestra

- "accompanied recitative"

recitativo secco

- a speech-like, declamatory style of singing supported by only basso continuo

- "dry recitative"

recorder

-Medieval indoor instrument

-end-blown wind instrument; came in different lengths

-had finger holes

-remained popular into Baroque period

regal

-14th-century portable organ

-ancestor of modern harmonium

-had small keyboard and reeds instead of pipes

-like the portative organ, it could be carried by means of a strap around the neck, allowing the player to pump the bellows with the left hand while playing on the keyboard with the right hand

responsorial singing

- method of performance

- solo vs chorus

- solo sings verse, choral responds

rhythmic modes

-rhythmic patterns of long/short notes

-early step in the development of rhythmic notation, provided rhythmic structure without note values and meter

-related to poetic meters

ripieno

-Italian for "full" or "complete"

-also called tutti

-a term used to denote the full orchestra in a Baroque concerto

ritornello

-a recurring theme that functions as a refrain in Baroque compositions

-can serve as introduction and postlude in aria or choruses or as a unifying thread in concertos

ritornello form

-a structure often employed in the first and third movements of the Baroque concerto

-the opening passage (ritornello) is restated throughout the movement

rondeau

-a popular fixed poetic form used in the polyphonic chansons of the Ars nova

-consists of 4 verses with a refrain

-the text of the first stanza was repeated partially in the second verse and repeated fully in the fourth verse

-can be represented as: AB aA ab AB

rondo form

- ABACA or ABACABA (or variants thereof)

- Section A must be heard at least three times in the tonic key

- Sections B and C offer contrasts in key and thematic material.

rounded binary form

-two-part form: A :||: B + A :||

-material from Section A returns within Section B

sackbut

-ancestor of the trombone

-from the Old French "pull-push"

-outdoor instrument

shawm

-ancestor of oboe

-middle-Eastern origin

-double reed instrument

-produces shrill nasal tone

sinfonia

-generic term, used in the Baroque in various contexts

-for Monteverdi, indicates an instrumental movement

-used for transitions between scenes in operas

Singspiel

- German comic opera

- contains spoken dialogue

sonata cycle

- a multi-movement structure

- emerged in the Classical era

- occurs in symphony, sonata, and concerto

sonata form

- a formal structure often used in first movement of a sonata cycle

- consists of Exposition (statement of two or more contrasting themes), Development (departure), and Recapitulation (return)

stile concitato

-Italian for "agitated style"

-term used by Monteverdi

-expresses the "hidden tremors of the soul"

-achieved through use of tremolo and pizzicato (instrumental) and ornamentation and rapid repeated notes (vocal)

stile rappresentativo

-Italian for "representational style"

-the term used by the Florentine Camerata musicians to describe the monodic style

-a recitative-like melody moving freely over a foundation of simple chords

-the music was meant to heighten the emotional power of the text

string quartet

- the most popular chamber ensemble of the Classical era

- two violins, viola, and cello

- as a genre, also refers to a composition written for this ensemble, generally in four movements: fast - slow - medium - fast

strophic

-song structure where same music is performed for each verse of poem

-little connection between text and music

Sturm und Drang

- German for "storm and stress"

- literary movement roughly spanning the years 1760-1785

- artistic aim was to frighten, shock, or otherwise overwhelm the reader with emotion

- musically, it translated into passionate outbursts and emphasis on minor keys

- evident in the music of the sons of Bach, Haydn and Mozart

syllabic text setting

- one note for each syllable

- text heard very clearly

symphony

Background and Origins:

- developed from the three-section Italian overture (fast - slow - fast)

- Mannheim composers inserted the menuet and trio, thereby establishing the four-movement sonata cycle

- incorporated the newly emerging sonata form

- composed with the four orchestral families in mind

Characteristic Features;

- a multi-movement orchestral work

- orchestra consisted of the four families: strings, winds, brass, and percussion

- generally had four contrasting movements

tabor

-Medieval percussion instrument

-large, cylindrical drum

taille

-a tenor oboe with a pear-shaped bell

tambourine

-percussion instrment

-wooden frame with small metal disks inserted

-may or may not have a drum skin

-played by striking or shaking

tenor

-to hold in Latin

-in polyphonic music, the voice that has cantus firmus

ternary form

-three-part form: (ABA)

-Section B generally creates contrast in key and/or material

-often used in Baroque arias

terraced dynamics

-Baroque practice of changing dynamics abruptly without gradual change

terzetto

- Italian term for "trio"

- a musical number for three voices (characters)

the "Affections"

-a Baroque philosophy inspired by the ancient Greek and Roman writers and orators

-refers to emotional states of the soul

-in Baroque music, a single "affect" (one clear emotion) is usually projected through an entire composition or movement

-also referred to as the "Doctrine of Affections"

-vocal music depicted the emotions of the text or dramatic situation

-was a reaction against the complex polyphony of Renaissance music

theme and variations

- a work featuring a statement of a melody (theme) followed by a series of transformations (variations)

- changes can be made to melody, harmony, rhythm, or orchestration

- often used in slow movement of sonata cycle

tremolo

- a rapid alternation between two notes or between notes of chord

troubadour

-finder/inventor in French

-aristocratic poet-musicians

-composed and performed original poems and songs

-lived and worked in northern France

trouser role

- a male character performed by a soprano, mezzo soprano, or contralto

- roles originally created for male castrati are frequently turned into trouser roles in modern performances

trouvere

-finder/inventor in French

-aristocratic poet-musicians

-composed and performed original poems and songs

-sang of courteous love

-lived and worked in southern France

vielle

-ancestor of the violin

-instrument body figure eight shape

-played with a bow

-played indoors

Viennese School

- in 18th century Vienna, Austria emerged as a musical centre

- general term for Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, leaders in the foraging of the Classical Style

viola da gamba

-an instrument in the viol family

-had six strings

-held between the legs when played, like a modern cello

-fretted like a guitar

viols

-Renaissance family of bowed string instruments

-varied in size from small to large

virginal

-in England, a generic term for all plucked keyboard instruments

-smaller and lighter than the harpsichord, simpler in construction and less expensive

-Italian and Flemish virginals came in many shapes; English versions were always rectangular

-could be placed on a tabletop or held in the player's lap

word painting

-musical pictorialization

-in vocal works, the music reflects the meaning of the text