People’s Democratic Republic of MoroccoMinistry of Higher Education and Scientific

ResearchTeacher Training School of Constantine

A Distant Course in Writing and Grammar

Prepared by: Mrs. Leila Djouimaa

2013-2014

Content of the course

Part one: Writing

1- General review of the English composition

2- Understanding expository writing

3- Pre-writing: Invention and arrangement

4- The writing process: writing the first draft

5- Re-writing: Structural revision

6- Voice, Tone, and Audience

7- The Expository Composition Developed by Examples

8- The Expository Composition Developed by Comparison and

Contrast

9- The Composition Developed by Cause and Effect

10- The Essay Developed by Definition

11- Expository Development by Logical Division

12- The Argumentative Essay

13- Letter Writing (formal and informal letters)

14- The Research Paper

15- Narrative Writing

16- Poetry Writing

17- Short Stories

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Part Two: Grammar

1- General review of “phrase, clause, sentence”

2- Determiners

3- Pronouns

4- Complex tenses: “active”

5- Complex tenses: “passive”

6- Sentence tags

7- Phrasal verbs

8- Verb types and the non- finite verb

9- Catenative verbs

10- Stative verbs

11- Indirect speech

12- Cleft sentences

13- Comment clauses

14- Conditionals

15- Questions, answers, negatives

16- Substitution

17- Ellipsis

18- Modals

19- Semi- modals

20- Adverbs with two forms

21- Intensifiers

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Part One: Writing

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General Review of the English Composition

What is an essay?

Essays are non-fiction compositions that analyse or interpret a

limited topic. An essay offers the writer’s personal view about a topic.

Unlike a journalism article, which objectively reports only who, what,

when, and where, or a lab report which precisely details the results of an

experiment, an essay shows the writer’s personal or subjective

understanding of a topic.

Personal does not mean that an essay is about the writer. It could

be, but more often it is not. Rather, the essay’s personal viewpoint

comes from the writer’s analysis or interpretation of a topic through

thoughts, insights and values.

A successful essay comes about through a process of several

important steps or stages of writing. To use the process to its best

advantage, you should allow yourself as much time as possible to write

an essay. Play with ideas. Explore the possibilities of your topic.

Consider more than one approach to organisation. Finally accept the

necessity and value of revision.

Do not expect to write a successful essay in one draft or even in

one evening. Even the best writers go back to strengthen phrasing,

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rearrange ideas, add or delete content, and correct mistakes. Revision

will improve your final draft and give you the opportunity to learn more

about writing itself.

Purpose:

Every essay should have a purpose: to inform, to entertain, or to

persuade. Sometimes these purposes overlap: you might inform your

readers about local poverty so that you can persuade them to contribute

to a worthy charity. You might write an entertaining essay as an

effective way of imparting information about the problems the

immigrants face. In each case, one purpose dominates: to persuade

readers to make a contribution in the first example and to inform about

the problems facing immigrants in the second.

Audience:

Every essay should be written for a particular audience, the

members of which share certain interests or backgrounds. While it is true

that classroom writing is usually read by the instructor, plan your essay

as though you were writing for some outside audience. For example, the

members of a car club, first- time voters, or a group of tourists.

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Types of essays:

Depending on your topic, your purpose, and your audience, you

might write a narrative, descriptive, argumentative, or expository essay.

A narrative essay tells a story by relating a sequence of events. An

essay on unemployment, written as a narrative, might trace the

chronology of a typical day in the life of a person looking for a job.

A descriptive essay uses details and images to depict a scene, an event,

a person, an object, or an atmosphere. You might write a descriptive

essay recreating the scene in an employment office as people wait in line

for job interviews.

An argumentative essay attempts to persuade a reader to take some

action or to convince a reader to accept your position on a debatable

issue. You might try to persuade your reader to join a demonstration of

unemployed workers or argue against a government jobs program.

An expository essay informs, explains or analyses. Most students’

writing assignments call for expository essays. You might explain the

causes of unemployment in a particular industry, analyse the several

major approaches to lessening the hardships of unemployment from a

historical perspective, or relate the effects of unemployment in your own

life.

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The boundaries between these four types of essays are not rigid. You

might for example use a description or a short narrative in an

argumentative essay. You might supply interesting and useful

information in a narrative. But every essay generally falls into one of the

four categories.

Principles of essay writing:

The principles of paragraph writing also apply to essay writing. Just as a

paragraph has a topic sentence that expresses the main idea, an essay has

a thesis statement that states and narrows the writer’s purpose.

An essay, like a paragraph, should be unified (every part must be clearly

related to the idea expressed in the thesis statement).

An essay should also be coherent ( the thoughts expressed in the

sentences must be connected through the same techniques found in

paragraphs, such as repetition of key words and phrases, the rephrasing

of key ideas, and the use of transitional words and phrases.

Finally, both paragraphs and essays require thorough supporting

explanation and detail to fulfil their purpose.

Within an essay you use the same strategies of paragraph development

that you use when writing individual paragraphs. You develop

paragraphs by examples and details, comparison or contrast, analogy,

classification, cause and effect, definition or process. Within a single

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essay you might use a combination of these patterns because an essay is

composed of several paragraphs.

A typical assigned essay is between 500 and 750 words. No matter how

long an essay may be, it follows a general pattern composed of an

introduction, a discussion and a conclusion.

The introduction presents the thesis statement, usually at the end. The

purpose of the introduction is to arouse a reader’s interest and limit the

territory the essay will cover.

The discussion is made up of several paragraphs, each organised around

a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. The discussion

paragraphs develop the ideas expressed in the thesis statement in a

detailed, thorough manner.

The conclusion offers a restatement of the thesis statement and provides

a sense of completion to the essay.

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Understanding Expository Writing

Expository writing is a mode of writing in which the purpose of

the author is to inform, explain; describe, or define his or her subject to

the reader.

Expository text is meant to ‘expose’ information and is the most

frequently used type of writing by students in colleges and universities.

A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic and

provides facts in order to inform its reader. It should be unbiased,

accurate, and use a scholarly third person tone. The text needs to

encompass all aspects of the subject.

Examples of expository writing can be found in magazine and

newspaper articles, non-fiction books, travel brochures, business reports,

memorandums, professional journal and encyclopedia articles and many

other types of informative writing.

One of the most basic forms of expository writing is the five- paragraph

essay, which features an introduction with a clear thesis statement, three

main body paragraphs and a conclusion.

Types of expository writing:

1- Sequence: This structure is also known as ‘process or collection’

and is a form of expository writing that is used if the author

intends to inform his or her readers by listing the order of steps in

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a process or listing events in chronological order. Examples of

this type of writing are cooking instructions, driving directions

and instructions on performing a task. Key words such as first,

after, next, then, and last usually signal sequential writing.

2- Description: A descriptive essay is a type of expository writing

that enables the reader to feel whatever you are describing. One

should write about the sights, smells, touch, hear; and taste. One

should also think about what makes the place you are describing

important. Where are all the other objects compared to the one

you are describing? What do you want the reader to feel? Is your

essay descriptive enough to allow the reader to create a mental

image in his mind? What does the setting remind you of?

3- Classification: Classification is an organisational strategy in

which authors arrange groups of objects or ideas according to a

common topic in detail. Placing different objects or ideas in

categories is a type of classification.

4- Comparison: A comparative essay shows how two or more

subjects are similar or contrasting. This type of structure is often

used in determining which is the better of two or more choices.

5- Cause and Effect: Cause and effect writing identifies the reason

for something occurring and lists what occurs because of that

reason. This is also known as the analysis essay.

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Pre-writing: Invention and Arrangement

1-Select a subject:

In many cases you will be assigned subjects for your essays. If

the choice is left to you, however, the best procedure is to select a

subject quickly rather than to wait for inspiration. There is no such thing

as a good or bad subject. There are only good and bad treatments of

subjects.

You will write your best essays on subjects you already know something

about, so look first at your own interests and experiences. Your

educational interests, your work, or your leisure activities may suggest a

subject. Think back on recent conversations you had with friends and

family members. Examine your ideas about topics in the news, your

reactions to a book, a movie, or a television show. Explore your

imagination. Make a list of possibilities. If make the list long enough,

you should be able to come across a few subjects that you could develop

into an essay.

2- Narrow the subject to a topic that can be covered in a single

essay:

The first thoughts you have about possible essay subjects will more than

likely be too broad. If you select a subject such as “trends in rock

music”, “train travel”, or “the importance of personal computers”, you

will end up with an uninteresting paper full of general statements. To

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avoid overgeneralizing, you must narrow the subject to a manageable

topic.

Some writers are fearful about narrowing a subject because they believe

that the broader the subject, the more they will find to say about it. But

the opposite is true. A writer can find more informative and interesting

things to say about a narrow subject, such as “the advantages of using a

word processor” than about a general topic such as “the importance of

personal computers”. A narrow subject allows, even forces, a writer to

use specific supporting material.

Example: Suppose you have selected or been assigned the subject

“American lifestyles”.

Obviously the subject is too broad for a short essay. It could be narrowed

to “the fast pace of American life-styles”. But in a short essay, 500 to

750 words, “the fast pace of American lifestyles” as a subject is still too

broad. To include everything that the subject suggests, you would need

to deal with work schedules, after work activities, instant

communications, the automobile’s expansion of community boundaries,

the fast-food habit, and many more topics. You could write only one or

two general sentences about each.

Exercise: Narrow each of the following subjects by writing three

progressively more limited topics. For example: Music.

- Country and western music.

- Male and female relations in country and western ballads.

- Attitudes toward women in current country and western ballads.

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1- Football 2- Travel 3- Courage 4- Health 5- Shopping.

3- Use Prewriting exercises to generate ideas:

Before you begin writing an essay, you need to examine what you know

about the subject and explore the possible ways the topic can be

developed. There are two prewriting exercises that can help you in this

process: listing and clustering.

3-a- Listing:

You can help focus your thinking about a topic by making a list of items

related to it. As you develop a list, try to keep a flow of ideas coming.

Do not reject any ideas. Write them all down because one idea, even a

weak one, may lead to another.

Later you can decide which ideas you will expand upon and include in

the essay, but if you edit your list too soon, you may inhibit the flow of

ideas.

Example: For the topic “impatience and restlessness in American life”, a

writer could develop the following list:

- fast food

- horn blowing in traffic- no patience

- people don’t listen in conversations, check watches

- computers- no time to think

- moving at a slow pace considered a crime

- jet planes

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- Romeo and Juliet summary on tv – “boy meets girl boy dies- girl dies”-

culture in a hurry

- condensed books

- Relationships made to solve problems, quickly dissolved

- math made easy

- quick divorce – no time for reconciliation

- abbreviations in correspondence and announcements

-tv news

- 35 minutes for lunch

- learn while you sleep

- leave jobs easily- no ties

- digest magazines

- conversation- rapid speech- contractions- swallowed syllables

- fall in love quickly

- violence- quick elimination of problems

- don’t know candidates

- calculators- no time to add.

The writer could list these items as they come to his mind. He might

include some of them in the final paper and reject others.

The listing process gives a wealth of ideas to draw from as one begins to

organise and write the final paper.

3-b- Clustering:

Listing ideas is an effective way to generate material, but many writers

prefer clustering because they find it an easier way to see relations

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between ideas. To develop ideas through clustering, write your topic in

the centre of a piece of paper; then as you think of ideas connected with

the topic, arrange them around the edges of the page or in clusters of

similar item.

Blow horn in traffic

violence

Don’t listen to others

digest magazines

Learn

while you sleep

Condensed books

Impatience and

restlessness

Relationships don’t last fast food

computer

35 minutes lunch

calculators

Electronic banking

and shopping

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jet travel

Clustering may make it easy for you to group ideas, but try both methods

– listing and clustering – to see which works best for you.

Exercise: Consider the following topics. Narrow down each to a topic

suitable for an essay. For one topic prepare a list of 15 items; for the

other topic, create clusters of at least 15 items, using secondary clusters

when appropriate.

1- Gun control.

2- Effective teaching.

4-Make a preliminary plan for your essay:

After you have done a prewriting exercise (listing or clustering),

examine the items carefully. If you have done listing, look for ways to

group the items. Then think about possible methods of developing your

essay.

5- Write a clear, limited thesis statement:

A thesis statement serves the same purpose in an essay as a topic

sentence does for a paragraph: it states and imposes limits on a narrowed

topic. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the introduction

to an essay. Sometimes a thesis statement indicates the subtopics of the

topic or suggests the method of development.

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Exercise: The following thesis statements are vague. Rewrite them to

make them more concrete.

1- Studying American literature teaches us many things.

2- People today are exposed to many health hazards.

3- Music is very important.

6- Make a final plan for your essay:

The final plan for an essay should be developed after the tentative

phrasing of a thesis statement and before writing the first draft. It usually

takes the form of an outline of the ideas and supporting details to be

covered in the essay.

There are two types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence

outline (refer to your second year lecture about outlines). Remember that

the main items are identified by roman numerals, the first sublevel of

items by capital letters, the second sublevel by Arabic numerals, the

third sublevel by lowercase letters, the fourth sublevel by Arabic

numerals enclosed in parentheses, and the fifth sublevel by lowercase

letters enclosed in parentheses. All letters and numbers at the same level

are indented to fall directly under one another.

You will rarely need all six levels. Each level is a division of the level

above it. Therefore, there should be at least two items at every level. A

topic cannot be divides into one item. Moreover, there may be more than

two levels at any level.

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Remember also that all items at the same level must be expresses in

parallel grammatical structure and that you should not use such terms as

introduction, discussion section and conclusion.

The Writing Process: Writing the First Draft

The first draft grows naturally from the planning stages you have

completed. Instead of staring at a blank piece of paper waiting for

inspiration, remind yourself of your purpose, audience and tone; review

your outline and begin to write.

You should not be worried about making your first draft perfect. There

are no distinct stages in the process of writing. You will need to make

some minor revisions even as you write your first draft. Your main

purpose is to get a draft completed as you can revise it later

When writing your first draft, follow the following directions:

1- Write an introduction that includes the thesis statement and that

captures a reader’s interest.

An effective introduction presents the thesis clearly, in a way that will

draw the reader into the essay. Traditionally, introductory methods

consist of the following elements:

- Descriptions of personal experience that allow a reader to

identify with the writer.

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- Statements of striking facts or statistics that surprise a reader.

- A provocative quotation or interesting question.

- A definition but not merely taken from a dictionary.

- A glance at an opposing argument or attack on a common

opinion.

- An anecdote or narrative closely related to the topic.

- A general discussion of a situation that leads naturally to the

thesis statement.

2- Develop the thesis statement in the discussion section of the essay.

The discussion section of an essay develops the idea advanced in the

thesis statement. If you have written a thorough topic outline or sentence

outline, you have done most of the work already. Each of the main

points of the outline needs to be turned into a topic sentence of a

paragraph

The sublevel items in you outline, rephrased become the supporting

sentences in each paragraph.

As you write the discussion section of your essay, use methods of

development appropriate for your content and purpose.

3- Signal the end of your essay with a short concluding paragraph.

A successful essay concludes; it does not just end. Conclusions and

introductions are important because they are the first and last contact a

writer has with a reader. The introduction arouses a reader’s interest and

presents the thesis statement, and the conclusion completes the

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discussion echoing the thesis and the supporting points. There are

several ways to conclude a paper. An effective conclusion can consist of

any of the following techniques:

- An answer to a question or a solution to a problem raised in the

introduction and explored in the discussion, or a statement that no clear

answer or solution exists, thus showing the complexity of the issue.

- A quotation especially one that amplifies the thesis statement or

verifies another quotation already presented in the introduction.

- A relevant anecdote that the reader will be likely to remember and that

echoes the thesis statement.

- A rephrasing of the thesis statement and supporting points, followed by

a sentence or two that turn the reader’s thoughts to the implications of

the paper.

The conclusion must grow from the paper; it should not open a new

subject by raising questions unexplored in the discussion.

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Rewriting: Structural Revision

If you set your essay aside for a few days before you revise it, you

will be more objective in your evaluation and better to see its strengths

and weaknesses. But if you cannot delay your revision, you must still try

to approach the essay from a reader’s point of view. Review the essay

slowly, concentrating on its overall clarity. Try doing this while reading

out loud. It will help you find confused or inconsistent areas. For your

first reading ask yourself the following questions:

1- Is the thesis statement clear? Does it indicate the scope and

direction of the essay?

2- Is the essay unified? Does every sentence and paragraph have a

clear relation to the thesis?

3- Is the tone consistent?

4- Is the essay organised logically and effectively?

If you need to make changes, make them and then read the essay again,

concentrating on smaller elements of it and using the following

questions as a guide:

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1- Are the paragraphs developed with sufficient detail and

explanation?

2- Does the essay move smoothly from paragraph to paragraph? Is

the essay coherent?

3- Is the introduction interesting and to the point? Does it lead

naturally to the thesis statement? Does the concluding paragraph

bring the essay to a satisfactory close without being unduly

repetitious or introducing a new subject?

During a third reading you should concentrate on even smaller elements.

One way to do this is to read the essay backward sentence by sentence.

By reading each sentence out of context, you may find it easier to

answer the following questions:

1- Are the sentences clear, grammatical, and free from sentence

errors?

2- Is the paper consistent with the conventions of punctuation and

mechanics?

3- Do the words convey your intended meaning? Are they spelled

correctly?

If all this sounds like a lot of work, it is. But excellence is not born in

first drafts. It is achieved through thoughtful revision.

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Voice, Tone, and Audience

-Voice: Writing is different from other school subjects. In Math,

reading, social studies, and science, every student is supposed to study

the same things and come up with the same answers. But in writing, if

everyone writes exactly the same thing, that’s not good- that is copying,

not writing.

Everyone’s writing needs to be different from everyone else’s. And the

way that happens is if writers make different choices when they write,

choices about the topics they pick, the words they use, the details they

include, different beginning and ending strategies, and so on. The set of

all the different choices a writer makes and the collective effect they

have on the reader, is what is often called the “voice” in a piece of

writing.

Voice sometimes referred to as “tone” or “mood” or even “style”, tells

the reader about the writer’s personality in the essay.

Because each of us has a unique personality, each of us has a unique

voice in writing, and that is what makes our writing unique. The trick is

in letting that voice come through. The only way that happens is if we

make different choices in our writing than other writers make in theirs,

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choices that reflect who we are inside- our original thoughts and

personal feelings, our particular way of seeing things and interpreting

them.

-Tone: The tone of your essay reveals your attitude toward your readers

and toward your topic.

A formal tone is impersonal and objective. It is appropriate for

informing and persuading. An informal tone is personal and often

subjective. It is appropriate for addressing familiar audiences and for

entertaining. Between the extremes of formal and informal are an

infinite number of possibilities depending on your purpose, your

audience, and your topic.

Most academic essays are written in a straightforward respectful,

moderately serious tone. Attempts to treat a serious subject in a

disrespectful manner usually fail because such a tone draws attention to

the personality of the writer rather than to the content of the essay.

Use one tone consistently. A serious paper may be enlivened with an

occasional bit of humour, but changes in tone from paragraph to

paragraph are irritating and confusing to readers.

-Audience:

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Your audience will influence choices you make about content and

vocabulary when writing an essay. If you were separately telling police

officers, your parents, and friends about the events at a party, you would

select different details to emphasize for each audience and use different

words to describe the events. In speech you make this adaptation

instantly and naturally, but in writing you must make the adaptation

consciously. It is essential therefore, that before you move too far into

the planning of an essay, you should determine your audience. The

audience might be quite specific- the city council, for example. Or it

might be more general- people over age sixty- five. The audience might

be composed only of people of German descent or of people who have

never been to Hawaii or of people suffering from stage fright. Whoever

the audience is, keep them in mind as you plan an essay.

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The Expository Composition Developed by Examples

1- Number of examples:

In a composition developed by examples, the number of examples you

use depends on the topic. Some topics require numerous examples,

whereas others can be effectively developed with three or four extended

examples.

For instance, the thesis statement “San Francisco has some of the most

unusual sights in California” does not commit the writer to giving

numerous examples; after all the claim is only that this city has “some”

unusual sights. Therefore, three or four extended examples should

suffice.

Some topics on the other hand, require numerous examples for adequate

development. For instance, suppose the thesis statement is “Our city

streets are in terrible conditions”, would three extended examples of

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streets in bad condition be sufficient to develop this thesis statement?

Probably not. It would be rather unwise to assert that all or even most of

the city streets are in terrible condition basing yourself on only three or

four examples. A city has many streets and, in this case, most of them

may in fact be in good condition. A generalisation based on an

insufficient number of examples is called a hasty generalisation. In

other words, it is a generalisation made too hastily before examining

enough evidence. Therefore, thesis statements that state or imply “most”

or “all” may need numerous examples for adequate support. Thesis

statements that are more moderate, stating or implying “some” or “a

few”, can often be supported with fewer, but more developed examples.

2- Choice of Examples:

The examples you use to develop the thesis statement should be

representative examples. They should fairly support the thesis. To be fair

and effective, the examples should be from a range of areas.

3- Organisation of Examples:

The examples and details in an expository paragraph can be organised

according to time, familiarity, and importance. In an example essay,

the principle of organisation is essentially the same: the most

significant examples are kept for the last paragraph.

4- Transitions between paragraphs:

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Developmental paragraphs in the example essay must be connected so

that they flow smoothly. Just because a paragraph introduces an

additional aspect of the topic does not mean that the shift from one topic

to the next should be abrupt; indeed, the shift should be smooth so that

the reader understands clearly the progression of thought. Remember,

just as a paragraph is coherent if the sentences can be switched around

without significant change in meaning, an essay is incoherent if the

paragraphs can be switched around without significant change.

There are two ways to connect the paragraphs in an essay:

♦With transitional expressions

♦With the repetition of key words and phrases

-Transitions to introduce example:

In the first developmental paragraph of an example essay, there are

several phrases to introduce the first example or group of examples:

Examples:

- Take for example this topic.

- One example of a person who is kind is my neighbour

- One area of town where there are examples of improvement is

uptown.

- One thing that bothers me is air pollution.

- First, consider the case of Mr. Martinez.

- To begin (to begin with), consider my roommate.

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In the second developmental paragraph, the examples can be introduced

in a variety of ways.

Examples:

- Another example of a good teacher is Mrs. Hahn.

- An additional example is Mr. Ming.

- Another thing is the safety issue.

- Second, consider Mr. Jones.

- Next, consider Ms. Evans.

In the last developmental paragraph, use the same type of transitions as

above, but in an example that introduces the most important or most

significant example, indicate its importance in the beginning of the

paragraph.

Examples:

- Still another example of a good teacher is Ms. Lin.

- A final example is the street near my house.

- Third consider Main Street.

- Finally, there is the problem of air pollution.

- The most important example of a helpful person is my advisor.

- The most significant (interesting) example of air pollution is

provided by Los Angeles.

Repetition of key words and phrases:

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The standard transitional expressions are useful for making paragraphs

connect logically; however, theses phrases used all the time can become

very mechanical and repetitious. For variety and for even more

smoothness, pick up a key idea, word, or phrase from one paragraph and

use it in the sentence introducing the next paragraph.

The model composition:

Help!

Going to a new school can be exciting but for an international

student, the first day on campus can be confusing. When I first arrived at

State University, I was overwhelmed by the size of the campus and the

number of people I saw hurrying from building to building. I did not

know what to do or where to go. Fortunately, I found three helpful

people who saved me from total confusion.

The first person who helped me was the Director of the

dormitory, Mrs Stanton. She helped me register at the dormitory and

took me up to my room. Since my roommate had not yet arrived, Mrs.

Stanton showed me all around the “dorm” (as I soon it was usually

called). She showed me where the bathroom was, where the recreation

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room was, and where the cafeteria was. She very carefully explained to

me all the dormitory rules and told me she hoped I would enjoy my stay

there.

After checking into the dorm, I went down to the cafeteria where

I met another kind person, Robert Long. He saw me sitting alone and

came over to me to ask if I needed any help. He said that I looked a little

lost. I told him that I was a new student from Honduras and that I was

not lost, just overwhelmed. He told me that I should not worry; he said

that he was confused and overwhelmed his first day at state, too. Then

he took me over to the Administration Building to help me find an

advisor. Before he left me there, he gave me his telephone number and

asked me to call him if I ever needed any help in the future.

At the Administration Building I met my advisor, Dr. Torres,

who proved to be extremely helpful. He very kindly explained to me

how to register for classes and what to expect at State University. Dr.

Torres gave me some information about the International Student

Association and suggested that I go to one of their meetings. I was

pleased to know that the foreign students on campus have an

organisation. After Dr. Torres gave me all the necessary information

about registering for classes and purchasing books, he told me to come

see him any time that I have any questions.

All of these people, Mrs. Stanton, Robert Long, and Dr. Torres,

were very kind to me that first day. They made me feel welcome and at

home at a time when I was feeling lost and lonely. I will never forget

these people.

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Activities:

I-Study the essay above about a new student’s first day on campus and

answer the following questions:

1- What is the thesis statement? What is the central idea?

2- How many examples does the writer give? Are the examples

explained adequately?

3- Are there enough examples?

4- Are the examples relevant?

5- Are the paragraphs coherent and unified?

6- How are the paragraphs organised? Why is the example of Dr.

Torres last?

7- Draw an outline of the essay.

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II- Write an essay on the following topic:

At some time in our lives, we have all had to deal with computers. In

order to register for a class, pay a bill, or get a loan, we have had to deal

with a computer. Have you ever had an experience in which a computer

has caused you trouble, misunderstandings, and embarrassment?

Write an essay about the trouble computers can cause and support it with

examples.

The Expository Composition Developed by Comparison and

Contrast

Very often you are asked to compare and contrast two things,

items or people. Comparing and contrasting is a process we all do every

day. We compare and contrast to determine the superiority of one thing

over another. When we buy a car for instance, we usually shop around

and compare deals. We explain something unknown by comparing it to

something that is known. To explain what a barometer is, we can say

that it looks like a thermometer but measures atmospheric pressure

instead of temperature.

We also compare and contrast when we want to show that two

apparently similar things are in fact quite different in important ways, or

to show that two apparently dissimilar things are really quite similar in

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significant ways (for example two very different cultures have some

important things in common)

We also compare and contrast to show something or someone has

changed (for example Mt St Helens before and after the volcano

eruption)

We have many reasons for comparing and contrasting, and since

comparison and contrast is such a common method of thinking and

developing topics, it is important to write a well organised comparison

and contrast paper.

Keep in mind that with comparison and contrast, the purpose is to

persuade, explain or inform. Think of comparison and contrast as a

method of development, not as a purpose for writing.

Points of comparison:

When comparing and contrasting two things, people, countries…,

it is best to restrict the points of comparison to two to four. Be selective

and choose the most significant points for comparison that would

support the central idea in your essay. For instance, if you were

comparing two politicians in order to show that one is better as public

servant, you would not bother with comparing and contrasting their

tastes in food; it would be irrelevant.

Comparison or contrast?

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In a comparison and contrast essay, the emphasis is usually on

one or the other; in other words, you spend more time either comparing

or contrasting, depending on your purpose.

If you are comparing two rather similar things, acknowledge the obvious

similarities, but focus on the differences. If you are comparing two

obviously dissimilar things, acknowledge the obvious contrasts, but

again, emphasize the less obvious similarities.

Patterns of organisation:

There are two basic patterns for developing the comparison and contrast

essay:

- Pattern A (point by point)

- Pattern B (all of one/ all of the other)

Pattern A (point by point) is useful for organizing complex topics. It is

also an easier pattern to follow than pattern B because the comparison

and contrast is made clear throughout the essay.

A developmental paragraph in a comparison and contrast essay

following pattern A appears to be more complex than a developmental

paragraph in an example essay. In the developmental paragraph in the

comparison and contrast essay, the writer introduces a topic (the point of

comparison) but the topic is broken down into two parts to make the

comparison.

Pattern B (all of one/ all of the other): The points of comparison are the

same and they are discussed in the same order under each section. One

of the problems with pattern B is that it is sometimes difficult to remind

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the reader in the second section of how the points compare or contrast

with the points mentioned in the first section. Generally speaking,

pattern B is more useful for limited topics.

Transitions for comparison and contrast:

1- Transitions in phrases:

All of the transitions in this group need to be followed by a noun.

The phrase in which they occur is often used at the beginning of a

sentence and is generally followed by a comma. The following

transitions indicate similarity: Similar to, like.

The following indicate difference: different from, in contrast to,

compared with, unlike.

Examples:

- Similar to New Orleans, San Francisco attracts many tourists.

- Like Nhan, Hung also wants to do good things for human beings.

- Different from Nhan, Hung prefers western style clothes.

- Compared with New Orleans, San Francisco has a very cold

climate.

- Unlike Nhan, Hung likes to wear comfortable clothes.

2-Coordinating conjunctions as transitions:

The coordinating conjunctions but and yet are often used as

transitions to indicate the opposite of what was expected. Coordinating

conjunctions occur between two complete sentences and are preceded

(but not followed) by a comma.

Examples:

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- Nhan is an idealist, but Hung is not.

- The Speed Demon 280 is cheaper than the Road Runner XL, yet

it has a better air- conditioning system.

Note: Sometimes these conjunctions are used as transitions at the

beginning of a sentence.

Example: Several events contributed to my depression last year. But my

greatest sadness was losing the mathematics contest.

3- Transitional expressions between sentences:

The transitions in this group generally occur between two

independent clauses. When they do, they must be preceded by either a

period or a semicolon.

Examples:

- Ramos is very intelligent. In addition, he is very rich.

- Ramos is very intelligent; in addition, he is very rich.

- Ramos is very rich.. Moreover, he has a nice personality.

- Ramos is very intelligent; moreover, he has a nice personality.

Occasionally these expressions are used in an independent clause. In this

case, the expression should be set off with commas.

Example:

- Ramos is very intelligent. He is, in addition, very rich.

- Ramos is very rich. He has, moreover, a nice personality.

Words and phrases belonging to this group: First, next, besides, in

addition, moreover, furthermore, also, then (to express addition),

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likewise, similarly, in the same way (to express similarity, on the other

hand, conversely, in contrast, however (to indicate differences).

4- Adverbial clauses of comparison and contrast:

They can be particularly useful in improving coherence in

comparison and contrast writing.

Examples: -Just as, in the same way that (for comparison) .

- While and whereas (for contrast).

The model composition:

My two Brothers

No two people are exactly alike, and my two older brothers,

Nhan and Hung, are no exceptions. When I think of Rudyard Kipling’s

words:

East is East

West is West

Never the twain shall meet.

Even though they have the same parents, their considerable differences

in looks, personality, and attitude toward life reflect the differences

between Eastern and Western cultures.

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Like the majority of oriental men, Nhan is short, small, and has a

full moon- shaped face. His smooth white skin and small arms and feet

make him look somewhat delicate. Nhan always likes to wear formal,

traditional clothes. For example, on great holidays or at family nice

celebrations Nhan appears in the traditional black gown, white pants and

black silky headband, all of which make him look like an early

twentieth- century intellectual.

In contrast to Nhan, Hung who is his younger brother by ten

years, looks more like an American boxer. He is tall, muscular and big-

boned. He is built straight as an arrow and his face is long and angular as

a western character. Unlike Nhan, Hung has strong feet and arms, and

whereas, Nhan has smooth skin, Hung’s shoulders and chest are hairy,

large and full. Unlike Nhan, too, Hung likes to wear comfortable T-shirts

and jeans or sports clothes. At a formal occasion, instead of wearing

traditional formal clothes, Hung wears stylish western style suits.

Nhan and Hung also differ in personality. I don’t know how my

father selected their names correctly to reflect their personalities. Nhan’s

name means “patience”, and his patience is shown in his smile. He has

the smile of an ancient Chinese philosopher that western people can

never understand. He always smiles. He smiles because he wants to

make the other person happy or to make himself happy. He smiles

whenever people speak to him, regardless of whether they are right or

wrong. He smiles when he forgives people who have wronged him.

Nhan likes books, of course, and literature and philosophy. He likes to

walk in the moonlight to think. Nhan also enjoys drinking hot tea and

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singing verses. In short, in our family, Nhan is the son who provides a

good example of filial piety and tolerance.

Hung, on the other hand, does not set a good example of

traditional respectful behaviour for his brothers and sisters. His name

means strength, but his strength is self- centered. As a result, unlike

Nhan, Hung only smiles when he is happy. When he talks to people, he

looks at their faces. Because of this, my eldest brother, Nhan considers

him very impolite. As one might expect, Hung does not like philosophy,

and literature, instead, he studies science and technology. Whereas Nhan

enjoys tea and classical verses, Hung prefers to take sun baths and drink

Coca- Cola while he listens to rock and roll music. And like many

American youths, Hung is independent; in fact, he loves his

independence more than he loves his family. He wants to move out of

our house and live in an apartment by himself. He is such an

individualist that all the members in my family say that he is very

selfish.

My brothers’ differences do not end with looks and personalities.

Concerning their attitudes toward life, they are as different as the moon

and the sun. My eldest brother Nhan is concerned with spiritual values.

He is affected by Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist theories. These

theories consider that the human life is not happy. Therefore, if a man

wants to be happy, he should get out of the competitiveness of life and

should not depend on material objects. For example, if a man is not

anxious to have a new model car, he does not have to worry about how

to make money to buy one. Or, if he does not have a car, he does not

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have to worry about the cost of gas. My oldest brother is deeply affected

by these theories, so he never tries hard to make money to buy

conveniences.

In contrast to Nhan, my brother Hung believes that science and

technology serve human beings and that the West defeated the East

because the West was further advanced in these fields. Therefore, each

person must compete with nature and with other people in the world in

order to acquire different conveniences, such as cars, washing machines,

and television sets. Hung is affected by the Western theories of real

values; consequently, he always works hard to make his own money to

satisfy his material needs.

In accordance with the morality of the culture of my country, I

cannot say which one of my brothers is wrong or right. But I do know

that they both want to improve and maintain human life on his earth. I

am very lucky to inherent both sources of thought from my two older

brothers.

Activities:

Activity one:

1- What is the thesis of this essay? What are the points of

comparison?

2- Does this essay focus more on comparison or contrast?

3- Which pattern does the author use? Why do you think he selected

that pattern?

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4- Make a detailed outline of this essay. If a topic sentence is

implied, write it out.

Activity Two:

Choose one of the following topics to write an essay.

1- Write an essay comparing and contrasting two famous people.

2- Write an essay contrasting yourself before a particular event and

after the same event. How did you feel before? How did you feel

after?

3- Compare and contrast two teachers of the same subject.

The Composition Developed by Cause and Effect

The cause and effect analysis is an important analytical skill to

develop. To write an essay of that sort, you need to know that there three

types of cause and effect papers. The choice of one type or another will

depend on the nature of the subject and the purpose of the writer.

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1- Multiple causes→ Effect:

When we analyze the causes of something, we usually find that there

are numerous contributing factors or causes; just how many factors

depends on the complexity of the problem. Each cause may or may not

be sufficient to produce the effect. Usually, however, we find that it is a

combination of the causes that produces the results.

Example: The problem of obesity.

What causes obesity? Usually there is not a single cause; rather a

combination of factors leads to obesity:

- Hereditary influences.

- Lack of exercise.

- Slow metabolic rate.

- Overeating.

In this example, we might find that for some people, only overeating and

a lack of exercise lead to obesity. For others, a slow metabolic rate might

suffice. For still others, hereditary influences might be the cause. Of

course in the discussion of overeating, one might find that behind it lies

a deeper cause: emotional problems. A person might overeat to satisfy

emotional deprivation. Or perhaps some people overeat because they

have a deficiency in a certain enzyme that researchers believe is a factor

in signalling the body to stop eating when it has had enough.

A further examination of the topic might yield even more causes, such as

social or environmental factors. In writing an analysis of this topic, you

could plan to spend about one paragraph on each of the causes; each

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paragraph would have to provide an explanation of the cause to show

how it contributes to the effect.

Exercise: Choose one of the following topics and write three or four

causes for that effect. Write complete sentences.

- What causes people to emigrate?

- Choose a disease that you are familiar with. What factors cause

it?

- Select a bad habit that you have. Why do you have that bad

habit?

-Organisation of the causal analysis essay.

When discussing multiple causes for an effect, you need to be aware of

the types of causes you are analysing. The causes may be unrelated to

each other, but all are related to the effect. These are often called factors;

they are not causally related to each other, but they work to contribute to

the effect.

When discussing these kinds of causes, arrange the paragraphs (causes)

according to your own preference. However, the most common

principles are:

- Order of familiarity (obvious to less obvious) and,

- Order of interest (less interesting to more interesting).

These two principles are useful when the causes are of equal

significance. When one cause is more significant, order the paragraphs

according to importance, with the most important cause last. Remember

to identify the most important cause as the most significant.

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Causes are not always unrelated, however. Sometimes a cause could not

have brought about an effect unless certain conditions existed. In this

case the causes are related to each other.

Example: The incident that launched Europe into world war I was the

assassination of the Austrian heir to the throne, Archduke Franz

Ferdinand, on June 28, 1914, by a young Serb nationalist. However, it is

generally felt that this incident alone would not have caused the war if

certain other conditions had not existed in Europe at that time. We could

mention, for example, economic rivalries, heightened nationalism,

imperialism….

In this kind of causal analysis, the causes that directly precede the effect

are called immediate causes (direct causes) and those causes that are

further removed in time from the effect are called remote causes

(indirect causes).

Although remote causes are also often the most important ones, they are

not always the most important or the most reasonable ones. When you

are analysing causes that are not of equal importance or that are

immediate and remote, it is generally a good idea to organise the

paragraphs beginning with the immediate and proceeding to the remote

or from the less important to the most important.

The thesis statement for the causal analysis essay: In a causal analysis

essay, the thesis statement does not have to be persuasive. A topic

sentence is being analysed and the central idea is found in that analysis.

A thesis statement for a causal analysis can simply state briefly the

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causes to be discussed, or it states briefly the causes to be discussed, or it

may express the most significant cause.

A model essay of causal analysis:

A good life

The people of the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia have

long been famous for attaining extremely old ages. Arab and Persian

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chronicles from centuries ago noted the existence of these longevous

peoples. The latest Soviet census report that 70 percent of all people

reaching 110 years or more live in the Caucasus region. An

anthropologist described meeting a woman of 139 years. This does not

seem old at all, however, compared to her first cousin who reached 146

and her great-grandfather who lived to be 160. When we consider that

most people in the United States expect to live only half that long and

that people in some parts of the developing world will live only one third

that long, we cannot help wondering what the causes are for such long

life. Is it exercise, diet, physical environment, cultural environment, or

what? Anthropologists have concluded that exercise and diet are not as

important as a steady way of life with certain cultural expectations and

roles.

The people in most of the Caucasus Mountain region live a slow,

regular rythmic lifestyle. There is continuity in all of the physical aspects

of their life. First, most of the Caucasians live in mountain villages in a

pastoral setting. They work as farmers, herders, or gardeners. Their lives

are regulated by the rising of the sun, the steady rhythm of the growing

cycle, the harvest, and the setting sun. Most of the longevous people

have always held the same jobs. They learned their jobs young, and have

continued in the same job until they are well past 100, some working

until they are 120 or 130. The outdoor work and the mountainous terrain

provide a good deal of exercise. Anthropologists feel that while exercise

contributes to longevity, the rhythmic lifestyles is more important. There

is also continuity in diet. The people of the Caucasus very much enjoy

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their traditional foods and have no inclination to change. They have

eaten the same lean meat, grains, fruits, and vegetables from childhood

to old age. Traditionally Caucasians are lean people who do not overeat.

Like exercise, anthropologists conclude that it is not the diet itself that is

the secret for old life, although it does contribute. The real secret is the

continuity in diet from birth to death. The consistent, unchanged diet and

regular dietary rhythm allow the body and its digestive system to

become entirely adjusted. Therefore, physiological stress on the

digestive system is at a minimum. The overall evenness of pace in the

Caucasian way of life makes for a feeling of well-being and encourages

longevity.

Another important cause of longevity among the Caucasians is a

stable cultural environment with certain expectations. First, the goals of

the Caucasians do not overreach the possibilities of attainment. Unlike

many Americans who want to be chairmen of the boards or presidents of

the companies, goals which they can never attain, the goals of the

Caucasians tend to be realistic and attainable within their cultural milieu.

Their goals are more people- oriented. They concentrate on being

hospitable and generous towards others, goals which are not only

attainable, but also contribute to the overall well-being of the social

group. Because the goals of the Caucasians are realistic and attainable,

emotional tensions are reduced. This contributes to long life. Second, the

normal expectation within the region is for long life. Individuals expect

to live far beyond the age of 100. On the other hand, the cultural

expectation of people in the United States is for a maximum life span of

49

about 80 years. These cultural expectations become self-fulfilling

prophecies. Further, the Caucasians do not expect the old people to sit

idly by, but to participate actively in all phases of life. A stable

environment with realistic goals and expectations is a second cause for

longevity among the Caucasians.

Finally, longevity is also encouraged by the role of old people in

the family and in the community. The Caucasians have large extended

families of may be 300 people and more. This provides a large network

of people with mutual rights and obligations. The aged are respected as

heads of the family. They make decisions about money, marriages, land

sales, and other matters. They are also expected to be affectionate toward

their grandchildren. The old people are also respected in the community.

They continue to vote, hold office, and make decisions which will affect

the future of the entire community. Because of their important place ib

the family, and in the community, the aged retain a feeling of individual

self-worth and importance. Retaining a positive self-image reduces

physical and mental problems, thus encouraging a longer life.

In conclusion, then, long life among the people of the Caucasus

is the result of complete involvement in a stable environment. Like flows

continuously from birth to death, creating a biological and spiritual

rhythm. Individuals in tune with the rhythm have little emotional stress

and thus live a long time. When we think of our society, we know that

we cannot become Caucasians. But, we should realize that these people

might point out ways of dealing with old age.

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Exercises: I- Read the essay carefully then, answer the following

questions:

- What is the thesis statement?

- What is the reason discussed in the second paragraph?

- What are the controlling ideas in the next paragraphs?

- Is the writer discussing immediate and remote causes, or are the

causes of equal significance?

- Does the conclusion follow logically?

- Make an outline of this essay.

II- Write an essay stating the causes for pollution in a particular area or

city.

2- Cause→ Multiple Effects:

Just as an effect can have multiple causes, so can a cause have multiple

effects.

Example: Several years ago, most people thought that processed sugar

was a relatively harmless sweetener that produced a pleasant taste,

provided a small burst of energy, and perhaps contributed to tooth decay.

There was little concern about the seemingly minor effects of eating

sugar has increased tremendously; in addition, we have begun to

uncover some unpleasant and serious effects of eating so much sugar.

Although sugar may not be the sole cause of some of the following more

remote effects, research has shown it can contribute to them: excessive

consumption of sugar may lead to: blood sugar imbalances, tooth decay,

hyperactivity in children, weight gain.

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When you write an analysis of effects, expect to devote a paragraph to

each effect.

-Organisation of the Effect Analysis Essay:

The principles for organisation are much the same as those for

organising a causal analysis. Effects can also be unrelated (causally) to

each other, though they stem from the same cause. Although effects can

be of equal value or importance, usually some are more important than

others. In this case, organize the paragraphs dealing with effects

according to order of importance.

Like causes, effects can be immediate or remote.

Example: An immediate effect of the earthquake in Boumerdes, Algeria,

in 2002 was the death of hundreds of people; a more remote effect will

be, perhaps, buildings constructed under a safe and more stringent

building code.

If the analysis is of effects that occur relatively in the same time

relationship with the cause, ie: they are all basically immediate or

remote, it is a good idea to order the effects according to importance.

On the other hand, if the discussion is of immediate and remote effects,

begin with the immediate and continue to the remote (identify the

quality of the effect to the reader as ‘immediate, major…’).

-The thesis statement for an effect analysis essay:

In an effect analysis essay, the thesis statement does not have to be

persuasive.

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A model composition of an effect analysis development:

For The Love of Winning

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I am an avid contest enterer. From childhood I could never resist

entering contests on cereal boxes, in bubble gum packages, in

newspapers, magazines, or on television. I have tried to win everything

from a pet turtle to a yacht to a home in the mountains to large sums of

money. Well, imagine my surprise after years of entering and losing at

being notified last year that I was a winner! What had I won for the four-

line jingle that I had sent into a cigarette company? The special delivery

letter informed me that I had been awarded the grand prize of $500.000.

After my immediate excitement, I made great plans to spend the money,

and indeed, I have spent a great deal of it. But perhaps more interesting

than my purchases, now six months after that memorable day, are the

effects of my life of winning a great sum of money. Through this

experience, I have come to know other people and myself better.

The most obvious and immediate effect of winning $500.000 has

been material. I made a list of things I have always dreamed of having

but could never before afford, and I went on the greatest shopping spree

of my life. Within a month I had bought a new stereo system, an

expensive sports car, lots of new clothes, and a cabin in the woods. And

I must say, I am very pleased with my new purchases. I enjoy listening

to records on my stereo and driving my Porsche to the cabin on

weekends. I have found that I very much appreciate the pleasures of

having a lot of money.

Another effect, and less enjoyable, has been the change in other

people toward me. Within the first month, I found that people who had

hardly spoken to me before were suddenly « friendly ». I was invited to

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parties by people I hardly knew and I was expected to return the

invitations. Even with some of my oldest friends, I was expected to foot

the bill on our nights out together, because I had « all that money ».

After a while I became suspicious of people and their motives, thinking

that they only wanted to be with me for my money. Then I came to

evaluate my friends more carefully. I found only a handful of my oldest

friends were still true friends, not caring about the money. Through it all,

I have become a better judge of character.

Perhaps the most significant effect has been the new

understanding I acquired about myself. I think I know who I am better

than I did before I won the money. As I said before, I am happy with my

purchases, however, I do not feel that all my dreams have been fulfilled.

In fact, I have learned that the money is not all that important to me and

that I did not enter the contest in order to get the money. I have realized

that I love the challenge of a good contest and the possibility that with

skill and luck I could win. In short, I simply love winning. I will enter a

contest just for the challenge. For example the other day as I was reading

a magazine, I saw a contest advertised which asked for a fifty-word

summary of a challenging Physical experience. Without thinking, I

rushed to my desk, put some paper in the typewriter, and began writing.

When I thought about what I was doing, I laughed out loud. I did not

particularly  want a seven-day trip to Hawaii, I just wanted to see if I

could win !

Winning $500.000 has resulted in a more comfortable life style

for me, it is true. But more importantly, I now understand other people

55

and myself a little better. I am quite happy with my trusted friends, and I

know that for little better, I am quite happy with my trusted friends, and

I know that for every television ad or contest letter that promises riches,

I will send off my lucky number or jingle, not so much for the prize, but

for the love of winning.

Exercises: I- Read the essay carefully then answer the following

questions.

- What is the thesis?

- Which kind of effects does the writer begin with?

- What is the controlling idea in the third paragraph?

II- write an essay to discuss the effects of a political or social change in

your country.

3- The causal chain:

This is another type of cause-and-effect analysis. Unlike the multiple-

cause-and-effect analyses, the causes and effects in a causal chain are

always directly related. In fact, they are linked. In the causal chain, one

effect can become a cause of another effect, which in turn becomes a

cause of another effect and so on.

Example: A man had problems at work; as a result, he started to drink

heavily. His heavy drinking eventually caused him to behave in an

abusive way to his wife. His wife’s alienation caused him to feel even

more alone and more of a failure; his depression caused him to commit

suicide.

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This example shows how the analysis is like a domino chain.

There are two major uses of the causal chain:

a- It is sometimes useful for explaining one of the causes in

a multiple cause essay.

b- It is used in science to analyse various kinds of cycles,

biological or chemical chains.

A model composition for a causal chain development:

Upsetting the Balance of Nature

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The members of a living community exist together in a

particular, balanced relationship, or ecosystem. One animal species eats

another animal species which in turn eats another. Over years, a balance

is worked out among the plants and animals in a community and it

remains basically stable. It is like a huge puzzle with all of the pieces in

their proper places. However, at times this balance in nature is disturbed,

resulting in a number of possibly unforeseen effects. Perhaps a disease

results in the near extinction of one species, leaving another species with

no natural predator. The result can be a terrific increase in that one

species’ population. This could further result in the devastation of a

shared food supply, which could in turn affect another species. It is

possible for the disruption in the balance of nature to have natural

causes: disease, drought, fire. Sometimes, however, human beings

intervene in a natural environment, perhaps only slightly and with good

intentions. The result is the same. The balance on nature becomes

unbalanced and results in an entire chain reaction of unforeseen and

unwanted effects.

A good example of this occured in the Antilles in the

1870,s .Sugar cane was a major crop there, but rats were eating and

nesting in the cane, causing a great deal of damage. The mongoose , a

one –and-a-half-foot-long mammal of the East Indies, was known to be

an excellent rat hunter. Several males and females were imported in

1872, and laws were established that forbade the killing of them or their

offspring. The mongoose flourished in the Antilles. After ten years it had

multiplied abundantly and had significantly reduced the rat population.

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Consequently, damage to the cane fields was greatly reduced. It seemed

that the scheme to add another piece to the ecological puzzle in the

Antilles had been successful.

However, that is not the end of the story. The influence of the

mongoose did not stop there. As the rat population decreased and the

mongoose population increased, the mongoose wanted to enlarge its

menu. It attacked young pigs and goats, game, poultry, and began to

destroy bananas, maize, and pineapples. Because the mongoose could

not be hunted, its numbers increased rapidly, and it became a terrible

pest. All of the indigenous animals suffered damage. The mongoose

learned to enjoy the native birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles and their

eggs. Now, it was specifically these animals that kept the local insect

population in check. There were in the ecosystem of the Antilles a

number of beetles, borers, and other insects that lived on and in the sugar

cane. Until that time, they had not caused significant damage to the cane,

because they were the natural food of so many local animals that kept

their number down. However, as the birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles

disappeared, the insect population began to increase. With no natural

predators to keep them in check, the insects began to do more and more

damage to the cane fields.

Finally, the people of the Antilles realized that the introduction of

the mongoose had caused a finely and delicately balanced system to go

awry. The law against killing the mongoose was rescinded, and the

mongoose population was reduced. Gradually, the different members of

the plant and animal community came back into balance with each other

59

and equilibrium was reestablished. However, the human members of the

community would not soon forget that a single change in an ecosystem

can cause a chain reaction that results in completely unforeseen and

sometimes unwanted effects.

Exercises: I-Read the essay carefully then answer the following

questions:

- What is the topic of this essay? What is the central idea?

- What is the incident in the Antilles an example of?

- Is this causal chain logical? Is the relationship among the causes

and effects clearly and logically presented?

- Does the conclusion logically follow?

- Make an outline of this essay?

-

II- Choose a social problem like alcoholism, poverty, or divorce to write

a causal chain.

-Transitions and Expressions for Cause and Effect:

In writing cause-and-effect essays, transitions are necessary to introduce

causes and effects. This is a list of useful transitions and expressions.

Use them to achieve coherence in your essays.

Because of, as a result, caused by, results from, so, for, thus, therefore,

consequently, as a result, for this reason.

The Essay developed by definition

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A definition essay will share your special understanding about

some idea or thing. Sometimes a definition will prove to be a small but

important part of an essay; sometimes a definition will be the sole work

of an entire essay. When it is the major impetus of an essay, there are

several points to remember.

First, don’t rely on that old cliché of the dictionary or encyclopedia

definition. Even if your intent is to show how inadequate or wrong-

headed the dictionary might be, this device has been used far too often to

be effective. The point of your essay is to provide your reader with a

new way of looking at things- your own way.

One way of defining something is to say that it is not. If you are

defining the idea of “home”, you could begin by suggesting that the old

saying “there is no place like home” is silly because there are, in fact,

many places like home- or you could insist that home is really not a

place at all. The opportunity to define is an opportunity to exercise your

poetic imagination, to show how most people’s sense of something is

faulty or inadequate and that there is a better understanding (yours!) to

consider.

In selecting a topic to define, look for something that you can define

within your own experience and that will allow your poetic imagination

some room to play. If you try to define something that is beyond the

comprehension of your paper or your own experience, the task will

become overwhelming and get mired down in details or abstractions.

You could write a book trying to define a concept such as conservatism

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or liberalism and you still would not have said that more than two other

people would agree with. Students would be wise to avoid abstract

notions such as patriotism, beauty, justice, love….

On the other hand, it can be useful to take a rather abstract notion and

put a spin on it. There does not appear to be much a point in defining a

student, for example, but defining what we mean by a good student

could be interesting. Push that definition to the limit to make a special

point. A good student is not necessarily one that earns good grades or

even one that does his best, a good student is one that makes the teacher

feel like a good teacher. Or try defining a good teacher, a good parent, a

good doctor. In any case, if you are going to define something that

everyone else has some idea about, you will need to shed fresh, even

surprising light upon your subject.

Developing a definition:

A definition can be developed in a number of ways.

Example: A definition of a business management concept such as Total

Quality Management (TQM) could begin with a history (a kind of

process paper) of its inception in Japanese management systems, its

migration across the pacific, its implementation and transformation in

American systems, and its predicted demise. It could also (or instead)

include examples of the kind of labour conflict that TQM is supposed to

eliminate or alleviate. Or it could describe TQM as a process, the steps

involved in its implementation, or involve an analysis of its principles

and its place in management theory. Contrasts to other management

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theories might be appropriate, demonstrating what TQM is not as well as

what it is. We could even think of it as a cause and effect situation in

which we describe how TQM responds to certain needs in the

workplace.

A definition essay is not limited to any one method of development and

it may, in fact, employ more than one method at once.

Some rhetorical points about defining things:

- Avoid using the phrases “is where” and “is when” in your definition.

Examples: “TQM is when management and labour agree…”

“A computer virus is where….”

- Avoid circular definitions (repeating the defined term within the

predicate, the definition itself):

Example: “A computer virus is a virus that destroys or disrupts

software”.

- Avoid using a too narrow definition, one that would unduly limit the

scope of your paper.

Example: “Reggae music is sung on the Caribbean island of Jamaica”.

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The model composition for a development by

definition

What is a Yankee?

To most of the world, a Yankee is an American, anybody who

lives in the United States. It is not always a pleasant connotation; in fact,

“Yankee, go home!” calls up images of angry Latin American mobs

protesting the oppression of American imperialist policies.

To most Americans, though, the word Yankee means either the

pin-striped New York baseball team or the Northern forces in the

American civil war, the soldiers from north of the Mason-Dixon Line. In

time, though, the idea that the word Yankee suggests has shrunk

geographically until it is on the verge of extinction.

Perhaps the most famous Yankee of all (no offense to the musical

Damn Yankees ! Intended) has star billing in Mark Twain’s novel

Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court. I have lived most of my

life, now, in that Southern New England State. And I can assure you

there are precious few real Yankees around who might have lived in

Connecticut at one time. As television and other forms of mass media

invade our homes and tend to diminish regional differences, to make

Americans more and more homogeneous, the Yankee might be one of

the first genuine American characters to disappear.

A neighbour of mine claims he knows what a real Yankee is all

about. Years ago, he says, he lived next door to one. It seems his

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plumbing was acting up and he’d actually removed the toilet from the

floor and taken it out into the backyard to do some surgery on it. Now,

he knew that his neighbour, who happened to be a professional plumber

as well as the putative Yankee, was well aware of the fact that he was

struggling to fix his toilet, as he knew that his neighbour was home,

doing nothing in particular that day, probably watching from the kitchen

window. But would he come over and offer to help? No way. But when

my friend finally gave up and went over and asked for assistance, the

plumber- neighbour not only agreed to help, he did so gleefully. He

spent the entire afternoon finding and fixing the problem and helping to

return the toilet to its proper place. And wouldn’t accept a dime, of

course.

According to my friend, that’s the first tenet of yankee-ness. You

must never offer help because that makes the person to whom you have

offered assistance “beholden” to you. And a Yankee must never be

“beholden” to anyone. (That’s how the word for this concept is said, and

so we must spell it that way, too.) To be beholden means that you owe

something to someone else. Now, everyone in the world can owe

something to the Yankee, but the Yankee must never owe anyone else

anything, and he can’t really understand someone who would be willing

to be beholden. Thus, he will not offer help- oh, may be in a real

emergency, he would be as good a Samaritan as anyone else- until

asked. When asked, it’s another story. You will get more help than you

can imagine, help in great abundance, more than you could ever deserve

or pay back. So it’s not that Yankees are stingy; on the contrary, a

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Yankee is generous to a fault. But there is a sense of reserve that

prohibits the true Yankee from offering help before being asked. The

sense of inviolate space is paramount: “Good fences make good

neighbours”, says the neighbour in Robert Frost’s poem, “Mending

wall”, and the Yankee will not cross the fence until asked.

Another friend of mine knows someone, a Yankee, a chap born

so far north in Vermont that he’s nearly Canadian, who comes over to

help with his taxes every year. To re-pay him, my friend must resort to

trickery, leaving something on the doorstep in the middle of the night.

To offer anything else, up front, might tip the beholden scales in his

favour and that would be risky.

That’s what I think defines this dying breed of the American

Yankee: an extraordinary sense of balance and reserve, a holding off-

and yet, behind all that reserve, a reservoir of generosity and friendliness

that can be nearly overwhelming.

Exercises: I-Read the essay then answer the following questions:

1- What is the thesis?

2- What type(s) of development does the writer use in this essay?

3- Does the conclusion follow logically?

4- Write an outline of this essay.

II- Write an essay developed by definition on the following subject:

What is nationalism?

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Expository Development by Logical Division (classification)

When analysing a subject, you break it down into parts to study

the relationship of the parts or the nature of the parts. If you were

analysing the Us government, for example, you would probably begin by

dividing the government into three branches – The legislative, executive,

and judicial- and then by studying how these branches operate to make

up the government. The breaking down of the Us government into parts

is analysis by division.

The principle of division:

When you divide, you classify the members of a group into

categories whose members share similar characteristics. But on what

basis do you assign the members to categories? When you classify, you

need one principle of classification: classification according to common

characteristics. Avoid using more than one principle because in this way

categories may overlap. Most of the principles of classification are of

three types:

-inferior to superior,

-chronology,

-location

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Once you have decided on a principle of classification, check to

see if the classification includes all of the members of the group.

For instance, if you are classifying the students in a class, the

categories might cover each and every one of the students in that class, if

at all possible. If the students in a class were classified as brilliant or

stupid, an obvious group – the average students- would be left out. To

avoid omission of members, and to avoid oversimplifying the analysis,

therefore, it is generally a good idea to divide the group into more than

two categories. For student essays, three or four categories are the

average.

Organisation of the classification (division) essay:

After deciding on the principle of classification and dividing the

group into categories, you need to discuss each of those categories. In

the developmental paragraphs, it is useful to devote one paragraph to

each category. When discussing the category, include the following

points:

1- Identify the group. If it has a special name, identify it.

2- Describe or define the category. What are the general

characteristics of the members of this category? Once you have

established what the category is according to your classification,

discuss the common characteristics of the members.

3- Give examples: often it is helpful to illustrate the characteristics

(which are generalisations) by giving one or two examples of

typical members of the category.

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In the second and subsequent developmental paragraphs, add another

point.

4- Distinguish this category from the other categories: Discuss the

characteristics of the second category by comparing and

contrasting them with those of the first category. Doing this will

help to distinguish between the categories. How does group 1

really differ from group 2. (for coherence, try to discuss the

characteristics in the same order of the previous group).

In these respects, classification papers are a combination of example and

comparison and contrast essays.

Introducing the categories:

In an introductory paragraph, it is often a good idea to introduce

the categories by mentioning the names of the groups. The thesis

statement for the classification essay can be one that simply introduces

the classification and the categories.

Example: the teachers in this college can be classified according to the

way they dress: those who dress formally, those who dress semi-

formally, and those who dress casually.

Although there is no law that says that the categories must be identified

in the introduction, identifying them will help keep the essay organised.

When you name the categories in the introduction, express them in

parallel structure; that is, express them in the same parts of speech.

Example:

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There are those who like movies, those who hate movies, and those who

are indifferent toward movies.

Transitions for classification:

A classification essay is really a combination of example and

comparison and contrast essay. Therefore, the transitions for this type

are generally the same as those for the example and comparison and

contrast essays.

1- Transitions to introduce categories: first, second, next, last another,

in addition.

2- Transitions to show similarities and differences: unlike, however,

like, in contrast…

3- Transitions to introduce examples: a good example, an excellent

example, for example, typical…

4- Transitions to show the importance of the class: Example: Of the

three types of teachers, the negative teachers are the least agreeable.

Fortunately, this group is in the minority.

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The model composition:

College Teachers

Before I came to college, I was told not to expect my professors

to care much about me or my work; indeed, I was told that I would be

lucky if any of them even knew my name! But when I came to the

university, I soon learned that these generalisations were too broad. Not

all teachers are the same. In fact, I have found that most of the professors

here at State fall into three categories: the positive teachers, the neutral

teachers, and the negative teachers.

The positive teachers are by far the most agreeable teachers. A

positive teacher is one who seems interested in his subject and his

students. The first thing a positive teacher does is try to learn all of the

students’ names. This kind of teacher allows for questions and

discussions in class and does not seem to mind if a student disagrees

with him. A positive teacher shows his interest out of class as well. Not

only is he available for conferences, but he encourages students to see

him if they need help. The students tend to feel comfortable in the

presence of this teacher. A good example of a positive teacher is my

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French teacher, Monsieur Poirrot. He always allows time during the

class hour for some free discussion. Once, when some of the students in

our class were having trouble with the pronunciation of the rolled “r” in

French, he took several hours of his own time to work with us in very

small groups in his office until we had mastered the sound.

Unfortunately, teachers like Monsieur Poirrot are relatively small in

number.

Unlike the positive teachers, the neutral teachers are not very

agreeable. In general, the neutral teachers just do not seem interested in

either the subject or the students. These teachers usually do not learn all

of the students’ names, though they may learn a few. Their classes tend

to be more boring than the positive teachers’ classes because they allow

less time for discussion. However, like the positive teacher, the neutral

teacher allows for questions and some discussion, but he does not seem

to care if the students are interested enough to want to discuss the

subject or not. Although the neutral teacher is available for conferences,

he does not encourage students to come see him for help; as a result,

most students feel slightly uncomfortable in his presence, especially

during a conference. Professor Hilton, my economics professor, is

typical of the neutral teacher. She comes into class, opens her notebook,

lectures, allows questions and some discussion, and then leaves class.

When I had a problem understanding one of the concepts we had

discussed in class one day, I went to her office for a conference. She was

polite enough but did not make any special effort to see that I understood

the concept during the conference. She more or less repeated what she

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had said in class. Very few students go to see her for a conference

because they think she is simply not interested. From what I have

gathered in my conversation with other students, the neutral teachers

make up the largest category.

Of the three types of teachers, the negative teachers are the least

agreeable. These are the kind that every student dreads. Not only do they

not learn the students’ names, but they seem almost hostile both in class

and out of class. In class, the negative teachers, like the neutral teachers,

primarily lecture; they may want the students to learn, but unlike the

neutral and positive teachers, the negative teachers allow virtually no

questions and no discussion. The negative teachers also seem inimical to

the idea of having conferences if at all possible. An excellent example of

a negative teacher is Dr. Wallen, my physics professor. His classes are

twice as boring as any class of a neutral teacher, and he is often

intimidating in class. One day, for example, when one student asked him

to repeat his explanation of the theory of relativity, he became quite

angry and refused to repeat what he had just lectured on. The negative

teacher is too often inflexible; in fact, he seems more like a machine than

a human being. Fortunately, this group is in the minority.

The type of teacher students get can directly affect how much

they learn. Obviously, students learn more from a positive teacher;

unfortunately, as we have seen, this type makes up the minority. Since

the mission of the university is to educate, administrators should try to

get the neutral and negative teachers to improve their teaching methods

and attitudes; otherwise, the administrators should consider dismissing at

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least the negative teachers and make every effort to hire those teachers

who show promise of being positive ones.

Exercises:

I- Answer the following questions:

- What is the thesis?

- What seems to be the writer’s purpose for writing about these kinds of

teachers?

- What is the principle of classification used in this essay?

- What is the controlling idea about the positive teachers?

- What are the characteristics of the positive teachers?

- What is the controlling idea about the neutral teachers? the negative

teachers?

- What are the characteristics of the neutral teachers? The negative

teachers?

- Does the conclusion appear to be logical?

- Write an outline of this essay.

II- Write an essay classifying people’s attitudes toward: work, leisure

time, education, travel. (choose only one option from the list).

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The Argumentative Essay

An argument ensues when two parties disagree about something.

One party gives an opinion and offers reasons in support of it, and the

other party gives a different opinion and offers reasons in support of his

or her stand.

An argument must be argued logically. To be so, it should be

based on an opinion that can be supported by evidence such as facts.

For example: When the three Mile nuclear power plant broke down in

1979, debate ensued concerning the whole issue of nuclear power. Those

in favour of continuing the construction of nuclear power plants argued

against those who wanted to ban further construction of the plants.

The issue was whether or not the United States should ban further

construction. The proponents said yes and gave their reasons; the

opponents said no and gave their reasons. There were definitely two

sides to that issue, but more importantly, it was an issue that was

arguable (arguments of belief or faith, preference, or facts are not

arguable).

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When you write an argumentative essay, you attempt to change

the reader’s mind, to convince him/her to agree with your point of view

or opinion. The argumentative essay attempts to be highly persuasive

and logical. Your thesis should be argumentative. An argumentative

thesis takes a side of an issue and proposes a course of action (often

expressed by the modal should).

Example: In the argument concerning the power plant, the thesis for a

paper on this topic might be:

“The U.S. should ban further construction of nuclear power plants”.

Or, someone else might argue:

“The U.S. should continue building nuclear power plants”.

When you write an argumentative essay, consider the audience.

Remember that your purpose is to convince the reader that your position

is the better one. Begin by assuming that your reader disagrees with you.

Next, remember that although the reader disagrees with you, that does

not mean that he or she is any less intelligent than you. Avoid attacking

the reader. Address him/her by writing objectively, logically, and

respectfully. The most important thing to consider about the audience is

why they hold their opinion and the reasons they might use to support

their opinion. It is important to try to understand your opponent’s point

of view. If you do not understand his reasons and you just argue your

own reasons, you are not likely to convince the reader at all.

How can you convince someone who disagrees with you? First,

try to understand what points need to be argued. You must be sure that

you understand the “heart” of the issue. This step comes by thinking of

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both sides of the issue and determining what the most important points

are. If you know your stand on the issue, and you know what point or

points you have to prove, then you are on the way to construct a logical

argument.

Formal arguments are based on logic. There are two kinds of formal

arguments: Inductive and Deductive.

Induction refers to the process of examining particular details and

arriving at a conclusion based on that evidence.

Deduction refers to the process of arriving at a conclusion about a

particular case based on a generalisation (you begin with a generalisation

and apply it to a specific case)

Explaining and supporting the reasons:

There is no one particular pattern of organisation for an

argumentative paragraph. As far as the purpose is to convince or

persuade, you can use any type of organisation and support that is

suggested by the reason you give (you could develop your reasons by

cause, effect, example, or process). However, you must be certain to

show the progression of your logic. At all times, you should strive to use

details and examples as support. Your best support is facts. Facts include

data that have been objectively proved and are data that have been

objectively proved and are generally accepted, such as historical facts,

scientific data, statistics…. To obtain facts you may be required to

undergo some research.

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Avoid using as facts statements from religious books such as the Koran

or the Bible. Although those whose faith is based on either of these (or

other) books regard them as containing the truth, using them as support

would be ineffective in an argumentative paper. Your reader may have a

different religious belief and may not accept your data as facts.

Another less effective, though sometimes acceptable type of

support includes examples drawn from personal experience. It is fine to

use examples especially if the topic concerns something you are close to,

but the danger is in drawing hasty generalisations from too few

examples. You should remember that examples should be typical,

selected from a sufficient number of examples to prove the case.

Planning the argumentative essay:

The argumentative essay should contain the following characteristics:

1- It should introduce and explain the issue or case. The reader

needs to understand the issue being argued. It is often necessary

to define any ambiguous terms that are key to the discussion. Part

of good arguing is clear communication, and clear

communication requires that each party understands the terms

being used.

2- It should offer reasons and support for those reasons. The essay

should prove its point.

3- It should refute opposing arguments. It is this characteristic that

is more particular to the argumentative essay than to expository

essays. Since there are two sides to the issue, and since the writer

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wants to convince the reader that he is right, not only must he

prove his own case, but he should also prove that the opponent is

wrong, or at least that his points are more valid or significant.

Refute means to prove wrong by argument.

4- If an opponent does have a valid point, concede that point and

then go on to show that your points are more important anyway.

5- The conclusion should logically flow from the argument. It can

summarize the main points and reassert the thesis. It is very

common, in an argumentative essay, to make a demand for some

action or to offer alternatives.

Organization of the argumentative essay:

The basic workable approach that is commonly used as a pattern for the

argumentative essay is the following:

1- Introduction: Sometimes broken into two paragraphs: the first

one introducing the problem and the second one explaining

additional information or providing definitions.

2- Reasons: Spend one paragraph for each reason. Two or three

reasons are typical.

3- Refutation: Depending on how many points the writer wishes to

address, the refutation can take from one to three paragraphs.

4- Conclusion.

Note: It is possible that the refutation appears before the reasons.

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The model composition

Proficiency Examinations- Who needs them?

“I’m frustrated!” These were the two words of a friend of mine

the other day, and international student on an Folvisa studying at the

university. Although he is a junior in electrical engineering and doing

well in his engineering courses, he has again failed the English

Department’s proficiency examination in composition. And he is not the

only one. I know several international students who can pass differential

calculus with no problem, but cannot seem to get out of the freshman

English because of the proficiency exam. As you know, here at State to

pass freshman English you must be able to write a 500-word essay in

fifty minutes with no more than two “major” errors and five “minor”

errors. While most native speakers of English manage to do this after

two or three semesters of freshmen English, non-native speakers have a

much more difficult time. The reason for this is obvious. Non- native

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speakers need to spend some of their fifty minutes looking up new

vocabulary words, carefully going over grammar constructions, and

looking everywhere for a missing third- person S. While international

students may have more original ideas than native speakers, they may

fail for superficial grammatical reasons. This seems very unfair to me. It

seems clear that international students should be considered special

cases, and therefore the composition proficiency requirements as now

stated should not apply.

The case of international students at an American university is

indeed special. First, most international students are using English as

their second language. When it comes to writing a composition,

international students using a second language usually require more time

than native speakers. International students must spend part of their fifty

minutes looking up words, checking over grammar constructions, and

rephrasing tricky idioms. Furthermore, the composition proficiency

exam is biased against international students. As you know it counts

grammar errors, which often have nothing to do with meaning. A good

example of this is the complement after verbs. Often international

students have very good ideas and concentrate on expressing them. Then

they fail because they use an “ing” participle instead of an infinitive. For

most American speakers of English, the complements after verbs are

automatic; they do not have to think about them at all. Even if native

speakers do not have good ideas, they can still pass the test because they

do not make any grammar errors. Therefore, it seems to me that

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international students should not be judged so severely on grammar, but

should be judged on the quality of their ideas.

My opponents might argue that international students need the

level of English indicated by the exam to get through their other courses.

They fear that international students will fail their math, science, history,

and psychology if they cannot write compositions. This is not true. First,

I would estimate that about 75 percent of international students are

majoring in maths or science. In these classes, professors do problems

on the board or demonstrations in the laboratory. Virtually no English

composition skills are necessary. For further proof, I can give several

other examples,, like my friends above, who are proving every day that

they can do very well (A’s and B’s) in their math and science courses

without having passed the composition test. It seems clear that

international students do not need to write English as well as my

opponents’ think they do. But what about history and psychology

courses, courses that normally require a certain amount of writing skills?

Here too, I can easily show that the proficiency level demanded on the

test is not necessary. On the sophomore level, most introductory courses

in history and psychology are mass lecture courses in which multiple

choice tests, not essay tests, are given. As long as international students

can read the textbooks and tape record the lectures, they can most likely

pass these courses with no more writing than a circle around the correct

letter. The level of proficiency that the composition requires is simply

not necessary for more international students to pass courses in an

American university.

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Perhaps one might argue that the proficiency requirements are

not necessary for American students, either. However, here, I must point

out several things. First, part of the point of writing composition is to

express yourself well in language. Since English is the first language for

most Americans, they surely need to have this skill in their native

language. And because most native speakers rarely study composition

thoroughly in high school, they really do need to have a thorough study

of it the college level. (Of course, if they have studied in high school,

they can generally pass the test with no problem). On the other hand,

many international students have studied composition in their own

language quite thoroughly in high school. Furthermore, in terms of

future careers, American students might need to write well in English for

their future careers. But most international students will not need

English for their career when they go back home; they will use their own

language. Since they have studied composition in high school, they are

most likely adequately prepared in composition skills.

It seems clear, then, that the case of international students at

American universities is special. They are using a second language and

this fact should be taken into consideration when the English

Department reads the final proficiency tests. Further, since the level of

proficiency required on the test is not necessary for most students to pass

their courses, I would propose that the standard used to judge

international student papers be relaxed or done away with. After all, if

students can show that they can pass their other courses, why should the

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university block their way with superficial but often insurmountable

barriers?

Activities:

I- Answer the following questions:

1- What is the issue discussed by the writer?

2- What is the thesis statement?

3- What is the topic of paragraph 2?

4- Where does the refutation begin in the essay? What is the first point

that the writer refutes?

5- Is the argument convincing? If so, why? If not, why not?

6- Does the conclusion logically follow?

7- Does the writer concede any points? Should some points be

conceded? What points?

8- Make an outline of this essay.

II- Write an argumentative essay on the following topic:

Teachers are badly paid; therefore their salaries should be raised.

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Letter writing (formal and informal letters)

I- Formal letter writing:

-Rules for writing formal letters in English:

In English there are a number of conventions that should be used when

writing a formal or business letter. Furthermore, you try to write as

simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter longer than

necessary. Remember not to use informal language like contractions.

-Addresses:

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1- Your address: The return address should be written in the top right-

hand corner of the letter.

2- The address of the person you are writing to: The inside address

should be written on the left, starting below your address.

-Date:

Different people put the date on different sides of the page. You can

write this on the right or the left on the line after the address you are

writing to. Write the month as a word.

- Salutation or greeting:

1- Dear Sir or Madam,

If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It

is always advisable to try to find out a name.

2- Dear Mr Jenkins,

If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and

the surname only. If you are writing to a woman and do not know if she

uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for married and single.

- Ending a letter:

1- Yours Faithfully

If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.

2- Yours Sincerely

If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way.

3- Your signature

Sign your name, then, print it underneath the signature. If you think the

person you are writing to might not know whether you are male or

female, put your title in brackets after your name.

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- Content of a formal letter

First paragraph

The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to

make an enquiry, complain, request something, etc.

The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should

contain the relevant information behind the writing of the letter. Most

letters in English are not very long. Keep the information to the

essentials and concentrate on organising it in a clear and logical manner

rather than expanding too much.

Last paragraph

The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect

the recipient to take- to refund, send you information, etc.

- Abbreviations used in letter writing:

The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:

♦asap = as soon as possible

♦cc = carbon copy ( when you send a copy of a letter to more than one

person, you use this abbreviation to let them know)

♦enc = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter)

♦pp = per procurationem (a Latin phrase meaning that you are signing

the letter on somebody else’s behalf; if they are not there to sign it

themselves, etc)

♦ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you’ve finished

and signed

♦pto ( informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other person

knows the letter continues on the other side of the page)

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♦RSVP = please reply

-The covering letter:

A covering letter is the one that accompanies your CV when you are

applying for a job. Here is a fairly conventional plan for the layout of the

paragraphs.

Opening paragraph

Briefly identify yourself and the position you are applying for. Add how

you found out about the vacancy.

Paragraph 2

Give the reasons why you are interested in working for the company and

why you wish to be considered for that particular post. State your

relevant qualifications and experience, as well as your personal qualities

that make you a suitable candidate.

Paragraph 3

Inform them that you have enclosed your current CV and add any further

information that you think could help your case.

Closing paragraph

Give your availability to interview, thank them for their consideration,

restate your interest and close the letter.

The letter of enquiry:

A letter of enquiry is when you are approaching a company

speculatively, that is you are making an approach without their having

advertised or announced a vacancy.

Opening paragraph

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Introduce yourself briefly and give your reason for writing. Let them

know of the kind of position you are seeking, why you are interested and

how you heard about them.

Paragraph 2

Show why their company in particular interests you, mention your

qualifications and experience along with any further details that might

make them interested in seeing you.

Paragraph 3

Refer to your enclosed CV and draw their attention to any particularly

important points you would like them to focus on it.

Closing paragraph

Thank them, explain your availability for interview and restate your

enthusiasm for their company and desire to be considered for posts that

might as yet be unavailable.

II- Friendly/ Personal letters

Personal letters, also known as friendly letters and social notes normally

have five parts

1- The Heading: This includes the address, line by line, with the

last line being the date. Skip a line after the heading. The heading

is indented to the middle of the page. If using preaddressed

stationery, add just the date.

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2- The Greeting: The greeting always ends with a comma .The

greeting may be formal, beginning with the word “dear” and

using the person’s given name or relationship, or it it may be

informal if appropriate. Formal: Dear Uncle Jim, Dear Mr.

Wilkins. Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings (occasionally very

personal greetings may end with an exclamation point for

emphasis).

3- The body: Also known as the main text. This includes the

message you want to write. Normally in a friendly letter, the

beginning of paragraphs is indented. If not indented, be sure to

skip a space between paragraphs. Skip a line after the greeting

and before the close.

4- The complementary close: This short expression is always a

few words on a single line. It ends in a comma. It should be

indented to the same column as the heading. Skip one to three

spaces (two is usual) for the signature line.

5- The signature line: Type or print your name. The handwritten

signature goes above this line and below the close. The signature

line and the handwritten signature are indented to the same

column as the close. The signature should be written in blue or

black ink. If the letter is quite informal, you may omit the

signature line as long as you sign the letter.

Postscript: If your letter contains a postscript, begin it with P.S. and

end it with your initials. Skip a line after the signature line to begin

the postscript.

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The Research Paper

What is a research paper?

A research paper presents the results of your investigations on a

selected topic. Based on your own thoughts and the facts and ideas you

have gathered from a variety of sources, a research paper is a creation

that is uniquely yours. The experience of gathering, interpreting, and

documenting information, developing and organizing ideas and

conclusions, and communicating them clearly will prove to be an

important and satisfying part of your education.

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Gathering materials:

Once your topic has been approved, begin to gather information

from authoritative reference sources: pertinent books, encyclopedias,

and articles in magazines, journals, and magazines. Librarians will show

you how to use the various research tools within the library and may

suggest other sources of information. Important new resources are now

available to you through electronic services which provide many

learning and reference tools as well as access to the internet, where you

can often discover an abundance of information.

Depending on the sources available and the length requirements of your

assignment, you may find it necessary to widen or restrict the scope of

your topic.

Taking notes:

As you examine each source, make a separate note of each fact or

quotation you might want to use in your paper. You may need to use

index cards when preparing notes. Be sure to identify the source of the

information on the listing (include the author’s name and page number

on which the information appears). Try to summarize the information in

your words (paraphrasing). Use quotation marks if you copy the

information exactly. (This rule should apply whether you are copying a

great deal of material or only a phrase). Give each listing a simple

descriptive.

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Your listings –whether they appear on index cards or within some

format on your computer- will now provide the authoritative basis for

your paper’s content and documentation. By arranging and rearranging

the lists and using your descriptive headings, you may well discover a

certain order or different categories which will help you prepare an

outline. You may need additional information or that some of the listings

may not be appropriate and should be set aside or discarded.

Preparing and using an outline:

Using an outline can help you organize your material and can

also help you discover connections between pieces of information that

you were not aware of when you first conceived the plan of your paper.

It can also make you aware of material that is not really relevant to the

purposes of your paper or material that you have covered before and

should therefore be removed.

A working outline might be only an informal list of topics and subtopics

which you are thinking of covering in your paper. Sometimes, however,

an instructor might require that a working outline be submitted at the

beginning of your work; then your instructor might suggest ways in

which the work needs to be further developed or cut back. Your

instructor might also see that you are trying to accomplish too much or

too little for the scope of the assignment he or she has in mind. The

working outline can be revised as you discover new material and get

new ideas that ought to go into your paper. Most word processing

programs have outlining features with automatic formatting that make it

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easy to create and revise outlines. It is a good idea to keep copies of old

outlines in a computer folder in case new versions of the outline lead

you in false directions that you will later have to abandon.

A final outline should enhance the organization and coherence of your

research paper. Instructors sometimes require that a final outline be

submitted along with the final version of your paper. Material that is not

relevant to the purpose of your paper as revealed in your outline should

be excised from the paper; if portions of your outline seem weak in

comparison to others, more research may be required to create a sense of

balance in your argument and presentation. Outlines can be organised

according to your purposes. Are you attempting to show the chronology

of some historical development, the cause –and – effect relationship

between one phenomenon and another, the process by which something

is accomplished, or the logic of some position? Are you defining or

analyzing something? comparing or contrasting one thing to another?

Presenting an argument (one side or both)? In any case, try to bring

related material together under general headings and arrange sections so

they relate logically to each other. An effective introduction will map out

the journey your reader is about to take, and a satisfactory conclusion

will wrap up the sequence of ideas in a nice package.

A final outline can be written as a topic outline, in which you use only

short phrases to suggest ideas, or as a sentence outline, in which you use

full sentences (even very brief paragraphs) to show the development of

ideas more fully. If your instructor requires an outline, follow

consistently whichever plan he or she prefers.

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Plagiarism:

Using someone else’s ideas or phrasing and representing those

ideas or phrasing as our own, either on purpose or through carelessness,

is a serious offence known as plagiarism. “ideas or phrasing” includes

written or spoken material, of course- from whole papers and paragraphs

to sentences, and, indeed, phrases- but it also includes statistics, lab

results, art work, etc. “Someone else” can mean a professional source,

such as a published writer or critic in a book, magazine, encyclopedia, or

journal; an electronic resource; another student at our school or

anywhere else.

The penalty for plagiarism is usually determined by the instructor

teaching the course involved. It could involve failure for the paper and it

could mean failure for the entire course and even expulsion from school.

Working with quotations:

Quotations that constitute fewer than five lines in you paper should be

set off with quotation marks “ “ and be incorporated within the normal

flow of your text. For material exceeding that length, omit the quotation

marks and indent the quoted language one inch from your left- hand

margin. If an indented quotation is taken entirely from one paragraph,

the first line should be even with all the other lines in that quotation;

however, if an indented quotation comes from two or more paragraphs,

indent the first line of each paragraph an additional one- quarter inch.

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Research paper’s format:

Paper: Use white, twenty- pound,81/2- by 11- inch paper.

Margins: Except for page numbers, leave one inch margins all around

the text of your paper- left side, right side, and top and bottom.

Paragraphs should be indented half an inch; set- off quotations should be

indented an inch from the left margin.

Spacing: According to the MLA Guide the research paper must be

double-spaced, including quotations, notes, and the list of works cited.

Heading and title: Your research paper does not need a title page. The

title should be neither underlined nor written in all capital letters.

Capitalize only the first, last, and principal words of the title. Titles

might end with a question mark or an exclamation mark if that is

appropriate, but not in a period.

Page numbers:

Number your pages consecutively throughout the manuscript (including

the first page) in the upper right hand corner of each page, one- half inch

from the top.

Tables and figures:

Tables should be labelled ‘Table”, given an Arabic numeral, and

captioned (with those words flush to the left- hand- margin). Other

material such as photographs, images, charts, and line-drawings should

be labelled “figure”.

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Narrative writing

There is no proper topic for writing a narrative essay. It can be

about a variety of personal experiences. You, the writer, have the right to

say what you want about your personal experience. You can write about

anything, for instance, the worst day of your life, your last birthday….

No topic or subject is off- limits; therefore, there are endless

opportunities to write an essay about your personal point of view of what

happened. Often, the reason behind wanting to write a personal essay is

unclear. Once the writer begins and the events are recorded and

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recounted, it becomes clear that the writer is searching to find the

meaning, the universal truth, the lesson learned from the experience.

When writing, rewriting and good editing, a personal narrative essay

becomes a beautiful thing. It shows how the past or a memory’s

significance affects the present or even the future.

We all have stories to tell. But facing a blank page is

intimidating. Knowing where to begin becomes a real dilemma. A good

place to start is with the word “I”. Write I was, I saw, I did, I went, I

cried, I screamed, I took for granted. “I” is an empowering word. Once

you write it on the page, it empowers you to tell your story. That is

exactly what you are going to do next. Tell the story. Get it all out. Do

not worry about how many times “I” appeared in the text. Do not worry

how scattered and unfocused thoughts are. Write however your mind

tells you to write. The style is often called freewheeling writing or

stream of consciousness. Once the story is all down on paper, you will

go back and begin to shape the essay into a form that says exactly what

you want it to say about your experience. If you are discouraged over

what you have written, leave it away. Let it rest. Take a walk. Do

something that distracts your mind from writing the essay. Many writers

find that even while doing something other than writing, their writing

mind continues to work out what needs to be said.

Personal narrative essays are essentially non- fiction stories, ones that

are neatly arranged like a road map that take the reader from point A to

point B to point C. In life, and in our personal experience things are not

so straightforward as A- B- C. Characters, facts, places, conversations

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and reporting what happened, where you went, what you saw and what

you did is not always so neatly pulled together. That is your job, as the

writer, to pull together all the elements so they bring the reader to the

universal truth, the lesson learned or insight gained in your experience.

How do you do this? Through rewriting and rewriting.

Each time you redo the story more will be revealed to you.

Steps in writing a narrative essay:

1- Write “I” on a blank page.

2- Tell the story as it flows from your mind.

3- Let the story rest in its scattered, unfocused form.

4- Begin re-writing, shaping events in a way to best suit what you

want to say.

5- Re-write, re-write, and re-write.

6- Use language that is full of words that tap into the senses.

7- Get feedback from a reader.

8- Re-write.

9- Have the essay read aloud. Listen.

10- Fine tune your essay.

Features of a narrative essay:

1- The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what

kind of narrative essay it is (an event recurring activity, a

personal experience, or an observation), and it should have a

conclusion that makes a point.

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2- The essay should include anecdotes. The author should describe

the person, the scene, or the event in some detail. There is no

harm to include dialogue as long as you know how to punctuate

it correctly and as long as you avoid using too much.

3- The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your

description and thoughts lead the reader to reflect on the human

experience.

4- The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person. The

use of “I” invites your readers into an intimate discussion.

5- The writing in your essay should be lively and show some style.

Try to describe ideas and events in new and different ways.

Avoid using clichés. Again, get the basic story down, get it

organised, and in your final editing process, work on word

choice.

Poetry Writing

What is poetry?

It is a short piece of imaginative writing, of a personal nature and

laid- out in lines. Poetry definitions are difficult, as is aesthetics

generally. What is distinctive and important tends to evade the qualified

language in which we attempt to cover all considerations. Perhaps we

could say that poetry was a responsible attempt to understand the world

in human terms through literary composition.

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Poetry today is an amalgam of three distinct viewpoints.

- Traditionalists argue that a poem is an expression of a vision that

is rendered in a form intelligible and pleasurable to others and so

likely to arouse kindred emotions.

- Modernists argue that a poem is an autonomous object that may

or may not represent the real world but is created in language

made distinctive by its complex web of references.

- Postmodernists look on poems as collages of current idioms that

are intriguing but self- contained- they employ, challenge and or

mock preconceptions, but refer to nothing beyond themselves.

What distinguishes poetry from other literary compositions?

Nothing, says a vociferous body of opinion; they are all texts, to be

understood by the same techniques as a philosophic treatise or tabloid

newspaper. But what makes sense only to readers of advanced

magazines, for poetry does indeed seem different. Even if we accept that

poetry can be verse or prose- verse simply having a strong metrical

element- poetry is surely distinguished by moving us deeply. In fact, it is

an art form, and must therefore do what all art does- represent something

of the world, express or evoke emotion, please us by its form, and stand

on its own as something autonomous and self- defining.

Poetry has its beliefs and patterns of excellence. Its insights have to be

acquired by participation: by writing and having that writing evaluated,

by being able to appreciate a wide range of work, and by acquiring the

crafts of literary composition. For a beginning poet, it is essential to read

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widely, join many groups, take criticism seriously and remember the

following points:

1- Poetry may well be the art of the “unsayable”. A good poem lies

somewhere beyond mere words. Any poem that can be

completely understood or paraphrased is not a poem, but simply

versified or emotive prose.

2- Poems are an act of discovery, and require immense effort- to

write and to be understood. The argument against popular

amateur poetry is not that it uses out-of- date forms but that

poetry finds its conceptions too readily. Poetry does not have to

be challenging, it has to explore the nature and geography of the

human condition.

3- A poem is something unique to its author, but is also created in

the common currency of its period, style, preoccupations, and

shared beliefs. You may therefore grow out of the habit of

writing Elizabethan sonnets, if indeed you ever write them, not

by colleagues telling you that the style is old but by

understanding the limits of the Elizabethan world. You will

probably write through many enthusiasms and styles. And

because your experience of the world will be shaped by your

literacy efforts, your conceptions of poetry will change as you

develop a voice commensurate with your vision.

4- Poems are not created by recipe, or by pouring content into a

currently acceptable mould. Shape and content interact in the

final product and throughout the creation process, so that the

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poems will be continually asking what you are writing and why.

The answers you give yourself will be illustrating your

conceptions of poetry. Once again, those conceptions will

develop, eventually to include experiences that are part of you.

5- Many poets have theorized on the nature of their craft. Artists

rarely paint the whole picture. To understand their

pronouncements, you need first to love their work.

Approaches to writing poetry:

No infallible advice can be given on how to write a poem, because poets

develop their own approaches in time. Nonetheless, here are few

suggestions:

1- Plan. Ask yourself: How much time is available? Opening lines

can be dashed off in minutes but completion may take days or

weeks. Be cautious, and aim perhaps for 5- 10 lines in an

evening. Do not wait for the muse, but write what you can when

you can. Odd phrases and lines are at least something to work

from, and more inspiring than a blank page. When you write

letters or tell stories, do you usually start from a newspaper

article you have read, an anecdote told or overheard, something

witnessed, a general reflection? Start a poem in the way you are

most comfortable with. What sort of poem do you have in mind?

A story, a comment, a protest, an elegy, a character study, or a

memorial? Skim through contemporary examples to start

yourself off. Imagine the poem were a newspaper article: what

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points would you make, with what evidence and arguments? Got

it together? Go on then: let yourself go. Something will emerge.

2- Make sure the subject is important to you.

3- Give yourself up to reverie. Go for a walk, lie on the sofa and

close your eyes, go to bed, cut down the surrounding world. Jot

down the things that come to you, in whatever order or

confusion. Put the scribblings away for the present, and only

open the folder hours or weeks later to see what you have got.

You will be amazed at what is inside you.

4- Free the imagination.

5- Work through metaphors.

6- Write a pastiche- take a stanza of something well known and

rewrite it so that the idiom is entirely different, the lines end with

nonsense rhymes, the piece is ruined with the smallest possible

change and the piece looks completely fresh and contemporary.

7- Take the last line of one of your poems. Carry on from there,

ignoring entirely what you drafted before.

8- Repeat some of these exercises with a fellow student or poet.

Short Stories

Creative short stories do not need all to look alike, but they do all

share a basic structure that makes them “work”. They are readable,

entertaining or profound. This involves learning certain basic skills that

support all successful writing. Once these skills are developed, one may

want to explore various ways of using them, or even breaking the rules;

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but as all serious artists know, one must know the rules before they can

be broken.

The “passionate” first draft:

In the first place, the writer must have both passion and patience.

When you write, you leave the territory of the mundane. The first draft

of your story does not need to follow any rules necessarily, but should be

an outpouring of words. Believe in what you are writing. Explore the

interior realm and pull words from your grief, pleasure, happiness,

anger, and pain. Describe concretely and specifically what you see with

the inner eye, how you feel, what matters to you. Do not write out of a

sense of duty. Good writers do not try to teach a lesson, or to be socially

or politically correct. A first draft should lie on the page spontaneously,

buzzing with the joy of creative energy, regardless of form or quality of

content. As one learns to write, stories will tend to shape themselves in

the first draft, since the basic rules become basic to one’s nature, but

beginners should not worry if the first draft is messy. Learning to write a

short story that works is like learning anything less.

Revisions:

After you write a first draft, it is a good idea to let the story sit for

a while, a few days or even weeks. When you come back to the story for

its first revision, start to notice a few things. Does the story have the

basic elements? Does it have a believable plot? What is the theme, or the

point of the story? Are the characters real? How does the plot build to

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the point of tension wherein everything is resolved in the denouement?

Is the conclusion satisfying?

The basic elements of a short story:

1- The plot: This refers to the premise and action that takes place in

a story. A traditional plot involves conflict and there are all kinds

of conflicts that can be used. These include conflicts between

people, interior conflicts regarding decisions, conflicts between

obligation and desire, or even good versus evil. Be aware of the

conflicts in your story. Do they support and move the plot

forward? Is the plot believable in terms of character motivation?

2- The theme: The theme refers to the point you are expressing in

the story. This might be very subtle. Does the point come across

as a natural outgrowth of the plot, or does it seem forced or

“preachy”? Stories that work express themselves without the

feeling of didacticism, or that one is being taught a moral lesson;

rather, the lesson of the story sits within the plot and

development of character naturally and therefore powerfully.

3- Characters: In stories that work, the characters are more than

cardboard caricatures with wooden hands. When you look at

your first draft, consider character motivation. Do they react

reasonably in proportion with the traits you have granted them?

Do they speak naturally, or does the dialogue sound like an actor

reading lines? It might be a good idea to make up a history for

your characters, known only by you, which is not necessarily

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expressed in the story. A writer should know more about each

character than he or she tells. This gives each character an aura of

mystery and believability.

4- Denouement: This French word refers to the way the conflicts in

the plot come to a pique and are concluded. The short story that

works handles this with care, since this is usually the point where

the implicit theme stands or falls. Do the conflicts resolve or not

resolve themselves in the story? If we are left hanging, not

knowing whether the conflicts have gone in either direction, the

story usually does not work.

5- Conclusion: How does the story conclude? Has the character

changed in any way? Has he learned or not from the resolution of

conflict?

Tightening things up:

Once you establish these elements in your short story, go through

and scratch out every word, paragraph, or page that does not contribute

to them. A short story is not a novel; it is more like a poem, where every

word and sentence counts.

Listen to the advice of others. If a lot of people are distracted by some

sentence you happen to love, think about changing it. Do not be afraid to

revise. You are the creator, the writer, and you have it in your power to

produce something beautiful. This means revision, which is not an act of

mutilation, but of creation- though it may feel temporarily painful now

and then. Re-read your story with a critical mind when you are in

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different moods, and re-write it accordingly. A story that works is the

fruit of rewriting and revision. You will discover that you will see it

differently and find various new things you want to change according ot

your various moods.

Once you have the basics down, you can begin to work on your own

style and unique voice. But these come later. Short story writing takes

skill as well as an artistic temper. You must learn the skills before you

can shape it into art.

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Part Two: Grammar

General Review of “phrase, clause, sentence”

-The Sentence:

A common definition of a sentence is “a complete thought that is marked

by a capital letter at the beginning and a full stop at the end”.

A sentence contains a subject and a predicate.

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Examples:

Subject Predicate

The cat smiled

The cat smiled enigmatically at Alice

A sentence can stand alone.

-Sentence Types:

There are four basic sentence types: Statements- commands- questions-

and exclamations.

1- Statements:

They are also referred to as declarative sentences or declaratives. The

function of statements is to convey information.

Example: My dog has buried his bones in the lawn.

2- Commands:

They are also referred to as imperatives. Example: Stop arguing

3- Questions:

They are referred to as interrogatives or interrogative sentences. There

are four main types of questions:

♦Yes/no Questions:

These sentences expect “yes” or “no” for an answer.

Examples:

-Is your brother still at school?

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- Would you like some tea?

♦”Wh “Questions:

These sentences begin with a “wh” word: what, which, when, who, why,

where, how. They cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”.

Examples:

-Why is your shirt dirty?

- What do you think about casinos?

♦Alternative Questions:

They are very similar to “yes/ no”, but they offer a choice of answer.

Examples:

-Did it happen on Monday or Tuesday?

- Should I ring up, or should I write?

♦Tag Questions:

Tag questions are statements with a question tag at the end. Tag

questions, a peculiarity of English, are usually spoken rather than

written.

Examples:

- It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?

- He can swim well, can’t he?

- It wasn’t much of a film, was it?

The form of tag questions is quite regular:

-If the statement is positive, the tag will be negative.

Example: He is an inspiring teacher, isn’t he?

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- If the statement is negative, the tag will be positive.

Example: He isn’t an inspiring teacher, is he?

♦Exclamations:

They are also referred to as exclamatives or exclamative sentences. They

are used to express strong feelings. They can begin with “what” or

“how”.

Examples:

-What a naughty dog he is!

- What an amazing game that was!

- How well everyone played!

- Clauses:

A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate. A

clause is either a whole sentence or in effect -a sentence within a

sentence.

Clauses are often contrasted with phrases, which do not express

complete thoughts through combinations of subjects and predicates.

Phrases generally do not contain verbs except as verbals ( gerunds,

participles and infinitives).

Examples:

-I didn’t know that the dog ran through the yard.

(through the yard) is not a clause, but a phrase since it has no subject or

verb.

(The dog ran through the yard) is a clause; it is a whole sentence

contained within a larger sentence.

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-Categories of clauses:

There are two basic categories: Independent clauses and Dependent

clauses.

♦Independent clauses:

They are also referred to as main clauses, or coordinate clauses. An

independent clause can stand by itself as a grammatically viable simple

sentence. Multiple independent clauses can be joined (usually with a

comma and a coordinating conjunction) to form a compound sentence.

Examples:

-I am a bus driver. (simple sentence).

-I drive a bus. (simple sentence).

-I am a bus driver, and I drive a bus. (compound sentence).

-I want to be an astronaut, but I haven’t gotten my diploma (compound

sentence).

♦Dependent clauses:

A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) cannot stand alone as a

sentence. It usually begins with a subordinating conjunction or in the

case of an adverb or an adjective clause, a relative pronoun. A sentence

with an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is

referred to as a compound complex sentence.

Examples:

-My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex sentence).

-When they told me I won the contest, I cried, but I didn’t faint.

(compound complex sentence)

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-Types of dependent clauses:

Dependent clauses are often classified by their part of speech:

- A noun clause functions as a noun.

- An adjective clause functions as an adjective.

- An adverb clause functions as an adverb.

Examples:

-That the kid was making so much money bothered me. (a noun

clause is the subject of bothered)

-Her eyes were a shade of blue that reminded me of the sea. (an

adjective clause modifying a shade of blue).

- I have a tendency to hyperventilate when I’m upset. (adverb clause

modifying the entire main clause).

-Phrases:

A phrase is a group of related words, without subject and predicate,

functioning as a verb, a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Phrases are

generally classified as:

♦Verb phrases.

♦Prepositional phrases. They function as adjectives or adverbs.

♦Participial phrases. They are used as adjectives.

♦Gerund phrases. They are used as nouns

♦Infinitive phrases. They are often used as nouns, adjectives or

adverbs.

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Determiners

What are determiners?

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A determiner is any word that limits the meaning of a noun and comes

before adjectives that describe the same noun, but the determiner is not

an adjective

Examples: -My house.

- I caught a fish yesterday.

There are two main groups of determiners:

- Group A determiners:

These help to identify things to say whether they are known or unknown

to the hearer, which one(s) the speaker is talking about. Whether the

speaker is thinking of particular examples or speaking in general.

1- Articles: a, an, the

The is definite. It is used for singular or plural nouns

Examples: The boys- The table which I write on .

A and An are both indefinite

Examples: A table- An apple.

2- Possessives: My, your, his, her, its, yours, theirs, whose

Examples: His car- your book- their pens

3- Demonstratives: This, these, that, those.

Examples: This book- These cakes- that pen, those boys.

Note:

We cannot put two group A determiners together.

Example: The my house or my this house. In order to put together the

meanings of possessive and article/ demonstrative, we have to use the

structure “This…of mine…”

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Group B determiners:

Most of these are quantifiers. They say how much or how many we are

talking about; some, any, none, little, much, both, each, no, every, either,

neither, half, all, several, enough, few, most, many, what, whatever,

which, whichever.

Some of group B determiners are used with singular nouns

Examples: Each one, each woman, every girl.

Some of them are used with plural nouns

Examples: Many people, several days.

Some of them are used with countable nouns

Examples: a few people, all the group.

Some of them are used with uncountable nouns

Examples: Much time, a little information.

Group B determiners can be put together if the combination makes

sense.

Examples: We meet every few days.

I’ve read all six novels.

Have you got any more coffee?

Group B + group A determiners:

1- “Of” with determiners:

Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns without “of”.

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Examples: Have you got any sugar? (not :any of sugar).

Most people agree with me. (not most of people).

But if we want to put a group B determiner before a noun which has a

group A determiner (article possessive or demonstrative), we have to use

“of”.

Examples: Some people- Some of the people

Each child- Each of my children.

Neither door- Neither of these doors.

Most shops- Most of the shops.

“Of” can be used directly before a noun with no group A determiner in a

few cases. This happens with proper nouns such as place names, and

sometimes uncountable nouns that refer to the whole of a subject or

activity.

Examples: Most of Wales was without electricity last night.

Much of philosophy is concerned with questions that have no answers.

We can have “of” after: all, both and half when they are followed by

nouns (but not when they are followed by pronouns).

Examples: All (of) his ideas

Both (of) her income, but: All of us (not all us).

Note: When each, every, either, and neither are used directly before

nouns without “of” the nouns are singular.

Examples: Each tree- neither partner.

Each of the trees- neither of partners.

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Determiner+ of + pronoun:

Group B determiners can also be used with “of” before a pronoun.

Examples: Neither of them, which of us? Most of you.

Group A+ group B:

Certain group B determiners can be used after group A determiners.

They are: many, most little, last and few.

Examples: His many friends- These few days- the least time- the most

money- a little time- a few questions.

Other determiners:

There are a few other determiners that do not fit into groups A and B.

They are: other, such, what (in exclamation) and only. Other and only

come after group A determiners ; such and what can come before the

article a/ an.

Examples: My other sister- Such a nice day- the only possibility- what a

pity!

Other and such can also come after some group B determiners

Examples: Many other problems- Most such requests.

Much, many, a lot, plenty:

Much is used with the uncountable nouns (much time, much luck…)

Many is for the countable nouns (many people, many cars…).

We use much and many especially in negative sentences and questions

(we didn’t spend much money, do you know many people?).

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A lot, lot(s) of, plenty of are used with both countable and uncountable

nouns (a lot of good luck, a lot of friends, lots of people, plenty of

ideas).

A lot of is more usual in positive sentences (I have got a lot of exercises

to do).

Little- a little- few- a few:

Little and a little are used for uncountable nouns (little energy, a little

ideas)

Few and a few are used for countable nouns (few boys, a few days).

A little and a few mean a small amount or a small number (Let’s go and

have a drink, we have a little time before the train leaves)

Few and little are used in a negative context. They mean “not much”.

(We must hurry; there is little time).

Only a little, only a few have a negative meaning (We must be quick.

We’ve only got a little time).

No and none:(nothing, no one, nobody, nowhere).

We can use them at the beginning of the sentence or alone (no cars are

allowed here, none of this money is mine)

We use no + noun (there was no cars, I’ve got no time).

Any (anything, anybody, anyone), some:

Any: We use it for negative statements and in most questions (I didn’t

find any book, do you want anything?).

It is often used with “if”(tell me if you need any help).

Some: It is used for positive statements (I have something to do, would

you like something to drink?)

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Exercises:

Exercise 01:

Complete the sentences with “no”, “none”, or “any”.

1- It was a public holiday, so there were …… shops open.

2- I haven’t got …….money. Can you lend me some.

3- I couldn’t make an omelette because there were …… eggs.

4- I couldn’t make an omelette because there were not …… eggs.

5- We took a lot of photographs but …… of them were very good.

6- What a stupid thing to do? …….intelligent person would do such a

thing.

7- I will try to answer …… of the questions you ask me.

8- We cancelled the party because …… of the people invited were able

to come.

Exercise 02: Complete the sentences with “some” or “any”.

1- We didn’t buy ….. flowers.

2- This evening I’m going out with ……… friends of mine.

3- Have you seen …… good films recently?

4- I didn’t have …… money , so I had to borrow……..

5- Can I have …….. milk in my coffee, please?

6- I was too tired to do …….work.

Exercise 03: Put “that” or “what”.

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1- I gave her all the money….. I had.

2- They gave their children everything….. they wanted.

3- Tell me …….. you want and I’ll try to get it for you.

4- Why do you blame me for everything…… goes wrong.

5- I won’t be able to do much but, I’ll do ….. I can.

Pronouns

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A pronoun is a word that can be used in the place of a noun or a noun

phrase.

Kinds of pronouns:

1- Personal pronouns:

Nominative: I- you- she- he- it (singular).

We- you- they (plural).

Accusative and dative: Me- you- him- her- it (singular)

Us- you- them (plural).

Use of personal pronouns:

- Nominative: as a subject of a verb (he knows how many houses he

has).

As a complement of the verb “to be” (it is I - was it they?)

In formal conversation the accusative is often used after the verb “to

be”( it is me- was it them?).

But the nominative must be used if the pronoun is followed by a clause.

(Is it I who do it?).

- Accusative and dative:

Accusative: as a direct object of a verb: I saw her.

After prepositions: with him- to her- for us.

Dative: as indirect objects to replace to+ noun pronoun or for+ noun

pronoun: I gave him a book.

2- Possessive adjectives and pronouns:

Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, hers, its , our, your , their.

Possessive pronouns: Mine, yours, his, her, its, ours, yours, theirs.

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Possessive adjectives in English refer to the possessor and not to the

thing being possessed: Tom’s father- is his father.

Note that the possessive adjective remains the same whether the thing

possessed is singular or plural. (my book- my books).

Possessive pronouns are used to replace possessive adjectives + noun.

They follow the same rule as possessive adjectives.

This is my pen or, this is mine.

3- Reflexive and emphasizing pronouns:

Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,

themselves.

Reflexive pronouns are used as object of a verb when the action of the

verb returns to the doer.

I cut myself- ha shaved himself.

Reflexive pronouns are used similarly after a preposition: he spoke to

himself. I did it myself.

Reflexive pronouns can be used for emphasis: to emphasize a noun or

pronoun: The king himself gave her the medal.

When used in this way, the pronoun is never essential and can be

omitted without changing the meaning. It usually emphasizes the subject

of the sentence and is then placed after the subject.(Ann herself opened

the door).

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4- Relative pronouns:

- Defining relative clauses: these describe the preceding noun in such a

way as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class. A clause of

this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun.

Example: The man who dined here last night was taken to hospital this

morning.

-Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses: These are relative

very slightly according to whether they refer to persons or things and

according to their case. They don’t vary from singular or plural or

masculine or feminine.

The forms are as follows: For persons: Nominative: who- that.

Accusative: which- that

Possessive: whose- of which.

For things: Nominative: which- what

Accusative: which- that

Possessive: whose- of which.

-Non- defining relative clauses: they are placed after nouns which are

definite already. They do not therefore define the noun, but merely add

something ti it by giving some information about it. Unlike defining

relative clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted

without causing confusion.

Relative pronouns used in non- defining relative clauses:

For persons: Nominative: who

Accusative: whom- who

Possessive: whose

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For things: Nominative: which

Accusative: which

Possessive: of which, whose.

5- Interrogative Adjectives and Pronouns:

Form: For persons: who, whom, whose.

For things: what.

Examples of use: who took my gun?

-Whom did you see?

- Whose are these?

- What delayed you?

- What did they eat?

- Which of them is the eldest?

- Which do you like best?

6- Other pronouns: so, not

So: placed after the verbs (think, hope, expect, suppose, afraid) can

represent a whole clause.

Example: Will Mr. Pitt be here?

Yes, I think so.

Not: can be placed after the verbs hope and afraid to represent a negative

clause.

Examples: Can you play football?

No, I ‘m afraid not.

It is going to rain.

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Oh, I hope not.

7- Quantitative adjectives and pronouns:

These are all numerals together with some, any, no, none, much, many,

little, few.

Exercises:

Exercise 01: Add the appropriate reflexive pronoun to each sentence. If

impossible, put a cross near the example.

1- All you have to do is hide …….behind the door.

2- They are always complaining ……. About my cooking.

3- John’s mother didn’t want him to take the job on the oil rig. In fact,

George didn’t feel very happy about it ……..

4- There’s no need for you to come, I can carry the shopping.

5- Young people …..need to get involved in politics.

Exercise 02: Underline the pronoun in the following sentences and

identify their types.

1- New York city is under siege by gangs with cans of paint.

2- Its walls are covered with layers of paint and obscenities.

3- What is to be done?

4- Some have proposed that the city create an area in which the young

people may paint buildings at no risk.

5- Many want stronger laws and harder punishment that will discourage

the messy criminals from the practice.

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Complex tenses in the active form

1- The present continuous:

Form: Subject + am, is, are + stem + ing

Example: We are studying grammar

Uses:

- We use the present continuous when the action is happening at the

moment of speaking.

Example: Ann is in her car. She is on her way to work. She is driving to

work.

This means she is driving now, at the time of speaking. The action is not

finished

- It is not necessarily happening at the time of speaking

Examples: Tom and Ann are talking in a café.

I’m reading an interesting book at the moment.

Tom is not reading the book at the time of speaking. He means that he

started it but not finished it yet. He is in the middle of reading.

- We use the present continuous when we talk about things happening in

a period around now (today, this week, this evening).

Example: You are working hard today.

- We use the present continuous when we talk about changes happening

around now.

Example: The population of the world is rising very fast.

- We use the present continuous with “always” when the action is

annoying the speaker.

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Example: You are always watching television. You should do something

more active.

2- The present perfect:

Form: Subject + have, has + past participle.

Uses:

-We use the present perfect simple when an action in the past has a result

now.

Example: Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it.

He has lost his key. (He lost it and still hasn’t got it).

- We often use the present perfect simple to give new information or to

announce a recent happening.

Example: The road is closed. There has been an accident.

- We can use the present perfect simple with just, already, yet, recently,

so far, since

- We use the present perfect simple when we mention that it is the the

first time something has happened

Examples: Bob is having a driving lesson. He is very nervous and

unsure, because it is his first lesson.

- It’s the first time he has driven a car.

- He has never driven a car before.

3- The Present perfect continuous:

Form: Subject+ have, has + been + stem + ing

Example: It has been raining.

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Uses:

- We use the present perfect continuous for an activity that has recently

stopped or just stopped. There is a connection with now.

Example: You are out of breath. Have you been running?

Paul is very tired. He has been working very hard.

- We use the present perfect continuous with “how long, for” and

“since” when the action is still happening or has just stopped.

Example: It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and is still

raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for 2 hours.

- We can use the present perfect continuous for an action repeated over a

period of time.

Example: John is a very good tennis player. He has been playing since

he was eight.

4- Past continuous:

Form: Subject + was, were + stem + ing.

Example: This time last year, I was living in Brazil.

Uses:

- We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of

doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already

started before this time but had not finished.

Example: Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis, they began at 10

o’clock and finished at 11.30. So at 10.30, they were playing tennis.

- We often use the past simple and the past continuous together to say

that something happened in the middle of something else.

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Example: Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.

- While I was working in the garden, I hurt my finger.

5- The past perfect:

Form: Subject+ had+ past participle.

Example: John had gone to London.

Use:

We use the past perfect if we want to talk about things that happened

before the starting point of the story.

Example: Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too but

they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10.30 and Sarah arrived at

11 o’clock.

When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone home.

6- Past perfect continuous:

Form: Subject+ had + been+ stem + ing.

Example: Yesterday morning I got up and looked out of the window.

The sun was shining but the ground was very wet. It had been raining.

Use: You can say that something had been happening for a period of

time before something else happened.

Example: Ken gave up smoking two years ago.

He had been smoking for 30 years.

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7- The future perfect:

Form: Subject+ will+ have+ past participle.

Example: Tomorrow at 09.30, the match will have finished.

Use: We use the future perfect to say that something will already be

complete.

Example: Sally always leaves for work at 08.30 in the morning. So, she

won’t be at home at 09 o’clock. She’ll have gone to work.

8- The future continuous:

Form: Subject+ will+ be + stem+ ing.

Example: After 3 years, I will be teaching English.

Uses:

- We use the future continuous when we will be in the middle of doing

something.

Example: The football match begins at 07.30 and ends at 09.15. So

during this time for example at 08.30, Kevin will be watching the match.

- We also use the future continuous to talk about complete actions in the

future

Example: If you see Sally, can you ask her to phone me?

- Sure, I’ll be seeing her this evening. So, I’ll tell her then.

- We can use the future continuous to ask about somebody’s plans,

especially if we want him to do something.

Example: Will you be passing the post office when you are out?

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Exercises:

Exercise 01: Complete the sentences with one of the following verbs in

the correct form:

Look, make, have, work, learn, try, see.

1-You ……hard today? Yes? I have a lot to do.

2-Would you like something to eat? No thanks, I …..just……lunch.

3- Maria…… English for two years.

4- You ……. A lot of noise. Could you be quieter? I …….to

concentrate.

5- Is Ann coming to the cinema with us? No, she ……already……the

film.

6- Hello Tom, I ……for you all morning. Where have you been?

Exercise 02: Read the situation and write sentences from the words:

1- I invited Rachel to the party, but she couldn’t come. (she arrange to

do something else)

2- You went to the cinema last night. You arrived at the cinema late. (the

film already begin)

3- I was very tires when I arrived at home. (I work hard all day).

4- I haven’t seen Alan for ages when (I last see him) (he try to find a

job).

5- There was nobody in the room, but there was a small cigarette.

(somebody smoke in the room).

6- We were in a very difficult position (we not know what to do).

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Exercise 03: Put the verbs into the correct form: “will be doing” or “will

have done”.

1- Don’t phone me between 7 and 8 we (have) dinner then.

2- Phone me after 8 o’clock (we finish) by then.

3- Tomorrow afternoon we are going to play tennis from 3 o’clock until

4.30, so at 4 o’clock (we play) tennis.

4- Do you think (you still do) the same job in ten years time?

5- If you need to contact me (I stay) at the Hilton hotel until Friday.

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Complex Tenses in the Passive Form

Here only the forms are presented. The uses are the same as with these

tenses in the active.

1- The present perfect: Have, has been + pp.

Example: The room looks nice. It has been cleaned.

2- The past perfect: Had+ been + past participle.

Example: The room looks nice. It had been cleaned.

3- The present continuous: am, is, are being + past participle.

Example: The room is being cleaned at the moment.

4- The past continuous: Was, were + being + past participle.

Example: The room was being cleaned when I arrived.

5- The present perfect continuous: Have, has + been+ being done.

Example: The ceiling has been being painted by Ann because her clothes

are covered in paint.

6- The past perfect continuous: Had been being + past participle.

Example: The ceiling had been being painted by Ann because her

clothes were covered in paint.

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Exercises:

Exercise 01: Rewrite the sentences. Instead of using “somebody” or

“they”, write passive sentences.

1- Somebody has cleaned the room.

2- They have postponed the concert.

3- Somebody is using the computer at the moment.

4- I didn’t realize that somebody was recording our conversation.

5- When we got to the stadium, we found that they cancelled the match.

6- They have built a new hospital near the airport.

Exercise 02: Make sentences from the words in brackets. Sometimes the

verb is active and sometimes the verb is passive.

1- There is somebody behind us (I think we follow).

2- The room looks different (you paint).

3- My car has disappeared (it steal).

4- Tom got a higher salary now (he promote).

5- The man next door disappeared six months ago (nobody see him since

then).

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Sentence Tags

A “tag” is something small that we add to something larger. For

example, the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or

washing instructions is a tag

In grammar, a tag question is a special construction in English. It is a

statement followed by a mini- question. The whole sentence is a “tag

question”, and the mini- question at the end is called a “question tag”.

We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for information.

They mean something like: “am I right?” or “do you agree?” They are

very common in English.

The basic structure is:

- Positive statement, negative tag? Snow is white, isn’t it?

- Negative statement, positive tag? You don’t like me, do you?

Some special cases:

- I am right, aren’t I? (not amn’t I).

- You have to go, don’t you? (you do have to go).

- I have been answering, haven’t I? Use first auxiliary.

- Nothing came in the post, did it? (Treat statements with nobody,

nothing etc like negative statements).

- Let’s go, shall we?

- He’d better do it, hadn’t he?

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How do we answer a tag question?

Often, we just say “yes” or “no”. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and

reverse it (….do they? Yes, they do).

Be careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an

opposite system of answering is used, and non- native English speakers

sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion.

Question tags with imperatives:

Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders),

but the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct

answer. We use “won’t” for invitations, we use “can, can’t, will, would”

for orders.

Examples: Take a seat, won’t you?

Help me, can you?

Help me, can’t you (friendly).

Close the door, would you?

Do it now, will you?

Don’t forget, will you?

Same- way question tags:

It is sometimes possible to use a positive- positive or negative- negative

structure. We use same- way question tags to express interest, surprise,

anger, and not to make a real question.

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Examples:

So you’re having a baby, are you? That’s wonderful.

She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!

So you think that’s amusing, do you? Think again.

Negative- negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile: So you

don’t like my looks, don’t you?

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Phrasal verbs

What is a phrasal verb?

Phrasal verbs are idiomatic expressions, combining verbs and

prepositions to make new verbs whose meaning is often not obvious

from the dictionary definitions of individual words. They are widely

used in both written and spoken English, and new ones are formed all

the time as they are a flexible way of creating new terms.

A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that

modifies or changes the meaning; “give up” is a phrasal verb that means

“stop doing something”, which is very different from “give”. The words

that modify a verb in this manner can also fall under the name “particle”.

Phrasal verbs can be divided into groups:

1- Intransitive verbs: These don’t take an object. “They had an

argument, but they’ve made up now”.

2- Inseparable verbs: The object must come after the particle. “They

are looking after their grand children”.

3- Separable verbs: With some separable verbs, the object must

come between the verb and the particle. “The quality of their

work sets them apart from their rivals”.

With some separable verbs, the object can come before or after

the particle, though when a pronoun is used it comes before the

particle. “Turn the TV off.”, “turn off the TV”, “turn it off”.

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Some examples of phrasal verbs: This is not an exhaustive list of

phrasal verbs, for more practice check on a dictionary of phrasal verbs.

Add up= add

Break down= analyze

Break into= go into a room suddenly, begin.

Bring off= accomplish.

Bring on= cause.

Carry on with= continue.

Come down with= become ill with.

Fall back on= use for emergency purpose.

Drop off= decline gradually.

Drop out= Cease to participate.

Get around= evade.

Talk over= discus

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Verb Types

Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.

Examples: I am a student.

The students passed all their courses.

Verbs are classified in many ways.

- Transitive verbs:

Some verbs require an object to complete the meaning.

Example: She gave……, gave what? She gave money to the church.

- Intransitive verbs:

They do not require objects. “The building collapsed”.

In English you cannot tell the difference between a transitive and

intransitive verb by its form; you have to see how the verb is functioning

within the sentence. In fact, a verb can be both transitive and

intransitive. “The monster collapsed the building by sitting on it”.

Although you will seldom hear the term a “ditransitive verb” such as

cause or give, is one that can take a direct object or an indirect object at

the same time. “That horrid music gave me a headache”.

Ditransitive verbs are slightly different , then from factitive verbs, in that

the latter takes two objects.

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-Finite verbs:

A finite verb makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can

stand by itself as the main verb of a sentence.

Examples: The truck demolished the restaurant.

The leaves were yellow and silky.

- Non- finite verbs:

(unfinished verbs) cannot , by themselves, be main verbs.

Examples: The broken window………

The wheezing gentleman……..

Another more useful term for non- finite verbs is verbals which

are : infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do

not function as a true verb. Becaust time is involved with all verb forms

(finite- non- finite), following a logical tense sequence is important.

Verbals are frequently accompanied by other, related words in what is

called a verbal phrase.

Participle:It is a verb form acting as an adjective. A present participle

like “running” describes a present condition; a past participle describes

something that has happened. The distinction can be important to the

meaning of a sentence, there is a huge difference between “a confusing

student” and “a confused student”.

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Infinitive: The root of the verb + the word “to”.

A present infinitive describes a present condition ‘I like to sleep”. The

perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that of the verb “I would

like to have won the game”.

Gerund: A verb form ending in “ing”, which acts as a noun. “Running

in the park after dark can be dangerous”. Gerunds are frequently

accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund phrase.

-Basic forms of verb construction:

There are four basic forms:

Base form, past form, present participle, past participle.

- Linking verbs:

A linking verb connects a subject and its complement. Sometimes called

copulas, linking verbs are often forms of the verb “to be”, but are

sometimes related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and

sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem,

become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will

be either a noun complement or an adjective complement.

-Those people are all professors.

- Those professors are brilliant.

- This room smells bad.

- I feel great.

- A victory today seems unlikely.

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A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being, are sometimes

called “resulting copulas”. They, too, link a subject to a predicate

adjective.

Examples: - His face turned purple

- She became older.

- The crowd grew ugly.

-

-Voice:

Voice in verbs refers to its being active or passive.

- Mood:

Mood in verbs refers to one of three attitudes that a writer or speaker has

to what is being written or spoken.

The indicative mood is used to make a statement or ask a question.

The imperative mood is used to give a directive, strong suggestion or

order.

The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the

following:

-Express a wish.

- Begin with “if” and express a condition that does not exist.

- Begin with “as if” and “as though” to describe a speculation or

condition contrary to fact.

- Begin with “that” and express a demand, requirement, request or

suggestion.

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-Auxiliary/ Helping verbs:

“Will, shall, may, might, can, could…” are used in conjunction with

main verbs to express shades of time and mood.

-Phrasal verbs:

They consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition.

The resulting combination creates what amounts to a new verb, whose

meaning can sometimes be puzzling to non- native speakers.

- Causative verbs:

They designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen.

“The devil made me do it”. The verb “made” causes the “do” to happen.

Here is a brief list of causative verbs:

Let, help, allow, have, require, motivate, get, make, convince, hire,

assist, encourage, permit, employ, force.

-Factitive verbs:

Verbs like “Make, choose, judge, elect, select, name” are called factitive

verbs. These transitive verbs can take two objects, or seem to.

Example: U.S. News and World Report named our college the best in

the northeast. (direct object: our college, second complement: best).

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Catenative verbs

I- Definition:

Catenative verbs are verbs that take other verb forms as object.

Catenative means to link in a chain. Catenatives can be joined at the

head of a series of linked constructions as in: “We agreed to try to decide

to stop eating between meals.

Catenative verbs are also characterized by their tendency to

describe mental process and resolutions.

Example: I want to try to remember to use that website.

Catenatives are said to be a group of chaining verbs and it means

that the verb is accompanied by another verb as object.

Example: I try to avoid to make mistakes.

I hope to go to visit Mecca.

II- The construction of Catenative verbs:

Example: She seems to start to cover her mistake.

The construction of catenative verbs is that they join a series of linked

verbs.

Other examples:

Ann is trying to think to visit her uncle.

My mother seems to start to blame me.

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Notes with examples:

-A great deal about catenative verbs is that we can have a limitless string

of them.

Examples: I hope to hope to hope to hope to hope to be able to help you.

I am trying to try to try to try to be good.

- Catenative means “join on”, and on this basis a model verb is not a

catenative.

Example:

I will will will will go via the shop. (will will will will) are not

catenative verbs because they are not preceded by the infinitive mark

“to”.

- Catenative verbs are lexical verbs which are used as if they were

auxiliaries.

Examples:

I never need to think about this.

I need never think about this.

We notice the difference in the positioning of the adverb “never” and

also the use or non use of the infinitive mark “to”.

- Just one interpretation of the term catenative, another school of

thought says that any “joining on” is sufficient to give a verb the

designation “catenative”, so the modals are catenatives in the

sense that they go with another verb.

Example: I may will buy a new car.

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III- Some catenative verbs:

-Intend: I intend to intend to go to America.

- Hope: I hope to hope to make you good.

- Expect: I expect to expect to receive a gift from her.

- Need: I need to think to take a vacation.

- Seem: It seems to start to rain today.

- Gonna and Wanna verbs:

- Examples with “to be going to”:

I’m going to read a book about the Algerian revolution.

She’s going to make herself ill because she worked hard.

- Examples with “want to”:

- I want to justify my previous attitude.

- He wants to borrow a novel.

-Meaning of “wanna” and “gonna” verbs:

Gonna: It is a variant of “going to”. We might as well make “gonna”

a legitimate word

Example: Some day, I’m gonna wring his neck.

Wanna: It is a replacement of “want to”

Example: I wanna kiss you.

- The contractive relation between “to be going to” and “gonna”.

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Examples: He’s going to cook dinner ( the form is subject+ be+

going to+ verb+ noun.

We can say “he’s gonna cook dinner” because after “going to” there

is a verb.

But, in “ He’s going to school, we never say “he’s gonna school”.

After going to there is a noun.

Exercises:

1- Fill in the gaps with the verbs in a logical order:

-John ……..to …….to …….. to …….. a new house (think, buy, go,

need).

- Peter ……..to …….to ……to ……..a letter (expect, receive, expect).

- He …….to …….to ……….the mountain (go, climb suppose).

- The situation ………to ……..to ………better. (be, seem, change).

- They ……….to ……….to …………a new factory far from the city

(build, decide, are going).

2-Choose the correct verbs to complete the sentences, then read the

statements with contractions if necessary. (want to, let me, let’s go,

suppose, give me, is going to, should have, supposed to).

- Next week, Susan ………start a new job.

- He ……….to a stadium.

- I ……….be free.

-……….dream.

-…………peace on earth.

- New words………..many times on the day we learned them.

- We are………..have a test tomorrow.

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- Do you ………I could borrow your notes?

- …………..to the party.

Stative verbs

A stative verb is one which asserts that one of its arguments has a

particular property in relation to its other argument. Stative verbs are

static. They have no duration and no distinguished end- point. Verbs

which are not stative are often called dynamic verbs.

Examples of sentences with stative verbs:

-I am tired.

- I have two children.

- I like the blue colour.

- I think they want something to eat.

- We believe in one God.

- The case contains six bottles.

- This would imply that we didn’t care.

In languages where the copula is a verb, it is a stative verb, as is the case

in English”be”.

Some other English stative verbs are: Believe, know, seem, have.

All these generally denote states rather than actions. However, it should

be noted that verbs like “have” and “be”, which are usually stative, can

be dynamic in certain situations.

Exercises:

Exercise 01: Decide which verb is normally stative or dynamic.

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Seem, read, paint, smell, remember, believe, change, understand, jump,

want.

Exercise 02: Put the verb into the correct form. Use either the present

simple or the present continuous.

1- Please don’t make so much noise. I (study).

2- How many languages (Tom speak)?

3- I (not belong) to a political party.

4- Hurry! The bus (come). I (not want) to miss it.

5- The river Nile (flow) into the Mediterranean

6- The river (flow) very fast today- much faster than usual.

7- ( It ever snow) in India?

8- We usually (grow) vegetables in our garden, but this year we (not

grow) any.

9- You can borrow my umbrella. I (not need) it at the moment.

10- I usually (enjoy) parties but I (not enjoy) this one very much.

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Indirect Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech) doesn’t use

quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be

word for word.

When reporting speech, the tense usually changes. This is because when

we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past

(because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past).

The verbs usually have to be in the past too.

Example: Direct: “I am going to the cinema”, he said.

Indirect: He said that he was going to the cinema.

Tense change: As a rule, when you report something someone has said

you go back a tense.

Direct Indirect

Present simple

Present continuous

Present perfect simple

Present perfect continuous

Past simple

Past perfect

Past perfect continuous

Will

Can

Must

Past simple

Past continuous

Past perfect simple

Past perfect continuous

Past perfect

Past perfect (no change)

Past perfect continuous (no

change)

Would

Could

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Shall

May

Had to

Should

Might

Note: There is no change to : could, would, should, might, and ought to.

You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that

something is still true.

Example: My name has always been and will always be Lynne so:

Direct: “My name is Lynne”, she said.

Indirect: She said that her name was Lynne. Or: She said her name is

Lynne.

- You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future

event.

Direct: “Next week’s lesson is on reported speech”, she said.

Indirect: She said next week’s lesson is on reported speech.

Time change:

If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change

it to fit in with the time of reporting. We need to change words like

“here”, “yesterday” if they have different meanings at the time and place

of reporting.

Example: Direct: “Today’s lesson is on presentations”.

(+24 hours) Indirect: She said yesterday’s lesson was on presentations.

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Expressions of time if reported on a different day:

Direct Indirect

This

Today

These

Now

A week ago

Last week end

Here

Next week

Tomorrow

That

yesterday

Those

Then

A week before

The week end before

There

The following week

The next day

In addition, if you report something said in a different place where you

heard it, you must change the place (here) to the place (there).

- Pronoun change:

In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.

Example: “I teach English”.

She said that she teaches English.

- Reporting verbs:

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“Said”, “told”, and “asked” are the most common verbs used in indirect

speech.

We use “asked” to report questions.

We use “told” with an object.

We usually use “said” without an object.

- Use of “that” in reported speech:

In reported speech, the word “that” is often used, However, that is

optional.

In questions “that” is not used. We often use “

Exercise: Write the following sentences in the reported speech.

1- He complained: “The neighbours are noisy”.

2- She thought:” I bought some biscuits yesterday, but I can’t find them

in the cupboard”.

3- The teacher explained: “The exam will be different this year”.

4- The shop keeper assured me: “The freezer will be delivered

tomorrow”.

5- The authorities warned us: “The building is unsafe”.

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Cleft Sentences

Cleft sentences are used to help focus on a particular part of the

sentence and to emphasize what we want to say by introducing it or

building up to it with a kind of relative clause.

Because there are two parts to the sentence it is called cleft (from the

verb cleave) which means divided into two.

Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot

use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis, but they are also

frequently used in speech.

Cleft structures include: the reason why, the thing that, the person/

people who, the place where, the day when and what clauses which

are usually linked to the clause that we want to focus on with is or was.

Examples: Compare the following sets of sentences and notice how the

cleft structure in each case enables us to select the information we want

to focus on.

- I’ve come to discuss my future with you.

- The reason why I’ve come is to discuss my future with you.

-Your generosity impresses more than anything else

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- The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your

generosity.

- The jewels are hidden under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road,

Epping.

- The place where the jewels are hidden is under the floor at 23

Robin Hood Road, Epping.

- Mary works harder than anybody else in this organization.

- The person who works harder than anybody else in this organization is

Mary.

- Mary is the person in this organisation who works harder than anybody

else.

- The Second World War ended on 7 MAY 1945 in Europe.

- The day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe was 7

May 1945.

- 7 May 1945 was the day (when ) the Second World War in

Europe.

- We now need actions rather than words.

- What we now need is actions rather than words.

- Actions rather than words are what we need now.

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- I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the ballet

performance.

- What I enjoyed most in the ballet performance was the brilliant

music.

- The brilliant music was what I enjoyed most.

Note from the last two examples that cleft structures with what

clauses are often used with verbs expressing an emotive response to

something like: adore, enjoy, hate, like, love, need…

Cleft structures with what clauses are also often used with does, do, did

and with the verb happen when we want to give emphasis to the whole

sentence rather than a particular clause.

Compare the following:

- The police interviewed all the witnesses to the accident first.

- What the police did first was (to) interview all the witnesses to

the accident.

It is sometimes very effective to use all instead of what in a cleft

structure if you want to focus on one particular thing and nothing else.

- I want a new coat for Christmas.

- All I want for Christmas is a new coat.

- A new coat is all I want for Christmas.

We can also use preparatory “it” in cleft sentences and join the

words that we want to focus on to the relative clause with that, who, or

when. In the following example, note how the construction enables us to

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focus on different aspects of the information which may be important at

the time:

- My brother bought his new car from our next- door neighbour

last Saturday.

- It was my brother who…….

- It was last Saturday when……..

- It was a new car that………..

- It was our next-door neighbour that……..

Exercises:

Exercise 01: Make cleft sentences from the following examples:

1- John broke the window.

2- John broke the window with a hammer.

3- John broke the window today.

4- I will remember her kindness.

5- Professor Plum was murdered by Miss Scarlett in the library with the

dagger.

Exercise 02: Put the parts in order to form a cleft sentence.

1- that loved he was it sailing world most the in.

2- December we that was met first it in.

3- It’s cooking in the of my the does sister family

most who.

4- Of was he all own to a wanted have car his.

5- The what was she did police phone.

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Comment clauses

The comment clause is defined in terms of its discourse function.

It is to provide the speaker’s comment on the content of another clause

(the matrix clause). Syntactically, the comment clause functions as a

disjunct in the matrix clause.

One type of comment clause has the formal characteristics of a

main declarative clause, but it differs from ‘normal” main clauses in that

it can occur within another clause (thus resembling a subordinate

clause).

Example: John, I think, is a fool.

John is a fool, I think.

In initial position such a comment clause would be indistinguishable

from a main clause. “I think John is a fool”.

Semantically, such a comment clause indicates that the matrix clause

expresses the speaker’s own opinion. Other comment clauses can be

used to modify or mark the discourse function of the matrix.

Examples:

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You see, it’s too late to do anything about this now. (softening a

statement).

Why are you so late? Well you see, the bus broke down, so I had to

walk. (explanation)

You know, this is something we’ll have to think about. (seeking

agreement).

Unlike “I think” and “I believe”, “You know” and “You see”

can be used in initial position, too. Their status as comment clauses is

marked in speech by the fact that they typically form separate tone units.

The tone unit boundary is conventionally represented in writing by a

comma.

Another type of comment clause has the formal characteristics of

an adverbial sub-clause introduced by “as”.

Examples:

As I keep saying, we can’t solve these problems without increased

funds.

John has resigned, as you may have heard.

This type of clause serves as a comment on the communicative status of

the matrix clause, ie: whether the information presented in the matrix

clause has been mentioned before, is known to the hearer, and so on.

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Conditionals

The conditional says that an action is reliant on something else. The

two most common conditionals are real and unreal, they are sometimes

called “if clauses”.

- The real conditional (type I) describes situations based on facts.

- The unreal conditional (type II) describes unreal or imaginary

situations.

- There is also what we call the third conditional (type III) , used to

express no possibility of something having happened in the past,

and the conditional 0 (zero conditional) , used to express absolute

certainty.

-Type 1:

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If I see you tomorrow, I’ll buy you a drink.

I’ll buy you a drink if I see you tomorrow

Note: Never use will or won’t in the if clause.

Use: To express situations based on fact in the present or future (things

which may happen).

- Type2:

If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house.

I would buy a new house if I won the lottery.

Use: to express unreal situations in the present or future. Often used to

express a wish.

- Type 3:

If I had worked harder, I would, could, should have passed my exam.

I would, could, should have passed my exam if I had worked harder.

Use: To express conditions in the past that did not happen. Often used to

express criticism or regret with would have, could have or should have.

-Type 0:

If you heat water to 100°c, it boils.

Water boils if you heat it to 100°c.

Use: To express general truths and facts (often based on scientific facts).

Exercises:

Exercise 01: Put the verb into the correct form:

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1- They would be rather offended if I (not/ go).

2- If you took more exercise, you (feel) better.

3- I’m sure Amy will lend you the money. I’d be very surprised if she

(refuse).

4- A lot of people would be out of work if the factory (close down).

5- I’m sure Sue (understand) if you had explained the situation to her.

Exercise 02: Use you own ideas to complete these sentences.

1- If you took more exercise,………

2- I’d feel angry if…………..

3- If I didn’t go to work tomorrow,……….

4- Would you go to the party if………….

5- If you bought some new clothes……………………

6- Would you mind if…………………………

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Questions, Answers, Negatives

I- Basic question structure:

The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:

Auxiliary verb+ subject+ main verb

Examples :

-Do you like Mary?

- Are they playing football?

- Will Anthony go to Tokyo?

- Have you seen it?

Basic Question Types:

There are three basic types of questions:

1- Yes/ No questions:

A question that can be answered by “yes” or “no”.

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Examples:

Does Ann live in Montreal? Yes, she does.

Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.

Can you drive? No, I can’t.

Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.

Did they go home? No, they didn’t.

2- Question word questions:

A question that asks for information by using a question word: where-

when- who- why.

Examples:

Where do you live? In Paris.

When will we have lunch? At 01 pm.

Who did she meet? She met John.

Why hasn’t Tara done it? Because she can’t.

3- Choice Questions:

They are formed by using “or” to make the choice.

Examples:

- Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.

- Will we meet John or James? John.

- Did she go to London or New York? She went to London.

II- Asking and answering negative questions:

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- We can sometimes use negative “yes/ no” or “wh” questions to make a

suggestion, to persuade someone, to criticize or to show that we are

surprised.

Example:

Why don’t we go out for a meal? A suggestion.

Wouldn’t it be better to go tomorrow instead? Persuading somebody.

- We usually make a negative “yes/ No” or “wh” question with an

auxiliary verb+ not before the subject.

Examples:

Doesn’t he want to come with us?

Haven’t you got anything better to do?

Why can’t we go by bus?

In more formal speech and writing, or when we want to give some

special emphasis to the negative, we can put “not” after the subject.

Examples:

Did she not realize that she had broken the window?

Can’t they remember anything about it?

Why did you not return the money?

If the question word is the subject, we put “n’t” or not after the auxiliary

verb.

Example: Who wouldn’t like to own an expensive sports car? (not who

not would like….).

- We sometimes use negative words other than “not” or “n’t” such as:

never, no, nobody, nothing, nowhere.

Examples:

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Why do you never help me with my homework?

Have you no money left?

Have you nowhere to go?

- We can make a suggestion by “why not+ verb” or “why don’t/

doesn’t”.

Examples:

Why not decorate the house yourself?

Why don’t you decorate the house yourself?

Why not give her what she wants?

Why don’t we give her what she wants?

Note: “Why didn’t” is not for suggestion but for criticism.

Example: Why didn’t you tell me the truth?

Exercise 01:

Write an appropriate negative question for each situation. Use “n’t” in

your answer.

1- Can you show me where his office is?

2- A: ’m afraid I won’t be able to give you a lift home.

B: Why not……

3- A: I’ve left my job at sonelgaz

B: Why?.............

4- A: Will you help me look for my purse?

B: WhY?…………

5- A: May be it would be better not to give that vase to David

for Christmas.

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B: Why not?..................

Exercise 02:

Look at the long answer and then write the appropriate “yes/no”

question. Do not use a negative verb in the question. An example

is provided.

I don’t know your brother.

A: Do you know my brother?

B: No, I don’t.

1- Aspirin relieves pain.

2- Snakes don’t have legs.

3- Snakes can’t move backward.

4- The United States is in North America.

5- I enjoyed the movie.

6- David has left.

7- He left with Ann.

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Substitution

It is a way of avoiding repetition . The most important words and

expressions used for substitution are:

1- Reflexive pronouns:

Reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,

ourselves, themselves and, yourselves.

They are use when the subject and object of a sentence refer to

the same person or thing. They are used as object rather than

subject pronoun. Reflexive pronouns can also be used for

emphasis

Examples:

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I hope you like the ice cream, I made it myself.

We phoned the number and he came himself.

Some verbs are rarely or never used with reflexive pronouns:

complain, concentrate, get yp, lie down, meet, relax, remember,

sit down, wake up.

Example: She concentrated hard on getting the job finished. (not

she concentrated herself).

After a preposition of place or position, we use a personal

pronoun not a reflexive pronoun.

Example:

Jim had the money with him (not with himself).

2- One and ones:

One is used instead or repeating a singular countable noun when

it is clear from the context what we are talking about.

Example:

Nowadays, many people have a mobile phone, but I have never

used one.

Ones can be used instead of repeating a plural noun

Example:

I think his best poems are his early ones.

Notice that we can’t use ones without additional information

(small ones). I nstead, we use “some”

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Example:

We need new curtains. Ok, let’s buy green ones this time.

We need new curtains. Ok, let’s buy some (not , lets buy ones).

3- So:

So is used instead of repeating an adjective, adverb or whole

clause.

Examples:

The workers were angry and they every right to be so.

Ali took the work and Asma perhaps even more so.

Bob should be the new director. At least I think so.

We often use “so” after verbs concerned with thinking such as:

be afraid, appear, seem, assume, believe, expect, guess, hope,

imagine, presume, suppose, suspect, think, and also after say and

tell.

We do not use “so” after certain verbs including: accept, admit,

agree, be certain, claim, doubt, hear, intend, promise, suggest and

be sure.

Examples:

The train will be on time today. I’m sure it will. Not: I’m sure so.

In negative sentences we use not or not….so

Examples:

Is the socialist party offering anything new I, its statement? It

would appear not or: it would not appear so.

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They want to buy the house although they didn’t say so directly.

4- Do so:

We use “do so” instead of repeating a verb + object or verb +

complement when it is clear from the context what we are talking

about. We can also use does so, did so, doing so…..

Examples:

She won the competition in 1997 and seems likely to do so again

this year.

Doctor Smith said “sit down”. Mary did so (sat down).

We can also use “do” alone rather than “do so” in less formal

English, especially after modals or perfect tenses.

Example:

Will this programme work on your computer? It should do.

5- Such:

We use “such” + a (an) + noun to refer to something mentioned

before, with the meaning (of this / that kind).

We use such+a / an + noun when the noun is uncountable. Such

is used in this way in formal speech and writing.

Example:

We allow both men and women to have time off work to bring up

children. We were the first department to introduce such a

scheme.

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Other examples of substitution:

To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or sentence, we

can use an auxiliary verb (be, have, can, will) instead of the

whole verb group.

Examples:

She says she’s finished but I don’t think she has.

Are you going to read it? Well, no, I am not.

If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the previous clause or

sentence, we leave out all the auxiliaries.

If there is no auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence or

if the auxiliary is a form of “do” , we use a form of “do” instead

of repeating the main verb

Examples:

I now play chess as well as he does.

I didn’t steal the money. No one thinks that you did.

If ‘be’ is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence or if the

auxiliary is a form of “do” , we use the main verb.

Examples:

The children are noisy again. They always are.

I’m not happy in my job. I thought you are.

Exercises:

Exercise 01: If possible replace the underlined words or phrases

with one /ones. I f it is not possible, write “no” after the sentence.

1- Their marriage was a long and happy marriage.

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2- We have got most of the equipment we need, but there are

still some small pieces of equipment we have to buy.

3- Traffic is light in most of the city, but there is heavy traffic

near the football stadium.

4- “Are these your shoes?” “No, the blue shoes are mine”.

5- All the cakes look good, but I think I’ll have that cake on the

left.

6- I was hoping to borrow a suit from Chris, but his suit doesn’t

fit me.

7- At present, the music industry is in a better financial state

than the film industry.

8- Have you seen that the clothes shop on the corner has re-

opened as a shoe shop?

9- The damage to the car was a problem, of course, but an easily

solved problem.

Exercise 02: Complete these sentences with one of the following words:

and, either, to (or to be), allowed, appears, continue, deserved, fail.

1- The weather was good yesterday and will……..over the next few

days.

2- “Is it a beetle?” No, it is a spider. At least it ………to be.

3- You should hand in your work by Thursday, but you won’t have

marks deducted if you ……to.

4- She was fined 500 dinars and ……..to be.

5- I couldn’t keep the cat. I wasn’t……. to.

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Ellipsis

We often leave out words to avoid repetition, or in other cases

when the meaning can be understood without them. This is called

ellipsis.

Ellipsis with “and”, “but” and “or”:

When expressions are joined by “and, but, or”, we often leave out

repeated words or phrases of various kinds.

Examples:

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A knife and (a) fork.

She can read, but (she) can’t write.

She was poor, but (she was) honest.

We drove (across America), rode (across America), flew (across

America) and sailed across America.

Word order:

Note that when two verbs, objects…are the same, it is not always the

second that is left out. We leave out the first if that will produce a

simpler word order and sentence structure.

Examples:

Cats (catch mice) and dogs catch mice. Not: cats catch mice and dogs.

I can (go) and will go.

In formal speech and writing, ellipsis does not usually interrupt the

normal word order of a clause or sentence. Sentences like the following

are typical of a more formal style.

Example:

Peter planned and Jane paid for the holiday.

Kevin likes dancing and Ann athletics.

The children will carry the small boxes and the adults the large ones.

- We can sometimes drop a verb that is repeated in a different form.

Example: I have always paid my bills and I always will (pay).

Singular and plural:

When one verb follows two singular subjects connected by “and”, a

plural verb is of course used if necessary.

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Example:

My mother and father smoke (not smokes).

When two singular subjects are connected by “or”, the verb is singular.

Example:

Either John or Jack was here this morning.

The same could be said for singular and plural verbs with neither…nor.

Example:

Neither Mohamed nor Ali speaks German.

Ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence:

- Words that can be left out: In formal spoken English, we often leave

out unstressed words at the beginning of the sentence if the meaning is

clear without them. Words that can be left out include articles (the , a ,

an), possessives (my, your), personal pronouns (I, you), auxiliary verbs

(am, have) and the preparatory subject there.

Examples:

(The) Cat’s running badly.

(My) wife’s on holiday.

(I) couldn’t understand a word.

(There is) nobody at home.

(Be) careful what you say.

Tags: Ellipsis is very common in sentences that have some sort of tag at

the end, especially in British English.

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Example: Dutch, aren’t you?

Ellipsis in noun clauses:

A repeated noun can sometimes be dropped after an adjective if

the meaning is clear especially when one is talking about common kinds

of choice.

Example:

What kind of potatoes would you like? Boiled (potatoes), please.

Ellipsis after determiners:

Nouns can also be dropped after most determiners and similar words,

including numbers, nouns with possessive’s own and (an) other.

Examples:

These are Mary’s gloves, and these (gloves) are mine.

I’m not sure how many packets I need, but I’ll take two (packets).

Our train is the second (train) from this platform.

You take John’s car and I’ll take Mary’s (car).

Can I borrow your pen? No? find your own (pen).

Well -known names:

The last words of well known names are often dropped.

Example:

She’s staying at the Hilton.( the Hilton hotel).

When we talk about people’s houses and shops, the words “house” and

“shop” are often dropped.

Examples:

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We spent the week end at John and Mary’s (house).

Could you pick up some meat from the butcher’s (shop).

Ellipsis after auxiliary verbs:

Auxiliary instead of complete verb phrase: We can avoid repetition by

using an auxiliary verb instead of a complete verb phrase if the meaning

is clear. The auxiliary verb usually has a “strong” pronunciation, and

contractions are not normally used except in negatives.

Example:

He said he’d write, but he hasn’t (hasn’t written).

Other words, as well as the rest of the verb phrase, can be left out after

the auxiliary, for example, an object, a complement, an adverbial or even

a whole clause.

Example:

I can’t see you today, but I can tomorrow.

Ellipsis is used regularly in short answers, reply questions and tags.

Examples:

Have you finished? Yes, I have.

You don’t drive, do you?

Ellipsis with the infinitive:

We can use “to” instead of a whole infinitive of a repeated verb if the

meaning is clear.

Examples:

Let’s go for a walk. I don’t want to (walk).

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I don’t dance much now but I used to. (dance).

Sorry I shouted at you. I didn’t mean to (shout).

In some cases, the whole infinitive can be left out. This happens after

nouns and adjectives, and after verbs which can stand alone without a

following infinitive.

Examples:

He’ll never leave home, he hasn’t got the courage to

You can’t force him to leave home if he’s not ready to.

Can you start the car? I’ll try to.

Exercise: Give the ellipted form of the following sentences if necessary

1- Is she out this evening? Yes, she is working this evening.

2- She was poor but she was honest.

3- Have you seen Ali? Yes, I have seen Ali.

4- My car isn’t working. I’ll have to use Jack’s car.

5- I was planning to go to Paris next week, but I can’t go to Paris next

week.

6- Are you and John getting married? We hope to get married.

7- This is the restaurant which I was talking about .

8- Phone me if it is necessary.

9- The food is ready and the drinks are ready.

10- I have always paid my bills and I will always pay my bills.

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Modals

All the auxiliary verbs except “be”, “do” and “have” are called

Modals. Unlike the other auxiliary verbs, modals only exist in their

helping form; they cannot act alone as the principle verb in a sentence.

“Be, do, and have” differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can also

serve as ordinary verbs in a given sentence.The modal verbs are: can,

could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, will, would.

Modal Example Uses

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Can -They can control

budgets

- We can’t fix it

- Can I smoke here?

- Can you help me?

-Ability, possibility

- Inability, impossibility

- Asking for permission

- Request

Could -Could I borrow your

dictionary?

- Could you say it

again more slowly?

- We could try to fix it

ourselves.

- I think we could have

another Gulf war.

- He gave up his old

job so he could work

for us

- Asking for permission

- Request

- Suggestion

- Future possibility

- Ability in the past

May - May I have another

cup of tea?

- China may become a

major economic

power.

- Asking for permission

- Future possibility

Might - They might give us a

discount.

- Future possibility

Must - We must say good

bye now.

- Necessity, obligation

- Prohibition

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- They mustn’t disrupt

the work more than

necessary

Ought to - We ought to employ

a professional writer

- Saying what’s right or

correct

Shall - Shall I help you with

the luggage?

- Shall we say 2.30

then?

- Shall I do that or will

you?

- Offer

- Suggestion

- Asking what to do

Should - We should sort out

this problem at once

- I think we should

check everything

again

- Profits should

increase next year

- Saying what’s right or

correct

- Recommending action

- uncertain prediction

Will - I can’t see any taxis

so I’ll walk

- I’ll do that for you if

you like

- I’ll get back to you

first thing on Monday

- Profits will increase

- Instant decision

- Offer

- Promise

- Certain prediction

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next year

Would - Would you mind if I

brought a colleague

with me?

- Would you pass the

salt please?

- Would you mind

waiting a moment?

- Would you like to

play tennis this

Friday?

- Would three o’clock

suit you?

- Would you prefer tea

or coffee?

- Asking for permission

- Request

- Request

- Invitation

- Making arrangements

- Preferences

Note: Modals are always followed by the base form of the verb.

Exercises:

Exercise 01: Complete the sentences using “can”, “be able to”, “can’t”,

“could”, “couldn’t”.

1- George traveled a lot. He …..speak four languages.

2- I can’t understand Martin. I’ve never ……..understand him.

3- I used to …….stand on my head but I can’t do it now.

4- You look tired. Yes, I ……….sleep last night.

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5- I was feeling sick yesterday. I …….eat anything.

6- I’m afraid I ……… come to your party next week.

Exercise 02: Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write

sentences with “must have” and “can’t have”.

1- The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. (I /asleep).

2- Jane walked past me without speaking (she / see/ me).

3- The jacket you bought is very good quality (it / very / expensive).

4- I can’t find my umbrella. (I / leave/ it in my office/ yesterday).

5- Fionna did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/ understand/

what I said).

Exercise 03: Write these sentences in a different way using “may” or

“might”.

1- Perhaps Margaret is in her office.

2- Perhaps she is busy.

3- Perhaps she is working.

4- Perhaps she wants to be alone.

5- Perhaps she was ill yesterday.

6- Perhaps she went home early.

7- Perhaps she was working yesterday.

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Semi modals

Semi modals are called so because they are partly like modal helping

verbs and partly like main verbs.

Here are few examples of semi modals:

1- Have (got) to:

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-We use “have to” to say what is necessary to do. “Have to” is

impersonal, we use it for facts, not our personal feelings. It can be used

in all forms: past (I had to go to hospital), present perfect (have you ever

had to go to hospital?).

-In questions and negative sentences with “have to”, we normally use

“do, did, does”.

Examples:

What do I have to do to get a driving license? (What have I to do?)

Why did you have to go to hospital?

Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.

-We can use “have got to” instead of “have to”. So you can say: I’ve got

to work tomorrow or : I have to work tomorrow.

When has Ann got to go? or: When does Ann have to go?

-Although “have got to” is less formal than “have to” and particularly

common in spoken English.

2- Ought to:

We can often use “ought to” to talk about obligations and

recommendations and probability and advice.

- “Ought to” is used particularly in speech and most often to talk about

obligation rather than probability.

- We use “ought to” to say that something is advisable.

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Example: John ought to find a new job.

- We use “ought to+ have+ past participle” to talk about something that

didn’t happen in the past and we are sorry that it didn’t.

- The negative form is “ought not to”

Example: The builders ought not to have finished by the end of the

week.

3- Had better:

We use “had better” for urgent advice when you believe that something

bad will happen if a person doesn’t follow the advice. The negative of

“had better” is “had better not”.

Example: You had better not be late (not you not….).

“Had better” always refer to the present or the future, never to the past.

4- Dare:

In the negative and the interrogative “dare” can be conjugated like an

ordinary or like an auxiliary verb.

5- Used to:

We use “used to” to talk about something that happened repeatedly and

regularly in the past and don’t happen now. The structure is “I used to

do” not “I am used to do”.

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We also use “used to” for something that was true but is not true

anymore.

Example: I used to think he was unfriendly, but now I realize he is a

very nice person.

The negative form is: I didn’t use to like him. or: I used not to like him.

The question form is: Did you use to eat a lot of sweets when you were a

child?

6- Be able to:

We use “be able to” to talk about ability in the present. We prefer “be

able to” when we talk about a specific achievement (particularly if it is a

difficult task requiring some effort) rather than a general ability.

Example: Sami could read when he was four. He was able to use a

computer too.

The negative form is: I was not able to do one problem.

7- Need/ not:

When it is a modal verb, “need” is most commonly used in negative

sentences, often with verbs like: bother, concern, fear, worry, panic.

Example: I have already cleaned the car so you needn’t bother to do it.

We use “need not” to give permission, serve. We can use either needn’t

or don’t need to .

Example: You needn’t cut the grass. I will do it later. Or: You don’t

need to cut the grass.

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Exercises:

Exercise01:

Complete the sentences with the appropriate semi modal (have to, ought

to, had better, dare, used to, be able to, and need not).

1- I doubt that he will …….to work; his injuries are so severe.

2- I ……. Like going to pop concerts when I was a teenager.

3- Here is someone you really ……..meet.

4- Jane had to get………driving on the left.

5- I had some free time yesterday, so I was…….to write few letters.

6- As I will not be at home tonight, I ……. Do my homework during my

lunch break.

7- We have got plenty of time. We ……hurry.

8- He doesn’t ……….to say anything.

9- I need some money. I …….go to the bank.

Exercise 02: Choose the best answer:

1- I have not…….sleep very well recently (be able to / can).

2- Sandra……..drives, but she hasn’t got a car (be able to / can).

3- I …….. got up early tomorrow, I’m going away and my train leaves at

07.30 (have to / must)

4- I …… get up early tomorrow, there are a lot of things I want to do.

(must / have to).

5- I have an appointment in ten minutes, I ……go now, or I will be late.

(had better / should).

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6- It is a great film, you ……..go and see it. You will really like it. (had

better / should).

7- When the weather was good, we………go walking in the hills every

week end (would / used to).

Adverbs with two forms

In some case, the adverb may have two forms, one like the

adjective and the other with “ly”. There is usually a difference of

meaning or use. Some examples are given below:

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Dead and Deadly:

In certain expressions, the adverb “dead” is used to mean “exactly”,

“completely” or “very”.

Deadly is an adjective. It means “fatal”, causing death. The adverb for

this meaning is fatally.

Examples:

Cyanide is a deadly poison.

She was fatally injured.

Fine and Finely:

The adverb “fine” means “well”.

How are you? I am fine.

The adverb “finely” is used to talk about small careful adjustments and

similar ideas.

A finely tuned machine.

Free and Freely:

When used after a verb, the adverb “free” means without payment.

Buy two shirts and get one free.

Can I eat free in your restaurant?

Freely means “without limit or restriction”

Speak freely.

Hard and Hardly:

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The adverb hard means “heavily”, “severely” or “with difficulty”.

You must work hard.

Hardly means “almost not”.

I have hardly any money left.

Late and Lately:

The adverb late has a similar meaning to the adjective late. Lately means

“a short time ago” and “recently”.

We will be late for dinner.

It is getting late.

I haven’t read anything lately.

Most and Mostly:

Most is the superlative of much. It is used to form superlative adjectives

and adverbs.

Those who have the most are not always the happiest.

What pleased me most was his helping nature.

Mostly means ”chiefly”, “generally” or “in most cases”.

My friends are mostly non smokers.

Real and Really:

In informal American English, real is often used before adjectives and

adverbs. It means the same as really.

That was real nice = really nice.

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She sings real well = really well.

Sure and Surely:

In an informal style, sure is often used to mean “certainly”. This is

common in American English.

Can I borrow your bicycle? Sure.

Exercise: Choose the correct adverb.

1- He works (hard, hardly).

2- He followed the lecture (closely, close).

3- They (hardly, hard) do any work.

4- She (flat, flatly) refused to help.

5- It’s supposed to be a secret, but it is (widely, wide) known.

6- The dentist asked her to open her mouth (widely, wide).

7- That idiot (near, nearly) crashed into us.

8- He always comes (late, lately).

9- She’s been coming here every day (late, lately).

10- Pensioners can travel (free, freely) on local buses.

11- The road runs (nearly, near) the town centre.

12- She’s (high, highly) thought of by her colleagues.

13- Feeling ran (high, highly) during the conflict.

14- Homeless people have to sleep (roughly, rough).

15- The police treated the hooligans (rough, roughly).

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Intensifiers

An intensifier is an adverb which is used to modify adjectives and

adverbs, but which is not usually used to modify verbs.

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Examples:

I am very happy

The film was quite good

You did that rather well

Must you leave so soon?

Intensifiers are called adverbs of degree. They answer the questions

how, how far, how much. They modify other words especially

adjectives, adverbs and verbs.

Use:

We use degree words to place an idea or quality on a scale from positive

to negative

Example: John said: What was the movie mum?

It was absolutely perfect. (really excellent, very good indeed, very good,

quite good, fairly good).

Not very good, rather poor, bad, very bad, extremely bad, dreadful.

Scales of degrees:

- The highest degree: completely, full, totally different.

- High degree: Very, full, extremely.

- Middle / low degree. Rather full, pretty, good.

Position of degree words:

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Degree words usually go before adjectives, adverbs and comparative

words.

Examples:

Quite young

So quiet

Very often

Too slowly

Too quickly

Much older

Rather more

“Enough” is a special exception to the rule as a degree word. It follows

the word it modifies, even when it is an adjective or adverb.

The position of degree words with verbs varies. Some degree words go

before the verb (quite, rather).

Examples:

I rather like her.

Have you quite finished?

”most” goes before and after the verb+ the object.

Example: We failed completely. We completely failed.

Exercise: Put one of these adverbs in the appropriate place: very, very

much, enough, much, far, fairly, too, so, completely, rather.

1- At the age of five, my son was ……afraid of dark, he felt…..alone.

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2- I think her presentation is ……. The best, she speaks far……..fast.

3- She cooks well ……, I suppose she could be excellent if she took

more trouble.

4- That is a …….. pleasant room.

5- I walk …… fast, but Ann walks ……..slowly.

6- The wallet was …….big to put in my pocket.

7- All what you have done is …….wrong, you are ……insane.

8- There were ……… twenty people there.

9- I was ……. Busy when I met Ann, I …….. looked at her, but she

looked…… at me.

10- You work hard ……. For the firm, but you never spend any time

with the family.

11- I ……. Like the smell of petrol.

Bibliography

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- Bander G. Robert: American English Rhetoric (third edition) ,

Holt, Rineheart and Winston, 1983.

- Smalley L. Regina and Ruetton K. Mary (second edition), Mc

Millan publishing Company, New York.

- Dornan A. and Dawe W. Charles: The Brief English Handbook.

1984.

- Murphy Raymond: English Grammar in Use (second edition)

CUP 1994.

- Hewings Martin : Adavnced Grammar in Use. CUP 1999.

- Thomson A.J and Martinet A.V: A Practical English Grammar

OUP 1980.

- http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/ mla/ practical _guide.shtml. A

Guide for Writing Research Papers Based on Modern Language

Association (MLA) Documentation.

- http://www.rscc.cc.tn.us/ow/&writing center / owl/

narration.html/. A Brief Guide to Writing Narrative Essays . The

RSCC online writing lab.1988 Jennifer Jordan- Henley.

- http://www.Poetrymagic.co.uk/ whatis poetry.html. Writing

Poetry: Approaches.

- http://ok.essortment.com/writingshortst-rrmi.html. Writing Short

Stories That Work.

- http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.questions-tag.htm.

Tag Questions. English Club.com .

- http://www.learnenglish.de/grammarpage.htm.

-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stative_verb.

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