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Contents

List of Maps viiiPreface ixIntroduction xiiMaps xv

1 Pre-Roman and Roman Britain 1 2 British, English and Scandinavians, AD 400–1066 11 3 The Middle Ages 36 4 The Sixteenth Century 94 5 1603–88 125 6 1689–1815 148 7 Age of Reform and Empire, 1815–1914 189 8 The Twentieth Century 246 9 The British Isles Today 30210 Conclusions 314

Selected Further Reading 317Index 322

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1 Pre-Roman and Roman Britain

Among the stalactites and stalagmites of Kent’s Cavern, the impressive cave system at Torbay in Devon, early hominids, Neanderthals and Stone Age men successively lived. The caves gave them shelter from south-west winds and opened to the light from the east. Earlier, bears had hiber-nated in the darker recesses of the caves. Now the caves are an inspiring visit for tourists and a challenge for artists; but, for most of their long human history, they reflected the struggle of man, like other creatures, to adapt successfully to the land and the opportunities and problems it posed. The long and complex history of the British Isles in part repre-sents the interaction of man and a very varied natural environment.

This environment is the proper focus at the outset because it greatly helped shape life in Britain and is still very important today. The British Isles are both part of Europe and yet, from the Mesolithic period in about 6500 BCE,1 separated from it by the sea, an important aspect of national history and identity. The British Isles have a very varied geology, topography, climate and natural vegetation. We should be careful about projecting the modern environment onto the past: climate and drainage, even the coastline and water levels, were different. Yet, in simple terms, the bulk of the west and north of Britain is higher and wetter, its soils poorer and its agriculture pastoral rather than arable: centred on ani-mals, not crops. Much of Ireland is like west and north Britain, although there is less high land. However, there are many exceptions to this description of the British Isles as a result of a highly complex geological history and of great climatic variations.

Thus, the north and west also contain fertile lowlands, such as the central lowlands of Scotland, the Vale of York in Yorkshire, and the Vale of Eden in Cumbria; while the south and east include areas of poor fer-tility, such as the sandy wastes of the Breckland in Suffolk or the hilly greensand of the Weald in Kent.

1BCE (Before Common Era) is the equivalent to BC (Before Christ), and CE to AD (Anno Domini).

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Nevertheless, the essential contrast in England is between the colder, hillier north and the warmer, lower south, the wetter west and the drier east, and, despite the effects of climate change in the past, these con-trasts have been consistent. And there are political consequences. Upland areas such as the Pennines, a range of hills that forms the backbone of northern England, have not generally served as centres of power. Instead, prior to the Roman invasion, hill forts were more numerous in the south and west of England. There were relatively few in the north and east. Some were in the Cheviots and Lothians of southern Scotland, but there were very few indeed in the Pennines proper. For much of English and Scottish history, wealth and influence have been disproportionately pre-sent in the south of each country, with the east also being generally more significant than the west.

Wales clearly shows the consequences of terrain and climate. It is largely mountainous: 60 per cent of the surface area is above the 200-metre line. Until nineteenth-century bridge-building and tunnelling, such terrain acted as an effective brake on communications: the natural links in Wales run east–west, not north–south, and this situation has had historical and political implications over the centuries. Exposed to prevalent westerly winds that are forced to rise to cross its mountains, Wales, like Ireland, west Scotland, and north-west and south-west England, receives a heavy rainfall. This plays a major role in washing the soil from its uplands. Thus, aside from the difficulty of cultivating moun-tainous terrain, much of upland Britain has relatively poor, often acidic, soil and is unsuitable for continuous or intensive cultivation. This situ-ation encourages a dependence on the rearing of animals, a form of agri-culture that cannot support the higher population levels of arable regions and that encourages dispersed settlement.

Within Europe, early man lived first in the warmer areas of the south, but, when the climate permitted between the advance of the glaciers, spread from there into northern Europe. The remains of early hominids and finds of tool assembly have been found in many sites in southern England, including Stoke Newington in London. Neanderthal hunters also left sites there, but these are far fewer than in France, especially south-west France, and Germany. The Neanderthals were replaced by anatomically modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period (c. 40,000 to c. 10,000 years ago). This lengthy period saw a develop-ment of social structures and stone-blade technology, although sub-sequent weathering, ploughing and other activity have greatly limited the surviving evidence. People retained useful objects for future use, had craftsmen with ideas of symmetry, and performed tasks entailing a

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division of labour. However, settlement was episodic, with the advance of the glaciers during the Ice Ages leading to periods without occupation, notably the Anglian glaciation.

After the last Ice Age came to an end, in around 10,000 BCE, there was a northward movement of forest and wildlife zones across the North European Plain, which then included Britain. Subsequently, in England as it became warmer, the trees of a cold climate – birch, pine and hazel – were replaced by oak, elm, ash and lime between 7500 and 5000 BCE. These deciduous forests were rich in plant and animal life. The warmer climate led to the arrival of red and roe deer and wild pig from further south, which encouraged a rise in the number of hunter-gatherers in the Mesolithic period (c. 8300 BCE to c. 4500 BCE). For example, the wood-lands of the Thames valley provided shelter for animals, such as deer, which, in turn, attracted hunters. They were equipped with microlithic flints mounted in wood or bone hafts, which provided effective tools for use, for example, as knives or as arrowheads.

Settlements spread considerably and became more fixed, notably in the river valleys, and trade developed. Evidence for tool manufacture increased. As the ice melted, the sea level rose, and, in about 6500 BCE, the land-bridge that joined England to the Continent across the southern North Sea was cut. More than half the human history of Britain had already passed by then.

This break did not prevent a transfer of agricultural development from the Continent. Domestic crops and agriculture spread into England in the fifth millennium BCE, although hunting, fishing and gathering wild plants continued. The first signs of farming occurred in Scotland in about 4500 BCE. The plough was in use in southern England in about 3500 BCE, which helped increase crop yields and encouraged the clear-ing of forest, leading to a drop in surviving tree pollen, an important source of evidence. The spread of domestic animals, cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, from the early Neolithic, brought milk, wool and an ability to pull ploughs, and was followed by wheeled vehicles. Animals played a major role in the economy, culture and religion. Animal motifs were incorporated in art, and animals had religious symbolism, being linked with particular deities. There is surviving archaeological evidence of farmsteads; and then villages, for example Skara Brae in the Orkneys, which dates from about 3000 BCE.

As the population rose and became settled rather than semi-nomadic, surviving evidence of permanent human presence in the landscape increases. This evidence takes the form, during the Neolithic period (c. 4000 to c. 2000 BCE), of ‘causewayed’ camps, ritual monuments and

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burial chambers, notably long and round barrows. Stone alignments and circles were created in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Dating from about 3200 to 1500 BCE, they became progressively more complex, suggesting a tendency towards ritual and maybe political centralisation. The religious practices of the people are obscure, although astronomical knowledge clearly played a major role; the midsummer sun rises along the axis of Stonehenge. Ritual centres such as Avebury and Stonehenge in southern England or the vast and complex tombs of the Boyne Valley in Ireland would have each required at least hundreds of thousands of man-hours to construct and were evidence of large-scale communal activity and organisation.

Trade developed as the flint necessary for agricultural tools and axes was mined and exchanged. Moreover, commerce along the coasts and across seas was a crucial development. By the third millennium BCE, copper met-allurgy had spread into southern Britain. This increase in the material cul-ture was followed in about 2000 BCE by the dissemination of a new burial pattern, known as ‘Beaker’, from the distinctive pottery in graves: these were individual burials with rich grave-goods, suggesting a more stratified society. There are also more known Late than Early Neolithic sites.

The Copper Age was followed, from about 2200 BCE to about 800 BCE, by that of bronze, a harder alloy of copper that was more effec-tive in tools and weapons. Bronze replaced not only copper but also hard stone and flint. Social stratification appears to have become more pronounced. Numerous and large surviving burial mounds or barrows have been linked to areas likely to have benefited from trade, implying the existence of a social elite. Aside from trade, agriculture increased in response to the rising population, and land boundaries and, later, fields were laid out, notably from about 1500–1000 BCE on. Pollen and sedi-ment studies suggest that the shift from nomadism to settlement and farming occurred especially in the Bronze Age, around 2000 BCE. This shift probably led to the widespread clearing of woodland in the sec-ond millennium BCE, although woodland remained a major economic resource, notably for timber and hunting.

Settlement became more permanent, and was linked to the develop-ment of trading routes, for example the middle Thames, and related com-mercial networks. Moreover, marginal areas were increasingly cleared of trees and cultivated. It has been suggested that Bronze Age society was more bellicose. There is increased evidence of fortifications, notably of defended hill-top settlements, of land divisions, suggesting that owner-ship of land was becoming more contested, and of weapons; and it has been argued that society was dominated by warriors.

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They were to be challenged by the use of a new metal, in the Iron Age, which lasted from about 800 BCE to CE 43. The smelting and forging of iron spread from West Asia and arrived in England by 700 BCE. By 500 BCE iron tools were being used to clear trees. The use of iron hoes and nails brought a new flexibility to agriculture and construction. Iron also made better weapons, particularly when carbon was added to make steel.

England was exposed to pressure from the Celts, a culture that appeared in South Germany in about 800 BCE and then spread over much of France. The extent of Celtic influence in Britain is controversial. Features of Celtic settlement, culture and civilisation have been found in southern England, but, prefiguring debates about later developments, it is unclear how much was due to a widespread population movement, to more limited immigration or to trade. It is likely that all three played a role, and by the first century CE Celts were also dominant as far as Ireland.

In the first millennium BCE, therefore, the population of Britain rose and agriculture improved. For most of their history, the map of power in the British Isles was one that was heavily influenced by the geography of agriculture and agrarian systems, and this was particularly true of the pre-Roman period. Coins (with the first written words), proto-towns (larger and more complex settlements) and tribal ‘states’ with chieftain patterns of tribal organisation and populations of tens of thousands, existed in southern England, while much of the woodland had been cleared, especially in areas of light soil, and agriculture was both varied and extensive.

The situation was different in the north, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, although population estimates for Iron Age Scotland belie this to a degree. Relatively low population levels and a poorly developed agri-cultural base ensured that there was only a small surplus of wealth for taxation in these areas, and thus only a limited ability to support political and governmental activity. Most of late Iron Age Wales, for example, left no trace of pottery, although some fine metalwork has been left. In con-trast, southern England was linked in this period to nearby areas of the Continent: to northern Gaul (France) and the Low Countries.

In conclusion, Britain was far from stagnant on the eve of the Roman conquest. It supported a growing population, a settled society and an aristocratic elite, although the tribal states did not amount to a sophis-ticated governmental system. The population may have been about two million, and there is much evidence for the manufacture of iron. Population pressure in both England and Scotland is indicated by the settlement of relatively undesirable areas. Moreover, archaeological work

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has led to a significant increase in the number of known sites, and this process will probably continue.

ROMAN CONqUEST

Having conquered Gaul (France), Julius Caesar, the Roman military leader there, claimed that it was necessary to stop British support for the Celts still resisting; there may indeed have been British assistance for the Veneti of Brittany. Caesar was also probably motivated by a desire for glory and plunder, and by the need to employ his troops. In 55 and 54  BCE, he launched expeditions against southern England, but met unexpectedly strong resistance and storms. As a result, Caesar was happy to return to Gaul.

Under his successors, trade links developed with Britain and there were diplomatic contacts, but there was no military action until 43 CE when the Emperor Claudius invaded. He sought to gain a military repu-tation to strengthen his position in Rome and invaded because Rome’s protégés in southern Britain had lost control. It is unclear what would have happened but for Roman conquest. Whereas the existence of a unified Pictavia in the area of Scotland not conquered by Rome is uncer-tain but has more advocates than in the past, the part of Germany that was not conquered by Rome was essentially to develop into a number of small kingdoms that focused on farming but also took part in trade, as did Ireland. Urban development was limited outside the Roman world, although the later histories of Glasgow and Hamburg scarcely suggest that Roman conquest was necessary for subsequent prominence.

The Romans rapidly conquered lowland Britain in the 40s and 50s CE. There was considerable resistance, led initially by the Catuvellani and, in particular, their leader Caratacus, to give them the Roman spelling of their names – inevitably, since almost all our knowledge of this period comes from Roman written sources. Having been victorious in South-East England, the Romans invaded Wales in pursuit of Caratacus. They also advanced simultaneously along a number of routes across southern England.

Initially, client rulers were left in place in a number of areas, notably Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire under the Atrebates tribe and East Anglia under the Iceni. In 60 CE the Governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was campaigning in north Wales against the Druids, anti-Roman priests and their supporters, when a major rising was staged by the Iceni tribe under their female leader Boudicca (Boadicea is a later corruption of the name).

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They were enraged by callous Roman rule and by the Romans’ treatment of the royal family, including the flogging of Boudicca and the rape of her daughters. The major Roman settlements, then Colchester, St Albans and London, were destroyed, but Paulinus crushed the Iceni in battle and they were then brutally ‘pacified’. Boudicca died, probably by suicide.

In the seventies, the Romans pressed forward again. The Brigantes of northern England were subjugated in 71–4 CE, Wales following. By 78 CE all of England and Wales was under Roman control, and this remained the case until links with Rome collapsed in 409. However, Britain was not conquered in its entirety, and the continued presence of a frontier zone ensured that, for protection, Britain absorbed a relatively high percent-age of Roman military expenditure, and had a comparatively large num-ber of troops. As a result of these troops, Britain played an important role during struggles for control in the Roman Empire and also had a series of forts which became the basis for towns.

Highland Scotland was never conquered by the Romans: the ter-rain was far more difficult for an invading power than lowland Britain and it was well defended. Agricola, governor from 77 to 83 CE, invaded Scotland, winning a notable victory at Mons Graupius, but part of his army was transferred to the Continent and only the Scottish lowlands south of the Forth–Clyde line were conquered. The Romans could win victories in Aberdeenshire as Agricola and Severus did, but retention proved a different matter. The Romans had to advance on the east coast route, which was always vulnerable to attack from the Angus glens, and did not master the penetration of the Carse of Stirling as Edward I was eventually to do. Although Agricola considered its conquest, Ireland was not attacked by the Romans. It nevertheless received a small but steady flow of Roman coins and other imported materials. They were in all like-lihood the result of mercenary activity and trade coming from Irish Sea garrison ports in western Britain such as Chester.

The Roman conquest thus, even as it united southern Britain for the first time in its history, also demonstrated a central feature of British history: a lack of political uniformity. In part, this lack of uniformity reflected a variety of local socio-environmental systems stemming from the physical variety of the island. Furthermore, in both Ireland and across much of Scotland, it is possible to point to continuities with the Iron Age, as much as to change, whether resulting from contact with the Romans or not. Nevertheless, there was certainly Roman influence in both areas.

The frontier zone was most clearly marked by Hadrian’s Wall, built by the Emperor Hadrian, who visited Britain in 122. The wall was

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constructed from then along the Tyne–Solway line, across the narrowest part of the island, to protect England from invasion from the north and as a means to control the upland zone by preventing free movement. To the south, the generally peaceful nature of Roman society encouraged a process of Romanisation. Roman citizenship was restricted neither to Romans nor to Italians. The Emperor Caracalla was the first to universal-ise it formally, although ninety years after Hadrian. Non-Romans could rise to the heights of power. Similarly, Roman conquest did not mean the expropriation of all property or power.

Roman religious cults spread, although assimilation with native Celtic beliefs was important. When Christianity became the state religion in the fourth century CE, this brought more systematic cultural links between England and the Continent, links not shared by non-Roman Scotland. In contrast to Christianity, the pre-Roman druids, whom the Romans stamped out, and the cults of the Olympian gods which they introduced, had both lacked diocesan structure and doctrinal regulation. The Olympian cults, however, prefigured Christianity in linking England to the Continent.

Yet pre-Roman pagan practices still continued, for, outside the towns, England was not as thoroughly Romanised as other provinces. Roman Britain, nevertheless, acquired an urban system linked and structured by roads, such as Ermine, Stane and Watling Streets and the Fosse Way. Reflecting the quality of Roman engineering, these roads were built to a high standard, with stone foundations and gravel surfaces. Towns such as Londinium (London), Verulamium (St Albans), Lindum (Lincoln), and Eboracum (York) were centres of authority, consumption and Roman culture, including, eventually, Christianity. Some towns, usually with chester in their name, emerged alongside Roman fortresses, but others developed as a result of initiatives by the native elites keen to adopt Roman culture and material life.

Links with the Continent increased and fostered economic develop-ment, while urbanisation brought out the possibilities for economic specialisation offered by developing networks of exchange. Britain was very valuable as a source of mineral exports, especially silver, lead, gold and iron, and thereby made a major contribution to the economics and finances of the empire. Other exports included grain, woollen goods and  hunting dogs, while imports focused on consumer goods, notably wine, glass, pottery, marble, olive oil and the preserved fish sauce called garum that was important to the Roman diet.

Agriculture, much of which centred on Romanised farms or villas, was important, and the bulk of the population lived in the countryside.

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Farming also improved. In the late third and fourth centuries, larger ploughs were introduced and coulters were added, leading to the cutting of deeper furrows, which permitted the working of heavier soils. The introduction of two-handed scythes enabled hay to be cut faster and thus larger quantities to be stored for winter forage. Corn-drying kilns were constructed and crop rotations were introduced, while animals were overwintered in hay meadows. Animal- or water-powered mills were significant.

The greater quantity of archaeological material surviving from the Roman period suggests a society producing and trading far more goods than its Iron Age predecessors. The prosperity of the rural economy underwrote the cost of building numerous villas: large noble houses in the country constructed in a Roman style and heated from under the floor by a hypocaust system. Another testimony of the human imprint was the wiping out of the bear in England by the end of the Roman period. Humans were the dominant species. Meanwhile, the clearing of virgin woodland in lowland England continued.

THE END OF ROMAN BRITAIN

Like other parts of the Roman empire, Britain suffered not only rebel-lions, for example in 286 or 287 to 296, but also increasing attack from ‘barbarians’: Picts from Scotland, and Angles, Jutes and Saxons from northern Germany and Denmark. By 270 the Saxon Shore, a chain of ten forts, stretched from Brancaster in Norfolk to Portchester in Hampshire. Attacks became serious in the 340s, and a successful invasion in 367 led to widespread devastation. New forts were also built on the west coast, from Cardiff to Lancaster, to counter the threat of Irish Sea raid-ers. Order was restored by Theodosius in 368–9. However, ‘barbarian’ assaults played a major role in the decline of trade and urban stagnation that affected Britain in the fourth century. At Verulamium (St Albans), for example, urban decay led to the use of the theatre as a rubbish dump.

The ability of the empire to resist these attacks was eroded, and links with Rome were further weakened by Roman usurpers based in Britain, such as Magnus Maximus in 383–8. In 406, when Gaul (France) was invaded by ‘barbarians’ from across the Rhine, Constantine III seized power in Britain and then took a significant part of the island’s military forces to Gaul. They did not return. The Romano-Britons expelled his administrators in 409 and appealed to the true Emperor, Honorius, for the restoration of legitimate rule. Hard-pressed in Italy by Alaric, the

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Visigothic leader, who indeed captured Rome in 410, Honorius could do no more than tell them to look to their own defence.

This was the end of the Roman Empire in Britain, although not of Roman Britain. Nevertheless, the subsequent break-up of Roman Britain into a number of kingdoms suggests that its internal unity should not be exaggerated. Moreover, the Romans had relied fairly heavily in the fourth century on German troops brought in as mercenaries. St Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, who visited Britain in 429 to combat the Pelagian her-esy, which denied the doctrine of original sin, noted the survival of cities, but that their defence was in local hands, rather than those of Roman troops. From mid-century, the situation appears to have deteriorated as a result of ‘barbarian’ invasion. In about 446, an appeal for help was sent to Rome, but, again, it was in no position to send assistance.

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Index

Abergavenny, 63Abortion Act, 287, 297Act of Parliament of 1496, 160Act of Succession on Scotland, 166Act of the Privy Council of 1616, 160Act of Union of 1800, 185–186AD 400-1066, 11–35. See also Fifth

centuryAnglo-Saxon invasions, 11–14British Isles, society in, 20–23Christianity, 16–18foreign invasions, 31–35Ireland, 14–15, 28–29Northumbria, Merci and Wessex,

18–20Scotland, 14–15, 29–30Viking attacks, 23–25Wales, 15–16, 30–31Wessex, 25–28

Adam, Robert, 163Adela, 42Adrian IV, 53Aethelbert of Kent, 18Aethelflaed, 26Aethelred ‘the Unready,’ 21, 32Age of Entrepreneurs, 195–197Age of Reform and Empire, 189–245

Age of Entrepreneurs, 195–197Benjamin Disraeli, 222–226Britain, 201–203Charles Dickens, 216–219Chartism, 207–208economic change, 194–195economic development, 197–198

challenges in, 212–215First Reform Act, 205–207hierarchy, persistence of, 241–243imperial challenges, 212–215imperial power, 198–201

Industrial Revolution, 189–191Ireland

migration in, 221–222nineteenth-century, 219–221

liberal government, 239–241nineteenth-century

Scotland, 229–231Wales, 226–229women, 231–234

physical condition of people, 208–211

radicalism, 203–205religion, 243–244Scotland, nineteenth-century,

229–231societal change, 194–195society and leisure, change in,

244–245technology, 193–194trade, rise in unionism of, 234–235Transport Revolution, 191–192Victorian ethos, 211–212Victorian press, 215–216Victorian society, late, 235–239Wales, nineteenth-century, 226–229William Gladstone, 222–226women, in nineteenth-century,

231–234Agricola, 7Agriculture

Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 3Roman conquest, 8–9

Agriculture Act of 1947, 248AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency

Syndrome), 262, 293Alaric, 9–10Alba, 14, 20, 28Alexander II, 64Alexander III, 65

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Alexander IV, 81Alexandra Palace, 254Alfred, King, 24, 25–26Aliens Act of 1905, 288America

1689-1815, loss of, 181–182Age of Reform and Empire, 203Britain and, 203, 283–284twentieth century, 283–284

American War of Independence, 151Angevin kingship, 51–52Anglican Church, 287Anglo-Irish Dillons, 68Anglo- Irish Treaty of December 1921,

269–270, 276Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 26, 32, 42Anglo-Saxons

Christianity, 26civilisation, 14colonisation of, 53conquest, 15economic development, 37invasions, 11–14settlements, 48–49social development, 22Wessex, 13

Anglo-Scottish struggles/warsMiddle Ages, 65–67sixteenth century, 105–106

Anselm, 39, 44Antibiotics, 259–260Antonine Wall, 14Archeology, 9Archibald, 5th Earl of Rosebery, 288Argyll, 14Arkwright, Richard, 178Armagh, 16Arthur, Duke of Brittany, 57Artorius, 12Asser, Bishop, 25Athelstan, 26Athlone, 68Atlantic slave trade, 173–174Atterbury Plot, 168Attlee, Clement, 281

Augustine, 16Augustus, Philip, 56, 57Authority, 21Auvergne, 52

Baldwin, Stanley, 274Balliol, John, 65Bank of England, 183Bannow Bay, 53Barbarians, 11

Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 9–10

second wave of attacks by, 23Barbour, John, 79Bastard feudalism, 76–77Battlefield of Waterloo, 184Battle of Agincourt, 87–88Battle of Arsuf, 56Battle of Bosworth, 36Battle of Bunker Hill, 181Battle of Killiecrankie, 149Battle of Lincoln, 42Battle of preston, 167–168Battle of St Albans, 89Battle of Sulcoit, 28Battle of Tara, 28Battle of Tewkesbury, 90Battle of the Muir of Mamgarvy, 64BBC, 283BBC1, 254Beatles, 299Beaumaris, 62Becket, Thomas, 54Bede, 19, 22Beeching Report, 250–251Beowulf, 20Berlin Decrees, 184Bevan, Aneurin, 265Beveridge Report, 256Bevin, Ernest, 263, 279Bewcastle cross, 17–18Big Bang of 1986, 306Big Four, The, 266Big Four railway companies, 250Big Society, 311

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Black, Joseph, 176Black Death, 73–74, 77–78, 81Black Douglas, 90Black Prince, 75–76Blair, Tony, 265, 290, 310Bloodaxe, Eric, 27Bórama, Brian, 28–29Boudicca, 6–7Bower, Walter, 79Boyne Valley, 4Bramham Moor, 87Breckland, 1Brecon, 63Brendan, 15Bridei, 18–19Bridgewater Canal, 176Brigantes, 7Britain. See also Britain, pre-Roman

and RomanAge of Reform and Empire, 201–202and America, 203, 283–284Christianity, 13culture of, 12–13and Europe, 201–202, 284–286and European Union, 290language in, 12–13power in, 281–283twentieth century, 283–284,

284–286, 290Viking attacks in, 23–24weakening of, 278–281

Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 1–10. See also Britain

agriculature, 3barbarians, 9–10Christianity, 8climate, 2–3Copper Age, 4end of, 9–10environment, 1–3iron, 5Kent’s Cavern, 1pagan practices, 8population, 5Roman conquest, 5–9

Romanisation, 8settlements, 3–4trade, 4Wales, 2

British Broadcasting Corporation, 254British Communist Party, 266British Gazette, 274British Isles, 302–313

1689-1815, 151–153, 159–165AD 400-1066, society in, 20–23English domination of, 151–153Middle Ages, division of, 68–69as part of Europe, 159–165politics, 309–312society, 20twenty-first century, 302–313

British Social Attitudes, 251Bronze Age, 4Brown, Gordon, 311Brown, Lancelot ‘Capability,’ 163Brownrigg, William, 176Bruce, Edward, 66Bruce, Robert, 66Brus, 79Buchan, John, 266Bulldog Drummond, 266Burgred, King, 24–25Butskellism, 256, 263–264Byron, George, 161

Cade’s Rebellion, 89Cadwallon of Gwynedd, 16Caernarfon, 61–62Caesar, Julius, 6Callaghan, James, 265Cameron, David, 265, 268, 299, 311Canal Zone, 279Canterbury Tales, 83Caracalla, Emperor, 8Caractacus, 6Carlton Club, 273Carolingian ideology, 27Carrickfergus, 53Carteret, Lord, 169Casement, Sir Roger, 269

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Casino Royale, 267Castle Howard, 163Catholic Emancipation Act, 287Catholicism, 85, 152Catholic Relief Act, 185Cavendish, Henry, 176Cavendish, Sir John, 75Celtics, 15Celtic Tiger, 293Cenwulf of Mercia, 19Ceowulf, 24–25Chamberlain, Neville, 275–277Charles I, 32Charles I and ‘personal rule,’ 129–130Charles VI, 88Chartism, 207–208Chattel slavery, 49Chaucer, Geoffrey, 83Chester, 7Cheviot Hills, 29Christendom, 84Christian Enlightenment, 157Christianity

AD 400-1066, 16–18Anglo-Saxon, 17–18, 26Britain, 13Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 8Celtics, 15Danish, 26education, 17England, 12English, 86fundamentalist, 287

Christie, Agatha, 266Chronicle of the Scottish People, 79Church by Englishmen, 63Churchill, John, 150Churchill, Sarah, 169Churchill, Winston, 254, 272Church of England, 157, 274, 297,

309Church of Ireland, 151Cibber, Colley, 157Cistercian Order, 84Citrine, Walter, 263

Civil conflicts, 125–147. See also Civil war

Charles I and ‘personal rule,’ 129–130

civil war, 134–136civil war, causes and course of,

130–133Commonwealth government,

138–139England, republican, 136Exclusion Crisis, 144–145‘Glorious Revolution,’ 146–147Ireland

civil war in, 134–135Cromwellian conquest of,

136–137James I, 126–129James II, 145–146James VI, 126–129James VII, 145–146Oliver Cromwell, 139–141Popish Plot, 143–144Restoration Settlement (restored

monarchy), 141–143Scotland, 134, 137–138Second Civil War, 135–136Wales, war in, 134

Civil war. See also Civil conflicts1603-1688, causes and course of,

130–133Ireland, 134–135Scotland, 134Second, 135–136Wales, 134

Claudius, Emperor, 6Clause 12, 59Clause 14, 59Clause 40, 58Clause Four, 310Claverhouse’s Highlanders, 149Clean Air Act, 260Clegg, Nick, 311Climate, 2–3Clonmacnois, 16Cnut, 21, 32–33, 37, 41, 51

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Cold War, 280Coleraine, 53Colman, George, 157Columbanus, 15Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800,

184Commonwealth government, 138–139Communication, 22–23Communist Party, 268Computer fraud, 253Conservatism, 310–311Conservative Party, 263–264, 273,

295, 309Constantine III, 9Consumerism, 252–253, 306–307Continental System, 184Conwy, 62Copper Age, 4Cornish, William, 83Count of Toulouse, 52Countryside Alliance, 247–248Countryside and Rights of Way Act of

2000, 308Countryside Commission, 302Crompton, Samuel, 178Cromwell, Oliver, 139–141Culture

Britain, 12–13English, 83–84France, 45Middle Ages, 83–84politics, 265–269Wales, 15–16

Cumbria/Strathclyde, 14Cymry, 60

Dafydd, 61Dallas, 283Dal Riata, 14, 20Danelaw, 24–25Danish Christianity, 26Dark Ages, 13David, 15David I, 42–43, 47, 52David II, 66

Dda, Hywel, 30Declaration of Arbroath, 66De Grey, John, 54De la Pole, Michael, 76Democratisation, 294–295De Montgomery, Roger, 45Description of Wales, 60De Valera, 270De Vere, Robert, 76Dickens, Charles, 216–219Differential power, 21Disraeli, Benjamin, 222–226Divorce Act, 298Divorce Reform Act, 298Domesday Book, 12, 36–37, 49Domestic trade, 22Douglas-Home, Sir Alec, 265Dream of the Rood, The, 18Drum Castle, 80Drummond, Lord Provost, 172Dublin Norse, 31Dumbarton Rock, 24Dunadd, 14Duncan, 35Dundalk, 53Dundas, Henry, 171Dunstable, John, 83Durham, 39

Eadred, 27Easter Rising, 269East India Company, 173Ecclesiastical History of the English

People, 11, 19Economy/economic development

1689-1815, 175–177Age of Reform and Empire,

194–195, 212–215Anglo-Saxon, 37Middle Ages, 48–51Roman conquest, 8sixteenth century, 94–99twentieth century, problems with,

262–265twenty-first century, 307

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Eden, Anthony, 279Edgar, 27Edinburgh–Glasgow road, 179Edmund, 26Education, 17, 257–258Education Act of 1918, 256Education Act of 1944, 256Edward, Charles, 170Edward, the ‘Black Prince,’ 71Edward I, 60–62, 66Edward II, 66, 69–70Edward III, 56, 66–67, 75–76

Middle Ages, 70–71Edward the Confessor, 30–31, 33,

37–38, 45Edward the Elder, 26Edward V, 70Edward VI, 109–111Edwin, 16Egfrith, 18Eleanor of Aquitaine, 52Eliot, T. S., 250Elizabeth I

problems in final years of, 117–118sixteenth century, 113–118

Elizabeth II, 255Elliott, Sir Gilbert, 172Emma, 21England

1603-1688, 136Christianity, 12, 17economy and society in fifteenth-

century, 81–83European standards in, 28fourteenth-century crises in, 73–75government in, 28Norman, 40–45Norman, politics of, 40–45Norman conquest of, 45political development in, 18, 36religion in medieval, 84–86republican, 136Romanesque style of architecuter in,

44–45English Beggars, 151

English Christianity, 86English Church, 17, 19, 84–85English Crown, 60, 78English culture, 83–84Environment

Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 1–3human ecosystem and, 21twenty-first century, 303

Equal Pay Act, 295–296Erskine, John, 167Ethelfrith of Northumbria, 16, 18–19Eton College Chapel, 84Europe

Age of Reform and Empire, 201–202Britian and, 201–202, 284–286twentieth century, 284–286

European Economic Community (EEC), 281, 284, 284–285

European standards in England, 28European Union (EU), 281, 290Excise Crisis, 168Exclusion Crisis, 144–145Executive Council, 270Expansion of the empire, 186–188

Falklands Crisis, 290Female emancipation, 295–298Ferdinand, Franz, 271Fergus, Angus mac, 19–20Feudalism, 39–40

Bastard, 76–77Fifth century, 11–35

Anglo-Saxon invasions, 11–14British Isles, society in, 20–23Christianity, 16–18foreign invasions, 31–35Ireland, 14–15, 28–29Northumbria, Merci and Wessex,

18–20Scotland, 14–15, 29–30Viking attacks, 23–25Wales, 15–16, 30–31Wessex, 25–28

Financial status, 306First Crusade, 40–41

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First Reform Act, 205–207First World War, 246

twentieth century, 271–273Firth of Forth, 14Fisher, Jabez, 178Fleming, Ian, 267Fleming, Sir Alexander, 259Florida, 46Fog’s Weekly Journal, 165Fordun, John, 79Foreign invasions, 31–35Foreign trade, 22Forth-Clyde line, 7France

1689-1815, 169–170, 183–184culture in, 45war with, 169–170, 183–184

Freeman, John, 265French Revolution, 179, 185Frye, Walter, 83Fundamentalist Christianity, 287

Gaelic O’Kellys of Ui Maine, 68Gallup poll, 279Game Laws, 156Gaulle, Charles de, 284Gaveston, Piers, 69–70Gawain and the Green Knight, 83Geddes Axe, 274General Workers Union, 263Geoffrey, 57George, Duke of Clarence, 91George, Lloyd, 248, 254, 273George I, 156George II, 156George III, 89, 166, 180Gerald of Wales, 59–60Germanisation, 11Gladstone, William, 222–226Glamorgan, 63Glasgow, 6Glorious Revolution, 148–188, 314–315

1603-1688, 146–1471715, 167–1681745, 170–171

America, loss of, 181–182British Isles

English domination of, 151–153as part of Europe, 159–165

economic development, 175–177eighteenth century

society in, 153–158women in, 158–159

expansion, 186–188France, war with, 169–170, 183–184George III, 180growth, 173–174industrialisation, 178–179Ireland

eighteenth century, 150–151union with, 185–186war for, 149–150

Jacobitism, 166–167political ideologies, 165–166Scotland, after 1745, 171–173Seven Years War, 174–175society in eighteenth century,

153–158transportation, change in, 179–180Walpolean government, 168–169William Pitt the Younger, ministries

of, 182–183women in eighteenth century,

158–159Gloucestershire, 16Glyndw r, Owain, 86Godwine, Earl, 33Godwineson, Harold, 31Goldsmith, Oliver, 157Gold Standard, 274–275Good Friday, 271Good Parliament, 71–73Gough Map, 49–50Government

Commonwealth, 138–139England, 28liberal, 239–241twenty-first century, 308Walpolean, 168–169

Government of India Act, 276–277

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Graham, John, 149Grand Junction Canal, 176Graupius, Mons, 7Great Army, 24Great Councils, 59Great Famine, 73–74Great Yarmouth, 82Green Belt legislation, 250Greenwood Housing Act of 1930, 257Growth of the empire, 173–174Gruffudd, Llywelyn ap, 60Gustavus III, 163Guthfrithson, Olaf II, 26–27

Hadrian, Emperor, 7–8Hadrian’s Wall, 7–8, 14Hal, Prince, 78Hamburg, 6Hanoverian regime, 171Hanoverians, 51Harald, Earl of Orkney, 64Hardrada, Harald, 33–34Hardy, Thomas, 247Harefoot, Harold, 33–34Harlech, 62Harlot’s Progress, A, 157Harthacnut, 33Heath, Edward, 264, 284Henry, Duke of Buckingham, 91Henry I, 38, 41–43, 47, 55Henry II, 50, 52–53

and his sons, 54–57Henry III, 58–59Henry IV, 86–87Henry of Blois, 43Henryson, Robert, 83Henry V, 87–88Henry VI, 70, 88–89Henry VII, 92–93Henry VIII, 54

reformation and, 99–105sixteenth century, 99–105

Hierarchy, 241–243Highland Scotland, 7Hincmar of Reims, 27

Hogarth, William, 155–156Home Rule Act, 269Honorius, 9–10Hoo, Sutton, 13House of Commons, 162, 169Houses of Lords and Commons, 72,

286–287Housing Act of 1980, 257Human ecosystem, 21Human Rights Act of 1998, 312Hundred Years War, 77, 82, 87Hunting with Dogs Act, 308Hutton, James, 172Hwicce, 18

Ice Age, 3Immigration, 288–290Imperial challenges, 212–215Imperial power, 198–201Industrialisation

1689-1815, 178–179twenty-first century, 304–305

Industrial Revolution, 189–191Ine, 20, 22Intelligencer, The, 151International Monetary Fund, 265Invisible Weapons, 253Iona, 16Ireland

1603-1688, 134–1371689-1815, 149–151, 185–186AD 400-1066, 14–15, 28–29Age of Reform and Empire, 219–222Catholics in, 150–151Christianity, 14–15Cromwellian conquest of, 136–137eighteenth century, 150–151independence in, 269–271late Medieval, 68Middle Ages, invasion of, 53–54migration in, 221–222modern, 291–292nineteenth-century, 219–221politics in, 29sixteenth century, 107, 118–121

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Ireland (Continued)subjugation of, 118–121twentieth century, 269–271,

291–292union with, 185–186Viking attacks in, 28–29war for, 149–150

Irish Church, 16Irish Free State, 269Irish Parliament, 186Irish Party, 269Irish Republic, 269Iron, 5Iron Age, 5Ironside, Edmund, 32Irvine, Alexander, 80Isabella, 70Isle of Wight, 11

Jacobitism/Jacobites, 166–167, 170–171James I, 126–129James II, 145–146, 161James III, 80, 167James IV, 81, 92–93James V, 81James VI, 126–129James VII, 145–146Jenkins, Robert, 169Jewish Chronicle, 288John, King, 32John the Marshal, 42Jonas of Orléans, 27Jones, Jack, 263Journey Through Wales, The, 59–60Judaeo- Christianity, 43–44Jutes, 11

Kay, John, 178Kent, William, 163Kentish dynasties, 13Kent’s Cavern, 1Kildare, 53King’s College Cambridge, 83Kirk, Robert, 155Korean War, 282

Labour Party, 264, 267, 297, 299, 310–312

Labour-saving devices, 253Lake District, 49Lanfranc, 39, 44Langland, William, 83Language, 12–13Lateran Council, 79Law, Andrew Bonar, 273Lawrence, D. H., 259Leeds and Liverpool Canal, 179Legal Aid Act, 298Leisure, 244–245Liberal government, 239–241Life of King Alfred, The, 25Lillo, George, 157Lindisfarne Gospels, 17–18Lionel of Clarence, 90Llandaff, 46Lloyd ’s Evening Post and British

Chronicle, 155, 159Llywelyn, Gruffudd ap, 31Local Government Act of 1972,

300Local Government Acts of 1929,

256London Bridge, 34London Consistory Court, 159London County Council, 296London Green Belt, 250Louis VI, 41Louis VII, 52Louis XIV, 148, 169–170, 188Ludenwic, 13

MacAlpin, Kenneth, 29Macbeth, 35Macdowall, Sir Edward, 80Mackay, Hugh, 150Macmillan, Harold, 251, 280MacMurrough, Dermot, 53Maelienydd, 63Magna Carta, 40, 57–59Magonsaetan, 18

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Major, John, 265, 267Malcolm, 35Malcolm III, 35, 41, 47Malcolm IV, 52Malory, Thomas, 83Margam, 46Margaret, 65Margaret of Anjou, 89Married Love, 298Marx, Karl, 39–40Mary, 111–112Matilda, 42Matrimonial Causes Act, 298Maupeou ‘revolution,’ 163Mawr, Rhodri, 30Maximus, Magnus, 9Medicine, 260–261Merci, 18–20Merciless Parliament, 76Mesolithic period, 1, 3Methodism, 157Mid-century crisis, 108–109Middle Ages, 36–93

Angevin kingship, 51–52Anglo-Scottish struggle, 65–67British Isles, division of, 68–69economy, 48–51Edward II, 69–70Edward III, 70–71England

economy and society in fifteenth-century, 81–83

fourteenth-century crises in, 73–75

Norman, politics of, 40–45religion in medieval, 84–86

English culture, medieval, 83–84Henry II and his sons, 54–57Henry IV, 86–87Henry V, 87–88Henry VI, 88–89Henry VII, 92–93Ireland

invasion of, 53–54late Medieval, 68

Magna Carta, 57–59new monarchies, 93Normanisation, 37–40Normans, 45–46parliaments, development of, 71–73Richard II, 75–77Scotland, 46–48

later medieval, 79–81thriteenth-century, 63–64

Wales, 45–46in later, 77–79post-conquest, 61–63

Wars of the Roses, 89–92Welsh independence, end of, 59–61

Military, 27Ministry of Education, 256Ministry of Food, 272Montfort, Simon de, 59, 62Moray, Andrew de, 65Moray Firth, 29Mórda, Máel, 28More, Sir Thomas, 54Morecambe and Wise Christmas

programmes, 254Morte d ’Arthur, 83Mortimer, 70Mortimer, Edmund, 77, 86Mortimer, Roger, 70Mosley, Sir Oswald, 266Muircertach, 29Murdac, 2nd Duke of Albany, 79–80

Napoleonic War, 186Nassau Agreement, 282Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 279National Association of Schoolmasters,

296National Centre for Social Research,

251National Health Service (NHS), 256,

258–259, 268, 299National Insurance Act, 256National Party of Scotland, 276National Unemployed Workers’

Movement, 275

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National Union of Foundry Workers, 296–297

National Union of Miners, 263–264NATO (North Atlantic Treaty

Organisation), 281–282Neath, 46Neolithic period, 3–4Neville, Richard, 90Neville’s Cross, 67New Commonwealth, 288New Elizabethan Age of optimism,

255New Forest, 41New monarchies, 93Newton, Isaac, 157New Towns Act, 2501945, 281–283. See also PowerNineteenth-century

Ireland, 219–221Scotland, 229–231Wales, 226–229women, 231–234

1930, 276–2771920, 276–277Nine Years War, 169Norman England

castles in, 39–40politics of, 40–45power in, 39

NormanisationMiddle Ages, 37–40religion and, 39

Normans, 45–46Norse, 24North Briton, 180Northumbria, 18–20Northumbrian Church, 17Northumbrian hegemony, 19Norwich, 38Notting Hill Carnival, 289

Oakboys, 151O’Brien, Turloch, 29O’Connor, Rory, 53O’Connor, Turloch, 29

Offa, King, 15, 19Oldcastle, Sir John, 87‘Old Corps’ Whigs, 163Olympian cults, 8O’Neill, Eoin, 269Operation Sealion, 277–278Order of the Garter, 70, 297Orgynale Cronikil, 79Orwell, George, 259Osbern, William fitz, 45Oswald, 16, 18Oswy, King, 16–17, 18Oxford Canal, 176

Pagan practices, 8Pamela, 157Parliament, 59, 71–72, 87, 88

Good, 71–73Merciless, 76Middle Ages, development of,

71–73Welsh, 77Wonderful, 76

Parliament Act, 286, 308Patrick, 15Paulinus, Gaius Suetonius, 6Peace of Alney, 32Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, 74–75Peerage Act, 286Pelham, Thomas, 162Pembroke, 63Penda of Mercia, 16Peninsular War, 184People Act, 274Percy, Henry, 77‘Personal rule,’ 129–130Philip IV, 65Philip VI, 67Physical condition of people,

208–211Picts, 14, 18–20Piers Plowman, 83Pilgrimage of Grace, 75Pitt, William, 174, 180Plantagenet, Geoffrey, 42–43

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Politics1689-1815, 165–166British Isles, twenty-first century,

309–312culture of, 265–269England, 18Ireland, 29twentieth century, 265–269,

273–275Wales, 31

Pollitt, Harry, 267Pope Celestine II, 64Pope Gregory the Great, 16Pope Innocent III, 57Popish Plot, 143–144Population

Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 5

twenty-first century, 303–304Power

authority and, 21in Britian, 281–283Catholic, 39differential, 21Norman England, 39purchasing, 304

Praemunire, 85Priestley, Joseph, 176Prince of Wales, 279Private Eye, 262Protestant Episcopal Church,

186Protestant Succession, 171Provisional IRA, 291Provisions of Oxford, 59Purchasing power, 304

Queen Anne, 76Queen Victoria, 315Quitclaim of York, 52

Race Relations Act, 290Radicalism, 203–205Radio, 254–255Radnor, 63

Raedwald, King, 13–14Rathlin Island, 24Redmond, John, 269Reformation, 86Regionalism, 305–307Religion

Age of Reform and Empire, 243–244

Normanisation, 39Scotland, 29–30twenty-first century, 304–305

Religious cults, 8Renfrew, 46Rent and Mortgage Interest

Restrictions (War) Act, 256–257

Repton, Humphry, 163Republican England, 136Republic of Ireland Act, 270,

291Repulse, 279Restoration Settlement,

141–143Restored monarchy, 141–143Restriction of Ribbon Development

Act of 1935, 249Revolutionary War, 186Revolution Settlement, 180Rhode, John, 253Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 91Richard I, 56Richard II, 68, 70, 75

Middle Ages, 75–77Richard III, 36Richard of Clare, 53Richardson, Samuel, 157Rievaulx, 84Rightboys, 151River Lea Act, 50, 73River Tees, 38River Tweed, 29Robert, 40–41Robert I, 66Robert III, 79Robert of Gloucester, 42

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Roman conquest, 5–9agriculture, 8–9archeology, 9Boudicca, 6–7Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 5–9Caratacus, 6economic development, 8Emperor Claudius, 6Hadrian’s Wall, 7–8Highland Scotland, 7Julius Caesar, 6religious cults, 8urbanisation, 8

RomanisationBritain, pre-Roman and Roman, 8Dark Ages, 13Wales, 15

Roman Londinium, 13Roxburgh Castle, 80Royal Family, 255‘Rule Britannia,’ 174Ruthin, 63Ruthwell cross, 17–18

St. Asaph, 46St. David, 46St. Germanus, 10Saladin, 56Samuel, Herbert, 288Scandinavia, 24Scanlon, Hugh, 263Scotichronicon, 79Scotland

AD 400-1066, 14–15, 29–30after 1745, 171–173Age of Reform and Empire,

229–231conquest of, 137–138later medieval, 79–81mid-century crisis in, 112–113Middle Ages, 46–48modern, 292–294nineteenth-century, 229–231religion in, 29–30sixteenth century, 112–113thriteenth-century, 63–64

twentieth century, 292–294urbanisation in, 172Viking attacks, 25–26, 29, 35war in, 134

Scottish Church, 47, 64, 149Scottish Crown, 64Scottish Enlightenment, 172–173Scottish Episcopal Church, 287Scottish Home Rule Association, 276Scottish National Party, 276Scottish National Party (SNP), 293,

311–312Scottish Self-Government Party, 276Seaton Delaval, 163Sechnaill I, Máel, 28Sechnaill II, Máel, 28–29Second Civil War, 135–136Second World War, 247, 249

twentieth century, 277–278Seisyll, Llywelyn ap, 31Settlements

Anglo-Saxon, 48–49Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 3–4in Scandinavia, 24

1715, 167–168. See also Three risings1745, 170–171. See also Jacobitism/

JacobitesSeven Years War, 174–175, 181Severn Bridge, 294Sex Discrimination Act, 298Sex Pistols, 299Sexual Offences Act, 287Short View of the State of Ireland, A, 151Simnel, Lambert, 921689-1815, 148–188. See also Glorious

Revolution1715, 167–1681745, 170–171America, loss of, 181–182British Isles

English domination of, 151–153as part of Europe, 159–165

economic development, 175–177eighteenth century

society in, 153–158women in, 158–159

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expansion, 186–188France, war with, 169–170, 183–184George III, 180growth, 173–174industrialisation, 178–179Ireland

eighteenth century, 150–151union with, 185–186war for, 149–150

Jacobitism, 166–167political ideologies, 165–166Scotland, after 1745, 171–173Seven Years War, 174–175society in eighteenth century,

153–158transportation, change in, 179–180Walpolean government, 168–169William Pitt the Younger, ministries

of, 182–183women in eighteenth century,

158–1591603-1688, 125–147. See also Civil

conflicts; Civil warCharles I and ‘personal rule,’

129–130civil war, 134–136civil war, causes and course of,

130–133Commonwealth government,

138–139England, republican, 136Exclusion Crisis, 144–145‘Glorious Revolution,’ 146–147Ireland, 134–137James I, 126–129James II, 145–146James VI, 126–129James VII, 145–146Oliver Cromwell, 139–141Popish Plot, 143–144Restoration Settlement (restored

monarchy), 141–143Scotland, 134, 137–138Second Civil War, 135–136Wales, war in, 134

Sixteenth century, 94–124Anglo-Scottish wars, 105–106Edward VI, England and, 109–111Elizabeth I, 113–116

problems in final years of, 117–118

Henry VIII, reformation and, 99–105

Ireland, 107subjugation of, 118–121

Mary, 111–112mid-century crisis, 108–109Scotland, mid-century crisis in,

112–113social and economic development,

94–99Spanish Armada, 116–117Trans-Oceanic expansion,

121–122Wales, 107–108women, early-modern, 122–124

Skara Brae, 3Snowdonia, 61Society for Constructive Birth Control,

261–262Society for the Promotion of Christian

Knowledge, 160Society/social development

Age of Reform and Empire, 194–195, 244–245

Anglo-Saxons, 22British Isles, 20in eighteenth century, 153–158hierarchical, 21sixteenth century, 94–99twentieth century, 286–288,

298–301twenty-first century, 307–308Victorian, 235–239

Solway Firth, 29Somerled, 46Southern Railway, 250Spanish Armada, 116–117Special Areas Act, 249Spence, Thomas, 161

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Stamford Bridge, 34Statute of Labourers, 75Statute of Wales, 62Statutes of Provisors, 85Steelboys, 151Stephen, 42Stephen of Blois, 42Stewart, Robert, 79Stoke Newington, 2Stonehedge, 4Stopes, Marie, 261Strata, 46Stuart, Charles Edward, 156Suez Canal, 279–280Suez Crisis, 280Swein, King, 32Swift, Jonathan, 151

Taxation, 27Technology

Age of Reform and Empire, 193–194antibiotics, 259–260computer fraud, 253consumerism and, 252–253education, 257–258labour-saving devices, 253medicine, 260–261radio and television, 254–255twentieth century, 246–262

Television, 254–255Temple, William, 287Terrain, 2Testament of Cresseid, 83Thames, 4Thatcher, Margaret, 252, 297Thatcherism, 264, 310Theodore of Tarsus, 17Theory of the Earth, 172Third Crusade, 56, 59–60Thirteen Colonies, 174, 181Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, 70Three Hostages, The, 266Three risings, 167–168Thriteenth-century Scotland, 63–64Times, The, 285

Tintern, 46Toleration Act of 1689, 156Torfinn, Earl, 35Tostig, 34Tower of London, 38Town and Country Planning Act, 250Trade

Age of Reform and Empire, 234–235Atlantic slave, 173–174Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 4domestic, 22foreign, 22rise in unionism of, 234–235

Trade Union Congress, 264Trafalgar, 183, 187Trans-Oceanic expansion, 121–122Transportation

1689-1815, change in, 179–180communication and, 22–23

Transport Revolution, 191–192Treaty of Lambeth, 58Treaty of Limerick, 150Treaty of Northampton-Edinburgh, 66Treaty of Perth, 64Treaty of Troyes, 88Treaty of Wedmore, 25Treaty of Westminster, 43Triennial Act of 1694, 165Trim, 53Truce of Bruges, 71TUC-organised General Strike, 266Tudor, Henry, 90–92Twentieth century, 246–301

1920’s and 1930’s, 276–277Britian

and America, 283–284and Europe, 284–286and European Union, 290weakening of, 278–281

democratisation, 294–295economic development, problems

with, 262–265female emancipation, 295–298First World War, 271–273immigration, 288–290

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Irelandindependence in, 269–271modern, 291–292

politics, 273–275culture, 265–269

Scotland, modern, 292–294Second World War, 277–278since 1945, 281–283social change/shifts, 286–288,

298–301technology, 246–262Wales, modern, 294

Twenty-first centuryBritish Isles, 302–313conservatism, 310–311consumerism, 306–307economic development, 307environment, 303financial status, 306government, 308industrialization, 304–305population, 303–304purchasing power, 304regionalism, 305–307religion, 304–305societal hierarchies, 307–308

Tyler, Wat, 75Tyne-Solway line, 8

Ulster Defence Force, 291Ulster Freedom Fighters, 291Unemployment Assistance Board,

256United Church of England and Ireland,

186United Irishmen, 185–186Upper Palaeolitich period, 2Urbanisation, 8

Vale of Eden, 1Vale of York, 1Veneti of Brittany, 6Victorian ethos, 211–212Victorian press, 215–216Victorian society, 235–239

Viking attacksAD 400-1066, 23–25Britain, 23–24Ireland, 28–29Scotland, 25–26, 29, 35Wales, 30

WalesAD 400-1066, 15–16, 30–31Age of Reform and Empire, 226–229Britain, pre-Roman and Roman, 2climate, 2conquest in, 45culture, 15–16Middle Ages, 45–46, 77–79military in, 27modern, 294nineteenth-century, 226–229politics in, 31post-conquest, 61–63Romanisation of, 15sixteenth century, 107–108taxation in, 27terrain, 2twentieth century, 294Viking attacks in, 30war in, 134

Wallace, William, 65Walpole, Sir Robert, 163Walpolean government, 168–169Walpolean system, 169Waltheof, 38War. See also Civil war

Anglo-Scottish, 105–106Middle Ages, 65–67sixteenth century, 105–106

Ireland, 149–150of the Roses, 89–92Scotland, 134Second Civil, 135–136Second World, 277–278Seven Years, 174–175Wales, 134

Warbeck, Perkin, 92War of American Independence, 182

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War of the Austrian Succession, 170War of the League of Augsburg, 169War of the Spanish Succession, 169Wars of the Roses, 43, 89–92Waste Land, The, 250Watt, James, 178Weald, 1Wealth of Nations, The, 172Welsh independence, 59–61Welsh inheritance customs, 30Welsh Parliament, 77Wessex

AD 400-1066, 18–20, 25–28Anglo-Saxons in, 13

Westminster Abbey, 45Westminster Parliament, 151–152,

165, 171White Ship, 42White Tower, 38–39Whitland, 46Wild Geese, 150Wildlife and Countryside Act, 302William, Duke, 34William, Norman, 32

William I, 35, 40, 42, 50William III, 51, 149William II ‘Rufus,’ 40–42, 68William of Norwich, 84William Pitt the Younger, ministries

of, 182–183Williams, Ralph Vaughan, 247William the Conqueror, 36–38, 43, 52William the Lion, 64Wilson, Harold, 263, 265Witan, 32Wives’ Excuse, The, 159Wolfe, James, 174Women

Age of Reform and Empire, 231–234

in eighteenth century, 158–159emancipation, 295–298nineteenth-century, 231–234sixteenth century, early-modern,

122–124Wonderful Parliament, 76Wycliff, John, 85Wyntoun, Andrew, 79

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