A 350583

Human Rights:Universality and Diversity

EVA BREMSProfessor ofHujnan Rights Law,

University ofGfient, Belgium

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MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERSTHE HAGUE / BOSTON / LONDON

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1

PART ONE: Human Rights and the Universality Principle 3

I. Universality Concepts 3A. General and World-wide Applicability of Human Rights: All-Inclusiveness 4B. Formal Acceptance 5C. Historical Origin 7D. Formal Origin: Norm Creation , 8E. Anthropological or Philosophical Acceptance 9F. Functional Acceptance ...-.-.:....; 10G. Multicultural Composition of Human Rights 10H. World-wide Observance of HumanRights..: 12I. General Opposability of Human Rights 12J. Human Rights as a Legitimate Concern of the International Community 13K. Absence of Double Standards •. 13L. Priority of Human Rights 14M. Indivisibility of Human Rights 14N. Uniformity of Standards 140. Universality in Time 15P. Universality as a Process 15Q. Conclusion 16

II. Brief History of the Universality of Human Rights .17A. Before the Universal Declaration of HumanRights 17B. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Subsequent Evolution 20C. Relativism 23

PART TWO: An Analysis of Non-Western Human Rights Claims 27

1. Introduction 27A. Purpose 27B. Selection of Material 28C. Approach 31

II. Asian Human Rights Claims 33A. Introduction 33B. Central Texts and Events 35

1. The Singapore School 361.1. Situation : 361.2. General Discourse 36

vi HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY

1.3. The Economic Argument 381.4. The Vulnerability Argument 401.5. The Cultural Argument 411.6. Good Government 46

2. The Beijing White Papers 502.1. "China's Practice of Human Rights" 502.2. "China's Basic Position on Human Rights" 51

3. The Bangkok Declaration and the Vienna Conference 553.1. Situation 553.2. The Bangkok Declaration 56

3.2.1. Non-controversial Statements 563.2.2. Controversial Statements 57

3.3. The Vienna Conference 593.3.1. Statements 59

3.3.1.1. Singapore 593.3.1.2. Malaysia 613.3.1.3. China 623.3.1.4. Indonesia 633.3.1.5. Thailand : 643.3.1.6. Myanmar 653.3.1.7. Philippines 653.3.1.8. (South) Korea 663.3.1.9. Japan 66

3.3.2. The Vienna Declaration 673.3.2.1. Sovereignty, Non-interference, Double Standards 673.3.2.2. Universality and indivisibility 673.3.2.3. Development and Human Rights 683.3.2.4. Parts of the debate Not Mentioned 69

3.4. The Position of NGOs 693.4.1. Situation 693.4.2. Some Shared Concerns with the Governments 70

3.4.2.1. Universality 713.4.2.2. Indivisibility and Economic Concerns 723.4.2.3. The Individual and the Community 72

3.4.3. Some Points of Disagreement with the Governments 723.4.3.1. The Sovereignty Argument 733.4.3.2. The National Security Argument 73

4. Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Human Rights 754.1. Traditional Provisions 754.2. "Asian" Provisions 76

C. Interpretation 801. Framework 802. Main Claims 83

2.1. International Politics 842.2. Economics 852.3. The Individual, the Community and the State 86

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

2.4. Interpretation and Implementation 873. Attitude Towards the Universality of HumanRights 88

3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity 883.2. The Role of Culture 89

III. African Human Rights Views 91A. Introduction 91B. Central Texts and Events 91

1. Legal and Political Texts 911.1. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights 92

1.1.1. Universality and Specificity 921.1.2. Peoples' Rights 95

1.1.2.1. General Remarks '. 95a) Originality of the African Charter 95b) Justification 96c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement 99d) Peoples' Rights and Individual Rights 100

1.1.2.2. Overview of the Articles 101a) Article 19 102b) Article 20 102c) Article 21 105d) Article 22 106e) Article 23 108f) Article 24 108

1.1.3. Individual Duties 109.1.1.3.1. General Remarks 109

a) Originality of the African Charter 109b) Justification 110c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement 112d) Individual Duties and Individual Rights 113

1.1.3.2. Overview of the Articles 114a) Article 27 114b) Article 28 115c) Article 29 115

1.1.4. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1181.1.5. Limitation and Derogation 121

1.1.5.1. Limitation 1211.1.5.2. Derogation : 125

1.1.6. Choice and Formulation of Specific Rights 1261.1.6.1. Omission of Rights 1261.1.6.2. Inclusion and Formulation of Rights 129

a) Article 18 129b) Article 17(3) 130c) Article 7 (2) in fine .-. 130d) Article 13(1) 131

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e) Article 14 1311.1.7. Enforcement Mechanism 1311.1.8. Reception of the Charter 1331.1.9. Evaluation 135

1.2. The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child 1371.2.1. Rights protected in both CRC and ACRWC 1381.2.2. Rights protected only in the ACRWC, not in the CRC 1421.2.3. Rights protected only in the CRC, not in the ACRWC 1441.2.4. Evaluation 144

1.3. The Tunis Declaration 1482. Academic Texts 151

2.1. Traditional Africa 1512.2. Universality 1562.3. Communalism 1622.4. Development and Human Rights 163

2.4.1. Priority of Development over Human Rights 1642.4.2. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1652.4.3. Conditionality 166

2.5. Stability 1672.6. Harmful Cultural Practices 168

2.6.1. General Remarks : 1682.6.2. The Example of Female Genital Mutilation 170

2.6.2.1. The Practice 1702.6.2.2. The Western Campaign and the United Nations 1712.6.2.3. African Views 175

C. Interpretation 1781. Framework 1782. Main Claims 1793. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights 180

3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity 1803.2. The Role of Culture 181

IV. Islam and Human Rights Views 183A. Introduction 183B. Central Texts and Events 183

1. Academic Texts 1841.1. Fundamental Attitude: Different Tendencies 184

1.1.1. Apologetic literature 1851.1.1.1. Common characteristics 185

a) General 185b) Older and Better 185c) The Rights 187

1.1.1.2. Subcategories 191a) Attitude to "Thorny Issues" 191b) Traditionalists and Fundamentalists 191

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1.1.2. Appeals for Interpretation 1921.1.2.1. Situating Ijtihad 1921.1.2.2. Common Characteristics 1931.1.2.3. Subcategories 194

a) Moderate Muslim Proposals 194b) Radical Muslim Proposals 196c) Non-Muslim Western Authors 199

1.1.3. Secularism 1991.2. Recurring Themes 201

1.2.1. Universality 2011.2.1.1. Rejection of Universality 2011.2.1.2. Ambiguous Attitude Toward Universality in the

Apologetic Discourse 2021.2.1.3. Attitude Toward Universality Among Liberal Muslims 203

1.2.2. Individualism versus Communalism and Rightsversus Duties 204

1.2.2.1. The relationship Between the Two Themes 2041.2.2.2. Individualism v. Communalism 204

a) Individualism and Communalism in Islam 204b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights 205

1.2.2.3. Rights v. Duties 206a) Rights and Duties in Islam 206b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights 207

1.2.3. The Religious Dimension 2071.2.4. Areas of Conflict Between Islam and International

HumanRights 2081.2.4.1. Women's Rights 2081.2.4.2. Freedom of Religion 209

a) The Problem 209b) Solving the Problem 210

1.2.4.3. Discrimination on the Basis of Religion 213a) The Problem 213b) Denying or Minimising the Problem >. 214c) Solving the Problem 215

1.2.4.4. Corporal Punishment 216a) The Problem: Hudud Crimes 216b) Solving the Problem 217

1.2.4.5. Slavery 2191.2.4.6. Procedural Guarantees 2201.2.4.7. Democratic Rights 2211.2.4.8. Other 222

1.3. A Specific Genre: The Debate on Women in Islam 2221.3.1. Fundamental Attitude: Different Tendencies 223

1.3.1.1. Apologetic literature 2231.3.1.2. Feminists Appeals for Interpretation 2251.3.1.3. Secularism 228

HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY

1.3.2. Recurring Themes 2281.3.2.1. The Principle of Equality 2291.3.2.2. Marriage 230

a) Choice of a Husband 231b) Polygamy 231c) Authority of the Husband 232

1.3.2.3. Divorce 233a) Obtaining a Divorce 233b) Custody 234c) Maintenance 235

1.3.2.4. Inheritance 2361.3.2.5. Testimony 2371.3.2.6. Blood Money 2381.3.2.7. Freedom of Movement / Hijab 2381.3.2.8. Right to Work 2391.3.2.9. Political Rights / Access to Public Functions 240

2. Islamic Declarations of HumanRights 2412.1. Universal Islamic Declaration of HumanRights 242

2.1.1. Situation 2422.1.2. Universality versus Particularity 243

2.1.2.1. Elements of Universality 2432.1.2.2. Elements of Islamic Particularity : 243

2.1.3. Individualism versus Communalism 2492.1.4. Rights versus Duties 2512.1.5. Restriction of Rights 2532.1.6. Thorny Issues 254

2.1.6.1. Women 2542.1.6.2. Religion 2562.1.6.3. Other 256

2.1.7. General Appreciation 2582.2. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam 259

2.2.1. Situation 2592.2.2. Universality versus Particularity 2592.2.3. Individualism versus Communalism....._ 2612.2.4. Rights versus Duties ~ 2622.2.5. Restriction of Rights 2622.2.6. Thorny Issues 263

2.2.6.1. Women 2632.2.6.2. Religion 2642.2.6.3. Other 265

2.2.7. General Appreciation 2663. Islamic Reservations to HumanRights Conventions 267

3.1. General Remarks 2673.2. Reservations of a General Nature 2713.3. Specific Reservations 274

3.3.1. In the ICCPR and the ICESCR 274

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3.3.2. In CEDAW 2753.3.3. In the CRC 278

3.4. Evolution Over Time: Reservations as Statements in a Debate 280C. Interpretation 285

1. Framework 2852. Main Claims 2863. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights 288

3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity 2883.2. The Role of Culture 290

V. Some Common Conclusions 291A. Main Claims 291B. Attitude Towards the Universality of HumanRights 292C. Flexibility and Transformation 292

PART THREE: Inclusive universality 295

I. Introduction 295II. Upholding the Ideal of the Universality of Human Rights 296A. Unconditional Universality 296

1. The Condition of General Formal Acceptance 2962. The Condition of Mixed Cultural Origin or Composition 297

3. The Condition of Cross-Cultural Anthropological orPhilosophical Foundations: of Mothers and Sisters 300

3.1. Mother-notions 3003.2. Sister-notions 3023.3. Evaluation 304

B. A Functional and Pragmatic Basis for Affirming Universality 3041. A Functional Basis 305

1.1. The Universality of the Modern State 3051.2. Human Suffering 306

2. A Pragmatic Basis 307III. Necessary Consequences of the Universality of Human Rights:

Toward Inclusive Universality 308A. General Formal Acceptance 309B. Participation in Norm Creation 309C. Absence of Double Standards 310D. General Opposability 310E. Indivisibility 311F. Cross-Cultural Acceptance in Anthropological and Philosophical Terms 311G. Accommodating Particularities 314

1. Transformation of HumanRights Standards 3152. Flexibility of HumanRights Standards 3163. Limits to the Accommodation of Particularities : 318

3.1. Who Makes the Claim? 318

xii HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY

3.2.Thick and Thin Accounts of Human Rights:Gross Violations 320

3.3. Limits Inherent in the Concept ofInclusive Universality 322

IV. Further Marking Out Inclusive Universality 323A. Methodological Implications 323B. Comparison With Other Concepts 324

1. Minow's Relational and Contextual Approach 3242. Taylor andHabermas: Recognising Cultural Identities 3283. Kymlicka's Multiculturalism 3324. Donnelly's Weak Cultural Relativism 335

V. Summing Up 338

PART FOUR: Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity 341

I. Introduction 341II. Flexibility 343A. Forum and Focus 343B. Contextual Diversity in the Consideration of Human Rights Reports 345

1. "Factors and "Difficulties" ~. 3461.1. Types of Factors and Difficulties 3461.2. Impact on the Committee's Evaluation 349

2. Progressive Realisation 3522.1. InthelCESCR 3522.2. In the CRC 354

3. Conclusion 355C. Margin of Appreciation 357

1. Focus on Europe 3572. The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine 3603. One Doctrine, Several Techniques 364

3.1. Contextual Variations in the Balancing between Rightsand Restriction Grounds 365

3.1.1. The Principle of Balancing: Individualversus Community 365

3.1.2. Balancing in Practice 3663.1.2.1. The Weight of the Individual Right 366

a) The Importance of the Interest:Core Activities 367

b) The Seriousness of the Interference:"Substance" or "Essence" Criteria 368

3.1.2.2. The Weight of the Community Interest 371a) Choice from Among the Enumerated

Interests in a Limitation Clause 371

TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

b) Policy Field 373I. Better Position of the

National Authorities 374II. Economic and Social Policy 376ill. Sovereignty-related

Policy Fields 377iv. Special Regimes 378

3.1.3. Balancing on the World Level 3803.2. Contextual Variations in Solving Conflicts of Rights 3843.3. Contextual Factors as Mitigating Circumstances for

Interferences 3873.3.1. Local Situations 3883.3.2. Exceptional Situations 389

3.4. Organisational Latitude for the Concretisation of Rightsin Different Contexts 390

3.5. Contextual Variability in the Interpretation of Vague orGeneral Notions 393

3.5.1. Autonomous Interpretation 3943.5.2. Evolutive Interpretation 3963.5.3. Margin of Appreciation in the Interpretation of

Vague or General Notions 3974. Margin of Appreciation Criteria and Inclusive Universality 400

4.1. Democracy 4004.2. Effectiveness 4054.3. No "Gross Violations" 407

4.3.1. Core Rights? 4084.3.2. The Core of a Right 410

~ 4.4. The Consensus Criterion 4114.4.1. The Consensus Criterion in the Case-law of the

European Court of HumanRights 4124.4.1.1. Comparison in Balancing 4124.4.1.2. Comparison in Other Legal Techniques 4134.4.1.3. Reference to Other Conventions 4144.4.1.4. Internal Uncertainty or Dispute 4154.4.1.5. Consensus and Evolution 416

4.4.2. The Consensus Criterion on the World Level 4184.4.2.1. Problematic Aspects of the Consensus

Criterion in General 4194.4.2.2. Additional Problems on the World Level 420

5. Conclusion 421

HI. Transformation 423A. Introduction 423B. Duties 424

1. Types of Duties 4242. Duties in International Human Rights Law 425

xiv HUMAN RIGHTS: UNIVERSALITY AND DIVERSITY

2.1. HumanRights Texts on the Universal Level 4252.1.1. The Universal Declaration of HumanRights 4262.1.2. Other Texts 427

2.2. Regional Human Rights Texts 4292.2.1. The European Convention on Human Rights 4292.2.2. The Americas 4302.2.3. The African Charter on Human and

Peoples'Rights 4312.2.4. Asia 431

3. More Duties? 4323.1. General Approach 432

3.1.1. Potential Benefits of More Duties 4323.1.2. Avoiding Negative Effects of More Duties 433

3.2. Concrete Proposals 4343.2.1. The Proposal of the InterAction Council 434

3.2.1.1. The Text 4353.2.1.2. Evaluation 438

3.2.2. The Proposal of Karel Vasak 4393.2.2.1. The Text 4393.2.2.2. Evaluation 440

C. Economic and Social Rights and the Right to Development : 4421. Present International Law 442

1.1. Economic and Social Rights 4421.1.1. A Distinct Category of Rights 4421.1.2. Challenging the Categorization 446

1.1.2.1. Positive and Negative Obligations 4461.1.2.2. Progressive or Immediate

Realization 4471.1.2.3. Justiciability 4471.1.2.4. Recent Developments 449

1.2. The Right to Development 4501.2.1. History and Legal Status 4501.2.2. Specifics of the Right to Development 453

1.2.2.1. Subjects andJJuty-Holders 4531.2.2.2. Substance 454

2. Possible Changes 4572.1. Trade-offs 4572.2. Upgrading Economic and Social rights 459

2.2.1. Balancing HumanRights Evaluations 4602.2.2. Strengthening Economic and Social Rights 460

2.2.2.1. Developing the Normative Contentof Economic and Social Rights 462a) Types of Obligations 463b) Core and Margin 464c) Types of Violations 466

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d) Responsibility, Victims,Response 468

e) Reformulation 4682.2.2.2. Improving Control over the

Implementation of Economic andSocial Rights 469a) Indicators 469b) Violations 470

2.3. Upgrading the Right to Development 4722.3.1. Balancing Human Rights Evaluations 4722.3.2. Strengthening the Right to Development 473

2.3.2.1. Developing the Normative Contentof the Right to Development 473

2.3.2.2. Improving Control over theImplementation of theRight to Development 474

D. Collective Human Rights 4761. Collective Rights in Present International Law 476

1.1. "Nationalist" Collective Human Rights 4771.2. Other Collective Human Rights 482

2. Perspectives from Inclusive Universality 4852.1. Basic Attitude 485

2.1.1. Collective Rights as Human Rights 4852.1.2. Precautions 488

2.2. Increasing Attention for Collective Human Rights 4912.2.1. More Collective Human Rights? 4912.2.2. Normative Development and

Implementation Mechanism 492IV. Conclusion on Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity 495A. General Remarks 495B. Flexibility 495C. Transformation 501D. Toward Operationalisation 506

GENERAL CONCLUSION 509I. Two Central Problems 509II. Deflating a Blown Up Debate 509III. Promoting Inclusive Universality of Human Rights 511IV. Disarming Mala Fide Critics 513V. Suggestions for Further Research 514

BIBLIOGRAPHY 517

INDEX 561