ED 358 295

TITLEINSTITUTION

REPORT NOPUB DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPEJOURNAL CIT

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

CE 063 822

Technical and Vocational Training.European Centre for the Development of VocationalTraining, Berlin (Germany).ISSN-0378-506893

81p.

UNIPUB, 4661-F Assembly Drive, Lanham, MD 20706-4391(Catalogue No. HX-AA-92-002-EN-C: $7.25; annualsubscription: $12.10).Collected Works Serials (022)Vocational Training; n2 1992

MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.Comparative Education; Developed Nations;*Educational Change; *Educational Development;Educational History; Education Work Relationship;Foreign Countries; Job Skills; Job Training;Secondary Education; Skilled Workers; TeacherEducation; Technical Education; *VocationalEducationDenmark; *European Community; France; Germany; GreatBritain; Japan; Netherlands; Portugal; Spain

This issue focuses on the various forms thatsecondary technical and vocational education takes in differentEuropean Community Member States. "The Future for Skilled Workers" isan interview with Burkart Lutz, a German researcher. Other articlesare as follows: "Contradictions in Technical and VocationalEducation: The Outlook" (Paolo Garonna); "Current Challenges to BasicVocational Education" (Carl Jorgensen); "Education, Training, andEmployment in Germany, Japan, and the USA--A Comparative Outline ofProblems" (Joachim Munch); "Initial Vocational Training in France:Competition, Hierarchy, and History" (Jean-Louis Kirsch); "SecondaryTraining in Portugal" (Luis Imaginario); "Initial VocationalEducation in the Netherlands: Current Developments" (J. Frietman);"Initial Technical and Vocational Education and Skill Formation inBritain" (David Ashton); "Brief Analysis of the Types of VocationalTraining Available in Portugal" (E. Marcal Grilo); "The Reform ofVocational Training in Denmark" (Soren Pedersen); "A School in Touchwith Its Environment" (Lluis Sacrest i Villegas); "ManagementTraining for Head Teachers Based on Business Models" (Renato DiNubila); and "Recognition and Validation of Vocational Skills inFrance" (Bernard Lietard). These articles are followed bydescriptions of reports, papers, projects, research, and legislationand useful addresses. (YLB)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original document. *

***********************************************************************

ISSN 0378-5068

No 2/1992

Technical andvocational training

U.S. DEPARTMENT or Ewe...Aramor Educational ROW/won and Improvement

E ucATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER /ERIC!

This 00Cuninl nits been reproduced asrCm110 from try DrillOn or °roam/AmonOngona /MO rt

C Monor changes nave teen mad* to more.*r00,0OUChOn Guilty

Poenf of vmirr oe opinion' Stale0 In 1nm OCCuanent 00 not neesserrn, represent whoa.OEM poitOon or o06Cy

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

* * *YT

*

BEST COPY MAILABLE

CEDEFOPEuropean Centre for the Developmentof Vocational TrainingJean Monnet HouseBundesallee 22. D-1000 Berlin 15Tel.: (030) 88 41 20Telex: 184 163 eucen dFax: (030) 88 41 22 22

Vocational TrainingRegular publicationof the European Centrefor the Developmentof Vocational Training

This publication appearstwice a year inSpanish. Danish. German.Greek, English. French. Italian.Dutch and Portuguese

Published under the responsibility nfErnst Piehl. DirectorCorrado Pad. Deputy DirectorEnrique Retuerto de la Torre.Deputy Director

Editorial staff:

Content and structure:Fernanda ReisGeorges Dupont

Technical production, coordination:Bernd MohlmannBarbara de Souza

Translation service:Alison Clark

Layout:WerbeagenturZiihlke Scholz & Partner GmbH.Berlin

Technical Production with DTP:Axel Hunstock. Berlin

The contributions were received onor before 22.07.1992

The Centre was established by RegulationNo 337/75 of the Council of the EuropeanCommunities

The views expressed by contributorsdo not necessarily reflect those of theEuropean Centre for the Developmentof Vocational Training

Reproduction is authorized.except for commercial purposes.provided that the source is indicated

Catalogue number:HX-AA-92-002-EN-C

Printed inthe Federal Republic of Germans. 1993

No. 2/1992: Technical and Vocational Training

Contents Page

Dear Readers

The future for skilled workersBurkart Lutz

Contradictions in technical and vocational education: the outlook

Paolo Garonna

Current challenges to basic vocational trainingCarl Jorgensen I I

Education. Training and Employment in Germans. Japan and the USA

- a comparative outline of problemsJoachim Munch 15

Initial vocational training in France: competition. hierarchy and historyJean-Louis Kirsch 20

Secondary training in PortugalLuis Imaginario 27

Initial vocational education in the Netherlands: current developmentsJ. Enetman 30

initial technical and vocational education and skill formation in BritainDavid N. Ashton 1c

Brief analssis of the types of vocational training available in PortugalE. Marcel Grilo 39

The reform of vocational training in DenmarkSoren Pedersen 43

A School in Touch with its EnvironmentLluis Sacrest i Villegas 45

Management training for head teachers based on business models

Renato Di Nubila 49

Recognition and validation of vocational skills in FranceBernard Lierard 54

Information sources

CEDEFOP: 58

B: FOREM/VDAB/CIDOC/ICODOC 59

DK: SEL (Statens Erhvervsmedagogiske Liereruddannelso 60

D: BIBB (Bundesinstitut fiir Berufsbildung 62

GR: Pedagogical Institute 62

E: INEM (Institute Nacional dc Emplem 64

F: Centre INFFO 65

IRL: FAS (An Fortis Aiseanna Saothair - The Training and Employment Authority t 67

1: 1SFOL (Istituto per lo Sviluppo della Fonnazione Protessionale dci Lavoratori 69

NL: CIBB (Centrum innovatic berocpsonderwijs bedrijfsleven n 70

P: SICT (Servico do Inf3rinac5o Cientifica e Tecnicai 72

UK: BACIE (British Association for Commercial and Industrial Education) 74

The broad spectrum covered by this titlemakes it necessary to specify the fieldcovered by the various authors' contribu-tions to this issue of CEDEFO.?'s Voca-tional Training Bulletin. Starting from theidea that the issues in technical and oca-tional education differ greatly dependingon vhether they relate to secondary orhigher education, our focus will be thevarious forms which this t\ pe of second-ary education takes in the different EECMember States.

Draw ing up a relatively complete descrip-tive table of the architecture of the initialvocational education "systems- contain-ing these various streams is not enough toshow the interconnections between thevarious components of this architecture.their respective status, their use. the opera-tion the system and its relationshipswith the labour market. These componentsarc essential if we are to find out moreabout national systems, the economic, so-cial and cultural factors \' IliCh have shapedthem and their impact on the constructionof qualifications at the various levels.

The main types of technical and voca-tional education are similar in all the EECMember States: technical education whichtends to mirror the way in w hich the edu-cational system operates and is thereforeof a "school" ty pe. vocational trainingschools which offer practical training inworkshops and/or enterprise and learningby alternance. Their role and status differwithin each country and from country tocountry.

Looking at the use of these different ty pesof training. it is e ident that training routesof the "school" type are the most \\ ide-spread in some Member States. while oth-ers place more emphasis on routes in \ ()k-ing alternance training. These differences,shaped by the cultural. economic and so-cial history of Member States, determinethe characteristics of no\ jobseekers whichhave to he related to labour markets -themsel \ es anchored in a social context.

Vocation:II naming 2/1992

The question of the interface between tech-nical and vocational education (or eveninitial education as a whole) and the labourmarket is becoming crucial at a time whenthe construction of Europe is making itnecessary to reorganize labour marketsand their European dimension. As theCommission's Memorandum on trainingfor the 1990s points out: while theestablishment of a single European labourmarket may not he possible immediately.qualifications will have to he assessedfrom a European point of view in manyprofessional fields

It is thus becoming very important to pro-\ ide decision-makers with informationwhich takes account of a number of pointsof view and places systems in their socialcontext. highlighting the contradictions

hich they may contain. ALL those in-\ ol \ ed also need to he informed of innova-

tions in the organization and operation ofsy stems and in training practices in thevarious Member States so that they cananalyse whether transfers are feasible andwhat conditions arc needed for these trans-fers. Support must also he given for thedevelopment of transnational networkspa \ ing the way for a culture facilitatingexchanges of information and experienceamong Member States.

I. In o \ erall terms. the architecture ofinitial training systems is designed to meeteconomic and social needs in the short.medium and long term. The \ arious strandsare therefore supposed to produce. in acomplementary way, the various types andlevels of training corresponding to theseneeds. bearing in mind. however. that ad-justments of the match hem een trainingand employment are no longer possiblebecause of the changes which have takenplace in the organization of labour and thedevelopment of the qualifications neededfor work.

Continual shifts in demand place constantstress on training systems and make itnecessary for them to occupy new posi-tions \\ ithout it always being possible forall of these strands to keep to a comple-mentary approach. There is also some"competition" hem een strands. dictatedby changes in demand, v hich preventssome of these strands from playing theirspecific role and leads to contradictionswithin the system itself.

CEDEFOP

How are these complementary linksbetween strands built up in the varioustraining systems in the \ arious MemberStates? What are the contradictions whichcan he pinpointed today and what regula-tion mechanisms are used to manage these

contradictions?

How can existing structures he devel-oped so that they are better able to meet the

short, medium and long term needs of theeconomy, of individuals and of society asa whole?

2. Technical and vocational educationstreams have a crucial role to play in pro-viding young people with training andqualifications at all levels, but are seen insome countries as "paths towards failure-.If this is the case, the status which societygives them must he upgraded so that theybecome "paths towards success" and pro-vide genuine help with integration.

How can this upgrading operation he car-ried out, bearing in mind that these percep-tions ha \ e their roots in cultural. social andeconomic history at the level of both soci-ety and individuals?

3. The relationship between central. re-gional and local levels is a particularlyimportant factor in understanding the op-eration of training systems and the ways inwhich this operation is changing. Thisdevelopment raises important questions inthe area of margins of autonomy in themanagement of establishments and in theformulation of training programmes. joband skill description and the recognition ofdiplomas. The local level provides a goodforum for the State. local authorities. en-terprises and training establishments tocome together at a time when partnershipsbetween these \ arious protagonists are vi-tal.

How are links nowaday s being forgedbetween these levels in the areas of plan-ning. management and super\ ision oftrain-ing in the various Member States? Whatrole do the social partners play in forgingthese links'?

What inno \ at i\ e melt-it/Cis Of organiza-

tion based on the initiatie and autonomyof establishments already exist at localle \ el making it possible to set up projectsmirroring society ?

C E DE FO P

4. Most Member States !atve made con-siderable efforts to improve the qualityand competitiveness of these streams withrespect to general education streams. Thishas already led to some innovations Mterms of organization and teaching prac-tices which need to he compared and con-trasted.

What are these innovations'? What im-pact do they have on the operation ofsystems and on the ability of these systemsto meet the expectations of enterprise andindividuals?

What contribution does research intoeducational science actually make to prob-lems of training innovation and how are itsresults disseminated?

5. Professional experience has a crucialrole to play in the social integration towhich vocational training also contrib-utes. Work is becoming less and less manual

and qualifications which increasingly re-quire a broader range of initial vocationalskills and method abilities are developingand making it necessary to include compo-nents of general education in vocationaltraining with the result that vocationaltraining is having to work on cognitiveaspects and abstract reasoning abilities.The boundaries between general educa-tion. vocational training and professionalexperience are becoming more flexible.with each taking ideas from one anotherand looking for new ways of relating toone another. However. the construction ofnew routes raises the problems ofcompartmentalization which have neseteducation, training and employment andrequires new ways of thinking about theways in which they operate.

What methods are being used to inte-grate the theoretical and practical ap-proaches? What methods can he used forand what are the limits on closer linkshem een training and production, hearingin mind that a simple mechanism matchingsupply and demand is no longer appropri-ate?

In what way can the specific role oftechnical and vocational education and itscontent now he defined?

6. The organization and implementationof technical and vocational education are

based for the most part on the initiative andthus the degree of autonomy of those incharge of establishments. They also de-pend on a whole range of partners in-volved at policy-making and general ad-ministrative levels: planners at all levels.specialists in the formulation of pro-grammes and options. educational scienceresearchers. The key partners in the devel-

opment of practices are. however, teachersand trainers. including those trainers whodispense training in a working situation aspart of alternance system,.

On the one hand, full-time teachers oftechniques and job skills are faced with theproblem of maintaining their professionalskills because of their remoteness from theproduction world: on the other hand, thefact that teachers' salaries are not veryattractive in comparison with salaries inenterprise means that people are movingout of teaching and/or numbers cominginto the profession are decreasing.

In the case of production staff who take ontraining duties, economic imperatives gen-erally make it difficult for them to attendcontinuing training and upgrade their teach-Mg skills.

Finally, coordination hem een practicaltraining in enterprise and theoretical train-ing in school is a key factor if alternance isto he made to work.

What methods and resources are being

used to provide continuing training whichmeets the particular needs of-different typesof trainers? In this respect. what methodscan be used to provide for reciprocal ex-changes between schools and enterprise?

7. The action programmes of the Commis-sion of the European Communities, espe-cially PETRA. while recognizing this sub-sidiary principle, aim to develop trainingsystems and more equal opportunities forall people as part of the creation of aEuropean skill hank.

The development of resources to monitorchanges in qualifications, support for ex-perimental approaches which forge closerlinks between training and industry andthe establishment of partnerships betweentraining institutions, enterprise, associa-tions and teachers are essential to the de-velopment of systems in the same Wly as

the strengthening of a culture of networksfor the exchange of information and expe-rience among EEC Member States whichalso introduces a European dimension.

Disseminating the results of these pro-grammes and making use of the capital ofinnovation which they contain are of cru-cial importance.

The editorial staff

I CON1 t) I ) 3971 n,tl. firtiNek. IN:Lcinbet 1991 .p. I I

Vocational training 2/1,192

CEDEFOP

The future for skilled workers

CEDEFOP: An analysis of the number ofYoung people who have passed throughthe initial vocational training systems inGermany reVeals the vast capacity ofthosesystems to produce skilled workers. Giventhe growing aspirations ofyoung people inalmost (Toy country in Europe. do youthink that this capacity can he maintained!

B. Lutz: The dual system in Germany iseffective because of the very specific struc-ture of the job markets it supplies. Theseare sectoral labour markets. on whichjobseekers future employees - are at thesame time the skill providers. In markettheory it is a very unusual situation, afactor that becomes increasingly clear andmarked as the training becomes more de-manding.

The particular workings and equilibriumof a sectoral labour market pose no prob-lems w here training is relatively cheap. asin the craft trades. where net training costsare nil or negative in that expenditure ontraining is more or less offset. or in enmore than paid for. b\ the work that ap-prentices do.

On the other hand. with training forindustrial workers - which, after all. is theheart of the German dual system net

training costs are very high: they havebeen put at DM 80.000 per future skilledworker. Moreover, this expenditure. thisinvestment, is made in an "extremely

f

BurkartLutzeras ManagingDirector of theInstitut Al.sozialwissen-schttltlb.he

forschung in Munich .lrom 196..5 to1 990. S'inc'e /990 has been ResearchDirector at the same Institute.

Vocalional training 2/19,42

volatile product'', since there can he nostatutory guarantee that a former appren-tice can continue to work for the samecompany. Employers, then, invest veryheavily in a "volatile product" which is noteconomically profitable. i.e. sustainable inthe long term. unless the market is fairlywell balanced, unless future employerssupply a sufficient number of y oun_ peo-ple whom they have trained, and unlessthere is a structural balance betweentraining and the demand for trained work-ers.

Since the jobs done by industrial workerstraditionally carry the highest status amongthose accessible to the "sons of the peo-ple". up to now this equilibrium has beenfairly easy to achieve. Industry and this isone of the strong points of German indus-try has established a fairly unusual selec-tion procedure to screen the "best off-spring of the people- and attract them intoskilled tradc:.

Today. alter 4(1 years of economic expan-sion. prosperity and democracy. the"brightest- children go to the more aca-demic schools and then on to universityalmost in the same percentage as middleclass children. This has at one and the same

time brought about a structured quantita-ti e and qualitative decline in those com-ing forward to train as skilled workers forindustry. Another reason for the decline innumbers has also been the falling birthrate.

In Germany, for some time this trend hasbeen masked by the arrival of the last peakintakes. corresponding to the generationshorn in the late 1950s or early 1960s whenthere was a remarkable baby boom. in allprobability, though. this will he the lastpopulation booni in German history:. In the1970.. due to an astute policy.. many ofthese young people were channelled to-w ards vocational training.

Today. the number of young people isfalling sharply: academic secondary

schools still have plenty of space and thepublic realize that it is less profitable toembark on vocational training than to go toupper secondary school and thence to uni-versity. The net financial and non-finan-cial benefits of the pay structure achie edvia the secondary education-university-employment route are still greater thanthose achieved via the alternative path:leaving school early, taking up an appren-ticeship and becoming a skilled industrialworker. We are therefore facing what Ibelieve will be an irreversible, long-termshortage of high - profile applicants for train-ing as skilled shopfloor workers.

Here we see just how fragile the labourmarkets are as regards this type of skill: ifleading industrial firms find that trainingis suffering from a quantitative and quali-tative decline applicants. they will prob-ably relax their training efforts and meettheir needs by taking on young people whoare ready-trained. If such a practice wereto take hold, the job markets would closedown immediately -just as in the financialmarkets when a point of imbalance isreached the entire market structure col-lapses. And if I speak of the imminentdemise of the dual sy stem it is becausetoday I see all the early signs of' a riftbetween the labour markets and the train-ing market for skilled industrial workers.

But this will not fundamentally affect theother strands of vocational training in thedual system. I am thinking in particular ofthe craft trades. where there is far greaterelasticity (craft firms can choose to train ornot to train because there is no specialstructure to he set up), and of the trainingprogrammes for commerce, which gillprobably he even more closely linked touniversity studies.

The sequence of practical and universityeducation will continue to be very attrac-tive for young people and employers. Whatis at risk is the "hard core-. i.e. the indus-trial trades. This is all the more serious inthat training for industrial trades has al-

CEDEFOP

way s been simultaneously the trainingground for most technical employees. Allmaster craftsmen and technicians in theFederal Republic. and even a significantpercentage of engineers. began by trainingfor a shopfloor trade.

CEDEFOP: What then are the prevailingtrends. and host. do you see the lia tire of thedual system and the structure ofwork'

B. Lutz: First of all. I refuse to talk abouttrends. What I foresee is a break in thepresent pattern. but I have no idea howGerman industry and its education andtraining system will react. There are anumber of possibilities or scenarios, in-cluding a certain tendency towards longereducation (although I do not think this isvery likely). A second scenario is one inwhich there is wider recourse to immi-grants. giving them training and securingtheir loyalty by offering them contractsthat hind them more closely to the em-ployer.

There will no doubt also he an attempt torethink the relationship between workforcetraining and general education. and to dif-ferentiate within the various strands ofskill training. Up to now. for example. wehave always lumped the metallurgical andelectrical trades together. Today. a clear-cut difference is beginning toemerge: train-ing courses forthe electrical and electronictrades are being preceded by a"Realschule-typo of education. and most young appren-tices for skilled trades in the electricalindustry hale already completed their in-termediate-level schooling. This is not thecase with the metallurgical trades. Youngpeople who have gone through intermedi-ate-level schooling. i.e. I(1 years' school.no longer want to go into metallurgicaltrades. w hich are seen as "low stat us-. "notintellectually demanding-, "not scientificenough... If they do go into these trades,once their training, has been completedthey begin studying to become an engi-neer. In other words, they are using ap-prenticeship as an intermediate stage in alonger programme of training.

Thequest ion is whether industry will man-age to attract young people with a higherlevel of school education not only intotraining programmes but also into careers

4

as skilled workers in the immallurgicalindustry. I do not know what adjustmentswill he necessary. whether things will haveto be changed in terms of job categories,remuneration or working hours in this in-dustry to make careers there more attrac-tive for young people (even those holdinga university entrance certificate). Hereinlies the key question. but these are justtrends: there will he a break and a need forfundamental restructuring. That is all l cansay.

CEDEFOP: But in any case we are it-nessing a restructuring of working pat-terns. The shopfloor work r has lost histraditional status, and one often has theimpression that when sve talk about a skilledworker today, what we are thinking aboutis the skilled worker (4'50 years ago. And

Yet their lm?lile has changed.

B. Lutz: I don't think so. I have alwaysbeen struck by the cultural continuity' ofskilled shopfloor trades. There havesometimes been changes in practice, witha shift from the physical handl i of mate-rials to the supervision and control of ma-chines. but the unity and consistency of thetrade and skill remain. And the fact is thattoday. far more than in the past. a worker'sexpel tise has a rational character. althoughthat rationality is different from the ana-lytical logic of engineers and scientists.This far more intuitive and situation-re-lated rationalism is always part of theworker's skill. and the knowledge it en-tails is based on experience rather thanlearning.

The skilled shopfloor ssorker has alwaysseen himself as different from the crafts-man who produces things with his hands:he has always had a very technical visionof the processes in which he is involved.which he manages, dominates and con-trols.

This kind of overall vision has given hima great ability to arrk e at highly reliableconclusions sery quickly in the light ofdisparate. inadequate or incomplete data.This rationality. this special approach. hasbeen an integral part of the worker's cul-ture. but it is growing in importance asmechanization and automation do aw aywith the need for the direct handling of

tools or work pieces. The big question as toworkers' skills in the future is preciselyhow to retain this factor now that it is

threatened by the introduction of informa-tion technology as an interface. That iswhat we are trying to define, albeit provi-sionally, by bringing together knowledgethat has been taught and knowledge ac-quired through experience. The essence ofthe worker's skill is experience-acquiredknowledge. and it has not been achievedby applying the kind of scientific knowl-edge that might he taught at school. If youtalk to workers today about a very modernpiece of equipment (NC machines, forexample). they would explain that to do agood job with this machine you need aclear idea of what is going on inside, forexample to sense the head of the millingmachine and feel how it moves through theworkpiece. They touch the machine, theylisten to it, they have a whole range ofsensors which bring this vision to life. Oneof the big questions facing us today is toknow how to re-create this same vision ina highly automated and interfaced situation.

The important thing is that this centralcomponent - now more central than everbefore - of' a skilled worker's expertisecannot he learned at school. It cannot hetaught: it has to he created and re-createdthrough practice in doing the job. ALL thattraining or education can do is to supportand encourage this process. but they can-not be a substitute. I would go so far assaying that even the engineering tradeswould he at risk if their vocational basis -traditional in Germany were to disappearand if there were to he a mme towardsputting industrial practice on a more scien-tific basis.

CIEDEPWP: Even so, the >/1M ofknowl-edge needed to become a .skilled workertoday is probably far closer to sr /tat. 50years ago, used to be the domain of thete'chnic'ian. if this is so, has this develop-ment been taken into account in trainingpaths:'

B. Lutz: There has certainly been a proc-ess of change in Germany, a slow evolu-tion which has been speeded up recently

ith the reform of the metallurgical andelectrical trades. It is clear that the knowl-edge and expertise content of workers'

Vocational training 2/1092

training has increased, but that there hasbeen no basic change in the very structureof this skill. Otherwise. workers would he"semi-engineers". The essential compo-nent of workers' training in Germany is infact training in how to accumulate knowl-edge through experience, and this calls forteaching methods that differ fundamen-tally from those used at school.

At school, the main aim is to make pupilsassimilate knowledge and. ultimately, it isthe teacher who carries the responsibilityfor success. And yet one of the strengths ofthe apprenticeship system in Germany.one of the reasons why it has such a lowfailure rate (compared with the very highfailure rate in similar school-based train-ing programmes in other countries). is thatright from the start apprenticeship has akind of in-built conditioning, the responsi-bility for success being placed firmly onthe trainee. From the word go. traineeslearn that they must learn. No one tellsthem in so many words, but the wholeclimate of the apprenticeship centre bringsit home to them that their success dependson them.

Today the key problem is that the socialconditions allowing for this conditioningand transfer of responsibility to the ap-prentice. and also the social conditionsproviding the impetus to acquire experi-ence. are disappearing and, as they disap-pear. may well take with them the compo-nent par s of the workers' apprenticeshipand expertise. Faced with competition andthe lure ofthe traditional secondary school/university training route. apprenticeship isno longer so attractive.

The main question is whether Germanyand the other industrialized countries will.in a completely different social context.succeed in recreating the conditions forlearning a trade and for the gradual acqui-sition of job skills, on a par with w hat usedto he the industrial training of workers forthe "brightest children of the people-. Whenthe son of an agricultural worker, a la-bourer or a semi-skilled worker in a largefirm had ambition, his hest chance was tojoin the apprenticeship centre in his fa-ther's place of employment in order tobecome a skilled worker. And one of thereasons for the relative success of Germanindustry compared with Fix_ industry,which started off in a better position. is that

vocailonat training 2/1()92

it was more successful in attracting the"brightest sons of the people". In France. itwas the army, the civil service and teach-ing that exercised the greater attraction. Asa result. the recruitment of primary teach-ers in France - which W. as both very elitistand very democratic - was directed at thesame "target group" as was the recruit-ment of skilled workers in Germany. witha view to producing master craftsmen.foremen, head foremen, technicians andeven engineers.

Today we have created far better stuc-tures of social equality and equality ofopportunity superior than those of the I 9thcentury, but the key question for the futureof European industry is whether we will heable to recreate the training schemes andvocational careers equivalent to what wehad in the past. It may he that a universityeducation will he needed. but I would notrule out a new dual system which com-bines part ora worker's training and part ofan engineer's training to =hie% e some-thing new, a kind of "industrial elite ",perhaps less numerous than in the past butwhose role in the economy would he cru-cial to economic wellbeing, and with com-pletely different promotion and career path-ways.

The social division of labour between theengineer and the skilled worker can nolonger he justified. It was justified in aclass-based society. but happily this di-vide has largely disappeared. There willhave to he a new approach to the structur-ing of industrial trades and the division oflabour. w here structuring w ill undoubt-edly he both horizontal and vertical, voca-tional and hierarchical, and very differentfrom what has existed until now.

My main concern is that. in order to nio eahead in this direction, a timescale visionspanning at least one generation will berequired. In other words. we must lookmuch farther than the perspectives andhorizons to which industrialists and thebody politic have been accustomed. Whenou talk to German industrialists today.

they explain that they ha% e "plenty ofskilled \ orker.,-. When you reply "yes.that is true. because in the mid-70s a politi-cal decision was taken which gave youalmost a surplus. But take a closer look andy Ott w ill see that this is the last generation

of skilled workers. They may be young

CEDEFOP

today, but ex ery year they are one yearolder and in 25 years they will probablyhave left active employment. You need toconcern yourselves today about a newintake, because the way things happenedin the past will not happen again, the'pipelines' are empty. Just look at yourapprenticeship centres." To which theyreply. "Yes. you're right.the pipeline isempty. but in 25 years' time. the Japaneseetc. etc..., and in any case, I'll no longer heworking.-

Therein lies the real problem: as far asindustrial skills are concerned, we are in animpasse.

CEDEFOP: How do you currently see thequestion of the .qoyernahilily ofeducationand (raining syslems!

B. Lutz: Therein lies a major problem. ifone accepts that the education and trainingsystem is not merely a sub-contractingsupplier to the economy. The highly reas-suring vision of the economy held by edu-cators. which led them to say "we are sub-contractors. where the demand leads wemust follow. and our responsibility- is tokeep abreast of current requirements" is nolonger tenable, not only because it is diffi-cult to grasp what these "current require-ments- are. but also because this is a nar-row vision oldie true role ofeducation andtraining.

Nowadays, we know (and CEDEFOP hasdone much to publiciA- the disco% cries)that the education and training system hasa very constructi\ e input to the structure ofemployment. and that the needs of theeconomy reflect not only internal proc-esses of growth. mechanization, automa-tion. etc.. but also the existing labour sup-ply and former manpower skill structures.

At the same time, there is an interaction inanother direction. because the behaviourof pupils and their families, the trainingpaths they choose and those they reject.reflect a perception of the structure of jobsand the opportunities created by the pos-session of a diploma. Parents and pupils.albeit belatedly and w ith some uncertaintydue to the lack of information, react ration-ally to the opportunities for making use oftheir training in the job hierarchy, If there

CEDEFOP

are marked differences in pay scales basedon the duration of school education. it isdear that everyone will try to has e asmuch schooling as possible. That is onlylogical.

You can. then. legitimately speak of a two-way reaction. The education and trainingsystem, through the structure of the skillsand aspirations of the young people whomit places on the job market, is forcingemployers to change. In other words, edu-cational policy is. with some delay. shap-ing the structure of jobs. But the job struc-ture creates a social demand for educationwhich is not something abstract (it is areflection of the structures of employment ).Yet this interaction takes place via lengthymechanisms: reactions are not instantane-ous but delayed. though by how much isnot very clear, since time is a difficultfactor to pin down in economic and socialsciences.

The timescales involved will probably belonger than a generation. i.e. over 25 or 30years. But the mechanisms are alreadyoperating today and long-term forces havebegun: at present there is nobody. either inthe private economy (not even industrial-ists with vision) or in public policy respon-sible for the education or training sy stem,able to think and act within suchtimeframes. There is. therefore. a veryserious problem of governability.

In what I perceis e to he a break with thepast. where processes that has e functionedfor a century no longer do so. a number ofmechanisms for the distribution and allo-cation of manpower will no longer reflectreal life. At that point. the problem of non-governability. the failure to control dy-namic changes in both job structures andthe education and training system. willbecome acute.

CEDEFOP: We are all aware al the diffi-culties facing those responsible fin- plan-ning education and !mining, given thelack of reliable data. flow can !Ns prob-lem be solved!

B. Lutz: I belies e that w hat we lack are thebasic data to make sound forecasts. andwhat is even more amazing is that nobodyasks us for them. If there were a demand.

a real need for forecasting from politicalleaders, the political apparatus or the cap-tains of industry, the research would havethe resources it needs.

But the resources are not there, because thedecision-makers are fobbed off with reas-suring but dubious "gimmicks-.

Political leaders think in terms of fouryears. and the industrial world is proud ofthe fact that it works on the basis of capitalinvestment payback periods of eight totwelve years. Anything beyond twelveyears is way into the future, like the fa-mous "factory of the future ". And yet halfthe people who will man that factory of thefuture are already in place today and theother S0"k will he recruited. trained. in-stalled and socialized by those alreadythere. It' one thinks in terms of manpowernumbers. job structures and social man-power structures, then 20 years is justaround the corner, not some distant futurewhich should not unduly concern us.

So it is this inability to take the longer-termiew that is the key factor in the non-

gos ernabi ity of the systems, and I foreseedramatic upheavals w hich may cost itsvery dear.

CEDEFOP: A.s a result of the work vonhave done in rariems countries, particu-larly France. you can obviously make com-pa risons ofspecilic questions. Are the prob-lems vou are now encountering in Ger-many completely dijkrent from those fac-ing France?

B. Lutz: Ever since the first comparativestudies of France and Germany I havealways taken the view that the best and themost productive working assumption wasto say that France was one generationahead of Germany. that the two were basi-cally following the same path albeit withsome differences.

All things considered, the fundamentalproblems are the same in France as inGermany.

To some extent. what is happening todayin Germany is sen similar to what hap-pened in France after the Second WorldWar.

You have to remember that. at the end ofthe w ar. Fr.:nce had a very good system ofvocational training. and was setting up asystem which, in many ways. was muchmore modern and effective than the Ger-man system at the time (even though itsintake capacity was limited ). So what hap-pened in France in the 1950s the suddendecline of an entire system of highly inno-vative vocational training, with people

olontarily opting for vocational trainingin the post-war years - largely foreshad-owed what is now happening in Germany.And it would be wrong to criticize theattempts now being made in France toregraft the teaching of vocational skillsonto its education system. dominated as itis by the teaching of general academicsubjects. I think it would he in Germany'sinterests to look very closely at what isnow happening in France with the Brevettechnique siqu'rieur (technical diploma).That really should be a lesson for Ger-many.

In practice. things are very complicated:how do you reconcile an open-ended teach -ing system. designed to appeal to the entiresocial spectrum. with the acquisition ofvocational expertise? This is a question towhich nobody can give a definitive an-swer.

We are now mos ing very much into aperiod of trial and error, where even thesetbacks of others may he extremely salu-tary for everyone.

CEDEFOP: that can Europe do'

B. Lutz: Ahoy e all. Europe can expand itscapability forcomparativc analysis oftheseexperiences. their success and failure. Eu-rope must be able to manage diversity andresist any attempts. no matter how appeal-ing, to find a miracle cure that can heimposed on everybody.

It w ill he far harder than we think toemerge from the present crisis. and es ery-thing that adds to the capacity to observeprocesses and assess cun-ent experimentswill he extremely helpful.

ti Vocational training 2/1q92

CEDEFOP

Contradictions in technical andvocational education: the outlook

Technicaland vocationaledueitian is-beingtaffected its every Waybyrnarentthangesla industrial SySteMs: and so-cial ltraitares disiithes.

certain basic:OeStiOnipaSedby these`Changes; particitholit the relationshipWith therschaolsystimi, tIteinteractioribetween oiriiiiii0s* and the train -ing of, adults; aisumed: conflktbetween technicaltukaiWandbianan

siiii01s4cilOriatliigldigisti theways in which innOwnion in technicaland:yacattional:ttain ing.May contrib-ate towards- theSalatian ofthe, major'ism* of *4144 the nth Century:the campaign *dint eicclasion andthe restoration of socialcohesion on anew basis.

The fascination and ambi-guity of a borderline area

On the eve of the Single European Marketand with the prospect of major interna-tional economic policy changes at the endof the century. today technical and voca-tional education is going through a periodof substantial innovation and reform inwhich its effectiveness, operating meth-ods and role are under challenge.

This evolution reflects the great changesin social and industrial structures now tak-

PaoloGaronneAssistantDirector. forEducation,Work, Employ-ment and Sacial

Allairs, Organization for Economicand Social Development, Paris,

Vocational training 2/I,)92

ing place and expected in the future. Thereis a deep-rooted. widespread belief that themanagement and development of humanresources are among the most importantfields for action in attempts to remove thestructural obstacles to development andemployment. and that technical and voca-tional education has a fundamental role toplay in this context.

It is. then, invaluable to embark on system-atic in-depth monitoring and evaluation ofexisting processes, both national and in-ternational. We need to have reliable, com-parable. statistical data, to prepare rigor-ous analytical frameworks and to developmethods of evaluatic n. In this task. thestimulus and contribution of internationalorganizations such as CEDEFOP. OECDand UNESCO are of special importance inidentifying innovations and supporting therestructuring that is already taking place.and in securing the participation of allparties involved in and committed to theseprocesses: the political and administrativeauthorities, vocational training practition-ers, the labour market. employers, the so-cial partners and the world of research.

In this article the intention is to take acomplementary and independent look atthis method of evaluation. The aim is notto review or summarize the state of the art.but merely to ask a few questions that mayserve as a guideline (or a further guide] int!)in this phase of transformation. We be-lieve that what is needed is not just to findeffective short-term solutions but also toprepare the terrain for thinking and actionwith a view to supporting major longer-term changes. The unmistakable signs ofthose changes are emerging. but their matu-ration through adjustment and experimen-tation will take far longer.

The fascination. but also the ambiguity. ofstudying technical and vocational educa-

1 0

tion lies in the fact that it is a borderlinesubject. It overlaps both the educationalsystem and the vocational training system,initial training and lifelong or continuingtraining. basic training and specialist train-ing. Much of the contradiction. superim-position and inconsistency inherent in thepresent system of regulating technical andvocational training and its method of op-eration in fact arise because it serves as acrucial and delicate "linchpin". At the sametime, this interface position offers a richvein of opportunities for debate and ex-perimentation.

Technical and vocationaleducation and the educa-tional system

In most countries, technical and voca-tional education, particularly at the sec-ondary level of education, often overlapsboth the educational system and voca-tional training.

The reason for this is twofold: 11 in plan-ning for skill-generating itineraries, the"initial" levels of training need to startearly enough to ensure that young peopleacquire usable specialist skills and can ifthey wish launch out on the labour marketat an early stage: 2) for the same reasons.there are plans to include technical andvocational streams and options in the edu-cational system that will support or com-plement the normal, conventional or"com-prehensive" streams. The historical originof this duality or multiplicity of channels isthat in the past. education used to he some-what elitist, being directed towards a smallgroup of citizens called upon - and it mighthe said legitimized to perform the role ofa governing class. Technical and voca-tional education, on the other hand, devel-oped within the educational system as aninstrument of trai ning directed towards the

7

working classes, in other words those w hohad no place in mainstream education. orat least did not stay there long. With theexpansion of mass education even to higherlevels of education, and with the upgrad-ing and spread of a technical and voca-tional culture as a corollary of industrialculture, the appearance of technical andvocational education in so many places inthe educational and training systems hasbecome a source of grow ing contradic-tion.

Technical and vocational specialization,and the early options that it entails. is seenas being in growing conflict with the needto provide a sound. broad basic educationso that people can go on to acquire thevarious specialist skills they kt ill need inthe cycle of their working lives. Further-more, the lack of a technical or vocationalculture in mainstream education generatesthe familiar risks of abstraction. isolationfrom the working world and an inability toprovide the skills needed on the labourmarket.

Interesting research is being done to pro-mote transfers between the various streamsof education and to make it possible foroptions to he reversed, or at least to mini-mize the costs. Close cooperation. coordi-nation and integration between trainingand technical and vocational education areby now a know n objective of policies.sparking off intensk e discussion and criti-cal comparison. Even so. the general inter-vention trends and models still seem un-certain and ambiguous in the light of "bestpractice evaluation-.

Views fluctuate between two extremes.and could he summed up as follows: a)there are people IA ho feel that technicaland vocational education should not"merely serve'' the labour market but. onthe contrary. should contribute towards

The utilitarian and positivist assumptionsunderlying these two opposing views, how-ever irreconcilable they may seem, haveseveral things in common with those ide-ologies launched in the 19th century whichargued that there is a basic conflict be-tween the market and solidarity. het eenthe logic of competition and the rules ofcohabitation and social cohesion. Theset we) extreme positions do not help in thesearch for adequate forms of coordinationand integration between education andtraining, and they are amply contradictedboth by the demand for skills and by socialchange. The labour market needs broadskills and the basic education and culturepermitting its human capital investment tokeep pace with technological and organi-zational change. For its part, society facesa steadily uow ing demand for integrationinto the workforce community, what isknown as active society. and for citizen-ship. which can he achieved only throughfull participation in the life of the workingworld and the labour market. In practice.integration with the system is characteris-tic of those systems that have been taken asa model of effectiveness for technical and

ocational education. i.e. the "dual" modelalong German lines and the Sw edish ty peof integrated. comprehensive school. Boththese ideal types, albeit very different andin some way s Opposite from each other.combine school education with technical-vocational education.

mild be an illusion. however. to thinkthat resoling the contradiction betweeneducation and training and choosing a

model of integration is just a matter ofinstitutional engineering or abstract politi-cal choices. In reality. the breakdown be-tween technical and vocational educationand general education. as for example it isfound in the German and Swedish "mod-els- and not adequately found elsewhere.seems to be closely hound up with thetypes of organization and methods of op-eration of the labour market. The dualmodels of alternance or apprenticeship arefully operational only in what are knownas "occupational- labour markets. in otherwords those structured according to insti-tutionalized. recognizable skills and/ortrades, where levels of mobility and turno-ver can he relatively high and where thereis a considerable level of public regulationor contractual self - regulation of condi-tions of w ork and qualifications. This isclearly shown in the case of countries withneo-corporative structures.

It is hardly surprising. then, that the crisison occupational markets. v hich has beenbrought about by broadening competitionand technical progress, has inevitablyeroded the effectiveness of technical andvocational education. This is why, in cer-tain countries and sectors, technical andocational education is still linked with

"old" trades and old-fashioned industrialskills which are rapidly becoming obso-lescent.

The Swedish integrated school model, onthe other hand, seems to be more compat-ible with systems where internal labourmarkets are highly de eloped. Basic or

more general technical or vocational train-ing is still the responsibility of the schoolsystem. whereas more specific job-relatedtraining is left to employers, who adminis-ter it according to the logic of domesticlabour markets and careers. Training inand for the labour market becomes one ofa set of active manpower policies directedtowards promoting effective intermedi-ation between the demand for and supplyof work and jobseeking, and is thereforedirected mainly towards the long-termunemployed, both youngsters and adults.As is apparent, the Swedish model of inte-grated schooling offers individual employ-ers (essentially large employers) broaderautonomy in their management of trainingprocesses in the light of requirements forthe structuring of internal careers and theway those companies organize their ownwork. Nevertheless, it should he pointedout that the effectiveness of the mecha-nism depends on substantial investment intechnical and vocational training in thelabour market under what Calmfors hascalled an "accommodating labour policy".In Sweden, for example. there are activelabour policies consisting mainly oftraining measures. and they have involveda fairly large proportion of the unemployed.reaching peaks of 60% and over. Withoutcomplementary compensation in terms oflabour policy there would be a risk of thetraining content and method in technicaland vocational education inteerated intothe school system diverging too far fromwhat is needed by employers as a whole.with the all too familiar negative effects:inadequacy of skills and mismatches.

The links between models for the regula-tion of technical and vocation' ' trainingand labour market structures show howclosely interdependent is the evolution ofboth. The current restructuring in systemsfor the management of the labour market.therefore. has profound repercussions onintegration how cell the school and techni-cal and vocational education.

Initial training and adults:a connection that calls forclarification

Technical and vocational education is gen-erally part of what is known as the initialtraining system. The acquisition of spe-

Vocational training 2/1992

cif is technical and occupational expertiseis concentrated in the initial phases of thetraining process: the purpose of subse-quent phases of recurring orArontinuingtraining is generally to update or developthese forms of expertise in line with changesin technology and the labour market and tohelp people cope with the threat of obso-lescence and loss of skills. This approachis consistent with the definition of spejfictechnical and vocational career routes.whose foundations are laid by relativelystandardized education and curricula thatcan he recognized and certified.

This functional breakdown of roles be-tween initial and continuing training isfairly consolidated, but is often in contra-diction with certain emerging trends onthe labour market. The appearance of newvocational skills and the demand for higherlevels of skill. grow ing inter-occupationalmobility, the lengthening and diversifica-tion of the cycle of working life: these andother factors mean that excessive separa-tion between technical and vocational ca-reer streams can he regarded as an obsta-cle. and cause the rigidity of structures tohe viewed with concern. There is also agrowing demand for technical and voca-tional education for adults. or at least forpeople already on Ms. labour market. Torestrict job-related education to the "ini-tial- phase might well impoverish the con-tent and prospects of continuing trainingmeasures. In practice. this is 55 here thedistinction and setration betweer "ini-tial" training aimed exclusively at youngpeople and "continuing" training devotedto adults are being disputed. In particular.the close or exclusive link between "ini-tial" training and the training of youngpeople seems to he disappearing. In spe-cific technical and \ ocational itineraries.for example. why should there not be in-stances of the "initial- training, of adults'?And why could this training not he com-bined in some cases with the technical andvocational training of young people'? Tobring young people and adults togethermight have beneficial effects on pupils'moti \ ation through the interaction of dif-ferent forms of expertise and experience.and it might create a less scholastic andmore job-related climate in school or para-scholastic education. With new trends inthe organization of 1:thour and in the re-structuring of the production processes.together with changing attitudes in the

1 ')44.gl

CEDEFOP

supply of labour during the life cycle (es-pecially among skilled workers andwomen ). people are questioning why adultsshould he excluded from technical andvocational type of initial training. Thedemand for flexibility in curriculum plan-ning. moreover. creates tension in rigidinitial training systems where itinerariesare pre-defined and structures are super-regulated.

A feature of the industrial societies of thepast (and to a certain extent of the presentas \N ell 1 was the rigid relationship betweenage (and also between sex and social posi-tion) and the learning process. In modernteaching, the flexibility required by socialchange. the market and technologies showsthat technical and vocational educationcan he effective regardless of age andother personal characteristics. Certain 40-year-olds who have been made redundantby restructuring could well he "initiated-in various vocational skills rather thanbeing simply updated. retrained or, evenworse, relegated to the sidelines.

Technical culture andhuman sciences

The relationship between technical andvocational culture and human and socialsciences is one of the main sources ofcontradiction and tension in the approachto and practice of technical and vocationaleducation. On the one hand. mass educa-tion nas brought g.rowing numbers of pu-pils into the arts and social science streamsof education. attracted by the greater flex-ibility and the (presumed) readier accessi-bility of the curricula there. On the otherhand. an analysis of the causes andimplicatioas of mismatches on the labourmarket focuses attention on those techni-cal and \ ocational streams regarded asclosest to the working ss orld and its re-quirements.

These tendencies are bringing ab, ,ut a tss o-fold risk: the deterioration of technical andvocational education and of general edu-cation. The latter is increasingly exposedto the difficulties and delays entailed inhaving to cope ss ith demands that arechanging in quantity and quality. As aresult. human sciences acquire a "soll"connotation and an air of "elitism". so that

11

CEDEFOP

in the end they are distanced from techni-cal and scientific culture or eN, en nov etowards the academic in other w orris, theinward-looking reproduction of the teach-ing body. On the other hand technicaleducation risks losing cultural depth. be-ing reduced to the role of launching peopleon fairly low-skilled work.

The siL.nals being issued by the labourmarket and tit, restructuring of.productionsystems are that there are substantial op-portunities for overcoming the -ideologi-cal- contrasts between technical and voca-tional culture and general culture, and thatthere is ereater uniformity between theo-retical and practical knowledge. Having toassume responsibility for planning as wellas for performance even at relatively lowley els in the hierarchy, the "forward management" of human resources and produc-tion processes, the move away from thefragmentation ofjobs in the post-Tayloristcontext. the rapid adjustment to mobility,turnover and change in incentive systems:all these factors encourage a reassessmentof general abilities in the field of commu-nications personal relationships and theability to conceptualize and make a criticalanalysis. A sophisticated analysis of theconnections and opportunities arising fromthe hackground and contextual data. theability to cope with complexity and ambi-guity. going bey and the cons entional mod-

els of scientific/laboratory- methods bor-rowed from physical sciences are addi-tional factors in the revi \ al of the impor-tance of social and human sciences, thelesson being that these elements shouldhave their proper place in technical andocational curricula.

There is also a profound change in themethod of doing human and social sci-ences. Eloquent testimony to this is the fulluse ofquantitative methods, recourse ( withthe proper caution) to the experimentalmethod. the move towards problem solv-ing and the removal of harriers betweendisciplines. a better balance het een theo-retical analysis and application, and thetechnical and scientific analysis of institu-tions, culture. intangible capital and inno-vation. This evolution is bringing the meth-ods of social sciences to technological andscientific disciplines, pax ing the way foraradical review of technical and vocationalcurricula and for a Closer integration ortechnical and vocational integration into

the education system and the vocationaltraining sy stem.

Screening, careers andsocial cohesion

The acquisition and transfer of specifictechnical and vocational know ledge areonly two of the tasks of technical and

ocational education, however important.Its function for example. is selection andserving as a filter for the creation andrevitalization of the governing class, theconstruction and maintenance of consen-sus as to the organization of society and

ork and its stratification, the evolution ofindividual and collective mentalities. cus-tom and ethics. These are the functions oftechnical and vocational education that arebeing challenged w hen there is a debate on

such long-established dichotomies as thosewe have discussed. The other functionsalso evoke sonic of the major issues thatare of such concern at the end of ourcentury : the 30 million unemployed in theOECD area, the ever more evident andworry ing erosion in the basis of socialcohesion that used to he secured by thewelfare state and its pillars: social secu-rity., health and education.

What is the position of technical and voca-tional education faced with these majorquestions? With the persistence ( hy ster-esis) of employment and the demand fromnew social forces (such as older peopleand women ) for participation in the labourmarket, integration in the labour market isassuming altogether new aspects. eventhough this is the traditional objectix e oftechnical and vocational education. Whatwe need now is not just to promote accessto any job a hard enough task in itself. Weneed to guarantee a person's integrationinto "working society", and therefore to doaway with social exclusion. This task hasimportant implications. It implies: a) aim-ing at the definition and socio-institutionalconstruction of career paths w rtltrrt corn-panics and between companies and see-tors: h) helping to reform systems of socio-occupational representation and organiza-tion: c 1 integrating the technical and voca-tional training system into labour marketmanagement mechanisms and into nit\ epolicies for integration and the promotionof new employment: d adapting the pro-vision of training in a Ilexihle manner to

the demand from specific target groups(young people struggling to find a foot-hold in the working world. old people.women. immigrants) and to various localand social contexts (urban centres andsuburbs. rural areas. frontier areas, etc). Itshould he realised that current changes intraining plans reflect not only the variousskills required by changes in specific jobsbut also (and perhaps above all ) majorchanges in social structure, vocational hi-erarchies and status relationships. lief-fee-tive technical and vocational training pathscan be designed. they may help to restorethe effectiveness of those functions of se-lectivity and guidance that in sonic casesseem to have been compromised by masseducation. Education would then becomea rile de passage for the young person oradult on the path towards acquiring voca-tional skills, and it would help to cementcohesion and discipline and roionalize theforms of competition for social mobilityand for progress on the labour market.

The credibility and intrinsic value of themining itinerary w ill have to reflect theintrinsic value of the knowledge beingtransferred. It must, therefore, he foundedon new forms of standardization, transpar-ency, recognizability and certi liability ofthe acquisition of technical and v ocationalknowledge. It would he an illusion to try tore-introduce status areas inherited fromthe hierarchical structures of the past which

w ere swept away when civil society openedout to systematic competition and techno-logical progress.

To have no ambition to achieve this endwould he to fall far short of the challengesat stake. The parameters for judging indi-vidual and overall effectiveness in anyattempt at reform and any innoy ation andimprovement are to he sought in the majorissues in the campaign against exclusionand in the re-establishment of social cohe-sion on new basis.

References:

12:1, an P.. Caronna P. and Ecin ards R. (edited hhr Prohlcm ot Youth. 1 he Prohlcm 01 Youth

ktnplo meta anti Itattunl.: in Adant...(1 f i ttionties,M.u.nullan. I .ondon 1992.

VI Vocational training 2/1992

' CEDEFOR

Current challengesto basic vocational training

The aim of this article is to demon-strate that the current disparity be-tween the skills of the workforce andthe skills demanded by industry andthe current high level of unemploy-ment are not the result of a capriciousfate, nor are they unexpected or sur-prising.The labour market is under pressure

from major changes in the structure ofindustry. These changes have beenapparent for a number of years. Re-newed growth in employment cannotbe broughtaboutinthe goods-produc-ing industries (manufacturing sector),which in the past had been the dynamobehind employment in western Euro-pean societies over a long period.The article does not provide any an-swers as to precisely where the futuregrowth in employment will come, butidentifies trends which merit atten-tion.Itmightbea usefultrzkforCEDEFOPand for European coop ration on vo-cational training to conduit inore in-depth studies in this area.

Historical backgroundInitial vocational training has been basedwithout interruption from the late MiddleAges to the present on the principle of theapprenticeship. Rules on the mutual rightsand duties of apprentice and master crafts-men are contained in guild regulationsfrom before 1 500.

CarlJorgensenji milerDirectorCEDEPOP.Berlin

Many years of practical training in recog-nized workshops ensured that thoroughinstruction was given in all the variousdisciplines of the trade and that effectivesocialization took place among the practi-tioners of the trade.

The apprenticeship system meant a re-striction on the number of people trained.but ensured significant security of em-ployment and social security for the train-ees.

The apprenticeship provided an effectiveform of training in earlier centuries. w heretechnological development was slower.However, in this century the principle ofthe apprenticeship has faced a rising chal-lenge from technological development andthe increased internationalization of tradeand industry.

The Apprentices Act of 1889 imposed aduty on the master craftsman in sometrades to pros ide modest school educationas a supplement to the training at the placeof apprenticeship. A law of 1921 and laterlegislation increased the requirement forschool teaching both in more general sub-jects and in theoretical and practical sub-jects geared towards the trade in which theapprentice was being trained. Supervisionof the individual places of apprenticeship.special rules for the approval of places ofapprenticeship etc. were introduced dur-ing the same period.

7 Technological development

In recent decades the labour market hasundergone rapid and extensive changes.resulting in significant difficulties withrespect to adjustment het een the require-ments of the labour market and the actualspecialist know ledge and capability of theworkforce. A number of traditional trades

have disappeared. new materials and newproduction processes have been introduced.former boundaries between trades havebeen broken down. and the rationalizationand automation of manufacturing proc-esses are tending to divide the labour mar-ket into a group concerned with repair andmaintenance based on traditional tradesand a group of operators whose work isgenerally remote from traditional tradesand who must chiefly meet the require-ments of care and flexibility.

One of the major consequences of infor-mation technology is the possibility of aconstant rise in productivity through theextensive automation of production proc-esses, both where many identical productsare manufactured and where the need is tomanufacture various products in smallquantities.

The consequence is that the manufactur-ing sector even in a period of rising de-mand only has a modest need for moreemployees. and that the local employmenteffect in the longer term even of large, newproduction plants is surprisingly small.

Development in thetraining system

The reaction of the training system to thischallenge from the labour market has fol-lowed three main lines. providing moreyoung people after basic schooling withcontinued general theoretical education(university entrance certificate). supple-menting the vocational practical trainingat the place of apprenticeship w ith in-creased technical and general education inschool and reducing the number of tradesin which instruction is given.

Increased access to general. theoreticaleducation reflects the wish for a rise in the

Vocational traininl: 2/1992I I

CEDEFOP

general level of education in society . Thishas also led to a rise in access to furthereducation, not least including 1.111i1ersiteducation. In a number of these educa-tional programmes more fully trained peo-ple are being produced than are neededwithin the sector concerned. A risingnumber find employ went outside theirprofessions in private organizations andfirms.

The purpose of the longer period of in-struction in school with a consequentlyshorter period of work placement at theplace of apprenticeship is to ensure thatthose who are educated are up to date withthe latest technological developments andthat through the more general subjectsthey acquire greater aw areness of the w orldaround them and can keep up at theworkplace in an increasingly internation-alized industry.

The reduction in the number of trades inwhich instruction is gi en from around30(1 to less than 100 has primarily takenplace through more specialized subjectsbeing included as elements in \\ icier sub-ject areas. Broader skills areas have beencreated and w ill contribute tow ards in-creasing flexibility in the labour-market. Inorder to continue to ensure good practicalinstruction. ider access has been given tocombined training agreements coveringseveral places of apprenticeship.

The situation of youngpeople

Like other countries in Europe. Denmarkexperienced a baby boom in the sixties.Since the mid-eighties the supply of youngpeople has been declining again. The low-est supply will occur in the second half ofthe nineties, after which a slight rise willoccur.

Despite the sharp drop in the number ofyoung peonle in recent y ears. an appreci-able number still fail to gain a foothold inthe labour market or in further educationafter lower secondary school. A surveycarried out in the municipality of Copen-hagen in 1991 revealed that more than athird or young people who had left schoolof the non-compulsory tenth year in theprimary and lower secondary school( folkeskole I were unemployed eighteenmonths later. equivalent to 15<, 20< ofthe annual intake.

Unemploy went in Danish society nowstands at around 11'4 of the workforce.This background. together with the diffi-culties experienced by the young in ob-taining employ merit engenders an attitudeof passiveness and resignation in someoung people. Regardless of the lack of

employ meat. they can maintain a modestlifesty le by virtue of N, arious forms of

12

financial support. If they stay in this situ-ation for just a few years. experience showsthat their chances of a normal existencelater are slim.

A number of courses and temporary em-ployment schemes have been tried. butwithout decisively favourable results. Anextensive, coordinated collection ofamendments to existing rules is beingWorked on at present in the Folketing. theDanish Parliament. in order to avert thistrend.

A complete adjustment and coordinationof the financial support schemes is beingworked on in order to create a clear finan-cial incentive to choose training or em-ployment rather than the passive receipt ofassistance. and work is also in hand onopening up more training places at alllevels. Provision is being made for youngpeople. while retaining public assistance.to he given employ went in the public orprivate sector with special service dutiessuch as child-minding. helping the elderly.garden and park maintenance. assistancewith club work and cultural rirovisionswork which generally promotes the qual-ity of life of citizens but does not distort thenormal labour market.

Change in the structure ofindustry

History ne er repeats itself, but it may heappropriate to consider and learn fromearlier developments in societx .

In the second half' of the nineteenth cen-tury . conditions of emplo went and livingconditions in traditional agriculture inDenmark became increasingly poor. In-dustry suffered front poor profitability andfaced the need to change over to differentforms of operation which offered consid-erably better sale prospects and higherprofitability . The expulsion of agriculturalworkers and their families led to consider-able migration from the country to thetoW11`, and distinct proletarization of thepopulation group affected. characterizedby low wages. unemployment and poorhousing. These circumstztnces were slowlybrought to a halt as the manufacturingsector grew and was able to offer bothemployment and rising wages. The morewell-balanced and richer society was able

Vocational naming 2/1992

later to build up a welfare society v ith agood social security network. This de el-opment was not possible W ithout increasedprivate and public consumption on in-creasimzly large markets.

The analysis that follows is based on theassumption that national and internationalcompetition will continue to make it nec-essary for manufacturing firms to exploitopportunities for automation and thus in-creased producti its . and that ex en a strongupsurge in demand for goods w ill nottherefore noticeably increase the demandfor labour. The existing high level of un-employment cannot he expected to he re-duced through increased employ mem inthe manufacturing. sector.

We Will continue to W itness the expulsionoflabour from the manufacturing sector inthe future. The consequences for thosewho are expelled as w as the case earlierfor those expelled from agriculture willhe fading employment opportunities andthe need for a great w illingness to re-adjust.

Just as those expelled from agriculturecould only he picked up by increased em-ployment in the grow ing manufacturingsector after a transitional period. none ofthe other sectors of the labour market isable to absorb those who are now beingexpelled from the manufacturing sector.

Just as those W ho Were expelled from theagricultural industry at the time repre-sented the groups ss ho ss ere ss eak eco-nomically and in relation to training. ex-pulsion from the manufacturing sector to-day primarily affects those ss ith little edu-cation and training, particularly IA omen

with little education and training.

Proletaritation of those ss ho are now be-ing expelled. in line with earlier historicalcy ents. should and w ill not take place. butthe high leg el of unemploy menu and therising number of long-term unemployed inthis transitional phase represents a largeand serious human. social and socio-eco-nomic problem.

The lack of adaptation heti% cell the de-mand from the joh market for labour andthe supply of labour is thus not a phenom-emm of the economic climate but is due tochanges in the structure of industry. The

oc,tlional 2/19,12

CEDEFOP

Ape

training sy stem cannot solve this struc-tural problem. but if particular lines ofdevelopment can he pointed to with somedegree of probability. the training systemcan also assist in shortening the painfultransitional period. both through a changeof attitude to reduce resistance to newareas of employ meat among those seekingcork and in society at large and by intro-ducing new forw ard-looking elements intoexisting training schemes.

,\ rev less w hich has just been completed ofthe three-year theoretical youth trainingscheme in the technical schools 0-higherC(mitnercial Certificate) has meant fur-ther strengthening of international elementsin a IltIlllher of disciplines. and some newdisciplines has e also been introduced. suchas "cultural understanding- in relation toforeign cultures. "environment" ssith re-spect to the assessment of the ens in)Ilmen-tai impact of a particular ty pc of produc-tion and constant updating of the ley el ofens ironntental information in a firm both

1 r'_

parts reflect the acknowledgment of newareas of employment by the training sy s-tem.

New employmentopportunities

It was pointed out many y ears ago that theindustrial is odd Would in future have toprepare itself for major changes on thelabour market. as a result of factors such asthe development of information technol-ogy and the grow th of industry in countriesss hich became industrial lied at a late stage.Our present structural problems did notcome without warning. but are neverthe-less often considered to he surprisingperhaps because it is difficult to inters enebefore the problems are felt to he so seri-ous by so mans people that inters ention is

unavoidable.

The very ice sector w as designated to he thedynamo behind employment in the proc-

CEDE FO P

ess of re-adjustment. but has not yet beenable to live up to this role, despite in-creased employment in certain areas suchas the financial sector, the computer sectorand the tourism sector.

However, there is no better way of achiev-ing greater employment today than in theser\ ice sector. We are in a transitionalperiod where the manufacturing sector w illemploy few er and fewer people and wherethe service sector IA ill he expanded. Theexpansion of this sector cannot take placeprimarily through the government. Bothsocio-political and socio-economic fac-tors rule this out.

An expansion of the traditional term "theservice sector- is to he anticipated as aresult of increasing popular pressure. forexample for better cleaning and greaterpublic safety. for a more open and moregenerally understandable exchange of in-formation and spread of knowledge. forhigh-quality and varied cultural and lei-sure facilities and for good provisions forthe disabled and the elderly. Many of thesetasks are at present dealt with by the gov-ernment and as a result olsevere deficits inpublic finances there are likely to be sig-nificant and necessary reductions in grants.

Gradually, as practical. high-quality an-swers to problems are provided by theprivate sector, new markets with a signifi-cant effect on employment will emerge.both nationally and internationally. Thisdevelopment will depend on a great deal ofre-thinking and close cooperation hem eenthe public and private sectors.

Challenges to the trainingsystem

The outlined development will present thetraining system and socatinnal trainingprogrammes in particular with great andchallenging k.as..s. It 1 .s not possible toidentify specific work tasks and thereforedefined traininng requirements in a greatmany fields in the future. expanded serv-ice sector.

However. this very uncertainty demands athorough re-think on the development ofthe training sy stem, both in order to makerapid follow -up and flexibility possible

t4

and to as oid w rung developments whichcan make adaptation in the longer termeven more difficult.

A few problems are discussed in the fol-lowing, concluding sections.

It is logical and correct to work towardsraising the general level of training. both inview of the expanded service sector andbecause new specifically targeted trainingschemes can only he introduced to a lim-ited extent. Good youth training can givethe individual greater personal secarityand self-esteem and therefore a greaterwillingness to re-adjust.

It is desirable therefore that as many youngpeople as possible undergo youth training.that the general education elements arestrengthened in the initial vocationaltraining schemes and that greater access isgiven to the theoretical. three-yearvocational training schemes at commer-cial school and technical school to supple-ment and compete with general. theoreti-cal youth training (university entrance cer-ti ficate ).

However, these aspects must not lead tothe incorrect conclusion that all youngpeople are the same and are equally pre-pared to accept and benefit from youthtraining with a theoretical emphasis.

It is not sensible if requirements for theo-retical learning in school instruction in theinitial vocational training schemes cause agreater number of young people to give upand abandon the training scheme. Youngpeople must he challenged both voca-tionally and generally. but while respect-ing their different attitudes and abilities.Flexibility with regard to the extent oftheoretical requirements is needed in thesetraining schemes.

Nor is it sensible if the theoretical. generalyouth training becomes a depository ratherthan serious training. because too manyare forced into it due to status considera-tions.

The development within initial vocationaltraining towards a broader range of skillswith opportunities for specialization maybe regarded as being appropriate. The pro-fessional knowledge and ability and theworkplace experience which these train-

ing schemes pros ide will continue to bevaluable for the individual and necessaryfor society. The introduction of elementsto promote for example understanding ofthe environment. respect for the fulfilmentof quality standards and a general serviceattitude can make the training schemesmore forward-looking.

Attempts should he made to introduce newinitial vocational training programmeswithin the service sector into the technicalschools, for example in the area of socialservices and health, in order to create anenvironment which is broader in terms ofattitude and occupation in these schools.

The Danish gos eminent has endeavouredin recent years to give the individualvocational schools and a number of newregional councils representing the localparties in the labour market increasedopportunities to introduce new elementsinto instruction and to implement com-pletely new training schemes dependingon developments in local industry.

These efforts must he welcomed. sincesuch decentralization of the right and dutyof initiative will presumably lead to greatersensitivity tow ards new training require-ments. The efforts apply, both to the initialvocational training schemes and to thevocational continuing training schemes.

Trainees have for hundreds of years soughtsolidarity and identity with colleagues intheir trade as a natural and deep-rootedtradition. The protection and strength w hichbelonging to the trade gave is now indecline. This development means that theindividual increasingly now has to achieveidentity and practical support at theworkplace and among colleagues in thetrade. This change is ohs iously not devoidof problems. either for the individual or forthe orgat izations of the labour market.

An appropriate consequence. On the otherhand. is greater flexibility and emancipa-tion in the relationship between formaltraining and employment. The conse-quences of the structural change willbecome considend less painful if thereis a willingness. on the part of both em-ploy ers and employees. to regard personalskills as being more decisive than the origi-nal, formal training.

Vocational training 2/t9)2

,r.'.4trq"777, 0.7,37.77' CEDEFOP

Education, Training and Employ-ment in Germany, Japan and theUSA - a comparative outline ofproblems

The state of general education as aprerequisiteforvocationaltrainingandthe trends in university attendance areanalyzed in a comparative study ofselected aspects in Germany, Japanand the. USA. Discrimination againstvocational training below universitylevel proves to be a problem world-wide. the form an employment systemhas is not only a variable of differentbehaviourial patterns of companies, itis also strongly shaped by the specificmentality of a nation. Leaving all na-tional differences aside, there are, nev-ertheless, "universals" such as dis-crimination against certain groups insociety, in education, training andemployment.

JoachimMunchProfe.sAOr

JOaChini Mandi.PhD.. I'niver-shy of Kai.sers-lantern Faculty

ofSocial and Economic. Sciences,Chairman °Ph(' theitsgentein-Achaft betriebliche 1Veiterbildukgs-forschung e.V. (Study Group In-house Continuing Training Re-search A.s.soclation). Member of the

Board of the Akademie fur iih-rung.spildagogiA (Academy ofManagement Pedagogy) in Landau.

J

A whole set of basic conditions and influ-encing factors is decisk e for the way aneconomy is set up and for how developedit is. These factors also determine the struc-ture and state of a country's employment.The vocational training system and thelevel of qualifications resulting from it isone of these factors. It is perhaps interest-ing to make a problem-oriented compari-son of vocational training, and in connec-tion with this. of the employment systemsin the worlds three strongest industrial-ized nations and top competitors on theworld market. The limited space availablehere allows me only to point out structuralcharacteristics and to discuss some basicproblems. Nevertheless, we will see. de-spite varying historical, cultural. socialand economic starting points and differ-ences that are to he expected. there are anumber of similarities in the many con-stellations of problems. Because of thetransitory situation and the special prob-lems of the new federal Lander ( states ). the

statements about Germany will generallyrefer to the Federal Republic of Germanyprior to unification.

General education as thefoundation for vocationaltraining

Participation in education, an importantindicator of the education level of thepopulation. measured here by the durationof school attendance and the number ofpersons studying, is high in all three coun-tries. On closer examination. remarkable

differences can he noted, however. in Ger-many, where the typical school system isorganized into Hauptschule (lower sec-ondary). Realschule ( intermediate second-ary) and Gymnasium (academic second-ary). school attendance in most federalLander (states ) is obligatory for nine yearsand in the remaining Lander for ten years.However. more and more young people.are continuing their education beyond themandatory period. attending either aRealschule or more frequently a Gymna-sium. which entitles them to go to univer-sity. 1990, the number of pupils attend-ing a Gymnasium was almost as high asthe number attending a Hauptschule. To-day. over 30(,- of any one age-group ac-quires a certificate entitling to admissionto an institution of higher education.

We can also speak of an "expansion ineducation- in Japan. Mandatory schoolattendance there is nine years throughoutthe country. However. most Japanese at-tend school for I 2 years and over 94°4 earn

an upper secondary school leaving certifi-cate!

In the USA. obligatory school attendanceis not regulated according to the number ofschool years but according to age. In two -thirds of the States. the mandatory age is15. and in one-third of the States (with theexception of Mississippi where pupils canlease school at 14) the mandatory age is17.

If the state of general education in Ger-many, in spite of increasing criticism. isrelatively high. so. too. is it in Japan. Butthat is not the case in the USA American

Vocational training 2/1992 15

1 r;

CEDEFOP

high schools are engulfed in a major crisis.This is also evident in recent estimationsindicating that ov er 30q of young Ameri-cans are so-called dropouts. in other \N orristhey leave high school without a certifi-cate. Not only for this reason but alsobecause of the general school crisis, theilliteracy level in the USA, and here wemean functional illiterates, is especiallyhigh. To make an estimate of 25 millionfunctional illiterates is certainly not over-stated. This has a direct effect on voca-tional training in as far as some companiessee themselves forced to offer remedialleading and writing courses as a prerequi-site for continuing training. This problemcan also he found in the European Com-munity countries. however: "There is infact a serious illiteracy problem in theEuropean Community and as a result. man \

employees are not in a position to partici-pate in high-level continuing trainingcourses or to adapt to the far-reachingtechnological changes. ( Allgemeine andberutl.,'he Bildung / Jugend. Beiheft n.d.p. 4)

It is both interesting and informative tonote that due to the influence of the Ameri-can occupation follow ing the second worldwar. the external structure of the Japaneseeducational s \ stein is very similar to thatof the American sy stem: the results areradically different, however. If, as manyJapanese experts maintain. the high levelof general education is an important pre-requisite for the innovative strength andsuccess of the Japanese economy . then the

desolate state of general education in theUSA can and must he made responsiblefor the plight of vocational training in theUSA and for its flagging economic prow-ess and failing ability to compete interna-tionally . While we can speak of the qualityof schools being relati \ ely homogenous inGermany, this does not apply to Japan andthe USA. This has to do w ith the far moreimportant role of private schools in thesetw o countries. Priv ate schools in the USAare aenerally the better schools. while inJapan it is just the opposite. Making abroad generalization. v e can say the stateof general education in Germany and Ja-pan provides a good prerequisite for ensu-ing vocational training or higher educa-tion. Nevertheless. there is a marked dif-ference between Germany and Japan w ithregard to university admission. In Ger-many. there are no university entrance

tf

examinations, but in Japan these play aital role in the career opportunities avail-

able to young Japanese. Japanese universi-

ties are rated according to a broadly knownand recognized hierarchy of quality andattractiveness: in order to pass an entranceexamination for a respected university.students generally have to attend addi-tional classes at "private coaching schools ".Examinations, including the entrance ex-amination for upper secondary school. playa special role in Japan. This so-called "ex-amination hell" ( Miinch/Eswein. 1992. p.75 ff.) has been discussed critically inJapan by policy-makers for education.

Institutions of higher edu-cation - the future trainingcentres of the nation?

In 1990 for the first time ever. the (old)Federal Republic of Germany registeredmore students (I 585 200) than trainees(1 476 900). but it is misleading to com-pare the total number of students with thetotal number of trainees. Such a comp: i-son obscures the still significant numbersof persons being educated under the dualsy stem because unix ersit \ education takes

twice as long in practice as vocationaltraining in the dual system. Vocationaltraining in the dual system still has para-mount importance in the overall spectrumof educational opportunities in Germany,In 1990.74.$ of the population hem eenthe ages of I 6 and 19 were trainees (Grund-und Strukturdaten. 199 1/1992. p. 106).

Nevertheless. quite a few policy-makersresponsible for vocational training ex-pressed their surprise at this trend and areunsure of how to evaluate the fact thatmore than 3W; of y oung people earn acertificate v hich enables them to attend aninstitution of higher education. On the onehand. education policy-makers and labourmarket politicians agree that the inno\ a-d e ability and economic strength of amodern industrial and ser\ ice-orientedsociety depends on increasingly high quali-fication levels. On the other hand. it is

becoming more and more difficult to fillthe continuing high demand for skilledworkers and middle management such asmaster craftsmen and technicians. Indus-try complains that it is becoming more andmore difficult to find enough suitable ap-

plicants to train in the dual system. At thesame time it promotes the "surge town- ishigher education" offering graduateson the average far greater financial andsocial opportunities than it provides forthose who complete the dual system. Bear-ing this in mind. the behaviour of youngpeople is thoroughly rational. If they are indoubt as to what to do and if their abilitiesallow, they decide on university educa-tion, all the more so since the statisticsshow - at least in Germany. that graduatesare less threatened by unemployment thanemployees who have not enjoyed a univer-sity education.

Of the three industrialized nations dis-cussed here. we can say the USA is the onewhich has assumed to a certain extent apioneer role in the field of educationalexpansion. The number of students attend-ing colleges and universities has contin-ued to increase in the USA since 1970/1971. In 1970/71. there were ahoui8 581 000 students in the USA. while in1986/1987 there were about 12 397 000(Liinderhericht Vereinigte Staaten. 1989.p. 45). This is remarkable considering thatin the USA in contrast to Germanyattending a college or university entailspay ing tuition, which on the ay erage is notas high as in Japan. but in individual casesit is certainly a financial burden for stu-dents and their parents. On the other hand.about every second American student holdsa job - primarily for economic reasons. Onthe whole. American universities ztre. ratheropen regarding admissions. At the sametime this openness permits an extreme"openness for leaving'' too. since almostevery second student drops out of highereducation without obtaining a degree. Incontrast to Germany. dropping out of uni-versity is not considered a "social dis-grace" because one can "weave one's way,.

into the higher education system again atany time. especially through communitycolleges. The average dropout rate in Ger-many, which varies greatly front faculty tofaculty. is estimated to he 25(4. Regardlessof these differences. it is \ slid not only forGermany and the USA but for Japan asw ell that more education and especiallyuniversity education benefits the individualas well as society. As they began after theAmei ;.:ans. it remains to he seen if theJapanese have completed their "educa-tional expansion ''. While the number ofstudents at colleges and uni\ ersities has

Vocational ti:iininy 2/1992

stagnated at a high level over 30Cr of anyone age group), special training schoolsare becoming more important ( Miinch/Eswein 1990. p. 88 ff.). In 1990. therewere L", 252 special training schools w ithapprox. 747 000 pupils. The special train-ing schools seem to he providing an alter-native to studies at a unis ersity. In part thisis due to the gradually changing recruit-ment pattern of companies but also to thechanged attitudes and expectations ofyoung Japanese. ho are no longer willingas a matter of course to endure the pangs of

the "examination hell" so that they mightstudy at a renowned university. The pre-liminary decision on career and social op-portunities within the educational sy stemtogether with its instrument of strictly se-lective examinations and the so-called edu-cational career society are becoming lessstringent in Japan these days e'en thoughthe process is a gradual one. The greateropenness of the higher education system inthe USA has the effect that the struggle forsocial and career status tends to take placeon the labour market. German institutionsof higher education do not have entranceexaminations: \\toe\ er has a final school-leaving certificate may study. The clearincrease in the number of persons leavingschool w ith a final school-leaving certifi-cate. as has been the case in Germany o' erthe last three decades, will also decidesocial and job opportunities and thus so-

=1.1

cial status and occupational positions onthe labour market. It still holds true, how-ever, that anyone who has not attended aninstitution of higher education \. ill defi-nitely he at a disadvantage.

Discrimination againstvocational training- a problem worldwide

Here :ve have a Problem which not onlyexists in the three countries we are discuss-

ing at the mo.nent but is also apparent inthe People's Republic of China, for exam-ple ( Miinch/Risler. 198o1. What is meantis the lower social status of vocationaltraining compared to general education.and the well-known repercussions of thison the decisions taken by parents and chil-dren pertaining to the various educationaland training opportunities. As the resultsof surveys have shown, far more than 50';of parents in Germany. would like to seetheir children leave school with a finalschool-leaving certificate. or in otherwords, with the entrance qualifications toan institution of higher education. Weshould not forget that just 35 years ago.barely more than of any one age-groupleft school with the final school-leavingcertificate. In Germany. easier access to

Vocational training 2/1992

CEDEFOP

general education secondary schools pro-\ ides greater opportunities to attend aninstitution of higher education. While thisdoes not actually threaten the existence ofthe dual system. the core of vocationaltraining for skilled workers, it does erodeit to a certain extent. There is no area oftraining in the USA or Japan comparableto the German system of qualifying skilledworkers. Japan does not have a system fortraining apprentices in the narrow sense.and in the USA it plays such a minimal roleas far as numbers go that it can he disre-garded here. What clearly appears else-whe:e. and in fact within the educationsystem itself, is the paltry value placed onvocational training. Common to both coun-tries and different from Germany is thefact that upper secondary schools offervocational training courses: there are alsoupper secondary schools which expresslycall themselves vocational training tippersecondary schools. In both countries theseschools are not as highly regarded as theirgeneral education counterparts. The proofof an applicant having taken vocationaltraining courses is of no importance tocompanies recruiting upper secondaryschool leavers. In other words: The proofof vocational "qualifications- gained atsuch a Nchool is not valued upon enteringemployment because of the lack of profes-sionalism of the qualifications. At the sametime they reduce the chances of attendingan institution of higher education. Espe-cially in Japan, companies prefer schoolleavers with a solid general education sothey can train them within the company tomeet theirown standards and requirements.

On closer inspection. considerable differ-ences are apparent between the recruit-ment conditions and recruiting practicesof Japanese and American companies. Thedirect transition from school to a companythat provides training is to a certain extent"standard- in Japan. Training and person-nel development ( Miinch/Eswein 1992. p.124 ff.) are highly valued in Japanesecompanies. A fair share oldie new ly hiredemploy ees will later rank as key staff.

hich amounts to employment for life. Incontrast to American firms. Japanese 1-

panics are less interested in maximisingshort-term profits and more interested inlong-term conservation of resources. Fromthis point of . iew . Japanese companiesfeel the considerable in N. est mein in humancapital is worthwhile.

17

CEDEFOP

The secondary labourmarket hi the USA - aqualifications trap?

Different rules apply in the USA. First ofall. attention must he drawn to the prevail-ing principle of -hire and fire- in the USAwhich is both an expression of and a con-dition for the cry common practice ofmoving between companies. In otherwords. whether voluntarily or involuntar-ily. American employees change compa-nies and thus their jobs extremely often.This behaviour is practised as a matter ofcourse by many young Americans wholeave high school and land on what isknown as the "secondary labour market-( Winch. 1989. p. 10 f.). The term is usedto describe the large number of employ-ment relationships( predominantly in smalland medium-sized enterprises) which arecharacterized by minimal job requitementprofiles. low wages. instability. and a lackof career opportunities in particular. Themajority of young people who leave highschool, but also those young people wholeave cllege after one or two years, earntheir living on this secondary labour mar-ket. This ty pe of employment. which mightlast several years and sometimes be inter-rupted by periods of linellIplo ment. isoften - very vividly - called a -flounderingperiod-. The relatively relaxed attitude ofAmericans in regard to frequent jobchanges, employment and unemploymentis an important reason why 16-22 year-olds on the dividing line between schooland employment do not think it necessary

for the time being to have solid vocationalqualifications. This has a thoroughly nega-tive impact on the qualification level of agood part of the American population. Inthis "floundering period-. characterizedby low qualification requirements becauseit is mostly unskilled work they do. youngAmericans not only learn nothing or verylittle during this time. but they also forgetwhat they have learned at high school.This is not very conducive in terms ofeducation or motivatuin to later re-entryinto systematic learning. be it in appren-ticeship training (seldom) or at one of thenumerous two-yearcolleEes ( Miinch. 1989.

p. 68 ff.). w Nell are strongly committed totraining as well as continui training.

Differences in mentalityand the role they play

In assessing different situational condi-tions and patterns of helms lour in variouscountries - such as in Germany.. Japan and

the USA - it is necessary . of course. to takeinto consideration differences in mentalitythat have come about through cultural andhistorical traditions. For instance in Japan.learning is largely regarded as a service tothe community. while a job mentality istypical for the USA. Since the time ofMartin Luther. ss ho added a religious ele-ment and significance to work. occupa-tions and thus, vocational training. despitesonic changes and sonic toning down. haveplayed and still play a major role in Ger-many. Only against this background doesit become ohs ions that training in the dual

system directly after leas ing school is themost natural thing in the world for mostyoung Germans (and their parents). A briefcomparison showing the transition fromschool into the working world in the threecountries discussed here could be formu-lated as follows:

In Japan about one-third of upper sec-ondary school leavers enrol at a university

or a "short university ". A significantlysmaller but growing number acquire avocational qualification at a special train-ing school. The rest go straight into acompany, where they acquire a qualifica-tion. The company bears the sole responsi-bility forthis training, which is tuned to thecompany's specific needs. Learning onthe job and in a group as well as jobrotation ks ithin the group and with thegroup are given high priority.

In the USA 35-4094 of high schoolgraduates enrol at college. ss hi le most other

young people go through a "flounderingperiod- which lasts a flUmber of years andis not very productive in terms of thequalifications they gain. Only lztter do someof them make their way into systematictraining, either at a two-year college. in theform of an apprenticeship training, whichplay s a numerically insignificant role inthe SA or within the framework of train-ing or continuing training at a company.

U In Germany more than 25(4 of any oneage group enrols at university or a special-ized college of higher education: some 10-1 .2(,i join the workforce immediately. whilethe greater percentage of young peoplegenerally commences training under thedual sy stem directly after leaving school.

Various forms of occupa-tional mobility

While high occupational mobility in theform of changing jobs and positions is acharacteristic feature of the Americanworking society, this phenomenon is gain-ing ground in Germany in a different con-stellation. The fact that the majority ofyoung Germans complete their training asskilled workers, and during these three tothree-and-a-half y ears are hound by con-tract to a company. does not mean in theslightest that after completing vocational

18Vocational training 2/1992

21

training a long-term relationship with thecompany and the occupation automati-cally. follows. This has been confirmed inrecent studies (Schongen/Westholf. 1992 ).

In 1989. 56ri of the s orkforce survey, edhad not received a job offer from the com-pany w here they trained. Three years afterthey had completed their training. 39r:i ofall employed skilled workers in the metal-working sector had left the occupationthey had learned and were employed inanother occupation. The situation with elec-tricians was not much different either:3-tq had changed their occupation. Wehave seen that mobility between compa-nies is especially high in the USA: inGermany. as illustrated above, it is by nomeans slight either. Meanwhile there ap-pears to he a gradual change in this direc-tion inJapan as well ( Munch/Eswei n. 1992.p. 167 f.). The exclusk e recruitment ofschool leavers and universik graduatesand their life-long employment entailinghigh mobility within the company (jobrotation in groups) has never been realityin Japan. contrary to information and gen-eralizations that one always collies across.It is estimated that only about one-third ofemployees can be counted among perma-nent core staff. This applies only to large-scale companies. howe er. In other words.even in Japan. the labour market outsidethe company is by no means as lifeless asis often assumed. In this connection. one-sided focusing on large-scale companies

Vocational training 2/1992

in vocational training policy and researchshould he criticised. In all three countries.and the same applies of course to the ECcountries, most of the s orkforce (morethan 90% ) is employed in small and me-dium-sized businesses.

Disadvantaged groups inthe education and employ-ment systems

Not ithstandimg the very different start-ing positions and basic conditions. thereare a great number of similarities when itconies to discrimination against certaingroups of people and employees in theeducation and employ meat systems. Thisapplies to w omen for instance in Germanyand the USA and even more so in Japan byreason of the special historical and tradi-tional position women have in the familyand society. This is also true to a highdegree for ethnic minorities in the USA.where racial discrimination is closelylinked with diminished opportunities ineducation. training and employment. Whatis not so well-know n is that Japan alsodiscriminates against minorities in soci-ety occupation and employment. TheBurakomins are one such group: it w ouldbe impossible for example fora Burakominto find employment in a reputable large-scale company ) Miinch/Eswein. 1992. p.

CEDEFOP

17 ff.). However. Germany is also not freefrom prejudice and discrimination againstcertain uoups in society, above all guestworkers and their children. Education andtraining are decisive factors in determin-ing social and occupational opportunities:He who has learnt little or nothing at all ismore likely to he condemned to unem-ployment and has the least chance of find-ing work again. This close connectionbetween education and training on the onehand and employment opportuniti.es onthe other is alid for all countries. Educa-tion and vocational training policies are atthe same time social and labour marketpolicies as well. This has been recognizednot just in Germany. Japan and the USAbut in the EC countries, too. Although thea' areness is there, it remains to he seenwhether the appropriate consequences willfollow with the force and to the- extentdemanded. The problem of discriminationand the continuing imbalance hem een jobsupply and jot) demand cannot he solvedby vocational training policy alone. Socialand economic policy in particular mustrise to the challenge.

.NlIgemeine und Berufliche Bildung / Jugend. Beiheft:Gemeinsame Stellungnahme /um Zugan /tirberuflichen eitcrhildung. n.d.

Der Bundesminister fur Bildung und Wissen-schaft Grund- und Strukturdaten 1991/1992.Bad !tunnel n.d.

Munch. J.: Das herulliche Bildungsesen in derBundesrepublik Deutschland. (Vocational Trainingin the Federal Republic of German) t. Berlin 1982.3. Autlage 1987.

Munch, J. and M. Risler: Berutliche Bildung in derVolksrepublik China Strukturen. Probleme undEmplehlungen. 1 Vocational Training in the People'sRepublic of China Structures. Problems andRecommendationsi. Luxembourg 1986.

NItinehL.: Berufshi kiting and 13ildung in den t- Bedingungen. Strukturen. Enm icklungen undPnibleme. Berlin 1989.

Munch. J. and M. Esuein: Btldune. Qualifikationland Arheit in Japan VI Mos und Wirklichken.Berlin 1992.

Sehiingen. R. and G. VI esthotT. Berulsv.ege michder Aushildung die ersten dyer ,hre Renate /Lirheruflichen Bildung. Berlin 1992

Statistisches Bundesamt reds. Landerberichtereinigte Stamen 1989 Slinty.irt I9S9.

StatistisehesBundesamt led. LanderherichtJapan19911. Stuttgart 1990.

19

CEDEFOP71,W17.47.7$7'

Initial vocational training inFrance: competition, hierarchyand history

The precise and complex architectureofthe Frenchsystem ofinitialtrainingand the various mechanisms whichregulate its operation mean that it isable in theory to meet a range of eco-nomicand social needs. This apparentharmony masks tensions dating backto the past and arising from changingexpectations and demands on the partof decision-makers, consumers- andusers alibis syStem. Simpte adaptationis not enough to solve that, problems.The identity and function of the vari-ous streams of training need to beredefined so that, they are in keepingwith the operation of the labour mar-ket and the ways in which professionalidentities are constructed.

An overview of the organization of thetraining system in France is attached as anAnnex. The system is structured in twoways: by levels and by streams. Over 600diplomas meeting different occupationalobjectives are distributed among these lev-els and streams.

Levels are defined with reference to a gridof qualification let els developed at the endof the I 960s1 as part of planning work for

Jean-LouisKirsch(Vicer re.11)011-

Sible .1.01

leC1111(1100lal

and vocationaltraining at ("ERE() (Centre jarstmly and research into qualifia-tions).

20

the forecasting of training needs. This ref-erence grid is currently used to classifytraining schemes and diplomas by relatingthem to jobs using a principle of horizontalcorrespondence.

Streams divide the educational systeminto three routes. These are:

the general stream preparing studentsfor entry into long-cycle higher education:

the technological stream from whichstudents move directly into jobs or entershort-cycle higher education of a voca-tional type:

the vocational stream which preparesstudents for diplomas - CAP (vocationalaptitude certi ficate ). BEP ( vocational stud-

ies cenificate) and vocational baccalaur&its(Bac. pro.) - aimed essentially at directentry into working life at various qualifi-cation levels*.

This seems to provide the ideal conditionsfor matching the level and speciality of.any occupation to the list of diplomasavailable e and for di pkurias to provide train-

ing for a specific occupation. This appar-ent order masks ambiguities which de-stroy any correspondence and create- anumber of sources of confusion in theoperation of the educational system and itsrelations with its surrounding environment.

Confused streams

policies from different times. For instance.the distinction between "targeted" highertechnician certificates ( BIS) and the uni-versity diploma in technology (DUT), saidto be more horizontal, which can he justi-fied by the existence of different qualifica-tion needs is in fact the result of keepingtwo diplomas when the initial plans werefor the second to replace the first'. Incontrast. plans to replace the three-yearCAP after class 5 by a two-year CAP afterclass 3. so that it is genuinely compatiblewith the BEP. have not been put intopractice. The development of vocationalbaccalaureats is a further attempt to createa level IV diploma linked loan occupation.following on from those which led to thetechnical certificate ( BT) and the technicalbaccalaureat. Although its success is stillin the balance, it has already led increasednumbers of technological baccalaureatholders to continue their education. fur-ther worsening the already disturbed im-age of the various streams. While 7017( ofthose leaving the final year of secondaryeducation in the general stream continuetheir studies as against 26(7( in the techno-logical stream, in terms of numbers 59 000young people from the general stream endtheir education at level IV in comparisonwith 67 0(10 from the technological streamwith the result that the former are in ratherfavourable competition with the latter forjobs'.

What seems to he a balanced system is Ambiguous qualificationsactually the result of an accumulation of

) There is ako a technical stream Ica ling to atechnical certif icate uttering the possillilit ot

I urthei education. chictl tom ards higher technicians'positions. Th, stream is being m ithdra\%n and theI) pes of training m Inch it (Mei. are being distributedamon_ technological and %ocational bacealaureats.

Barriers and overlaps and the effects ofcompetition and divergence which are notevident at first glance are therefore evidentfrom historical and statistical data. This isthe norm: I picture of a developing system

'ocational training 2/1992

and has analogies with a tree. some ofwhose branches grow faster than otherswhile other branches wither and whichretains the scars of an earlier age in itsmaturity. Attempts are usually made toexplain this development in relation to thedevelopment of the labour market. Unfor-tunately this ty pe of analysis is particularlysimplistic in the French system v here thegap between the training system and theproduction system is % ider than in othersystems'.

It is striking. for instance. that the defini-tions and levels of diplomas are related tooccupational positions by general catego-ries (technical workers. higher technicians.etc.) or by activities carried out (skilled.highly skilled. supervisory. etc.). Thesereferences have been formulated solely bythe training system and do not thereforeprejudge the occupational category Nk ithittwhich indiN. ideals will he classified w henthey obtain jobs. The industr\ -wide col-lective agreements negotiated by the so-cial partners tend to classify jobs ratherthan people or diplomas and reference totraining is not compulsory in these agree-ments. Such references are tending to in-crease. but are rarely as detailed as officialMinistry- of Education documents.

This situation creates a schizophrenic op-erating method. in which the training sys-tem dispenses certain qualifications andthe production system recognizes others,with the result that eN en the term qualifica-tion is confusing and its use raises moreproblems than it soli es. To extend the titleof the work edited by LucieTanguy', therelationship between raining and employ-ment is not impossiole to find, it is psy-chotic.

Recession and contraction

While there %k as full employment. the gaphem een the theoretical model of the train-ing system and the actual operation of thelabour market did not raise any problems.The dual aim of vocational training. i.e.placing people in jobs and continued edu-cation. made it possible to regulate thenumbers of people emerging from the sy s-tem in accordance with the needs of thelabour market. While there was undoubt-edly a hierarchy of training schemes. with

Voiational 2/19t).2

the longer schemes paving the way forbetter paid and socially more prestigiousjobs. the existence of good advancementprospects \\ ithinente1prisesand the devel-opment of continuing training made up forthis initial handicap.

Production system: fewer opportuni-ties for young people

The recession has led to a contraction ofthe labour market for young people whoaccount for a dwindling number of thoserecruited. In 1973 young people accountedfor 15.4% of the 3 980 000 jobs filled. By1984 the number ofjobs tilled had fallen to

CEDEFOP

2 560 000 and young school -leap ers andapprentices accounted for only 12.2%. In1987 (the most recent figures available).more jobs w ere tilled (3 070 000) but theproportion of young people fel! to 11.2%.On these same dates. people changing jobsaccounted for 55.5. 40.8 and 42.2% re-spectively and the unemployed for 4.5.22.7 and 25.7'' respecti\ ely'. In overallterms. people aged under 30 accounted forone third of the working population inemploy meat in 1975 and one quarter in1989.

This w ould seem to indicate that employ-ers prefer to recruit workers who have

itt4til16;Kx

us Anitieljej AralitlXaz..r.1.-ONT

t;1 411111111inigall

WI - is,11 .111-1-1."cn-

tor

j

221

CEDEFOP taw

already been employed rather than youngpeople. This preference tends to he inter-preted as an expression of dissatisfactionwith the performance of the training sys-tem. While this practice existed before therecession, it was limited by the extent ofthe labour demand and the demographicfeatures of the population: the recruitmentof young people depended on a limitednumber of sectors such as building whichacted as staging post and turntable foreconomic activities as a whole.

This preference for the adult populationhas also been encouraged by the growth ofcontinuing training funded by enterprise:the financial contribution made by enter-prise increased from 1.35% to 3.14% oftheir wage bill between 1972 and I 990'.

A time will undoubtedly come when theageing of the population will make it nec-essary to pay more attention to youngerpeople and it may be that the current situ-ation is moving in this direction. since oneof the main problems at the moment is theparadoxical combination of skilled labourshortages in some areas and the extent ofunemployment among increasingly better

trained young people. This has encour-aged the establishment of formulae half -way between training and recruitmentwhich are intended to help young people tomake the transition between school andwork and give employers monitoring andselection abilities which the education sys-tem does not provide.

From the point of view of recruitment.therefore, competition between diplomascomes behind competition between cat-egories of workers able to fill posts. Youngpeople leaving the education and trainingsystem consequently play a regulatory roleand are not given priority.

Educational system: tendency towardsisolation

While the school system reacted at theoutset by keeping people in education forlonger periods, the prolonged recessionhas transformed this short-term answerinto a long-term trend, especially as therestructuring of the working population inemployment has made this developmentnecessary. Between 1982 and 1990. thenumber of manual workers fell by close on

000 000 and the number of agriculturalworkers by 1 000 000. the number of of-fice workers increased by 50(1000. thenumber of intermediate occupations by600 000 and the number of managers by80(1000. Numbers of traders and craftworkers have remained stable.

There has therefore been a substantialgrowth in the demand for people with levelI. 11 or Ill diplomas and a decline in thedemand for level V diplomas. It has beenargued that this level no longer has anyeconomic use because of the placementproblems faced by people leavimg at this1Pvel in comparison with those at higherlevels, as though both categories were aim-i ng for the same jobs. which is not the case.especially in industry. Level V no longerprepares people for direct entry into work-ing life and has taken on a social role.providing help for the less successful. oran introductory role after which peoplecan move on to the higher levels. The firsttrend relates in particular to some CAPsand the second to all BEPs since it ispossible to move on from these to thevocational baccalaurdat. The vocationalbaccalaurdat therefore seems set to kill off

2JVocational training 2/1992

.7; CEDEFOP

The occupational situation of young people two yearsand nine months after leaving the education system

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

10

O

Young school leavers in 1978-1980

I 111:1..

inr. , . an

pectalt.m

I MI11.411,11 .per lisni

100

90

50

70

60

5(1

4(1

30

20

10

i

14

Young sli leavers in 1983-1986

MI"

B:.

lit

141 i

A .: , ....SI"

IIII Is!

Semse,ector pecialtstn

Indutiml pecialNin

5 10 15 20 3(1 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

oi 1%1,

the CAP. although this murder has more todo with the internal regulation of flowswithin the educational system than ss ithchanging economic needs.

From the point of s iew of demand fromtrainees and their families. traini Ilg schemes

are evaluated in terms of the potentialwhich they offer for continued studies andfor access to jobs. making it possible todivide them into three groups: schemeswhich allow for continued education. irre-spective of the vocational skills ororientations which they set out to provide.schemes ss hich provide real potential foremployment and schemes which make itpossible to stay in the training system andavoid any need to face up to unemploy-ment at an early. age. The second group isthe most unstable as there is alss ay s a risk

that it may merge w ith one of the otherswith the result that the socational aims ofa training scheme arc becoming the leastreliable element in any decision. An illus-tration of the first case is provided by theuniversity diplomas in technology DUT).whose selective entrance procedures pro-vide a guarantee of level making it possi-ble to cons ert them into the equivalent of

'ocdtional tratnitv 2/199:1

classes preparing for the colleges of engi-neering". Mention could also he made ofthe recruitment of top-level arts studentswho are inert_ asingly holders of abaccalaurthtt in mathematics and physicalsciences as a result of this same principle.The second group includes most industrialtraining schemes even at level V. The finalgroup includes some general trainingschemes of the literary type. service-sec-tor or office training schemes and thoseindustrial training schemes into which girlsare traditionally channelled (for instanceclothing). The above diagram"' shows thedynamics of this hierarchical development.It shows the substantial differences be-tween industrial and service-sector train-ing specialisms and the increasing impor-tance of a diploma for entry into employ-ment. It also highlights unexpected rival-ries, for instance between general and so-cational streams. Competition hem eendiplomas does not therefore fit into a sim-ple linear hierarchy and the principle ofincreasing the length of education tends topenal lie stuL Ients who have not done sellss it hout clearly improving the situation ofstudents in more las (nimble circumstances,

es eryone is facing growing periods of un-

9 r:

employment in the initial years of workinglife whatever diploma they may possessand whatever its level.

Conclusion

From a historical point of view. tensionsbetween training and production systemshave changed in nature. In the 1970s prob-lems related to the definition and estab-lishment of qualifications and since themid-1980s they have related to social andoccupational integration. This may he anopportunity for those involved in thesetwo systems to establish a genuine dia-logue to replace what has up to nosy oftenbeen no more than interlinked monologues.

The development of alternance formulaeothers them an exceptional opportunity tobring institutions closer together at all les -els from the national to the local. Will thisopportunity he taken'? Will the old demonsof conflict gain the upper hand as indicatedby the current discussions as to whetheralternance schemes should has e schoolstatus or employee status? Depending onthe alternative chosen. the training systemcould really be called socational or sillreina'tt no more than technical.

13

1111117

CEDF FOP ;

Annex:formal perfection andfunctional adaptability

Training levels

Nomenclature of training levels

(Approved by the Standing Committee forVocational Training and Social Ads ance-ment on 21 March 1969)

Level Definition

I and II Staff employ ed in jobs normallyrequiring training to a levelequivalent to or higher than adegree or college of engineeringaward.

111 Staff employed in jobs normallyrequiring training to the level ofthe Higher Technician Certifi-cate or the Diploma of Univer-sity Technology Institutes andthe end of the first cycle of highereducation.

IV Staff employed in supers isoryjobs or possessing a qualificationat a level equivalent to the tech-nical or technician baccalaureatand the technician certificate.

V Staff employed in jobs normallyrequiring a level of trainingequivalent to the BEP (vocationalstudies certificate) and the CAP(vocational aptitude certificate).

Va Staff employed in jobs entailingshort training lasting a maximumof one year. leading in particularto the Certificate of VocationalEducation or any other award ofthis type.

VI Staff employed in jobs not re-quiring education beyond the end

of compulsory schooling.

Diplomas

At the beginning of the 1990 academicyear. there were some 600 diplomas" dis-tributed among the arious streams andlevels

350CAPspecialisms and options ( level

V. vocational stream). "Vocational apti-

24

tude certificates .. certify' a vocational quali-fication. Each vocational aptitude certifi-cate officially recognizes s ocational. tech-nological and general skills sufficient forthe performance of a skilled occupationalactivity (Decree 87-852 of 19 October1982):

:S5 BEP specialisms and options (levelV, vocational stream). "Vocational stud-ies certificates .. certify a vocational quali-fication. Each ,ocational studies certifi-cate officially recognizes vocational. tech-nological and general skills and knowl-edge sufficient for the performance of oneor more activities within an occupationalsector or a function common to severaloccupational sectors- (Decree 87-851 of19 October 1987):

26 vocational baccalaureat specialismsand options ( level IV. vocational stream)."The vocational baccalaureat is equis a-lent to the upper secondary leas ing certifi-cate. It certifies that its holders are able toperform a highly skilled occupational ac-(is ity" (Decree 86-379 of 11 March 1986):

18 technological haccalaureat special-isms and options (level IV. technologicalstream). "The technological baccalaureatis equivalent to the upper secondary' leav-ing certificate. It certifies that its holdersare able to perform a technician activity-(Decree 86-378 of 7 March 1986):

1111 8 general baccalaureat specialisms(level IV. general stream). allowing regis-tration at university:

101 higher technician certificatespecialisms and options (level i l 1, techno-logical stream). "The higher techniciancertificate .. certifies that its holders areable to occupy higher technician posts inindustrial or commercial professions. inservice activities or in applied arts activi-ties- (Decree 86-496 of 14 March 1986):

30 university technology diplomas( level III. technological stream) "whichpreparefm technical and professional man-agement tasks in some sectors of produc-tion. applied research and services- (De-cree 84-1004 of 12 November 1984).

Leaving aside general baccalaureats, thislist shows that there are tss 0 types of di-ploma at each level intended to meet dif-

L'!,11r--777

ferent needs: diplomas v hich offer spe-cialization (CAP, Bac. pro. BTS) and di-plomas which offer more general skills(BEP. BTs. DUT) making it simpler tofind correspondences between training and

employment.

Adjustment procedures

Adjustment of the quality of trainingscheme and diploma content is the respon-sibility of the Consultative ProfessionalCommissions. Since 1983 these Commis-sions have operated on a regular basiswithin the Ministry of Education and carryout a five -y early' review of the technologi-cal and vocational training schemes at-tended by the largest numbers of trainees.They have also trimmed existing trainingschemes, in particular by discontinuingobsolete schemes: the number of CAPspecialisms offered has therefore beentrimmed from 317 in 1974 to 243 in 1990.

9 "

Key

BAC School-leas i ng certificate

BAC-Pro School-leaving certificate v ithspecialization

13EP Vocational studies certificate

13T Technical certificate

BTn School-leas Mg certificate. spe-cialization in technology

BIS Higher technician certificate

CAP Vocational aptitude certificate

CEP Vocational training institute

CPA Pre-apprenticeship preparatory

year

CPPN Pre-s ocational training pre-

DUT

pastor year

L'niversity diploma in technol-ogy.

Orientation for technical andpreparatory school-leaving cer-tificate

1UT I. ni versi ty institute of technol-ogy

STS Short preparatory trainingcourse for higher technicians

DEUG I. niversity degree

ocational tratrung 2/19,12

Organization of the education and training system

Dili, ma

ktorate

111.1,1Cf

__degreeHealth training

includingmedicine 1)1.1.11

pliarmacdentiqr

- .cienceeconomic science,

A

13accalaureat

Final class

Class I

.i Class 2

'

.. .

Bin BT

BT

-F.11'6E17

'4-

I lirIowa

C1.1, 3

Class 4

Class 5

(la,

171

BT

BT

A

A

RAC Pro

BTS

STS

A A

CEDEFOP

Diploma

1)IP1.6N1\ CirandesECOLES

Specialist CPCiticolleges

. .

131:1) CAP . CAP

in 2 yc...c.

4.

Class 3CEP

Class 4 I

CEPtechnologA

-J

A A

Final

Nlain Ilo\ts of

Main nom., ofcontinued education

Idementar dear 2

I:lenient:1r> ear I

Priniar ear 2

Primar ear I

Preparatin!. classage ()

tirser school,

. Supplememar trainingpeople ;mending these

courses are considered toha% e entered V. orking ItieI

in 3 ur. I

class tpreparaian

da., 4prep.naton

CAI)

Oar ,

tram+,

I

CPI'

CPPN

A A

r Vocational andj educational education

NB. Fach iepresents I ear of education. ev_ept for preschool t age 2 to 51 and higher education

Source Statist i. al inlormation on 4:(11.1C:111011 :111(1 limning

Vocational training 2/19929

25

CEDEF

Consultative professional commissionsDecree 72-607 of 4 July 1972

Article 1 - Each Minister responsible forcontinuing vocational training or techno-logical education establishments orschemes may establish. by decree. con-sultative professional commissions.

It shall he mandatory for each of thesecommissions to deal with one of thebranches of activity set out in the tableannexed to this Decree.

Each commission shall comprise:

an equal number of representatives ofemployers and workers proposed by themost representative union organizations:

representatives of the public authori-ties appointed by the Ministers concernedand including. in any event, a representa-tive of the Minister for Labour. Employ-ment and Population and a representath eof each of the Ministers competent in re-spect of the nature of the training schemesto be examined by the Commission and arepresentative of the centre for study andresearch into qualifications (CEREQ):

qualified persons from the public orprivate sector. selected because of theirprofessional activities or work, includingrepresentatives of teaching personnel andrepresentatives of chambers of commerceand industry, chambers of trade or cham-bers of agriculture.

Each commission may establish. for theexamination of certain problems. perma-nent or temporary sub-commissions orworking parties which may include. inaddition to those of its members whichhave been appointed thereto. any personwhose presence would he likely to benefitthe research in question. (...).

Article 2 Consultative professional com-missions shall lOrmu late. from the study ofprofessional qualifications, opinions andproposals:

1. on the definition, content and develop-ment of training schemes in the profes-sional sectors for which they are responsi-ble:

2. on the development of training re-sources as a function of trends in employ-ment vacancies and the needs of the sectorof actix ity in question:

3. on questions of a technical and educa-tional nature linked to the formulation andapplication of programmes. training meth-ods and their recognition.

They may be instructed to examine anygeneral or specific question relating to thetechnological education and trainingschemes coming under the responsibilityof the Ministry by which they have beenestablished.

List of consultative professional com-missions

1. Agriculture and allied activities2. Mining industries and construction

materials3. Iron and steel and initial processing of

metals. mechanical engineering. elec-tricity. electrical engineering, electron-ics

4. Glassworking and ceramics5. Building and public works6. Chemicals7. FoodstuffsR. Textile and allied industries

Clothing9.

10. Wood and derivatives1 I . Transport and maintenance12. Audiovisual and communication tech-

nologies13. Applied arts14. Other industrial activities1 S. Marketing technologies16. Administratis e and management tech-

nologies17. Tourism, hotels. leisure18. Other service-sector activities19. Personal services20. Health and social sector

Adjustment of quantity at national levelis based on the principle of the dualobjective of technological and vocationaltraining. i.e. that it is possible. at each stagerepresented by a diploma. for trainees tocontinue their education or to enter work-ing life. The principle of continued educa-tion is set out in the decrees establishingeach of the diplomas in question. It is thuspossible to continue in the same stream.for instance from the CAP to the BEP.

from the BEP to the Bac. pro. or from theBTn to the DUI'. or to change stream. forinstance from the BEP to the BTn or fromthe 13Tri to long-cycle higher education.

Adjustment procedures also make provi-sion for some thirty or so supplementaryendorsements, under which CAP or BEPexpertise can he built on over a year in a

cry specialist field (gemology. auditing.etc.).

Bih'iographs

1. Affichard Jodie: "Nomenclature de formationet pratique de elassement-. Formatiomemploi. 4.October December 1953.

2. lielbenoit Beatrice: "Les ont-ils etccktourn6'!" in "Le ilk eau III de urination IBIS.

crise de eniksancr Collection des Ettide,,du CERF.Q. 1991.

3. Guilliet Ite:atrice, Pottier Francois: "Insertionprolessionnelle et recrutement des jeunes au Ms eaudu baccalannal in -Nis eau IV de lormation etbaccalaurL'als pn,lessionnels-. Collect in des Etudesdu ('ERF.Q. 49. April 1989.

4. Campinos-Dubernet '.11)riam. Grand() Jean-Nlarc. -Formation professionnelle ou%ino&les curop,:ens-. Formatiomemploi. 22. April-June 1988.

5. "I.' introu able relation tot illation/0111,1ov'.Collectie lurk edited b Lucie Tangu .

1)ocuincination rancaise. 1986.

h. Audier Florence: "Les ieerutements desentreprises depuis I5 ails-. Economic et Statisuque.216. December 198s.

7. Antal Francoise, Gehl!) Jean-Paul. "Aires desjeunes a lemploi et mobilite des act its: les emploisdeecution-. 1-ormation-Emploi. Ili. April-June1957.

S. "Statistiques de la 1 mutation prof cssionnellecontinue linanct:e par les entreprises itraitement desdeclarations d'eninlo>eurs no. 2453i A nni,:e, t 989_

199(1". I .a 1)ocumentation Francaise, 1992.

9. ('I-REQ. 1)EP. "I .e ni,eau III de formationtivrs. 1)LT ( 'rise de croissancer. Collection desEtudes du CI REQ. htl. a s ember on!

1(1. Taken from CEREQ-BREF. 58. "La dttieilcinsertion protessionnelle des jeunes.. b PottierFrancois and Zilberman Serge. October 1990.

11. Not including 94 technical certificate specialism,and options due to he discontinued. -The certificate

aided to candidates v.ho successfull pass thecsaminations .hosts the soeational specialism. thetitle of chartered technician in any other de.ignationin use in the profession in question is linked to thepossession of a certificate" (Decree 64-42 of 14Januar!. 19641.

12. Iinistrn of Education. Youth ald Sport"Anallieat 110111eflelaltIrt2 of the training pro% isionof the Miniqr) of 1..ducation.) mall and Sport (second-e eh: technical education and lughet technicians)...1959 edition. published on 15 Vla 1959.

9 ",26 Vocational training 2/1992

CEDEFOP

Secondary training in PortugalExperimenting with different types of organization and rela-tionships with the employment market

The first part of this paper examinesthe position of secondary trainingwithin the Portuguese education sys-tem and disCusses basic technologicaleducation within compulsory educa-tion. A brief presentation is then givenof how the three main sub-systemsaimingat providing students with gradeHI vocational qualifications - second-ary technical courses, training col-leges and apprenticeships - are organ-ized and strive to link 'up with theemployment market. Finally, mentionis made of assessment currently takingplace to evaluate the relevance of theresponses which have only recentlybeen tested.

The Basic Law of the Education Systempassed in Portugal in 1986 and now beingimplemented almost universally providesfor a secondary education system organ-ized unlike systems usually found in theother Member States of he European Com-munities. Instead of the normal two cycles.our new secondary education consists of asingle three-year cycle between the 10thand 12th years of education (15-18 agegroup) and follows 9 years of compulsorybasic education ( 1st cycle 4 years. 2ndcycle 2 years and 3rd cycle 3 years). Inaddition. it differs from the training sys-tems of sonic of our Community partnersin thz.: the Portuguese system does not

LuisImagincirioVisiting lecturerat the Faculty 0/Psychology andEducationScience at the

University of Oporto. Asivlaill tothe Secretary of .State for Basic andSecondary Editatiolt.

Vocational training 2/1992

otter alternative training routes until afterthe compulsory 9 years of basic education.There are then basically 4 alternatives avail-able: a) secondary courses designed pri-marily for continuing studies, h) second-ary courses designed principally for work-ing life or secondary technological courses.cltraining colleges and d ) apprenticeships.where training alternates with employ-ment.

Such an organization of the basic andsecondary education systems. which ofcourse influences the structure of trainingactivities which are an alternative to them.has doubtless advantages, but it alsopresents certain difficulties: in fact. theseadvantages and disadvantages lie preciselyin the contribution made by the trainingsystem towards the initial preparation ofpeople for working life. Among the advan-tages. the at least potential - clarity of thesystem, which clearly distinguishes gen-eral basic training common and neces-sary for all young people from secondarytraining. where the equally essential diver-sification takes place. Another equallybeneficial point derived from the organi-zational logic of the system is that thechoices among alternative training coursesdo not have to be taken until the end of the9th year of schooling. i.e. at about 15 yearsof age. This is an age when. from what isknown about the vocational developmentof young people, schooling will have helpedto minimize some of the constraints whichquite often seriously affect the develop-ment of training and vocational projectswhich are less in line with family aspira-tions and expectations or not determinedto the same extent by social. economic andcultural factors.

The most salient difficulty arises from thefact that basic education itself does notoffer alternatives for pupils who do notcomplete compulsory education - thosewho leave early and/or fail academically

:3

(who still amount to about 45(4 of those inbasic education) and do not go on to sec-ondary education. Another possibly greaterdisadvantage can he found in the configu-ration of a basic education curriculum hay-ing the general characteristics describedearlier and, especially in our case, assign-ing to technological education a place inthe 3rd cycle (7th. 8th and 9th years ofschooling. 12-15 years age group). Thereappears to he no doubt that basic techno-logical education. on the one hand, a) is anarea of learning as valuable as, say, firstlanguage teaching. physical education ormathematics. b) involves acquiring skillsand adopting attitudes leading to a willing-ness and systematic ability to understandand work in a physical or social environ-ment in which maximum use is made oftechnology. not only hard. but especiallynew technology, c) increases the chance ofoverall success in the education of youngpeople who. in this area of learning morethan in others, are encouraged and moti-vated to develop a positive self-imagewhich will then facilitate efforts in otherareas - failure leads to failure. but successcan also lead to success. On the other hand.die 7arding basic technological educa-tion would have serious educative conse-quences in terms of the cognitive and socio-affective development of young peopleand adversely affect the emergence of theirinterest in technology. thus narrowing theirrange of options of training, vocationaland life projects. However, aside fromthese quasi-certainties there are still doubtsabout the actual way. or ways, of makingbasic technical education effective, andeven about its specific objectives. Shouldit he an independent subject or an exten-sion of other subjects? Oral!. or only somesubjects? Which? Which areas of technol-ogy should he exploited? Is all technologyto be covered? How? "Vocational initia-tion- objectives'? Possibly. but surely notin the sense that young people would he

27

CEDEFOP

taught a number of specific vocationalskills which would he immediately mar-ketable in the world of employment. Fur-thermore, what is the connection hews eonthis basic technological education and theCommunity recommendation that nooung person should enter employment

without having had the opportunity of atleast one year's vocational training? How-ever, this question is still open and we feel

that the solution adopted, i.e. technologi-cal education as a separate subject in the3rd cycle of basic education. which schoolsmust provide but which is optional forpupils. must he review ed after a short time.

This need for review derives from theconviction that much of the success orfailure in secondary training. especiallytraining which explicitly and primarilyaims at teaching intermediate vocationalskills. will depend more decisively on suc-cess or failure during the preceding 9 yearsof basic schooling which include dimen-sions of technological education than onthe structure of the secondary training it-self. This is another reason for our insist-ence in dwelling on this point, which is toa certain extent an starting point fm- theanalysis of this secondary training. ananalysis which will he restricted to the w ay- different. but presumably complementary- the training is organized to satisfy therequirements of the employ meat market.

We have dealt only with technologicalcourses at training colleges and in theapprenticeship system all equivalent tothe 12th year of schooling. to secondaryeducation, and all presumably teaching

grade Ill vocational skills complying withthe European Communities Council Deci-sion of 1 July 1985 on the classification oftraining grades. and as such all fulfillingthe conditions for a certificate. (Appren-ticeships. and to a limited extent trainingcolleges. also provide grade 11 trainingopportunities, which offer an alternatiyofor students who do not complete the 9years of compulsory basic education in thenormal education system and which at thesame time ensure that these students ac-quire this vocational qualification. Thistype of training. which therefore satisfiesone of the difficulties in our basic educa-tion previously indicated, i.e. its relativelack of differentiation, will not he exam-ined here.)

Technical courses are so-called "normal-forms of school education: in other words.

they are systematic (complete at their level )

and regular (part of the "normal" progres-sion through the various stages of the edu-cation system). Training colleges coursesand apprenticeships are, to use the sameterminology. "special- types of schooleducation. i.e. they provide systematictraining (for the reasons given). but theyare not regular (because they do not formpart of the "normal- progression throughthe education system). (Both contrast withthe modalities of extra-scholastic training.which is neither systematic nor regular butrather selective and unconnected. since itdoes not constitute a complete trainingcycle per se nor does it fall within the"normal- progression of the training sys-tem. This type of training is not beingexamined here either). Some of the termi-nology we have just used exists alongsideanother terminological framework adoptedunder legislation in October 1991. whichconsiders technological courses and voca-tional school courses as "vocational train-ing within the education system" and theapprenticeship system as "vocational train-ing on the employment market'', the formerbeing the responsibility of the Ministry ofEducation and the latter that of the Minis-try of Employment and Social Security.Essentially, however, these differences innomenclature do not affect the systematicnature of the types of training they de-scribe. which besides explicitly claim acommon conceptual framework in theabove legislation.

Technological courses. training collegesand the apprenticeship system have identi-cal entry conditions (the 9th y ear of school-ing or equivalent. grade 11 at a trainingcolleges or in an apprenticeship). the sametraining structure although names aresometimes different (general or sociocul-tural training. scientific training, techni-cal/technological training. technical/prac-tical training) and the number of hoursmay vary, the average duration is similarmore time is spent on training during the

three years at training colleges than atthree year technological courses as moretime is oiven to simulated practice. and inthe ...ur years of sonic apprenticeshipstmwe time is spent on practical work I.

The aim of technological courses. of w hickthere are only eleven mainly covering themajor technologies. is to put over an O\ er-

all idea of the development of t and work

f.)I .A.

9.S

in) the organizations. Giving the option ofa very limited number of technologicalcourses is equivalent to eiving precedenceto a sound, scientifically well-based cul-ture through large areas of technologyutilized in various ways by the differenteconomic activity sectors, to the detrimentof the chance of acquiring specializationearly in fairly limited fields of application,therefore running the risk of letting thosewith these specializations soon being de-prived of the latest skills. The decision tolimit the teaching of vocational skills insecondary courses within normal educa-tion to the major technologies is equiva-lent to giving priority to the acquisition ofprocedures rather than content. in so far as

more value is put on the development ofskills. attitudes and reactions associatedwith a technology - encouraging continualautodidactic investment in training itself(learning how to learn ) - rather than on theinitial acquisition of skills and knowledgein very specific areas. which may he out ofdate on the medium or even short termbasis.

Each of these courses is a "common trunk"at the end of which are different "terminalspecializations... The "common trunks"give the courses their identity: they aretheir scientific/technical bases. supporting"specializations- which may or may not hecontemporary. since a "specialization'learnt at any given time may ultimatelybecome out of date. These "terminalspecializations- are equivalent to differentareas of application of the basic technol-ogy of the "common trunk" in the variouseconomic activity sectors: chemistry forinstance, a basic technology., has variousapplications in areas such as oil. the foodindustry or tanning, while the areas ofapplication of administration, another ba-sic technology will he secretarial work,accountancy or taxation. The "terminalspecializations-, which must not destroythe vital "common trunks-, may be organ-ized in different ways which may he com-bined. as they do not exclude each other: a)

in the form of subjects in the course cur-riculum. b) in the form of "work experi-ence". again during the course. c) in theform of "terminal training periods- afterthe course. or coinciding partly with itscompletion.

Technological courses. which are provided

nationally on the initiative of the Ministry

Vocatinnal udining 2/1992

of Education, are generally spread acrossall secondary schools. The option of aspecific "terminal specialization" is, how -ever. the responsibility of the schools them-selves and. van from their traditions. ini-tiative and resources, depends on theirability to mobilize the appropriate peopleand organizations in their local communi-ties and on their requirements in employ-ment market terms. This organization ofsecondary technical courses, also subjectto a process of validation which. being"imported" from training colleges. willlater he structured, also responds to therequirement that the courses must he at-tractiY e. therefore competitive with gen-eral secondary courses primarily designedfOrconti nu ing studies: both types of courses

- not being two distinct routes - must heprovided by all secondary schools.

There are now about I 50 training collegecourses! They have been provided to sat-isfy the specific requirements of regionaland even local employment markets as aresult of which they are supposed to he setup. In spite of the fact that these collegesreceive financial, technical and pedagogi-cal assistance from the Ministry of Educa-tion. they are the result of initiatives by thepublic. by employer organizations. tradeunions or professional associations, localauthorities. social welfare institutions andother bodies. Although the curricula in-cludes constraints relating to scientific and.in particular. general training components.the promoters have considerable libertyover the technical training content. w Inchaccounts for 50(4 of the curriculum, and itis here that the di ersity of training starts.Din ersity is also possible since attendanceat regional or local courses is generallylow and since this type of training is pro-vided alongside national secondary tech-nical education, which, as we have seen.cos ers a far wider area.

Before technical courses and courses pro-\ ided by training colleges are made a\ aiMe to the public. they are submitted to thevalidation referred to earl ier.This in \ ol \ estesting them on people. organizations andinstitutions representing the various areaof training and location and/or activitysector (employers. professional zissocia-tions, higher level training institutions.organizations representing the actin itiesand other bodies). A brochure is preparedfor each course projected or offered, w rit-

Vwational training 2/1992

ten to he understood by both those experi-enced in training and those who under-stand employment. The brochure a) indi-cates the area, grade and adjacent grades ofthe course ("training reference"), b) iden-tifies the jobs for which it is to provideskills ("job reference") and c) forecasts jobprospects ("employ meat reference").These initiatives are of course still at a veryearly stage. therefore have no backgroundand are still far from established. They are,however, generally- well accepted. as theyhas e come up to expectation and achieved

their objectives, which were both to testthe relevance of course training profiles inrelation to the skills that they are designedto teach and to publicize these trainingprofiles together with lists of potentialemployers. holders of skills and higherlevel training institutions. so as to facili-tate entry to the employment market or tocontinuing training on a short. medium orlong term basis.

Apprenticeship courses provide a t\ pe ofresponse different from training collegecourses with which. owing to their specificnature. they are for the most part compara-ble. Thus. while in the case of trainingcolleges the balance between training pro-\ ided and labour required is achieved prin-cipally on a regional or local basis, in thecase of apprenticeship this balance is sought

principally within the economic actin itysector. Besides. this is zt concern which,apart from having innate legitimacy. isalso justified because the apprenticeshipsystem was to a certain extent created toprovide grade II training, where the logicof economic activity sectors possibly pre-dominates. This logic naturally now "con-taminates" grade III training. which doesnot conform to it as easily unless it is acontinuation of grade II training, as isoften the case. The balance sought in train-ing colleges is obtained by means of thevalidation process referred to earlier. Inapprenticeship it is decided by special tech-

nical committees. then sanctioned by anational body such as a committee of atripartite nature (the social partners andthe Go \ eminent ).

Training colleges and the apprenticeshipsy stem are also equally imul5ed in thetrial. conducted separately however, tode \ clop a modular curriculum - which isstill at an earls stage. but appears ti have atleast two important potentials. In initial

CEDEFOP

and complete training on the one handoriginally provided by training collegesand apprenticeship the modular structuremay facilitate the adaptation of trainingprofiles to employment market require-ments, permitting flexibility and greatspeed in linear curriculum development.On the other hand. in recurring trainingdesigned for persons with a wider range ofacademic qualifications, vocational andlife experience which can also he offeredby training colleges and apprenticeshipsthe modular structure will enable trainingprofiles to he designed so that they canteach equivalent skills but at a learningtempo more suited to individuals.

It is not possible here and now to form aworthwhile opinion on each of the sub-sy sterns. especially from the perhaps re-stricted point of view of their ability toteach what is intended, i.e. intermediateskills which can actually he used On theemployment market. since at present therearc only holders of secondary educationdiplomas. but from technical/vocationalcourses on whose assessment is also basedthe structure of the new technologicalcourses, which are derived directly fromthem following substantial restructuring.Full assessment of both training collegesand apprenticeship is currently being car-ried out. and it is universally recognizedthat on-going systematic observation of alltypes of secondary training is essential.These forms of training probably requiremodification even quite considerable re-form. How ever. it appears to be expectedthat potentials will he revealed which wouldensure a beneficial diversity and guaranteethe complementary nature of the trainingas ail:able, the network of which will nev-ertheless need ,o b_ adapted in order totake into account geographical and demo-graphic variables. sectors of economicactivity and areas of training. This is prob-ably the most critical variable. There w illcertainly he a place for secondary trainingat national, regional and local level forthose areas where vital practice is lackingand for those where simulated practice issufficient. for those from individual sec-tors and those from more than one sector.It should not be forgotten that results mustbe assessed not only for immediate em-ployability but also for job mobility andprogress in careers and es en mailabilityand desire for more thorough initial train-ing.

CEDEFOP

Initial vocational education inthe Netherlands:current developments

This paper outlines the Dutch systemof vocational education and describesrecent and current policy develop-

! ments, looking pcirticukrly atthe vari-ous forms of initial training and atmoves to improvecoordination betweenthem. The main focus is on main-stream provision at colleges of inter-mediate vocational education and onthe apPrenticeship system (the dualtraining path). Other forms oftrainingto a comparable level are discussedincidentally.

Dutch vocational educationin brief

The Dutch system of vocational educationhas three main components. college-basedcourses. apprenticeships and continuingtraining.

U Mainstream vocational education inschools and colleges

Aside from the prevocational ( LBO I

schools for the 12-16 age range. there areinstitutions at the upper secondary ( post-16) level (intermediate vocational educa-

J. Frietmanis a member ofthe eicademicstaff ofEducation,Labour Marketand IndustryResearch

Department of the NijmegenInstitute of Applied Social iemes

30

tion. M BO) and at the higher level (highervocational education. HBO. and univer-sity education. WO).

We look first at vocational education atupper secondary level. Initial in nature, itprepares youngsters for agricultural. tech-nical. business and caring occupations andexists in both a two -year variant (shorterintermediate vocational education.KMBO) and a full-length ( three- or four-year) variant. Depending on the nature andduration ()Idle course students may qualifyas junior craftspersons. autonomouscraftspersons. junior managers or inde-pendent entrepreneurs. Courses are largelycollege-based, with periods of work expe-rience on employ ers' premises: these workplacements vary in length from a few weeks

to a year.

Vocational courses at unix ersi ties and col-leges of higher vocational education pre-pare students lOr senior (managerial ) posi-

tions.

Apprenticeship system(cf the German

dual system)

The apprenticeship system. which pre-pares trainees for a wide range of occupa-tions and occupational sectors, operates atthree le% els. primary (elementary ). sec-ondary (advanced) and tertiary ( higher).The primary courses lead to qualificationsat junior-craftsperson level and the sec-ondary to autonomous-craftsperson level:the tertiary courses go a step further. pre-paring students for independent entrepre-neurship or management positions.

It is aboN e all its dual nature that marks offthe apprenticeship system from college-based initial v °cat ional training: at its heart

is the principle of -learning while youwork

Primary apprentice training, which gener-ally lasts two or three y ears. involves prac-tical work experience (normally for fourdays a week) supplemented by one day aweek of off-the-job education and train-ing. The practical component is the core ofapprenticeship courses. and developmentsin industry are thus a major determinant oftraining in terms of both quantity and qual-ity: both the number of training place-ments available and the content and qual-ity of the practical component depend pri-marily on economic. organizational andtechnical developments in employing or-ganizations.

Continuing tmining

Continuing training is outside the main-stream college-based and apprentice-train-ing systems: its purpose is to update orupgrade participants' knowledge and skillsor to prepare them for occupational changeand thereby to meet the training needs ofspecific sectors or firms. It is generallyrelated to particular jobs.

Courses may be developed and deliveredby sectors of industry (sectoral organiza-tions and/or trade unions) or individualfirms or by commercial or non-commer-cial training agencies. In some cases train-ing initiatives devise from provisions incollectk e agreements between centralemployers' organizations and trade un-ions.

Relationship between thedifferent forms of post-16vocational education

This section looks at the relationship be-tw een intermediate ocational educationin its full-length (WO ) and short (KMBO)forms and the apprenticeship system.

Vocational training 2/1992

The roots of shorter intermediate voca-tional education (KMBO) go hack to themid 1960s. When the Secondary Educa-tion Act 1964 came into force it becameclear that there was a gap in the secondstage of secondary education on the voca-tional side: for many younusters the re-quirements for admission to a full M130course were too stiff. while the shortage ofwork-and-training places in industry meantthat often they were unable to enter anapprenticeship course. KM BO courses thusfilled a "gap in the market" and as suchhelped create a coherent and integratedsystem of wcational education at uppersecondary level in the Netherlands.

Like primary apprenticeship courses.KM BO courses lead to qualifications atjunior-craftsperson level. but there is littleif any movement of students between thedual and the college-based systems. Thereis also little movement between the ap-prenticeship sy stem and full-length M130courses. either during or at the end oftraining.

Movement within the MBO system, ftomthe shorter to the full-length courses, is intheory more likely, but in practice bothhorizontal and vertical transfer is rarer

than had been expected, probably owing tothe differences of level.

As the next section will show, the relation-ships between the different types of course(MBO. KM BO and apprenticeships) andways of improving their coordination areamong the central themes of the currentdebate on the shape of vocational trainingin the Netherlands.

Policy measures relating tointermediate vocationaleducation (MBO) and theapprenticeship system

This section outlines the main policy meas-ures aimed at solving problems at the in-terface between education and employ-ment and at responding to industry's chang-ing needs.

Measures concerned with intermediatevocational education (MO)Sector formation and renewal

Immediately following cabinet agreementsreached in 1986 on the structure of M130.a programme of "Sector Formation and

CEDEFOR

Renewal in Intermediate Vocational Edu-cation- ( SVM ) was launched with the aimof creating an expanded and differentiatedsystem of vocational education at the in-termediate level through the formation ofsectoral colleges and the renewal of courseprovision.

The process of sector formation, whichinvolved college mergers and the creationof larger institutions, is virtually complete.and there are now 140 sectoral or multi-sectoral MBO colleges.

The completion of this part of the pro-gramme was the starting signal for itssecond phase. the renewal of course provi-sion. Research into the way MBO collegeshave given shape to course renewal hasfound among other things that most haN elaunched renewal activities ( Pelkmans andDe Vries. 1991). mainly involving im-provements to the intake. a movementtowards modular and flexible course struc-tures. the substantive integration of theshorter and full-length courses and im-provements in yield (i.e. student successrates).

Sectoral consultations

National consultations between the worldsof education and employment at the levelof the various sectors of industry began inthe course of 1988 with the recognition ofthe Sectoral Training Councils (BOOBS).The main stimuli for the establishment ofconsultati e procedures at sectoral levelwere as follows:

the concept of vocational educationand training as a joint responsibility ofemployers, unions, government and edu-cational institutions. This was a theme ofthe Open Discussion prompted by the rec-ommendations issued in the early 1980sby the Wagner Committee. These recom-mendations were concerned among otherthings with removing mismatches betweentraining and the needs of industry .

the government's 1986 policy docu-ment on the development of occupationalprofiles and curricula in vocational educa-tion. This paper set out the infrastructure.in the form of sectoral consultative bodies.for the development from occupationalprofiles agreed by employers and unionsto training profiles which could serve asthe basis for curriculum dex elopment.

Vocational training 2/1992 31

1-

CEDEFOP

the paper on sectoral consultations be-tween the worlds of education and em-ployment, in which a working party fromthe Secondary Education ConsultativeForum (00V0 ) made proposals for thenumber of types of consultation, the com-position of consultative bodies, the appor-tionment of the available budget and soon.

The purpose of sectoral consultations is toensure that training courses fora particularindustrial or occupational sector meetemployers' needs. Educational institutionsand the two sides of industry work to-gether on this task through the govern-ment-recognized Sectoral Training Coun-cils mentioned earlier.

The Councils' output takes the form ofdocuments setting out learning targets -what students are expected to know and tobe able to do on completing their courses

which provide the foundations on whichcolleges base their courses.

Dualization

In its final report, issued in May 1990. theRauwenhoff Committee (officially the"temporary advisory committee on educa-tion and the labour market") recommendeda number of radical changes to the content,organization and funding of vocationaleducation. It also proposed changes to therelationship between colleges, firms, gov-ernment and students and in the variousparties' respective responsibilities, withthe latter being clearly laid down.

Among the Committee's central proposalswas that the entire vocational-training sys-tem he dualized, reflecting its belief that amore intensive interaction between voca-tional education and practice would help

minimize mismatches at the interface be-tween training and work. The Committeealso felt that dualization would raise edu-cational standards and student success rates.While the recommendations covered vo-cational education as a whole, the initia-tives now being developed relate mainly tothe dualization of the MBO sector.

New legislation

On I August 1991 the new VocationalTraining Act (WCBO) came into force.Governing training services provided tofirms etc., it relates to college-based train-ing within the apprenticeship system( B BO). full-time and part-time intermedi-ate vocational education ( MBO) and insti-tutions providing "specific training" (bywhich is meant training outside the officialapprenticeship system, post-MBO courses.training activities run by employment of-

Figure 1 - The Dutch education and training system

Age groupAdult

22 years

19-20y ears

18 years

18 years

17 years

It) y :ars

12 years

4 years

nkersityeducation(W())(4 years)

Higherocational

training(111301(4 years)

Academicsecondaryeducation(VWO)(6 years)

Highergeneralsecondaryeducation(IIAVO)(5 years)

Continuing training (updating, upgrading. retraining)

Intermidiatexoeationaleducati( HI

(NIRO)(3-4 years)

Intermediategeneralsecondaryeducation(N1AVOI

ears)

Primary education (8 years)

Apprentice:raining(pri(ttary.secondary.tertiary )(2 years)

V

I Amervocationaleducation(1.130)(4 years)

Specialeducation

32 3 Vocational training 2/1992

fices. private training agencies and firms'internal training). The new act thus en-compasses more than just mainstreamM BO provision.

The purpose of the Act is to improvecoordination between training services ofdifferent types, to enable the existing train-ing infrastructure to he used more flexiblyand to enhance the relevance of trainingprovision to the needs of the labour mar-ket.

Measures concerted with the appren-ticeship systemStrengthening the system

Since the start of the 1980s we have seenincreased policy efforts on the part ofgovernment, both sides of industry andeducational institutions aimed at strength-ening the apprenticeship system. This wasseen as one of the keys to solving theproblem of mismatches between trainingprovision and industry's needs. Againstthe background of worryingly high youthunemployment and the potential or actualerosion of the apprenticeship system'straining capacity, the first main goal jointlyendorsed by government and industry wasa rapid expansion of the number of practi-cal-training places.

Aside from the "great exchange" betweengovernment and industry that marked theOpen Discussion - greater influence forindustry on advisory bodies for vocationaleducation as a whole. coupled with anexpansion of training capacity for the prac-tical component of the apprenticeship sys-tem a strengthening of the system wasseen as bringing a double benefit. On theone hand, the dual nature of the appren-ticeship system would ease young peo-ple's transition from school to work andthereby help cut y outh unemployment: onthe other, an increase in the number ofpractical-training places in the apprentice-ship system would help meet industry 'sfuture needs for skilled workers.

The most obvious result of these endea5 -Ours was the doubling, to over 50.000. ofthe intake of youngsters into elementaryapprentice training bow een 1982 and 1987.Another was a new diversity in practical-training places: recent research has foundthat in addition to the traditional arrange-ment of on-the-job training on the premises

Vocitlional traintnt2 2/199 2

CEDEFOP

of a single employer four other variantscan now he distinguished, depending onthe extent to which the practical compo-nent is tied to the production process itselfor to an individual employer (Frietman.1990). Almost thirty percent of all newelementary-level trainees are now coveredby arrangements where

practical training is given i I more thanone firm on a rotating basis.

part of the practical training takes placeoff the job. i.e. outside the productionprocess itself.

rotation between two or more firms iscombined with supplementary off-the-jobtraining. or

all practical training is given off thejob. which thus replaces on-the-job train-ing.

Empirical research has shown the differ-em variants. including the traditional ar-rangement. to he equally effective in termsboth of the proportion of trainees success-fully completing their course and of theproportion finding employment thereafter( Frietman. 1990).

Development Plan

The apprenticeship system's des elopmentwas gken a new or extra impetus by thepolicy statement issued in 1988 under thetitle "The Ness Des elopment Plan for theApprenticeship System-. At the heart of

the proposals is a change in the policyframework for development and renewal:the intention is that activities concernedwith the system's development and re-newal should take place on a more planned.effective and goal-directed basis. In futurenational bodies will draw up multi-yearpolicy plans and. in conjunction with col-leges. annual operational plans. The vari-ous activities will he fostered and coordi-nated by a body with the name Apprentice-ship Project Management (PML).

The purpose of the development plan is togive greater recognition to the educationalcharacter of the apprenticeship system andto take greater account of its nationalsectoral structure. In this framework thecentral tasks laid down for the varioussectors of the apprenticeship system are as

follows ( PML, February 1990):

to ensure an adequate intake.to promote innos ation and flexibility:

in training and examination syllabuses.to improve trainee success rates. andto promote positive action for particu-

lar target groups.

The key issue throughout is the need toensure that industry provides enough prac-tical training places. of a decent standard.for all groups.

These various developments in the ap-prenticeship system can be 5 iew ed as the

33

CEDEFOP1,-Kwa-7-nrc7

outcome of the policies developed andimplemented in the 1980s and as such arerelevant to the prospects for policy in the1990s. At least three other factors areimportant in this connection.

First. the late 1980s brought a marked shiftin the pattern of supply and demand on the"market" in practical-training places. Sincethe lower National (LBO; schools fOrthe 12-16 age group take the youngsterswho remain when places in the academicand general secondary schools are filled.they have borne the brunt of the downturnin overall pupil numbers. and since theapprenticeship system is traditionally themain "customer" fOr LBO-school-leavers.it too has seen a sharp drop in intakes. Thisfactor. coupled with economic recovery.has gradually transformed a shortage oftraining places into a shortage of trainees.

Second. the educational and employmentposition of certain groups - immigrants.women, the disabled. youngsters who havefailed at school remains worrying.

Finally, there are continuing indications ofmismatches between vocational educationand practice as a result of developments inproduct/market combinations, rapid prod-uct and process innovation, and changes inth.2 organization of work.

Conclusions

There is increasing recognition in the Neth-erlands of the need for better coordinationbetween the different routes through voca-tional education. thus facilitating horizon-tal and vertical movement between the

tt

34

various types of pro\ ision. This wouldserve t\\o purposes. 1

First. the education sy stem's yield (theproportion of youngsters successfully com-pleting courses) would he improved. Thefailure rate in Dutch vocational educationis relatively high, and better coordinationbetween the different training types wouldimprove the position in that youngsterswho failed in one type could more easilyswitch to another.

Second, the extent of mismatches betweeneducation and employment would he re-duced. since a coordinated system canrespond more easily to industry's chang-ing quantitative and qualitative needs.

Improvements at the interface between theworlds of training and work are currentlybeing sought mainly by giving them jointresponsibility for vocational educationthrough sectoral consultation and duali-zation. The notion is that mainstream vo-cational education needs he more closelygeared to employers' requirements ( thoughthese are not always easily determined).The danger of this approach is that theacquisition of occupational skills may heoveremphasized. making vocational edu-cation excessively industry- or job-spe-cific. To avoid this happening we mustensure a proper balance between the gen-eral and vocational el -ments in vocationaleducation, imply Mg ' tiong other things arecognition of the social and cultural func-tion of vocational education, an appropri-ate distribution of responsibilities betweenemployers. unions, gvvernment and edu-cational institutions. aild he righlrelation-it

ship between national a d regional train-ing objectives. 1

07 Or

4111._0

fit

cA

The last point concerns the structure oftraining anf training objectives. The twotypes of vocational education at secondaryle \ el intermediate vocational educationin both its full-length (MBO) and shorter(KMBO) forms and the dual apprentice-ship system are coming to resemble oneanother more clbsely. As parts of the MBO!KMBO system are dualized e may seethe development of a system offering achoice between college-based and dualtraining at all levels, from junior crafts-person to independent entrepreneur.

The current trend towards dual ization couldmean that only a dual variant remains forcertain courses. This is most likely in thecase of KMBO courses. Given the back-ground to the introduction of these courses.outlined earlier. this is not necessarily en-tirely desirable. We must take care in thisconnection that the baby is not thrown outwith the bathwater.

Bibliograph

Frietman. j. t 19001. De k\\atiten tan de praktijk-component in het leerlingeien (The qu:din of thePt:mical component of the apprenticeship system).Dissertation. Nijmegen. Institute of Applied SocialSciences (ITS).

HoN els, B. t 1085). Arheidsorganisatie in heteien (F.Mploers in the apprenticeship

s\ stem). The Hague. Ministry of Employment andSocial Security.

Alinistr of Education and Science 19861.Beroepsproliel- en leerplanoino ikkeling bonierondem (the der elopment of occupational pro' Hesand curricula in ocational education). oetermeer.

Nlinistr:i, of Education and Science 1 0551. Nietmonnt ikketinesplan leerlingv.e/en(Ne.k de elopmentplan Ion the apprenticeship sstem). oeteriner.

Pelkmanl., T.. R. de \ ries 110011. De \ tan SVM.In entarikutie %.(n \ ernieuf.% ingen in de SV NIinstellingen oor nuddelham heroepsondentits(1991) -19911 11dt/canon:if ra.% al in the reform ofintermeditte ocational education ). Nijmegen.Institute of Applied Social Sciences (ITSL

P \tLi I 980 ). De ernietm mg an het leerlinime/en.Stand tan aken en per...Niue en I Innok anon in theapprenticeship s .tem. Current po5inon and outlook I.The Hague. ProjeciAlanagement l eerling e'en .

PN1 I, ( 1980). Naar een andere aanpak tan deermetm iT4m ads a 110.1 approach to Milo% al ion I,

ay The Ilague. ProjeciNtanagement Leerlingtk Cleft.

Ram% enhoff Committee 10901 Ondem ti.-arheid.markt: naarcen a eriaaain traieet Eduva ton

labour mdrkct i"" aids an el leclf c1\111m4 Alphen:tan den Rijn. SaIllNolll Tieenk tlllnk

Vocational training 2/1092

CEDEFOP

Initial technical and vocationaleducation and skill formation inBritain

This paper describes the main routesfollowed, by young people in Britaininto the labour market and the partplayed by. vocational education andtraining in structuring those routes. Itthen examines theWays in which theseroutes and the system of vocationaleducation and training are being trusts-formed by the forces of economic andpolitical Change. ThisiareSeen to beunderMining' the traditionfal appren-ticeship Oasc4AJtstenOrnd replacing itwith one based more firmly on com-pany specificforms of training. It con-cludes with a brief look at some of thestrains within the system.

It is important when trying to understandthe British system of initial technical andvocational education that the various formsof vocational and technical education areconceptualized from a labour market per-spective. Each of the main qualificationsthat are available plays a crucial role instructuring the pathways or routes thatyoung people follow into the labour mar-ket. Therefore, if we are to understandtheir function in the system as a whole w eneed to understand the part they play inopening and closing off the various path-ways that are available to young people incontemporary Britain.

David N.Ashtonis ProfessorSociology at theUniversity ofLeicester andCo-Direclor (1.

the Centre for Labour Market,Studies.

Vocational !raining 2/1992

Routes into the labourmarket

We start by providing a brief descriptionof the main routes young people followthrough the system of technical and voca-tional education in terms of their destina-tion in the labour market, indicating thenature of the links to the system of generaleducation. We identify five main routes.of which four involve forms of secondarytechnical and vocational education. Theseare as follows:

through secondary school having com-pleted their general academic educationwithout any further vocational or technicaleducation and directly into unskilled/semi-skilled jobs at 16 years. If no jobs areavailable and the young person cannotobtain a place on the Youth TrainingScheme (now known as Youth Training).these young people enter unemployment.These are the young people who leaveschool at the earliest opportunity and whoeither do not take their leaving examina-tions or perform badly in them. They enterlow skilled jobs in construction, hotels andcatering, transport and distribution, whichoften provide little or no further training orvocational education ( Ashton. Maguire andSpilsbury. 1990). It is difficult to provideprecise estimates of the proportions fol-lowing this route becaus,' the routes asdepicted here do not correspond with offi-cial statistics, but the evidence suggest it is

approximately fifteen per cent of the agegroup. 111

through secondary school and theYouth Training Scheme at 16 into thesame low skilled sers ice sector jobs asthose following route i) or alternativelyinto lover level clerical jobs. Approxi-

mately 25 per cent of the age group followthis route. Once again, these tend he theyoung people who perform badly in theirexaminations and leave with few or nowidely recognized qualifications. How-ever, instead of seeking entry to jobs. theyaccept a place on Youth Training (YT).Although they do undertake some formaltraining on the programme only 43 percent of YT leavers in 1990 obtained aqualification (SEN. 1991). For a minorityof this group who enter YT with largeremployers, where the training is linked toan internal labour market, this can lead tocontinuing employment after YT. For themajority, who find placements with smalleremployers, this is not the case. They haveeither to look for alternative employmentor face a spell of unemployment.

Those who follow routes i) and ii) are at thegreatest risk of spells of unemployment.However, those who have experienced YThave a greater chance of avoiding unem-ployment than those who follow route i )(Roberts and Chadwick. 1991)

through secondary school and/or fur-ther technical education into a formal ap-prenticeship or firm specific training at 16or 17 years and then into skilled work inthe manufacturing or service sector. Those

ho follow this route (estimated at undertwenty percent) tend to perform better intheir school examinations and may alsoobtain some vocational qualifications. Onleaving school they either enter an appren-ticeship/traineeship directly, or indirectlythrough the YT scheme.

through secondary education and fur-ther technical and vocational educationinto firm specific training in white collarjobs at 17 or 18 years: a rou; followed bysomewhere in excess of twenty percent of

35

CEDEFOP

oung people. These are the ones whoperform well in their academic examina-tions and proceed to study either A le k elsor undertake a more vocational courseleading to a recognized v ocational qualifi-cation in an intermediate level skill. Theyenter white collar or technician jobs \\ ithmany recek ing furthertraining ithin theiremploying organization.

through higher education into profes-sional and managerial occupations alterage 2 I . These are the top twenty percent ofhigh flyers who continue following aca-demic courses into higher education. Thosefollowing vocational courses such as engi-neer\ and doctors move straight into theirprofessions. others ho study arts or so-cial science tend to stay on in highereduca-lion for further ocational training beforeentering either the professions or manage-ment. The majority will receive furtherfirm or occupationally specific training

ith their employing organization.

The proportions follow ing these routes aresubject to variations determined largely bydifferences in national and local labourmarket conditions. During the last decadethe proportions following routes ) and v )

into the white collar, managerial and pro-fessional occupations have been increas-ing. Those following route iii ) into skilled

manual work and route i ). moving directlyinto operative jobs and low er level ser\ icesector jobs. have shown a marked decline.while those following the YT route ii)hake increased.

In the more affluent parts of the countrythe proportions who follow route i ) and iii )and enter directly into the labour marketon leak Mg school are much higher thanthose w ho enter the labour market viaYTS. In the more deprix ed parts of thecountry. this situation is reversed. This ispartly because parts of the youth trainingscheme. but not all of it. are seen by y oungpeople as less desirable than a full-time jobBanks et.al. 1992: Roberts and Chadwick.

1991 ).

The transformation oftraining provision inBritain

Traditionally. the ocational education andtraining system has been largely geared topreparation for occupational labour mar-kets through the apprenticeship system.That is. young people were trained througha combination of off-the-job courses inlocal colleges of further education and

practical work experienced to acquire tans-ferable, occupationally based skills. These\\ ere primarily the male dominated tradeskills in the engineering, construction andtransport industries. The apprenticeshipwas similar to the German apprenticeshipsystem but less tightly controlled and regu-lated. Forexample formal off-the-job train-ing w as not always compulsory and not allyoung people entered into an apprentice-ship agreement with their employers.

In the growing service sector there hasbeen less reliance on this form of trainingand more reliance on internal labour mar-kets to provide the basis for skill forma-tion. Here company specific training wasmore common, both at the level of semi-skilled jobs in hotels and catering and inthe more prestigious white collar jobs inbanks and financial institutions. Overallthe traditional system provided some formof qualification for about two thirds of thelabour force, but one third remained un-qualified ( Ashton. Green and Lowe. 1992 ).

The last decade has witnessed majorchanges in the structure of the labour mar-ket which are having a significant impacton this system of vocational training. Thesechanges largely stern from the growingintensification of international competi-tion associated with the globalization of

4y1to*Ist

Valle

VIE; ."...itaz tYAy..91'

cw 4 c1111111.111:AO NMI

aill1111O IPSO

.; 1111111111111111.

-Iv!la tti tf. ",'..7.T ..,`1.7.: .4.i.;:z:; _

;.:."7 :.2. VI ....',.t.

. .

. _

WA* et'

1.1.

.4.: , ..,. *X :.

.,,

' "'... a*.-:;-..1:. 1:4

...--..

-::,.-.-- rars. .4. cirr''',41' .-410-. It ;^ : ....., ' iff- - '3E. 4...... .:. hreii,Zr4a...;W1.11FirShant. .,t-%-' fret .

NM 'IC ,,,,, .. AA, - -v the St ,, _...., e- 1 2 -ItECk. -14.---V. :,:i4A..' ..? ,',.-.................: .4!-).. Ce!...%7 *0 i','"

"11.71E3i,t.'-'..' ''''''ail' -6, Ur -1 IfilM.." ti9IN a...1.NINIMMigem: 1,441,-.4 .2.1.-= 75".....414 .7 .,ZE`r- a k.11110 sit sr te 4. All L. z. ; . , """... ' i' fL.1 . Era

,...,t...1 ma 11, sta.)

L.--razt._ eh. =, MOM ',...1 tr "6 noir,- is

is 4 atail, ,...: ,sis ,.,-,- ---t..-,in

MI

36

3,1

Mr.

r

Vocational training 2/1992

product markets (Ashton, Maguire andSpilsbury. 1990). They are as follows:

the decline of manufacturing-industrywhich in turn has led to a decline in de-mand for apprenticeships and trainees.These fell from a total of 243.300 employ-ees in manufacturing in 1965 to 55,700 in1988 Pl.

the introduction of new technologyand pressures for more flexible use oflabour have led companies to enhancetheir workers' company specific skills andintroduce an element of multi-skilling tocraft workers. This has further undermi nedthe old apprenticeship system and led to aconcentration on the development of com-pany specific skills and hence of job spe-cific, task oriented training.

the demands of international competi-tion and the impact of new organizationalforms introduced by USA and Japanesecompanies have encouraged firms to es-tablish more effective internal labour mar-kets. These provide the workers with somecareer opportunities and form the basis forfirm specific skill acquisition as compa-nies seek to retain their more highly skilledlabour.

at the same time that companies weresubject to these pressures, politically in-troduced changes led to the decline of theinstitutional supports for the apprentice-ship system. The Industrial TrainingBoards. which had supported the mod-ernization and enhancement of appren-ticeship system in a number of industries.had their powers reduced and were eventu-ally abolished.

perhaps the major change during thelast decade has been the continued growthof the ser\ ice sector. This has tended toshift the balance of vocational preparationaway from training for occupational la-bour markets (associated with the tradi-tional manufacturing industries) tow ardmore of a concern w ith company specifictraining for firm internal labour markets.The result has been the continuous declineof the apprenticeship system and the growth

of in-company training as measured by theLabour Force Survey-. For example, theproportion ofemployees and selfemployedreeeik.ing job related training almost dou-bled between 1985 and 1990 (1..MQ. 1992.).

Vocational training 2/1992

It was against the background of thesechanges and very high levels of youthunemployment that the Youth TrainingScheme was introduced in 1983. Thescheme was initiated in order to providesome training and work experience foryoung people seeking their first job. mostof whom, as we have seen, enter semi-skilled or unskilled jobs. However, somecompanies did use the scheme to under-write funding for the first two years of theapprenticeship training. Thus, some YTS/YT schemes feed into the remaining ap-prenticeships with those who enter stayingon for a further year to complete theirtraining. This has meant that the YouthTraining scheme became stratified, withsome YTS/YT places leading to appren-ticeships or extended training and otherswhich only lead to low skilled jobs in theservice sector.

Certification andassessment

Unlike many other European societies.legal regulation does not play a major rolein determining vocational educational pro-vision in Britain. Provision has been left tothe actions of employers and especiallynon-statutory organizations.

This has resulted in the existence of over300 different authorities who award orvalidate technical and vocational qualifi-cations. One consequence of ha ing somany. sometimes competing. authorities,has been to cause confusion among \ oung

people and employ ers about the scope andmeaning (lithe various qualifications. This

4

i. turn makes it difficult for young peopleto make informed decisions about howbest to progress through the various routes.

Thus, the routes through the system de-picted above are not as clear cut in realityas they appear here, especially in the caseof those following the routes into skilledmanual and junior white collar work. Forthese two groups the type and level ofqualification obtained post 16 can play animportant role in determining future op-portunities.

During this last decade a major attempt hasbeen made by various government au-thorities to shift the focus of initial voca-tional education and training away fromnorm referenced forms of qualifications.where the curriculum and standards havebeen set by the teachers and awardingbodies. toward a competence based sys-tem. This is one in which most reliance isplaced on the demonstration of practicalcompetence for the job rather than on themastery of a syllabus which may or maynot be relevant to the performance of thejob.

The traditional system of vocational train-ing was oriented toward the certificationand assessment of apprentice. technicianand commercial trainees. This meant thatit did not provide for any form of certifica-tion for the unskilled and semi-skilledworkers. In the course of their attempt tofill this gap through the YTS. the govern-ment became aware of the need to ration-alize the system as a whole. This led to thecreation of the National Council for Voca-tional Qualifications (NCVQ) whose re-mit is to reform the existing system ofqualifications.

17

CEDEFOP

The aim of the reform is to accredit each ofthe existing vocational qualifications interms of five basic levels. This will createone single system of vocational qualifica-tions. The new qualifications are known asNational Vocational Qualifications(NVQs). These NVQs are occupationallybased and are intended to provide a quali-fication which will he recognized by em-ployers thereby facilitating the transfer ofoccupational skills. However, because thequalifications consist of a series of sepa-rate components which have to he passedbefore full accreditation is given, the re-form enables employers to provide onlythose components which are useful in theirown internal labour market. Overall theNCVQ is spearheading an ambitious re-form which still has to gain full acceptanceamong employers. If it is successful, itwould enhance progression through allfive of the routes depicted above as well asfacilitating movement between them.

The other major innovation has been theintroduction of Training and EnterpriseCouncils (TECs. known as LECs in Scot-land )The TECs/LECs were recently intro-duced in an attempt to make the delivery oftraining more responsive to employ er needsat the local level. The TECs are dominatedby employers although other parties suchas educational authorities and voluntary-org.anitations are represented on their gov-erning bodies. However. the TECs. ofwhich there are over 80. are primarilyconcerned with the delivery of the twomain government training measures. YTand Employment Training for adults ( ET).As most of their funding is geared towardthese programmes there is little scope toinfluence other forms of training whichtake place within companies. Thus. TECsare not expected to make a significantchange in the extent to which training isfirm specific as opposed to occupationallybased. The major forces pushing towarddevelopment of more firm specific taskbased training are the pressures front inter-national competition and the introductionof competence based assessment that wehave detailed above.

Strains in the system

The introduction of competence basedqualifications has tended to intensify thetension which always existed in the UK

38

between vocational and the more prestig-ious academic qualifications as both arebased on different philosophies. ArAemicqualifications are based on ideas of aca-demic excellence and the facilitation ofpersonal growth through a liberal educa-tion. Vocational qualifications are basedmore on occupation and job specific skills.The tension between the two systems hasbeen intensified with the introduction ofthe new competence based NVQs whichare seen to be even mo.: concerned withpractical skills than the more traditionalvocational qualifications. These contra-dictory philosophies are inevitably creat-ing tensions and problems in the institu-tions. notably the colleges of further edu-cation and tertiary colleges. responsiblefor delivering both sets of qualifications.

A further problem concerns the demandbeing made on the system by the continu-ance of high levels of youth unemploy-ment. The decline in the demand for un-skilled labour has reduced the opportuni-ties for unqualified youth while at thesame time the continuance of high levelsof unemployment make the attempts bythe unqualified to obtain a foothold in thelabour market very difficult. As unem-ployment has risen there has been a ten-dency for young people to stay on longer ineducation, so that in 1992 more than 60percent of) oung people stayed on in schoolbeyond the age of 16. How ever. manycontinue to follow the first two routes andenter what are often prt..arious forms ofemployment in the secondai y labour mar-ket. which offer few chances for trainingor progression.

Many of the jobs in this secondary labourmarket are extremely precarious and thosewho enter them are the ones most at risk ofunemploy ment. In addition. mime of thosewho seek direct entry to jobs at 16 oftenfind themselves in a situation of chronicunemployment or suhemployment. Thelatter occurs when the young person entersa job or a scheme and then finds them-selves unemployed for a spell before re-turning to another precarious job or an-othergovernment scheme follow ing whichthere may he yet another spell of unem-ployment. This is creating a group. some-times referred to as an underclass. ,s ho areconfined to the margins of the labour mar-ket and increasingly marginzdited fromthe st ider society .

Conclusion

We have argued that there are powerfuleconomic forces creating new demands onthe British system of vocational educationand training. These. together with otherpolitically induced changes have weak-ened the traditional system of apprentice-ship training and created a demand formore firm specific training. In response tothese wider changes. some progress hasbeen made in raising the level of post 16participation in education. In addition. newforms of vocational education and trainingare being introduced through the NVCQ.However. in comparison with other ad-vanced industrial societies. Britain contin-ues to he characterised by a low level ofachievement among its \ oung workers anda growing division between those whoenter secure employment and the sub-em-ploy ed.

Notes

) A similar. but more elaborate coneeptualiiation ofthe routes to that discussed here is to he found in NI.Banks. I. Bates. G. Breakv.ell. J. Bnner. N. Entice.I. Jamieson and K. Roberts. t I99.2) Careers andIndentities. Milton Ke nes: Open Cnkersit) Press.For a discussion of the situation in Scotland see A.Furlong. Grim ing Up in a Classless SocietTransitions to Employment. P.N2) Edinburgh:Edinburgh t Iisersith Press.

2) These figures are devised from the Emplo memCia.tette.

References:

Ashton. Das id.. NIalcohn Maguire and darkSpilsbur).t1990) Restructuring the Labour Market.1 he Implication. i'or Youth. London: Macmillan

Ashton. Da) id Francis Green and Graham Lime11992) 'Education and 1..1111)1(1) ment in Canada andthe 'nited Kingdom'. UniN ersit) of Leicester. Facult)of Social Science Discussion Paper

I.ahout !Market ()nal-tell). (19921 I.ellruar).Employ mein 1)epartment: Sheffield

Roberts. Ken and Cerie (.'had» ickl 19911.11nglandand Wales Youth Cohort Suid). Transitions Into the

Market: The New Routes of the NW..Stud) ofTratrotions 1984-87. Shet I lel& Employ meritDepartment. Research and Des elopmeni No. 6.5,

SEN. Skills andl.nici prise Brie' 2a. Employ 111.:111

1'4).10111cm (hoop. trust 119911 Nottingham

\'ocational training 2/1992

-.z.07-2541-4s CEDEFOP

Brief analysis of the types ofvocational training availablein Portugal

In this article, which of necessity mustbe brief, the author attempts to exam-

; ine some of the limiting factors andinconsistencies ofthe vocationaltrain-

' ing system. At the same time somereasons for the importance ofthis train-ing are identified; these include basictraining as a factor determining mo-bility and retraining. Reference is alsomade toi)the coordination and assess-ment of the training system and ii) theclarification of the different types ofinitial vocational training which arenecessary to overcome some of theinconsistencies in the system.

1 - Introduction1.1 Integration of Portugal into the Euro-pean Community (EC). which took placein 1986 after a long process of negotiation.is the areatest challenge to the country upto the end of this century.

There are two basic aspects to the responseto this challenge. One, modernization ofthe structures and mechanisms i nvok ed inthe economy to enable the country to adaptas quickly as possible to a process ofinternationalization covering a w icier areathan prior to joining the EC and. the sec-

E. MortalGriloDirector of theCooperationDepartment /Orthe GulbenkianFoundationsince 1989

vocational training 2/1992

ond, the changes in attitudes and conductnecessary in the various social. economic.cultural and political sectors of the coun-try. The principal problem involved in theprocess of integration and modernizationis the rapidity at which an extent to whichinternationalization of the Portugueseeconomy will take place. The economywill move from a position of isolation andprotection. a characteristic of the closedsociety of the period prior to the oil crisisand the Democratic Revolution of 1974 toone of complete openness and integrationinto the Europe of the countries of theCommunity in a period of less than 20years. accentuated by the creation of theSingle European Market in 1992 and agree-ments at Maastricht in respect of Eco-nomic and Monetary Union. to he fol-lowed by political union in Europe. themodel of which has yet to he defined inview of problems which will arise in eachcountry as a result of the inevitable trans-fer of sovereignty which the process in-volves.

1.2 As a result of the country's backward-ness compared to its Community partners.Portugal embarked on the process of inte-gration. which led the Community au-thorities to approve special programmesand projects to update the various eco-nomic activity sectors, not only during theperiod before membership but, in particu-lar. during the period immediately afterbecoming a member. i.e. from 1986 to1992. These included PEDIP (PortugueseIndustry Des elopment Plan ) and specialaid for the agricultural and education/train-ing sectors infrastructures.

The hacks~ ardncss of Portugal and its lack

of conformity compared with the other 11countries is the result of a historical proc-

ess too complex to he examined in thisarticle, which led to the indicators whichwill he enumerated to enable the problemsconfronting the country in this transitional .

period to he more accurately identified.First. illiteracy even today some 15% ofthose over 15 years of age are illiterate.Second. a very small proportion of thepopulation have received intermediate orhigher level training (about 3.6% of thoseof over 15 years of age in 1981 and about3.2ch of employees in 1989). Third. about18(4 of the working population work in theprimary sector, 34% in the secondary sec-tor and 40% in the tertiary sector. Fourth.a GNP per head of no more than 5,800USS, i.e. about 56% of the average GNP ofthe Community member States. In addi-tion. the country is still very backwardtechnologically, especially in the agricul-tural sector. in which in some parts of thecountry farming is still on a very smallscale, and in some industries, such as tex-tiles. the making of clothes and footwear.where manual labour is still extensivelyused: these industries form one of theprincipal components of the sector export-ing manufactured goods and one of themost important sources of income for thecountry's trade.

1.3 Modernization of the carious indus-trial sectors in Portugal is a complex proc-ess involving several factors and raisingproblems among which. owing to its im-portance for industry, is a hardcore ofthose relating to personnel management.Modernization of Portuguese industry isnot therefore only a problem of invest-ment. importing technology or reorgan-izing management. but principally involvesa number of complex causes and effectsbased on the lack of skill of existing man-power and on the reduced capacity which

19

,.5".M11112111111L.

1.*

1-41-xvw

I

-

the country appears to have for training thelabour essential for modernization.

1.4 The above reflections and the situationdescribed indicate clearly that Portugalmust take action in the education sectorand vocational training systems. especiallyin respect of the younger age groups andthose of school age. giving high priority topolicies, programmes and funding for theeducation/training sectors.

Establishment of this priority, however.requires the study of a strategy involvingprimarily the introduction of regulatorymechanisms to provide a framework forthe education and vocational training sys-tems since there are at present obstaclesand inconsistencies which could have anadverse effect on the normal functioningand development of the systems whichprovide initial vocational training for youngpeople leaving the education system andcommencing their working I iN es.

2 - The importance of basictraining

2.1 Studies of manpower requirements.especially the quality of labour and jobstypes, indicate clearly that Portugal stillhas significant shortages of intermediatespecialists. middle managers and highly

40

qualified staff and that the basic trainingobtained by young people at school istoday a factor determining mobility andthe conditions under which the retrainingand updating of individuals take placethroughout their working lives. This showsthat sound basic education (provided inPortugal by the 9 years compulsory school-ing ) with emphasis on basic subjects musthe one of the first priorities in the educa-tion/training sector policies.

This priority is being given in Portugalwithout any hesitation and this is probablythe time to give some ideas ,,a the objec-tives to he achieved and aims to he pursuedin education. particularly in relation tointroducing technology.

2.2 Consideration must be given to includ-ing introduction to technology into the 9years compulsory schooling curriculumalthough. in our opinion, the study planshould not include "a compulsory specificsubject of a theoretical nature or makingtechnologies known just by using illus-trated manuals or slides. the effectivenessof which as far as satisfying the objectivesset out in the Basic Law of the EducationSystem is concerned is somewhat doubt-fu 1".

Consequently. technology will have to heintroduced through the various subjects inthe curriculum. especially natural and

physical sciences and chemistry. in par-ticular using activities through whichprojects will be undertaken in which stu-dents. individually or in groups, will begiven specific questions on every day top-ics to he studied with the object of under-standing the complexity and association ofproduction and operating processes in es-sential areas in modern society, as well asthe solutions found in each of these areas.In most cases they now require the use ofa large number of techniques and tech-nologies which students must realize areresources available to individuals and so-cieties in the more developed countries.

Introduction to technology and training intechnology during compulsory schoolingmust therefore be considered as part of thegeneral training of young people. but withthe principal aim of creating and develop-ing attitudes towards problems which willlead naturally to the adoption and use oftechnology as a means available to. e.g.

obtain a certain product:improve product quality:conserve the env ironment:develop a new manufacturing process:improve the diagnosis of disease:increase food production: orjust to make the best use of existing

resources.

Instead of introducing students to a limitednumber of different technologies through

Vocational training 2/1992

working in factories without providingany proper training, as was the practiceseveral decades Zip, the inclusion of intro-duction to technology in the compulsoryeducation curriculum is a way of creatingawareness and motivating young peoplewho. after their compulsory 9 years school-ing. will have to choose training of a dif-ferent nature. which includes vocationaltraining in technical and technologicalfields still covering a wide field but con-centrated into a specific scientific area.

3 - Relationship betweenthe training models

3.1 Initial vocational training in Portugalis provided through three sub-systems.two of which form part of the educationsystem. which is the responsibility of theMinistry of Education through GETAP(Gahinete de Educacao TecnolOgicaArtistica e Prof issionzd ) and the third. which

is one of the activities of the Institute ofEmployment and Vocational Training.which forms part of the Ministry of Em-ployment and Social Security today.

These three types of training together mayhe considered as a diversi lied system which

provides some internal competition sincethe bodies responsible in each of the Min-istries concerned are proud of the advan-

tapes of each sub-system for young peo-ple. especially those who complete com-pulsory' schooling or leave the educationsystem early and wish to obtain trainingleading to grade II or Ill certificates.

3.2 An important aspect of these types oftraining is the complementary nature ofand the relationship of objectives betweeneach of the sub-systems.

Young people. families and enterprisesmust know the characteristics of each typeof training and the reasons for trainingmust he clearly defined before they canfully understand and appreciate the condi-tions for entry'. objectives. methods. rel-ew.nce and systems of certifying and. inparticular. the State's responsibility andthe guarantee it gives to the training pro-vided.

Contrary to what has been said on manyoccasions in defence. it is thought that thesub-systems should not he identical: it iseven suggested that each sub-system should

offer incentives to attract specific targetpopulations which for geographical or so-cial/economic reasons have a tendency tobe marginalized as far as vocational train-ing is concerned. It appears clear howeverthat the system overall. i.e. including alltypes of training, must he supervised andassessed by a body independent of theMinistries concerned so that it can be regu-

f".

--ON $

Vocational training 2/1992

CEDEFOP

lated, thus contributing considerably to-wards ensuring the maximum effecth e-ness and coherence of vocational trainingprogrammes. Great importance is given todefining an essential nucleus of technicaland technological training areas into whichthe training courses and programmes whichthe sub-systems provide for those wishingto ohta;n vocational training before com-mencing working life will fall. Definitionof this nucleus is a priority task whichrequires the establishment of a relation-ship with the employment market. particu-larly with centres which can identify fu-ture areas of training essential for the proc-ess of development.

3.3 Another aspect which should also bepointed out is the importance given tolinking training mechanisms with struc-tures responsible for employment mattersand enterprises. The exchange of informa-tion and experience, consultation, identifi-cation of common objectives and harmo-nizing of the policies of the parties con-cerned with training and the principalemployers of labour are ways of overcom-ing sonic of the obstacles with which thetraining sector has to contend today. par-ticularly the considerable difficulty inmatching training profiles with the re-quirements of enterprises, especially whenthe latter are involved in training in newtechnology or changing management andadministration systems.

In the same way education and training inthe financial and economic sectors arenow being opened up and subjected tointernationalization, which involves train-ing structures holding a continual dialoguewith the most important bodies concernednot only with economic activities. but alsowith employment. technology and inno-vation.

4 - Inconsistencies in thesystem

4.1 Training in technical and technologi-cal sectors in Portugal is essential for con-solidating the process of structural changewhich the country will ha N, e to undergo tothe end of this decade. These changes.which will without doubt take place inmany economic activity sectors and inpublic administrat ion. are particularly nee-

41

CEDEFOP1.1#'.

essary in the agricultural sector and in thetraditional industries. especially the tex-tile. clothing and footwear sectors, whichare together responsible for a large propor-tion of Portuguese exports and thereforehave a special place in the economy of thecountry.

As enterprises are modernized, there willhe more work for specialist executives andmore skilled labour, leading to technicaljobs becoming more attractive socially.As a result of the increase in jobs available,this type of job will have to he better paidand assigned higher grades in enterprisestructures.

4.2 An analysis of the current situation inPortugal indicates that this anticipated so-cial enhancement of technical jobs is atpresent not being accompanied by a socialor cultural enhancement of courses pro-vided for jobs of this nature. The reasonmust be the great University tradition inour country. which leads many young peo-ple and a large proportion of the countryand society to put a lower value on coursesand training which do not have the cachetof university, although the training pro-vided by universities makes it difficuit foryoung people to find employment compat-ible with their training, especially in thecase of degrees in the humanities such asare currently taught at the majority of theseinstitutions.

The consequences of this situation shouldhe examined. They extend to higher edu-cation, where courses at polytechnic levelcontinue to he unpopular compared to uni-versity courses, in spite of the fact thatyoung students with degrees in techno-logical subjects integrate much better intothe employment market than graduatesfrom university courses who have studiedthe humanities.

Priority must he given to overcoming thissituation. It appears to us that in order tomake technical courses more attractive itwill be necessary to give young peopleinformation about courses, opportunities.job profiles etc. while they are still atschool and also. and especially. by makingthe institutions which provide non-univer-sity technical courses leading to diplomasor grade Ill or IV degrees more attractive.Raising the status of these iihtitutions andthe training provided by then will have tohe achieved by:

42

improving links with enterprise sec-tors and respective public authorities:

improving the quality of lecturers.monitors and other teaching and assistantstaff by more careful recruiting and pro-moting: and,

launching a campaign to promote theinstitutions and the training offered, em-phasising the current situation in the otherCommunity countries where training isprovided by institutions and courses of thesame type.

5 - Conclusion

The following conclusions have beendrawn from the thoughts and ideas putforward in this article:

5.1 Vocational training in technical andtechnological subjects is a vital part of theprocess of transformation as the country'seconomy is undergoing forced interna-tionalization and a market with qualitygoods to be sold at highly competitiveprices is being created:

5.2 There is some diversification in thevocational and technological training sys-tem. It is accepted that the conditions un-der which each type of training making upthe system function must he clarified:

5.3 Each of these types of training must heof a specific nature, have its own identityand he more attractive to those seekingtraining, although it is also recognised thatcoordination and assessment are required

to ensure that the sub-systems are coher-ent. the courses are relevant and credit isgiven for the training received.

5.4 The unfavourable attitude of people tovocational training is giving cause for con-cern. indicating the need for a move toexplain and provide information on theimportance of jobs, even the indisputablesocial value of vocational activities with astrong technical or technological compo-nent:

5.5 Making courses and training of a morevocational or -vocationalizing- naturemore attractive is also related to the grad-ing of training institutions. The impor-tance given to the conditions under whichthe recruiting and promotion of teachingand technical staff takes place should heemphasised:

5.6 Vocational training must take place onthe assumption that young trainees havereceived sound extensive basic education.preferably as a result of the compulsory 9years schooling with emphasis on basicsubjects.

Parts of paragraphs 1. 1,1.2 and 1.3 %%ere extractedfrom a document in which the author participatedentitled -0 Desem ol% intent() (la. Estruturas deIn formacuo e Orientacao em Portugal- prepared hthe Institute Humanism() e Desem oh. imetuo.

' In Proposta de reorgan dos pl cu rricu laresdos Ensinos Basicoe Secundario - J Fratistoda SUN a.NI Tit% ztres Fmidin. E Marcal (irilo. Lisbon. Jul.

I

Vocational training 2/1992

CEDEFOP

The reform of vocational trainingin Denmark

; A brief introduction to the principle oftwo-part training is followed by anintroduction to the vocational com-mittees, the local training committeesand the training committees and theirindividual functions.An introduction is then given to the

I cooperation betweenfirms and techni-, cal schools.Finally brief comments are made onwork experience places and instruc-tion compensating for work experi-ence places.

Vocational training in Denmark is basedon theprinciple(Ove-part training, whichmeans that the major part of the trainingtakes place in the firm. This has tradition-ally been known as the apprentice. whicha long time ago meant that the mastercraftsman irtually had the power of lifeand death over the apprentice. I shall obvi-ously not go into this, but instead base mydescription on the Vocational TrainingAct and the law on vocational schoolswhich came into effect on I January 1991.

Two-part training is also fundamental tothe vocational training s} stem in the newlaw .

When the new law came into effect. sub-stantial decentralization took place. firstlygiving the advisor} bodies at all levelsgreater influence and secondly assigningmany of the decision-making powers to

SorenPedersenPrincipal AilICC1985.Inspector Since/9761.

Chairman of theCapital Region. As.soiationTechnical .Belton! Managers.

the vocational schools. It must he notedthat the boards of the vocational schoolsassume full responsibility for the manage-ment and operation of the individual school.

The vocational committees

The vocational committees. which fulfil aLe} role. are given greatly increased influ-ence at the higher level.

Local training committees

A new creation which is particularly im-portant in relation to cooperation with in-dustry are the local training committees.

Each school appoints one or more localtraining committees, which together mustcover the training schemes offered by theschool. The majority on each local trainingcommittee must be made up of represtitta-fives of the organizations which sit on thevocational committees concerned.

The main duty of the committees is toassist the schools in the work of planningthe practical content of the instructi'mgiven. In addition, the committees are in-tended to advise the schools on questionsrelating to the training schemes at theschool, and finally the local training com-mittees in general must help to strengthencontacts between the school and the locallabour market.

Management by objectivesand limits

Management h} objectives and limits re-places the detailed regulatory manage-ment that existed in the past. In areas ofboth finance and teaching. the Ministry incooperation with the Vocational TrainingCouncil and the vocational committees

will in future set objectives and limits forthe activities of the schools. The schoolitself is responsible for the practical or-ganization of the activities.

It is now around eighteen months since thenew laws came into force, and this isprobably a reasonable time to assess whathas happened.

Training committees

These committees take their work veryseriously, and as far as I can judge thework, it has proved to he particularly re-warding for all the parties concerned. Thecomposition of the training committees.on which representatives of employers andemployees make up the majority. is veryimportant. and it is also essential that man-agement and trainers take part. Although ithas taken a running-in period before theeffects have become apparent, the trainingcommittees are now also becoming visibleto the trainees. Some of the training com-mittees at my school have made it a firmrule to make contact with the trainees inthe classes and monitor them through thecourse of their training. This has contrib-uted towards trainers and training commit-tees becoming good sparring partners.

By virtue of the training committees hav-ing close links with the vocational com-mittees, there arc good opportunities formaking adjustments to the trainingschemes.

The disagreements that sometimes occurbetween employers and employees are vir-tually non-existent. which means that eC-fective work is done towards making thetraining given to young people as good aspossible.

Another major function of the trainingcommittees is to focus on industrial devel-

Vocational training 2/1492 43

L

CEDEFOP

24 t Ilt."ftt"re(^,2t,trtjtt.., t . f' IttN,

7ett 1-1

tt

)17,>. "a>,

.tom

tt).tt:*.

4a

:;41.,,,,tiA.1

. ...y Lift . i

_,- al,t, 4."- -1- r97"-7- '''''' --'.* ''..- ': A. AP--; t-ttani,..,,,...,,......."mew-,.....,...,--,,,,,_ zre.,.- ...,..,,__A

The Vocational School for Metallurgic Trades is a technical school with some 220 emploecs. The school has an as erage of 1000 pupils. students orindustrial trainees.

opment and against this background en-sure that the training programmes meet thedemands of the time.

Cooperation between firmsand technical school

In the region of the capital city in which weare located it is rather difficult to talk aboutthe local area, since it is generally N. erylarge and there are ten technical schools.albeit with different profiles. There aretraining programmes in the iron and steelindustry at six of them. which has bothadvantages and drawbacks. and it is not yetgeneral for a training committee to operateat several schools in the same trade sector.but over the course of time this may be-come the case. It must he noted that theprospects for cooperation on this point arebetter in the provinces, as the natural geo-graphical area is smaller.

Cooperation with local trade and industrytakes place in other ways through the train-ing committee. As mentioned earlier. thetraining system is based on two-part train-ing. and our apprentices are thereforeplaced in a firm after the first year. in otherwords they are given a work placement.

This is significant in many ways. Contactbetween the firm and the technical schoolis ensured. as they share the same appren-tice, with different tasks which are. how-ever, very significant for the quality oftraining. In the last part of each schoolcourse the firm is invited to the school tosee what the apprentice has learnt. Implic-itly this is obviously not the only purpose- it is equally important to start a dialogue

44

between the firm and the school. This wayof meeting each other is particularly wor-thy of recommendation. as it builds upunderstanding and trust between the firmand the school. It must also he mentionedthat it is an inestimable benefit in relationto the continuing training of skilled work-ers, which also takes place at the school.

Work experience places

There has been a shortage of work experi-ence places in Denmark in recent years.which has created problems. The law onvocational training has been amended sothat it is now the schools that deal with thework of prov iding work experience places.This task had been carried out by the jobcentres in the past.

The change in the law means that theschools can become involved more di-rectly in providing work experience places.This in itself obviously does not producemore work experience places. but we con-sider that the prospects are greater withthis cooperation that takes place betweenthe firm and the school. One of the optionsthere are today in connection with workexperience places is a combined agree-ment. What this really means is that theapprentice here completes his period ofwork experience in two different firms.each with its ow n profile. This requires athorough know ledge of the firms, whichskilled workers often have from their co-operation with the firms and the trainingcommittees. The idea behind the formula-tion of the law is that the individual schooladministers the search for practical places.In the capital city we ha e dealt with this

task in a different way. since the ten schoolshave set up a joint secretariat which dealswith the administrative tasks of passing onwork experience places. Another reasonfor this organization is to avoid destroyingthe cooperation between firms and schools.This could easily happen. because the firmswould then he visited by teachers fromseveral schools. and this obviously mustnot happen.

Instruction compensatingfor work experience places

In recent years the shortage of work expe-rience places has increased, and a decisionhas therefore been taken in the Ministry ofEducation in cooperation with the partiesinvolved in the labour market to set upwhat are know n as workshop schools. Thearrangement is that a number of the tech-nical schools in different subject areas as:tas a firm where possible. This is obviouslya very unfortunate development. but isnecessary in order to satisfy the youngpeople. It is regarded by everyone as astop-gap solution which it is hoped willsoon become unnecessary. Extraordinaryefforts have been made to provide morework experience places. Another possibil-ity that is being utilized is to place thetrainees in a firm for short periods. butwithout the obligation the firm has in thecase of a normal work experience place.

It is characteristic that there has alwaysbeen good cooperation in the Danish voca-tional training system. This does not meanto say' that the parties involved are inagreement. but there has been a willing-ness to find a solution.

Voi...ational training 2/1992

1-4

A School in Touch with itsEnvironment

CEDEFOP

Geographical situationBefore explaining the work or experiencegathered by the "Institute de FormacionProfessional de Ia Garrotxa- (GarrotxaInstitute for Vocational Training) with re-gards to relations with its environment.I think I should first put the school in itsgeographical context.

The Institute is located in Olot (Catalonia).a town of approximately 25.000 inhabit-ants and with a strong tradition in smalland medium-size industry: it is the admin-istrative centre of a district with a popula-tion of 45,000 inhabitants, which has al-ways suffered from serious communica-tion problems entailing a certain degree ofisolation. The nearest vocational trainingcentres are at a distance of 30 to 35 kms.

Evolution of the centre

The "Institute de FormaciOn Professionalde Ia Garrotxa- was set up in 1974 andforms part of the network of public centresunder the auspices of the "Conselleriad'Ensenyament de la General bat deCatalunya" (Ministry of Education of theGovernment of Catalonia). Prior to itscreation there had been no vocational train-ing facilities in the district.

From the beginning work at the Centrewas based on the collective effort of all

4

LluisSacrest iVillegasDirector oldie"In.stina (leFormarninProkssional (le

la Garrot.va-, Prnk.s.verliana' Training in Athninigranon,

teachers in running an organisation which,although it has undergone various changes.has al ways encouraged the faculty ofteach-ers to take responsibility for the manage-ment of the Centre as a whole. At presentthere are 89 trainers giving instruction inseven main subjects (administration. elec-trical engineering, mechanical engineer-ing. draftsmanship. health services, fash-ion and the clothing industry and agricul-ture) with courses lasting a total of fiveyears (two years for VT- I and three yearsfor VT-2). A total of 1.200 students areregistered at the Centre.

A school in touch with itsenvironment with the aimof facilitating transitionand entry into working life

From its inception there was a strong de-sire that the school should he integratedinto its local and regional context at everypossible level with the aim of providing aservice for the community and of taking onthe role of a new catalyst.

It would he mistaken to believe that con-tact with the environment can he limited toan effective policy of public relations: infact this way of working should produce adirect effect on the daily work of studentsand for this reason there should he a con-certed approach by the Centre as a whole.

An open school

The school has always endeavoured to hean open centre and to ensure that its facili-tie, are available to the community ( sp.rtsfacilities, gymnasium, printing and audio-visual equipment. workshops etc.): by thesame token professional groups. industry.unions. institutions, trade associations etc.from the district should have access to the

school to give lectures to students or fortheir own activities.

Eq,nally. importance was attached fromthe beginning to the dissemination of in-formation: at first this meant giving infor-mation about vocational training since therewas no previous tradition in the districtand later on it involved playing an activepart in the social fabric of the town. TheCentre has, therefore, taken various stepssuch as using local communications out-lets (weekly publications, radio etc.). pub-lishing articles and interviews on aspectsof vocational training, entry into workinglife, vocational orientation etc.. as well asbroadcasting a weekly radio programmeon agriculture or having a stand at thedistrict fair.

Moreover, the curricula of each of thedifferent courses include visits to firms.centres or institutions considered to besuitable for widening the knowledge oftrainees.

We have also tried to maintain the closestpossible ties with other educational estab-lishments and especially with town halls.regional authorities and with the local busi-ness and professional world.

In-firm or alternatingtraining

Over the years it became increasingly clearthat links with industry not only had to bestrengthened but that young people shouldcomplete their training at the actualworkplace. In 1984 we therefore initiatedthe practice of in-firm training, in particu-lar for students in their final period oftraining: practical work was limited tofour hours a day over three month periods.Of the various different methods in use. wechose total "immersion- of the student.This experience was very positively as-

Vocational training 2/1992 45

CEDEFOP

sessed by trainers. industry and the stu-dents themselves and gave rise to the es-tablishment of a compulsory period ofpractical work lasting a minimum of threeto six months during the VT-2 phase. Italso prompted the setting up of a commit-tee within the centre for relations withindustry, consisting of a trainer from eachbranch of the Centre. which took on thetask of assessing and evaluating on -the-lob practical experience undergone bytrainees on the basis of notes taken duringthis period: the committee also kept intouch with companies. reached agreementsetc. as s ell as acting as a body for apprais-ing and reflecting on the value of in-firmtraining as a whole.

The Centre reaches about 300 agreementsa year with industry for on-the-job practi-cal training (of three months duration).

Final year projects

Within the framework of w hat we mightcall "initiative training-. students of cer-tain subjects carry out during their finalcourse of studies a PROJECT (named forits similarity to the projects undertaken in

.44

the final period of university degreecourses): in groups of two they simulatethe creation of a business in all its aspects(market studies. profitability. investment.financing, procurement of permits. pro-duction etc.). A large part of the work hasto he done outside the Centre. as much ofthe information has to he gathered in firms.town halls. inland revenue offices etc.:The student. therefore. has to cultivateindependent relations with the commer-cial and institutional structures of his envi-ronment.

Carrying out real tasks inclass groups

In certain subjects, and as part of theirtraining, students have undertaken realtasks under the guidance of professionalsor official bodies, thereby gaining valu-able experience: for example, students ofdraftsmanship have drawn up plans for theconversion of a farmhouse into a localsocial centre as well as carrying out studiesfor the renovation of a dispensary in one ofthe ill ages of the district. Students ofadministration have produced studies onlocal commercial activities as well as field

7.4:446,

work and statistics on the local fair. Agri-cultural students have worked on an ex-perimental farm to study the growing andimprovement of different y arieties of maizein the district.

Vocational training coursesfor the unemployed

In recent years vocational training courseshave been held at the Centre (geriatrics.data-processing. foreign trade, electricalengineering) for the unemployed, in par-ticular for women. who represent the mostaffected group in this district. These courseshave been organized in conjunction withINEM (National Employment Institute) orthe "Conselleria de Trehall de laGeneralitat" (Catalan Ministry of Labour)in the belief that the Centre was the onlymeans of providing these people with train-ing and a new start and that public fundsdestined (bra particular sectorof the popu-lation or district should be for the benefitof the latter regardless of the governmentdepartment on which they depend. Thuslast year. with the cooperation of the"Conselleria de Trehall de la Generalitat ".an advanced level course in industrial ro-

A C.

Vocational training 2/1902

bot technology was held for young peopleup to 25 years old: it was very successfulboth with regards to access to employmentand professional aptitude. with the resultthat this year it will he expanded to includea course of CAD/CAM CNC.

In the field of agriculture, courses de-signed to place young people in farmingenterprises. such as dairy farming. cheese-producing and organic horticulture andaimed at farmers and stockbreeders in thearea, open up the possibility of a trainingwhich they were previously denied.

Public foundation for thepromotion of vocationaltraining

The initiation of in-firm training for thestudents of VT? greatly impro% ed tieshem een the Centre and the commercial.business and institutional world of thedistrict: the need to give these tics a s' s-tematic framework and to overcome thelimitations imposed by official regulationsled us to propose and promote the creationof an entity which would unite the differ-

ent sectors, both public and private. inter-ested in vocational training for the districtand which would help to consolidate therelations between the Centre and its envi-ronment. This body, dependent on the"Conseil Comarcal de La Garrotxa (Dis-trict Council of La Garrotxa). assumed thelegal status of a public foundation and. inaccordance with its statutes, its objectivesare as follows:

To encourage in young people andsociety as a whole the need to acquire thehighest possible level of professional skillso as to successfully confront the technological reorganisation which we are atpresent undergoing.

To seek assistance, subsidies and co-operation in order to obtain the necessaryfunds for realization of the programme!.and objectives adopted by the foundation.

To w ork closely V. ith the "Institute deFormacion Professional de la Garrot a'' inorder to bring curricula up-to-date and toadapt them to requirements.

To ensure that the initial employmentof young people matches their skills.

CEDEFOR

To examine new specialities needed inthe district and to make the necessarychanges or additions to existing curricula.

To improve the vocational training ofworkers in the district.

To organise courses. discussion groupsand lectures considered necessary for asteady improvement of workers' skills.

To combine the efforts of the variouspublic and private administrative bodiesprepared to assist with the improvement inskills and vocational training of inhabit-ants of the district.

To work for the establishment in Olotof laboratories, workshops and centres forresearch. studies, services etc. availablefor use by all interested sectors such asstudents, teachers, firms, industrial andagricultural enterprises. professionalgroups etc.: and to take care of the admin-istration and management of these centres.

This body, which has been in operation forfive years. is on the one hand reality in thatit has established -a multi-purpose labora-tory for the district as well as a committeefor grants and in-firm practical training: ithas also given its support to the holding ofadvanced technology courses at the Insti-tute. On the other hand it is still a projectin that there remains much ground to becovered before it achieves its objectives.

Our evaluation of in-firmtraining

When in-firm training was included in thestudents' curriculum. the Centre definedthe part it should play in the educationalprocess of the student. In outline the objec-tives of in-firm training are as follows:

To help the student to carry out realtasks which are relevant to the speciality inwhich he is being trained.

To ensure that students have the oppor-tunity to familiarize themselves w ith ty pesof 1. ork and work methods as well as w ithtools and machinery which it would hedifficult to demonstrate at the school.

To give the student the opportunity tomake contact with thew orld of commerce

Vocational training 2/1,J92 47

CEDEFOP

and labour, and to introduce him to typesof human relationships which are not pos-sible within the context of school training.

To facilitate the transition of studentsto working life. a process which is animportant part of their positive and activeintegration into society as a whole.

During these years we has e been able toobserve that in-firm training is positivesince contact with the working environ-ment:

Clearly helps to "mature" the youngstudent and soften the transition fromschool to work.

Is a vital element in the process ofadapting young people to society.

Gives them greater awareness of theirQwn skills and of the need to perfect them.

Furthermore. nearly all students whocomplete their studies find employment.A significant number are employed by oneof the firms in which they have spent apractical training period.

We wish to emphasize the point that. in ourexperience. in-firm training is more im-portant with regards to the integration ofstudents into society than for its technicaltraining aspect: w hile the latter is impor-tant. it does not play such a vital role inensuring the students' successful transi-tion from school to the working environ-ment and into society.

Some thoughts about therole of the school in theprocess of transition and incooperation at a local level

I do not wish to finish this article withoutmentioning some of the ideas circulatingat the Centre on this subject and w hich willundoubtedly give rise to much debate:

Many of the projects. activities andtrials carried out by centres in this fieldha e been thc result of the voluntary initia-tis e of certain teachers or centres. A moredecisix e approach on the part of the educa-

tional authorities is called for, although weshould draw attention to the important role

45

rs

itz

it

0,4

played by the "Servei Escola-Treball de laGeneralitat de Catalunya- (School-WorkService of the Catalan Government) inrecent years.

The authorities should support centreswhich w ish to work in this w but shouldavoid "uniform.' solutions. Certain typesof experience cannot be applied generally .since they form part of the reality of aparticular district which may bear no rela-tion to that of others.

Vocational training centres will onlyhe able to play a significant part in coop-eration and local development, if the\ areallowed sufficient autonomy to adapt tothe reality of their particular ditrict and ifthe human and material resources of eachcentre are taken into account. This au-tonomy should he based on a transfer ofresponsibilities and on confidence in itsmanagement.

This transfer of confidence and re-sponsibility to the centres should in now ay imply reducing the role of the authori-ties: they w ill instead be able to directmore energy to the task of coordinatingand monitoring acti ities.

The acti ity of the go \ ailment in anadministrative district. especially if it issmall. should he properly coordinated or

5'

else coordination should either be carriedout at a local level. in order to ensure thatevery possible sector is able to take advan-tage of investment. regardless of the gov-ernment department from which it hasoriginated. Coordination of this nature isessential in the field of \ ocational training.since it is obviously a complex subject inwhich many departments may he involved.

Up till now teachers has e been trainedto give instruction in their special subjectand nothing more. w hen in fact their rolewithin a centre could he far more compre-hensk e. It has become necessary to rede-fine the function that teachers should playin the future: it would seem that this aspectis included in courses for teachers on edu-cational reform. an aspect w hich is essen-tial in creating the right climate and sensi-ti itv to the subject of transition and localcooperation.

The subject of transition and local co-operation can only be confronted efficientlyonce there is a shared approach on the part

of the centre. and therefore of the majorityof trainers. towards the community in

hich it is embedded and front \\hich itderives its meaning. We cannot expect

oung people to he successfully integratedinto the social and s' orki ng fabric of soci-ety. if the centre itself is not clearly inte-grated.

Voiational training 2/1992

CEDEFOP

Management training for headteachers based on business models

In our complex society there is an, increasing need fornew types of part-

nership to tackle new problems so thatpeople with different responsibilitiesand points of, view can make theircontribution. In the Italian, trainingsystem, the Protocol ofAgreement be-tween the Ministry of Education andConfusduitria (Confederationof

Employers) is a significant exam-ple of this: type or`allianCe". Amongthe various training initiatives, includ-ing school and vocatkinal guidance,in-company work experience periods,teaching technologies, the environ-ment and education for EuroPe, theself-instructionnutIti-media course forhead teachers Conducted -in over 18Italian provinces, has been very sue-cessful. .The :course, entitled "schoolorganization .and'management" wasoffered to over 540 headi 'of uppersecondary schools who, helped by agood tutorial team - made up of otherappropriately prepared headteachers- a good 'Paper" guide and nine videocassettes, looked at case-studies ofschool life and discussed new organi-zational models, :airing account of thepossibilities offered by business mod-els.

Renato DiNubilaCoordinator ofthe JointMinistry (d.Education-Coldindustria

Committee. vice-Chairman of theRegional Institute .for EducationalResearch, Development and In-Service Training (1RR.SAE) of theEmilia Romagna Region

Ways of "relocating" systems of educa-tion and training so that they are more inkeeping with the new needs of citizens andthe requirements of the complex society inwhich we live are being sought.

This is no easy task and schools cannotsatisfy these new requirements by them-selves.

In Italy, as in other industrialized coun-tries, the whole question of education isunderpinned by an increasing awarenessof the strategic importance of "intangible"resources and in particular training.

Public and private institutions are veryaware of this issue and willing to enter intoagreements and work together.

Confindustria (Confederation of ItalianEmployers) has made great efforts to pro-mote this kind of action in recent yearsalong with public industrial organizationssuch as IRI (Institute for Italian Recon-struction). These two top-level associa-tions have now gone a stage further andhave signed a "protocol of agreement"with the Minister for Education and theMinister for Universities. The aim is tohelp schools to transfer certain aspects oftechnical and technological culture intotheir teaching and therefore to enhance therole of technical teaching as part of thebroader cultural development of our timerepresented by "systematic" knowledge.

The protocol of agreementbetween the ministry ofeducation and confin-dustria: towards an "alli-ance system" for schools

The agreement reached in July 1990 isundoubtedly a turning point in the historyof Italian education. The social divisions

of such a "long" country have had ad-verse effects on schools and training cen-tres. Italy-needs a "pact" or a series of"pacts" giving top priority to training.This aspect of the problem is tackled in thetext of the Ministry-Confindustria agree-ment: making the most of the productionworld's contribution to the modernizationof schools and providing educational work-ers with the best possible opportunities offinding new ways of promoting high-qual-ity and essential learning. The content ofthe agreement, which is already producinginteresting results for both teachers andheads of schools, can he summarized asfollows: the Ministry and Confindustriahave decided to set up permanent consul-tation procedures "in order to improve thequality of training for young people. inrelation to the needs of the V orking world.by mobilizing their own and their associ-ated central and local structures". Bearingin mind that occupational skills and tech-nologies are constantly being renewed.schools and enterprise will undertake topromote opportunities for cooperation withthe business world to achieve these objec-tives.

This undertaking paves the way fora wholerange of possible cooperation links focus-ing on the following training areas in par-ticular:

school and vocational guidance.innovation in school curricula.technical and vocational education.post-secondary training.training of administrative and teaching

staff in the school system.development of educational technolo-

gies and research.minimum know ledge of Europe: eco-

nomic, social and cultural aspects.minimum know ledge of em ironmen-

tal and development issues,training and work experience in enter-

prise.

vocational 11.11timg 2/I99_2 49

Mixed working parties made up of minis-terial inspectors. school personnel and rep-resentatives from the production worldhave been set up to deal with each of thesetopics.

Each working party is responsible for anin-depth examination of the topic which ithas been assigned and the organization ofpilot training schemes for teachers andhead teachers.

A number of ventures have already beenorganized in certain cities in the North ofItaly, where the Ministry/Confindustriaproposal has been launched.

The self-instruction coursefor head teachers in 18Italian provinces

The training project for head teachers fromtechnical as well as vocational and aca-demic schools is undoubtedly one of themore novel initiatives being promoted bythe Ministry and Confindustria. This large-scale national project for the training ofschool principals, formulated and organ-ized jointly by a public institution and anassociation of private entrepreneurs. is thefirst of its kind. This was stressed byGiancarlo Lombardi, director of the schools

50

division of Confindustria and a dedicatedpromoter of links between the school sys-tem and the business world: "This projectis intended to provide head teachers withthe expertise which they need to makeradical changes to school organization andmanagement. It is not enough just to makeminor organizational adjustments. Change.if it is to be effective, has t -, go together

with a new outlook making it possible tointroduce into schools the new manage-ment methods which the "managementrevolution" has introduced into the busi-ness system-.

According to Italian entrepreneurs. thisdoes not just apply to the public authoritiesbut also and in particular to schools wheremanagement criteria. yardsticks for meas-uring their activity and productivity. andpersonnel evaluation techniques have notup to now been introduced.

None of the four main principles of "scien-tific business management" have been sys-tematically applied in Italian schools:

. clear definition of the objective or re-sult to he achieved:ways of achieving this objective andthe necessary authority and personalresponsibility:

3. the possibility of adequate career andfinancial rewards if successful:

4. the need to take responsibility and faceup to consequences in the case of fail-ure.

"This situation - Mr. Lombardi continued- "has been brought about by the ponder-ous nature of the authorities and by masseducation in particular. It has led to wide-spread shortcomings in the quality of theservice offered by schools ".

Is it possible to transfer some of the "phi-losophies" of business e...:Iture and strategyto schools? A great deal of work by minis-terial and business expert:, has gone intothk question and has led to these courseswhich have proved to be extremely usefulin practice.

In order to provide a blueprint for theefficient organization of administrative.technical and auxiliary services. it is widelyfelt that individual schools must take moreresponsibility for their own managementand that the central authorities need tomake expenditure more transparent andreduce the time lag between decisions andtheir implementation. In other words, man-agement training for head teachers entailsa significant innovation. that of envisag-ing schools as "learning businesses": how-ever, convincing public opinion thatschools are businesses is not an easy task.

The role of the headteacher in better struc-tured system of schoolorganization

The Ministry and Confindustria have con-sequently chosen to focus the training ofhead teachers on the following topic:"school organization and management ".This topic has been the focus of all 18 ofthe courses conducted in the 18 Italianprovinces selected by the Ministry fromthe North. Centre and South of Italy.

In order to make sure that the initial objec-tives were achieved in full, very intensivepreparatory work to train course coordina-tors - selected from the most motivatedand aware head teachers - and to preparethe "training package". made up of a"guide manual'' and nine video cassettesfor self-instruction, took place before the

Vocational training 2/1992

various schemes were actually put intopractice. The course module and the mate-rial prepared were tested in a number ofItalian towns before being sent out to thevarious provinces selected for the nationaltraining plan.

The main ideas behind the course are ex-amined below.

Balanced and efficient management ofschools requires better innovative andmanagerial skills on the part of schooladministrators.

Head teachers must therefore he able toprovide a proper dynamic balance betweenthe learning- teaching process and the in-ternal organization of the school. In thisrespect. the work of head teachers may heimproved if radical changes are made tocurrent regulations so that the best educa-tional results can be achies ed from the fewresources available (funds. facilities, timeand manpower).

If they are to become more professional.school administrators must also learn lessbureaucratic attitudes and the ability to useregulations constructively: they must heable to pinpoint significant problems inthe life of the school. formulate appropriateand efficient solutions, set specific objec-tives for themselves and their colleaguesand monitor the results achieved.

Can the training of school administratorsincorporate suggestions. strategies andorganizational models from the culture ofbusiness organization?

Using business models as useful "refer-ences- for organizational issues has notbeen easy for schools.

It is not universally accepted that the or-ganizational structure of a business can besuperimposed on a school. Opponents stillpoint out that tile school does not satisf\some of the basic requirements of an openproduction ss stem: markets. customers.profit motives. worker mobility and so on.

Looking at schools in the past with theirmonopoly os er education and their lack ofinterest, until recent times. in the ups anddowns of demand in the market for train-ing and the needs of young people andfamilies. they are not wholly w rung. New

training systems are, however. moving ina different direction. Schools will need orwill be forced to review their internal or-ganization and the ways in which theyrespond to the demands of users, students.families and institutions.

The way in which schools are managedwill obviously be crucial in this new situ-ation and successful outcomes will dependon systematic and high-quality strategies.

Schools must compare - largely by anal-- their own operation with the organi-

zation of businesses and the ways in whichbusinesses enter and remain in the market.Studying the most efficient business strat-egies is in any case worthwhile. This is theproblem: helping schools to study organi-zational and managerial approaches and touse these approaches to satisfy new de-mands for education and training.

It is these basic considerations which has eled to the multi-media refresher '.tillingcourse for head teachers focusing on schoolorganization and management.

The course: reasoning andcultural premises

Recent studies have portrayed the organi-zation as an organism. an arena and abusiness: three metaphors which can helpto understand the meaning of a complexsystem.

Organizations are seen in some respects asa social construct of collectis e action. inwhich individual processes and dynamicsco-exist and lead at different times to co-operation. independence and conflict( Friedberg. 1972): organizations are alsoseen as having "the fundamental dimen-sion of a "political arena" providing aforum for the opposing and necessarilyindependent power games and strategiesof those invol en

From this point of \it.n. the organizationdoes not mist per se and does not has e itsow n inherent strategy : organizations areartificial constructs and are provided ss ithan identity and a strategy through whichthey function as businesses run by theirmembers as they attempt to work togetherto ensure the stirs is al of the organization.

fr^ ,".CEDEFOP

This s iew is still not widely shared or is notseen by schools as an important factor inthe same way as teaching and discipline.This does not mean that organizationalproblems are extraneous or unknown: headteachers are well aware of such problemsas they have to tackle them and find solu-tions every day.

There is a further problem: schools aretraditionally perceived as "domestic insti-tutions- or "places of learning- and not ascomplex organizations. Operating fromthe point of view of an organizational logicmeans taking a business approach with anawareness of the difficulties and problemsto he tackled and a willingness to acceptthe challenge and find solutions. In busi-ness this is known as risk culture. resultculture or industrial culture.

In an approach of this type. head teachersare a necessary but not an exclusise "focalpoint- in the same way as managers inbusiness. From a business point of view. itgoes without saying that the training ofhead teachers is an essential factor in en-suring greater efficiency and improvedquality within the school.

Everyone knows. however. that in mostcases head teachers are teachers who haveswitched - after success in a competition -from being specialists in a branch of knowl-edge to being coordinators of other spe-cialists.

Paradoxically. they become organizers andresource manners while lacking the train-ing and experience needed for these tasks.moving in most cases from a teaching postto a managerial role.

Course structure andoperating methods

The aim is clear-cut: to promote an ass are-ness of the need to see schools as serviceorganizations for the public and to managethe school service as a well-run businesswhich meets the social needs of its cus-tomers.

The training scheme is also intended topros ide head teachers w ith a structuredopportunity to develop their abilities tomanage complex processes in away Nell

'iltalitinal hauling 2/1992 51

CEDEFOP

is in keeping with the Operating needs ofthe school and includes aspects of autono-mous management and European educa-tional developments.

Course content

In outline, the topics tackled include: theidentity of the school as a service organi-zation in relation to its environmental con-text. a review of aspects of school organi-zation paying particular attention to plan-ning and control, management of resourcesand risks, leadership and communicationdynamics and a final review of the role ofthe head teacher.

The basic "message- is that schools needto develop an efficient planning cultureand that this is possible only by building onthe culture currently widespread withinschools: the head teacher needs, more-over, to he seen as the manager of a rangeof problem areas.

Work modules incorporating a new phi-losophy of school management have beenformulated around the following themes:

section A:the school as a business:school organization and service

quality:the formal responsibilities of the head

teacher.

section B:the complexity of the school service:risk management in schools:resources and costs of the school

service:communication processes and school

leadership:the role of the head teacher.

Methods and resources

The various modules use different meth-ods: video cassettes are alternated withperiods of guided discussion, exercisesand analyses of cases relating to aspects ofschool management (school organization,planning and budgeting), conduct (com-munication, leadership) and risk manage-ment.

The course methods are based on:the "case-study" method. making it

possible to take a real school situation as astarting point:

the involvement of the participants.comparing and making the most of theirexperience:

an original concept which makes itpossible to take the specifics of organiza-tional analysis of the school as a startingpoint.

The course is structured as two moduleseach lasting three days. The course for-

A

52

AIM

4 ira

44

mula is based almost entirely on self-in-struction and self-management.

The course uses a guide manual and ninevideo cassettes on the following topics:

description of the course,the school as a business.operating processes and the quality of

the school service,responsibility and its forms,risk management in the school,the school budget.communication processes,leadership.

111 the head teacher and the organizationalculture of the school.

Geographical organizationof course

The course product needed to he "indus-trialized" in order to make it available tothe largest possible number of head teach-ers.

A group of experts from Bologna Univer-sity. the Ministry of Education. Confin-dustria and the National Association ofHead Teachers came up with the idea of amulti-media approach to he disseminatedwidely on a national scale. As mentionedabove, the Ministry of Education chose 18or so Provincial Directors of Educationand. within the local area, a "reference"school. The training structure of a typicalcourse is consequently as follows: 30-40head teachers arc selected and. it' suitablymotivated. are invited to watch the videorecordings with contributions from ex-perts.

The group of trainees under the guidanceof coordinators prepared for this role onprevious courses - discusses the issuesraised by the video recordings.

The course director and the two coordina-tors are head teachers who have to faceorganizational and teaching problemsever) day and are thus credible trainerswho are able to understand and put acrossthe issues which the course raises. In orderto make the training more effective. anumber of "cases" from school life arediscussed and resolved in small groups orat plenary sessions.

Vocational training 2/1992

The "cases- discussed include:the work of two head teachers:planning of teaching in a secondary

school:

budgeting in a commercial school:a study visit abroad.

Results of the trainingscheme

The central offices of the Ministry andConfindustria provided constant help withthe courses which were organized in prac-tice by the Provincial Directors of Educa-tion and the Industrial Associations ofeach of the Provinces selected.

Constant monitoring of al I the stages of thecourse was thus possible. The initial re-sults have already been collated and showthat the 541 head teachers who attendedthe course were very satisfied.

One of these head teachers - to give anexample - made the following interestingcomment:"Real training for school administra-

tors is now available. This is a high-quality course".

The success of this initial experiment hasled to a substantial demand from otherProvinces not included in the first wave ofcourses.

CEDEFOP

The formula and the paper and audiovisualmaterials will be sent out from the start ofthe next academic year (1992-93). TheMinistry and Confindustria will be re-sponsible for providing the support neededfor a further series of courses, providingthe tutorial team of the coordinators andthe course director and arranging for as-sistance from Provincial Directors of Edu-cation and local Industrial Associations.

Conclusions

A question by way of conclusion: is itpossible for Italian schools to adopt thisorganizational approach?

Considerable efforts are being made inmany schools and there is little doubt thatmany head teachers, aware that an ap-proach of this type calls into question thetraditional inertia of some systems and thesense of a "culture of impotence arewilling to play their part.

This training scheme has its own philoso-phy and is firmly committed to a change ofdirection in school management.

The initial courses conducted along theselines have met with approval. They con-firm the view of those who are convincedthat schools must he helped to make themost of internal resources and also to lookfor indispensable support from outsidefrom the point of view of regulations and

cir also, and more importantly, from a cul-tural point of view.

It is just as fundamental to develop correctand effective methods and practices ofcommunication both within and outsideschools.

The training package offered by thesecourses and the self-instruction methodsfor which trainee head teachers are them-selves responsible are based on this ap-proach.

The course consequently places head teach-ers - within certain limits imposed by ac-tual practice - in the position of directors ofa production which is always interesting.which must he broadcast every day and inwhich everyone must know and performtheir role.

Vocational training 2/1992 53

5r,

CEDEFOP

Recognition and validation ofvocational skills in France

The author takes as his starting pointthe paradoxical co-existenceinFranceof the emphasisplaced on the diplomawithin the' ethication system and thelack.:; of, entphaiis :Placed on the di-plonia by employers, ispeciallY fromthe pOint of view of iectuitTent.In :thi* 'write* Criteria be

.

used- to-construct Itie*Chies'Of professioi i" and :Validerte,ntithas 'Of so-cial advancement? 'The article'ixisinines new app "roachesintended to-improve the..-recogititionand validation Of aceupationnl Skills:the develointrentofcreditunitsandthemodular organization of courses, newqualifications atultheentification pro-cedure, the establishnient of a right toqualifications focusing "on the indi-vidual training credit (CFI) and fi-nally a policy of recogn4ing experi-ence chiefly through skills reviews andportfolios.

Self-critique

A CEREQ dossier from 1979 ( ) notedthat the oldest protagonist of the Frencheducation system was the Church. whichhas gradually lost its de facto and de juremonopoly to the State and more recently toemployers. It has to be borne in mind.however, that the cultural outlook of the

54

BernardLietardSuperintendentof worksaffiliated toCNAMChair e ?I' adult

training at the ConservatoireNationale des Arts el ithWers, Path

upper classes (clergy, military and landedaristocracy. middle class shopkeepers,landowners and businessmen. etc.) hasalways dominated reforms of the educa-tion system. placing the emphasis on anelite (general and scientific) education atthe expense of a mass (more vocationaland technological) education.

France has been slow to diversify its schoolstructures (class 3 of secondary education,i.e. nine out of a total of twelve years ofprimary and secondary education) becauseof this historical tradition. The conven-tional dichotomy encountered in Euro-pean countries between general and voca-tional education takes the form in Franceof a trichotomy between general. technicaland vocational streams. Alternance train-ing schemes are confined to an auxiliary.role. These streams have few links withone another because of institutional divi-sions. with an evident hierarchy of aca-demic courses (general. scientific and lit-erary education), courses leading to tech-nological baccalaureats and vocationaleducation which is itselfdivided into schooleducation and alternance contracts (ap-prenticeship and other employment con-tracts which include training). Everyone.including students. families and workerswithin the educational system itself. stillseems to agree. despite some advances inrecent years. that there is a hierarchy ofqualification routes and that the trend to-wards the "technical- is an adverse trendbrought about by the lack of anythingbetter. i.e. impro \ ed general strean.N. Al-though it is true that post-school trainingschemes have gained considerable groundsince 197 I . they offer transitional and ad-aptation training intended to make up forthe shortcomings of school education. Theyconsequently play a major part in the re-medial system and make little contributiontov,ards the establishment of a permanenteducation system.

In this context, the following question maybe posed: have the selective way in whichthe education system has been constructedand the lack of acknowledgement of sometraining schemes been out of keeping withthe real needs of the workforce? Moregenerally. what criteria of competence canbe taken as a basis for occupational hierar-chies and used to sanction social advance-ment practices?

The most widespread form of validationwas the diploma defined by a recent "of-ficial guide" (2) as "a document. whetheror not formai. establishing a privilege or aright ". If issued by a competent authority.the diploma has a legal dimension: it con-ditions access to certain professions andcertain ty pes of training or competitions-.Jean-Marie Barbier (3) has examined theorigins of the "licence" and the "diplomain the Middle Ages and the society of theAncien Regime: the former( from the Latin"licere": to permit) was in fact an authori-zation to teach and the latter entitled itsholder to exercise certain rights or to carryout a certain type of activity. Up to the endof the 18th century. however. school sys-tems sere fragmented. had few clear-cutobjectives and there was no legislation onexaminations apart from some procedureslaid down in local or sectoral regulations.It %%as the revolutionary plans of the sec-ond half of the century which establishednational validation in connect ion with edu-cational plans based on three principles:access for all. preparation for specific so-cial functions and the recognition of indi-vidual merits (implying their evaluationand the establishment of levels) (4).

It is for this reason that the baccalzwrhtrecogni/ing the completion of secondaryeducation and the main modern unit ersityqualifications were established in 1808.i.e. at a time when the political authoritieswere establishing lycees and new unit er-

Vocational ti aming 2/1992

shies to educate people for most social andpolitical careers.

Collective bargaining by the social part-ners leading to collective labour agree-ments defining occupational classificationsis a further source of validation. Theseagreements define "qualifications" by de-scribing the requirements of a job and thecriteria for access and recruitment to thisjob. Leaving aside the professional "guilds"which regulated access to their profession,it was the industrial revolution which ledto systems of work based on task divisionand the functional dependence of activi-ties, thereby raising problems of job clas-sification and job hierarchy.

In this context, the "Parodi" grids were inuse in France for many years. Formulatedafter the war, they are generally based oncategories (blue-collar workers. white-col-lar workers. technicians, supervisory work-ers, managers). These grids attempt tomatch expertise. jobs and minimum sala-ries.

These two official sources of validation -diplomas issued by the State and quail Ilea-tions set out in labour agreements - aregenerally unconnected in France: an indi-vidual's qualifications, evidenced in partby the diploma, do not always correspondto the job which he or she occupies. French

employers set great store by their freedomto assess employees' qualifications: with avery few exceptions the diploma, while itspractical value is not zero, is not automati-cally recognized by the production systemas a contractual qualification. A recentstudy by Patrick Guilloux(5) confirms thetruth of this "rule of the game":

"Leaving aside the regulated professions.it seems that both as regards recruitmentfor jobs and career advancement, the hold-ers of official and unofficial diplomas,even though they benefit in some casesfrom special advantages. arc placed on aequal footing with employees who hay e an"equivalent" level of training, "experi-ence" or professional "practice" which is"sufficient" or "recognized "."

This trend has been further accentuated bythe recession starting in 1974 and its con-sequences, i.e. precarious jobs, deskillingand the tendency towards flexibility. What-ever the level of recruitment. the French

Vocational training 2/1992

system for relating training and employ-ment is blurred and there is a gap, espe-cially at the skilled white-collar or blue-collar level, between the level of certifica-tion achieved (diploma or certificate) andthe level of qualification on recruitment.This "French disease" has in some casesshed doubts on the credibility of trainingschemes at this level, especially as regardsprogrammes intended to integrate youngpeople into employment. In this inauspi-cious economic and social context. salarydiscrepancies between diploma levels arehigher than in other European countriesand are closely linked to the levels achievedin general education which remains, in thewords ofJean-Pierre Jallade(6), "the mov-ing force of social and occupational hier-archies-. He also notes that "school meri-tocracy- is based on a permanent confu-sion between certification and qualifica-tion: more importance is attached to thediploma obtained than to recognizing ex-pertise and the potential use of this exper-tise in work contexts. His conclusion iseloquent: "the school certificate is a con-venient but inadequate criterion; more ac-count should be taken of activities, workand expertise acquired through experiencewhen defining qualifications. We have tolearn to accept hierarchies and mobilitybased on work and activity as a supple-ment to and possibly as a replacement forthose based on diplomas. Everyone agreeswith this on paper. but in France, long acountry of teachers where education is partand parcel of the Republic.... such a changeis no easy task.-

Progress

The second part of this article looks at theprogress which has been made. Most ad-vances came to the fore at the end of the1960s and are, from our point of view,keys to improved skill management whichattempt to link training, work and employ-ment within an overall policy which takesaccount of the individual dimension. Weshall examine four of these advances:

the development of credit units andmodular training schemes;

new qua:if ications and the ratificationprocedure;

the establishment of a right to qualifi-cation;

the recognition of experience.

CEDEFOP

The development of "creditunits"

The "credit unit" system is one of themain innovations introduced by the Minis-try of Education to renew methods of vali-dating expertise for the award of a nationaldiploma. Established in the 1970s, follow-ing on from experiments conducted after1967 in Lorraine in order to solve theredeployment problems of the Lorrainecoal mining area, this system became afully-fledged validation method during the1980s since the diploma obtained is equiva-lent to the diploma obtained in the moretraditional system and attests to the sameoccupational skills.

Trainees who choose to obtain a diplomaby this method are able to do so graduallyas they learn, since the institution appraises

intermediate knowledge by reference to agrid of general and specific competencesbased on knowledge and expertise whichcan he evaluated at different levels. Thisinvolves objective-based education andpersonal training routes taking account oftrainees' prior experience.

Breaking away from the "all or nothing-principle of the traditional diploma, itsmain advantages are that:

it is constructed around the learner'sactivities;

it provides a rational basis for criteria-based educational evaluation. allowing forcommunication between trainers, and"progresses" on the basis of a trainingc:mtract which from the outset lays downwhat results are anticipated so that theycan he monitored by assessment.

After fifteen years of trials. this validationmethod is now widespread and currentlyinvolves the CAP ( vocational aptitude cer-tificate), the BEP (vocational studies cer-tificate). the vocational certificate, the BTS(higher technician certificate) and the re-cent vocational baccalaureats.

The recent establishment of "validationcentres- by the Ministry of Educationmakes it possible to organise individualmonitoring. outside of the dates set fortraditional examinations, thereby pros id-Mg the possibility of on-going intermedi-ate validation. especially for adults.

55

CEDEFOP

The Ministry of Agriculture is also mak-ing considerable use of credit units in therenewal and establishment of diplomas.

From the point of view of the Ministry ofLabour, the increasing use by AFPA (AdultVocational Training Association) ofcourses organized in a modular 1.... rm shouldin time also allow for personal trainingroutes which take account of experienceacquired prior to commencing training.Modular courses also allow for routes in-volving different disciplines, making itnecessary to break down the harriers be-tween training streams: despite progress inrecent years, this is still an unresolvedproblem in France.

Trends in work systems

A 1984 seminar on the topic: "Vocationaltraining. new technologies and industrialchange" (7) highlighted the repercussionsof these developments on the validation ofknowledge:

the increasingly rapid outdating of thediplomas obtained through initial or con-tinuing training: there is a growing gapbetween the skills and knowledge whichindividuals possess and the constantlychanging requirements of the tasks whichthey perform or are supposed to perform:

1111 growing occupational mobility is forc-ing increasing numbers of people into re-training or redeployment schemes: thequalifications being demanded placegreater emphasis on methodological andgeneral skills than specific knowledge:

IN new qualifications are appearing andmay give rise to the creation of new train-ing streams. raising the problem of theirvalidation.

More generally. extensive dialogue in the1980s was intended to improve the linksbetween training s' stems and work and tooptimize the quality of the training provi-sion and the resources channelled intotraining. This had a major impact on vali-dation:

development of initial vocational train-ing leading to broader-ranging skills withan increasing proportion of general educa-tion intended to make trainees more adapt-

56

able and entailing the creation at all levelsof education and training of broader diplo-mas relating to families of occupations inplace of specific qualifications:

changes in the organization of courses,establishing common cores, methods ofmodular organization and key qualifica-tions, thereby preventing premature spe-cialization:

remodelling of reference systems fortraining and diplomas, taking account ofthe working situations for which trainingschemes are intended to prepare. This worktook place at two levels: the ConsultativeProfessional Commissions bringing to-gether the social partners and the "newqualification division ". The latter is re-sponsible for formulating new trainingschemes for new professions by analysingthe work function, the tasks which make it

up and the skills needed to perform thesetasks.

In the case of new qualifications w hich arenot covered by existing diplomas, Francehas had an original validation system since1971: ratification. Requests are examined,on the basis of a report, by a nationaltechnical committee containing representa-tives from Ministries and from the socio-occupational world. This system enablesofficial and public evaluation of aninterministerial type: findings are publishedin the Official Journal. Ratifying a studytitle entails an assessment of the value ofthe training leading to this title and of thecareer prospects of the holders of the title.locating it at one of the training levels ofthe interminis'xrial nomenclature (skilledworker, technician, higher technician. en-gineer. manager). Ratification validates atitle, with reference to a precise category

/ "4.

Vikational training 2/1992

and specific training, in terms of a level ofoccupational competence: it does not pro-vide equivalence with technological edu-cation diplomas.

In the professions, especially in sectors inwhich labour organization has undergonesubstantial change since the 1960s, the"Parodi grids" have gradually been aban-doned in favour of chi- fication grids of a"categorizing- type. These are based onthe definition of qualification levels froma set of identical criteria for each level:responsibility, autonomy, nature of theactivity, level of knowledge possibly witha reference to a diploma. The texts ofagreements also deal with career advance-ment using criteria other than conven-tional seniority. This provides new andmore individualized ways of managinghuman resources.

The gradual establishmentof a right to qualifications

As an indirect consequence of the freedomof movement of people and European workon the correspondence of qualifications.French policy-makers became aware atthe beginning of the 1980s of a substantialdeficit of qualifications validated by di-plomas. Some 40% of the total populationaged 15 and over, i.e. 17 340 640 people,stated that they possessed no educationalqualification in the 1982 census. Therewas an obvious need for a right for every-one. whatever their age or status, to attendtraining leading to a recognized qualifica-tion. In order to make up for the inequali-ties of the education system. this right toreturn to training was to be as long as initialeducation had been short.

The establishment of the Credit Formationindividualise (CFI - Individual TrainingCredit) during the implementation of the10th Plan (1989 -1992) met this need. Setup for young people aged between 16 and25 in September 1989, it was extended toadult employees in 1990 and to adultjobseekers in February 1991. An indi-vidual right to qualification was also en-acted in the Law of 1 July 1990. Thesemeasures have had significant conse-quences on validation systems. particu-larly as regards transparency and accessi-bility: they have made it necessary to de-velop methods for certification which can

Vocational training 2/1992

he recognized by all at the end of theindividual training route, entailing closerlinks between training streams and theirmutual recognition. They have also ena-bled progress from the point of view of therecognition of experience, as shown by ajoint ministerial guide to validation (2)and a documentary dossier produced bythe Centre INFFO (8).

Recognition of experience

Another response to the deficit of attestedqualifications was an interministerialpolicy to recognize experience developedfrom 1984 onwards by the Delegation it laFormation Professionnelle ( VocationalTraining Delegation). In the absence ofvalidation, the solution was to offer indi-viduals methods by which competenceswhich they had actually acquired could beendorsed. Recognizing their experience inthis way would help them to find jobs and/or training. Two main instruments havebeen established for such recognition andto help individuals to formulate and carryout realistic projects for social and occupa-tional integration:

the "skill portfolio" based on the NorthAmerican portfolio and taking up JacquesAubret's formula (9): "knowing yourselfbetter so that others can know you better":

the personal and professional skill re-views which. following on from experi-ments conducted since 1985. are intendedto identify the skills and potential whichindividuals can channel into projects whichthey themselves help to define: a right tothis review was enacted in a Law of 31December 1991, giving concrete shape tothis social advance and affirming the so-cial utility of continuing educational guid-ance.

These measures also recognize the impor-tance, over and above knowledge gainedfrom training, of knowledge gained fromexperience. Increasing account is beingtaken of such know ledge from the point ofview of alidation by diplomas. The creditunit system has been discussed above. Theidea of taking such knowledge into ac-count for admission to courses and also itsrecognition for the granting of diplomas iscurrently being discussed within highereducation.

CEDEFOR

As a recent document from the Delegationa la Formation Professionnelle (10) pointsout. "the issue of validation is one ofmaking qualifications the acknowledgedobjective of training routes: qualificationsconsequently have to be taken as a basisfor permanent integration into employ-ment". All the advances discussed in thisarticle pursue this objective in one way oranother.

In this sense, validation ceases to he anoutdated "academic" issue: it is the primemover of all the partners as they attempt tobuild up a partnership aiming at improvedeconomic efficiency and more equal op-portunities for everyone. This is the chal-lenge: the changes to be wrought in mindsand attitudes are substantial, but are theprice which has to he paid i f French societyis to become a modern society.

References:

t I CEnseignement et organisation du tray; il duXIXeme siecle a no. jours". CEREQ Dossier 21.June 1979. La Documentation Francaise.

(2 i"Cr&lit formation. Guide de Ia alidation".Secretor) of State for Technical Education. ADEPEditions. 1991.

iBarbier. Jean-Marie: aluation en forma-tion". RT. 1985.

(4 iPiobetta, J.B.: "Examen+ et concour.". Paris.PIT. 1973.

(5 )Guillous, P.. Luttringer, J.-M.: "Validation etreconnaissance des acquis de formation par lesbranches professionnelles et les entreprises. A pprochejuridique". MADIF/DRFP Ile-de-France. 1992.

tbiJallade. "Ecole de Ia seconds chance.deuxii:me chance de Former de. pro-fessionnels pour le 2IZ:me CommissariatGen&al du Plan. Institut europeen d'education et depolitique sociale, December I987.

(7 'Proceeding. of the s) mposium ol 8/9 March 1984at Le Creu.ot."Formation prolessionnelle. nom elle.technologies et changements industricls". ADEPEditions. 1984.

1Reconnais.ance et alidation de. acquis".Documental-) dossier. General tem,. Centre INFFOIINT. 1992.

( 9 Aubret. J.: "Rediger un portcleuille decompetence.: NC ICCOnnalirC pons NC 1.111C re-connoitre". f orientation. (-NAM. March1991, Vol. 20. No I.

1011.a salidation".1.4.1ter twin CFI. Special No '.April 1992. nriViNFR)

57

INFORMATION SOURCES

prepared by.Maryse PeschelDocumentationCEDEFOP

Bibliography

Conclusions of the Council and theMinisters for Education meetingwithin the Council of 14 December1989 on technical and vocationaleducation and initial trainingin: Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities (Luxembourg)No. C 27/4. 06.02.90. pp. 4-6. Officeof Official Publications of the Euro-pean CommunitiesDA. DE EN, ES. FR. GR. IT. NL, PTISSN 0378 -706()

The Council and Ministers for Educa-tion meeting within the Council stressthe importance of the issues at stake intechnical and vocational education andtraining and call upon the Commis-sion to define procedures for imple-menting cooperation in this field.These forms of cooperation could bedirected at different target groups orinstitutions: young people, teachersand trainers. educationalists. trainingestablishments and economic and so-cial partners. The interchange of in-formation on different educationalsystems, facilitating the equivalenceof qualification and mutual knowl-edge of vocational diplomas. wouldhelp those invol% ed in training to per-form their role in this cooperation tothe full.

Euro tecno 89-93. Les enjeuxeuropeens des formations technolo-giquesMinistere de I' Education Nationale -Secretariat LI' Etat charge de l'enseig-nement technique. Paris. 1989.104 pp.Secretariat d' Etat charge de l'enseig-nemcnt technique,

61-65, rue Dutot.F-75732 ParisFR

Technical and vocational training mustadapt and innovate if it is to meet thechallenges of Europe. A seminar inMetz on this theme (in May 1989) hasproduced a review of technologicaland vocational training in France andEurope. identifying the European chal-lenges facing such training. The maincontributors discuss the following is-sues: the various models for the or-ganization of vocational training inEurope: links between the productionsystem and the training system: thetraining of engineers and advancedtechnicians: teaching content andmethod: and the certification and therecognition of what has been learned.

Etude comparative des qualifica-tions de fin de scolarite obligatoireet de formation professionnelle,Volume I - rapport de syntheseGordon J.. Commission of the Euro-pean Communities - Directorate Gen-eral V, Institut Europeen d'Educationet de Politique Sociale1990. 67 pp. (national reports in Vol-umes II and Ill)Institut Europeen d'Education et dePolitique Sociale. c/o Universite deParis IX-Dauphine.Place du Marechal de Lattre deTassigny .F -751 16 ParisFR

The aim of this report is to pros ide acomparatis e review of qualificationsat the minimum school-leaving ageand on completion of general and tech-nical secondary education and voca-tional training in EC Member States.It also ana'.. tes the qualifications re-quired for admission to higher educa-

tion. It briefly discusses the shortstreams of higher education, in otherwords courses that last less than threeyears. Volume I is a summary reporton the main research findings andconclusions. It is based on twelve na-tional reports, which all have the samestructure. The national reports them-selves are contained in Volumes IIand III. The research focuses on theacquisition of State - recognized diplo-mas which lead to integration in thelabour market for further studies.

Compendium of EUROTECNETprojectsCommission of the European Com-munities. Task Force Human Re-sources. Education. Training. Youth.Brussels. 1991. 191 pp.EUROTECNET. Technical Assis-tance Office. rue des Deux Eglises 37.B-1040 BrusselsEN. FR

This compendium describes innova-tive training projects in each of theMember States launched as a result ofEUROTECNET. the Community ac-tion programme in the field of newinformation technologies and voca-tional training. It looks at the organiz-ers of the programme in each countryand which aspect of new technologythey emphasize in their choice ofprojects. The projects themselves arebriefly described under the followingheadings: aims, focus of training in-novation. technological applications.target group. learning methodologyand the main economic sector in-vol ed.

Mieux se qualifier pour l' Europe de1993: propositions pour les ,jeunesdu CAP au baccalaureat profession-nel

58 Vocattonal training 2/1992

INFORMATION SOURCES

Andrieu J.Ministere de ('Education Nationale,de la Jeunesse et des Sports. Paris.1991.52 pp.Haut Comite Education Economic.107 rue de Grenelle, F-75537 ParisFR

This report by a working group underthe Senior Committee for Educationand the Economy is based on an evalu-ation of the training of level V and IVyoungsters in four EC countries: Ger-many. the United Kingdom, Portugal

and Spain. It then takes a closer look atFrance, identifying convergences andformulating six proposals. one ofwhich is to reinforce alternance train-ing.

FOREM - L'Office communatitaire etregional de la formatiOU professiotmelle et del'emploi

VDAB - Vlaamse Dienst .Vitor Aibeids-bemiddeling en Beroepippleiding

.CIDOC - Centre intercemmunautairede dcOnientation pour la formationprofeaSionnelle

ICODOCdoeurnentatieeentrum voor beroepsopleiding

Boulevard de I'Empereur 11, B - 1000 Bruxelles, Tel.: 322+502 5141, Fax: 322+511 29 60

Bibliography

Profiel van het tweede jaarBeroepsonderwijs - Leerkrachtenin BSO, een zware job?Onderzoek naar arbeidssatisfactie:schoolwerksfeer en onderwijsoricn-tatieThys. L.. G. Van De Veit and H.VermoereCentrum voor Sociaal-Psychopeda-gogisch Onderzoek (CSBO)Centrale voor Studie- en Beroeps-orientering en psycho-medisch-socialecontra (CSBO)Brussels, CSBO, 1990.116 pp. CSBO,M. Lemonnierlaan 129.B-1000 Brussels

This is one of a series of three reportsexamining differing aspects of the situ-ation of vocational education (secondyear) in Flanders. It approaches thesubject from the teachers' angle: whatdo the men and w omen at the sharpend think of their job. and how do theytackle it'? This examination of theteachers' viewpoint must he seen as anecessary complement to the study ofselection mechanisms and the studentprofile which was carried out with aview to supporting the renewal proc-ess in vocational education. A researchinstrument known as I B ES (an acro-nym standing for "instrument for de-scription and evaluation of schoolfunctioning ") was used to surveyteachers' views.

Research projectsof innovationsEnseignement professionnel -Bilan et perspectivesPjetri J.. Giblet B.service Intervention Recherche Jeunesa.s.h.l. SYNERGIErue des Allies 307. B-1060 Brussels,February 1992. 188 pp. with annexes.FR

This major piece of research, com-missioned by the King Baudouin Foun-dation and the Education Ministry forthe French-speaking Community inBelgium. sees vocational education astorn between the logic inherent in theschool education system and thechanging demands of employers asthey face up to the future challenges ofthe world economy. The methodol-ogy. based on a survey conducted bysending a questionnaire to 395 schoolsproviding this type of instniction, shedslight on the internal parameters of thevocational school as well as the rela-tions between this type of school andthe workplace. Having updated thestatistics on the school populations inthe four forms of this type of educa-tion. the researchers discuss at lengththe three bodies of opinion on therelations hem een the school and theworkplace in terms of their structuresand the attitudes of the participants onthe two sides. The completed researchsuggests new lines of thought on the

dynamics of education, socialization.exclusion, training and qualifications.work and employment. The report endswith eight recommendations for ac-tion, the aim being to upgrade thevocational and above all the job-skillnature of this teaching, stimulatingeducational research, recognition oftrainers' expertise and synergy withthe workplace.

Interuniversitair onderzoek naarde beinvloedende factoren opstudiemotivatie tot verderebekwaming en worming bijleerlingen uit het heroeps-onderwijsVerhofstadt. L.. R. Baekelmans andD. BeringsGhent University. FCFO project ( min-isterial initiative)Duration: 1989 1992

The purpose of this research projectwas to build up a picture of the extentand distribution of "school fatigue-with a view to tackling and preventingit. A questionnaire completed by 89teachers showed that 75 percent felt itto he a real problem. with the propor-tion of students affected put at 32percent. A second questionnaire com-pleted by 216 teenagers focused ontheir attitudes, motivations and ex-pectations in relation to education andwork. Finally. to measure school fa-tigue a questionnaire was compiled tomeasure three aspects: ( I ) how pupils

Vocational training 2/1992 59

INFORMATION SOURCES

experience school (cognitive). (2) theextent to which pupils experiencenegative emotions in class (emotional ).

and (3) the extent to which pupilscommit themselves to study. Thisquestionnaire was completed by 429pupils in the third year of secondaryeducation. Analysis of the responsesto the three questionnaires found alink between school fatigue and: ( )

the number of years that pupils hadfallen behind, and (2) low motivationto perform well, in and out of school.The ultimate purpose of the project isto compile a booklet with advice forparents. teachers, counsellors etc. andto develop concrete recommendationsfor policy-makers in connection withthe organization of systematic sup-port for teachers in the tight againstschool fatigue.

Useful addresses

Bodies responsible for technical edu-cation and coordination

French-speaking Community:

Direction d'administration de('organisation des etudesM. Jose Doomsrue de la Science 43B-1040 BrusselsTel.: 02 / 238 87 16Fax: 02 / 238 86 97

Commission permanente de l'en-seignement neutre subventionne(CPONS)rue des HallesB-1000 BrusselsTel.: 02 /217 55 20

Federation nationale del'enseignement secondairecatholique (FNESEC)rue du Commerce 82B -1040 BrusselsTel.: 02 / 507 07 52Fax: 02 / 507 07 46

- Flemish-speaking community

Departement Onderwijs -Administratie SecundairOnderwijsDe inspecteur-coUrdinateur - TSO -BSO - BUSORAC - Arcadengebouw 5de verdiepingB-1010 BrusselsTel.: 02 - 210 51 11Fax: 02 210 53 72

De Vlaamse Onderwijsraad

(Flemish Education Council )Jozef-II-straat 68B-1040 BrusselsTel.: 02 - 231 00 17Fax: 02 - 230 69 70

The Flemish Education Council. whichbegan functioning on 17 April 1991.has the job of engaging in research andconsultation and advising the FlemishCommunity Minister of Education in

relation to the entire Flemish educa-tion system. educational levels andsectors. The general council. councilsand sections comprise representativesof education providers, of representa-tive organizations of parent associa-tions and of the world of business andemployment and, where necessary. of

experts.

Within the Council for SecondaryEducation the technical and vocationalsecondary education section (whichreplaces the former High Council forTechnical and Vocational SecondaryEducation) is mainly concerned withlinks with industry. Committees arebeing established for each industrialsector which will issue instructions onthe basis of occupational profiles re-garding objectives and programmesfor the various study areas.

Research institutesKatholieke Universiteit LeuvenHoger Instituut voorde Arheid ( HIVA )E. van Evertstraat 2 EB-3000 LeuvenTel.: 016 28 33 15

Universite de Liege - Service depedagogie experimentale - Facultede psychologie et des sciences dereducationboulevard du Rectorat 5 - B.32B-40(X) Liege (Sart tilman)Tel.: 041 / 56 20 51Fax: 041 / 56 20 75

SELSTATENS

ERHVERVSPIEDAGOGISKEL RERUDDANNELSE

Rigsnagade 13

DK-1316 Kobenhavn KTN.: 4533+14 41 14

Fax: 4533+14 42 14

BibliographyErhvervsuddannelser efter 9. og 10.klasseRadet for Uddannelses- og erhvervs-vejledning. Kobenhavn. RUE. 1991.131 p.

ISBN 87-7773-0186

Annually a handbook containing adescription of vocational educationand 'training courses in Denmark isproduced and distributed through theschools. All courses open to school-leavers are described, and the struc-ture. content and admission require-ments of each course arc presented as

well as the corresponding job profile.Opportunities for further trainingcourses are also presented. Included isa list of all vocational schools in Den-mark including the new welfare- andhealth training schools. This manualis a very important instrument in guid-ing young people in the transition proc-

an Vocational training 2/1992

INFORMATION SOURCES

ess from primary and lower secondaryschool to vocational education insti-tutions.

Reformen - om styring ogsamarbejdeUndervisnings- og Forskningsminis-teriet. Direktorat;t for Erhvervsuddan-nelserne, Kobenhavn. Undervisnings-ministeriet. 1990. 33 p.(Erhvervsuddannelserne)

Since 1990. vocational education andtraining has undergone majorchanges.The whole system has been trans-formed. This pamphlet from the Dan-ish Ministry of Education outlines thechanges that have taken place: fewerand more coherent courses, structureand content of courses. rules ofadmis-sion. decentralization, financial re-form. the role of the companies andschools in the dual system, the inter-play between state and social partnersin the system, the management ofschools etc.

Renewal of Vocational Trainingin DenmarkThe Danish contribution to PETRAresearch strand. theme 1: National re-sponses to changing needs for voca-tional skillsHouman Sorensen J.Danish Technological Institute.Tastrup. 1990, 83 p.

This analysis of the renewal processeswithin Danish vocational trai ni ng con-tains two parts: a general descriptionof the system and a study of a numberof examples of how the renew al proc-ess is arranged. The study is based onexisting documentary material. ofcourse. and a lot of interviews (a totalof 28) with central decision makers.Thus the study gives the first compre-hensive description and analysis ofthe new reform of the vocational tain-ing system. It also explains in greatdetail the dynamic characteristics ofthe Danish vocational system and iden-

tifies the mechanisms by which quali-fication needs arc translated into new

education. The methods of renewalapplied in Denmark are evaluated.

Ongoing research

Vocational education and trainingreform in DenmarkA documentation and developmentproject.Project manager: J. Houman Sorensen

Statens ErhvervsNedagogiske Lterer-uddannelse (SEL)

SEL has started a major researchproject on central aspects of the newvocational education and training re-form. The project will document theactivities of the first year of the reform( the school year 1991-92) and initiatenew development projects togetherwith technical and commercial schoolsinvolved. The overall project has beensplit up in 5 parts: 1) Decentralizationand educational planning. 2) Decen-tralization and integrated teachingmethods. 3 )1st school period (the first20 weeks of a course). 4) 2nd schoolperiod (the second period of 20 weeksof a course) and the progress of thetrainees. 5) 2nd school period and theexamination problems.

The project will he running through1992-93. and reports will he producedwithin the different themes of theproject.

The school-company interplay inthe Danish dual vocational educa-tion systemProject manager: J. Houman SorensenStatens Erhvervspxdagogiske Lerer-udclannel se (SEL)

The purpose of this project is. basedon empirical analyses of the school-company interplay within differentbranches of industry. to contribute tothe development of teachers' skills inupgrading this important interplay.The project will during one year try toidentify the importance of the differ-ent phases of vocational educationand training in order to evaluate thedevelopment of trainees' qualifica-

Vocational 2/1992 6

tions. A further purpose of the projectis to increase vocational teachers'knowledge of the practical learningprocesses within companies so thatnew tendencies in technology andwork organization can be transformedinto school teaching as quickly as pos-sible, and so that trainees' work-placeexperience can he better integrated inschool teaching.

Useful addresses

Arbejdsmarkedsstyrelsen (AMS)Hejrevej 43DK-2400 Kobenhavn NVTel.: +45/38 17 20 00Fax: +45/38 17 27 20

Dansk Teknologisk Institut (DTI)GregersenvejDK-2630 TastrupTel.: +45/42 99 66 IFax: +45/42 99 54 36

Roskilde Universitetscenter (RUC)Erhver-s- og voksenuddannelses-gruppenPostbox 260DK-4000 RoskildeTel.: +45/46 75 77 I I

Fax: +45/46 75 74 01

Statens ErhvervspktdagogiskeLlereruddannelse (SEL)Rigensgade 13DK-1316 Kobenhavn KTel.: +45/33 14 41 14Fax: +45/33 14 42 14

UndervisningsministerietErhvervsskoleafdelingenH.C. Andersens Boulevard 41-45DK-1553 Kobenhavn VTel.: +45/33 92 56 00Fax: +45/33 92 55 47

Alborg Universitetscenter (AUC)Institut for Sociale Forhold og Or-ganisationLangagervej 2. Postbox 159DK-9100 AlborgTel.: +45/98 15 85 22Fax: +45/98 IS 75 75

INFORMATION SOURCES

BibliographyFachschulen far Technik in denLandern der BundesrepublikDeutschland and Berlin-West,3.AusgabeEd. Helbing. W., et al.Bundesverband staatlich geprtifterTechniker e.V. ( BVT)1990, 252 p.Techniker Institut des BVT.Baumschulenweg. 6.D-5330 Konigswinter 21

A documentation on continuing train-ing to qualify as a state-examined tech-nician (m/f) and a listing of special-ized technical schools. With this hook,the BVT addresses those skilled work-ers, journeymen, and qualified assist-ants who are interested in vocationaladvancement by qualifying as techni-cians (specialized technical schools)and are looking for the necessary ad-vice. It is also intended for those work-ing in the counselling field.

Useful addresses

Standige Konferenz derKultusminister der Lander in derBundesrepublik Deutschland(KMK)Nassestr. 8Postfach 2240D-5300 Bonn ITel.: 0228/501-0Fax: 0228/501-301

1.EANH391CH AHMOIC.PATIAynoyptgto

404..kOPHOCPYTOATONtfillKO-r

INETITOrto.

Pedagogical InstituteMinistry of.National Ethicationlind Religion

74414:es010414rOt

Tds 301+639 2510:Fizi 301+656 73 70

B ibliograficalreferences

Ekpaidefsi - nees technologiesapascholisi(Education - new technology -employment)Dimitropoulos V.Ethniko Metsovio Polytechneio(EMP)Octovriou 42. GR -I 0682 Athens,1991. 485 p.

This study investigates to what extentTechnical-Vocational Lycra (TVL)prepare the graduates properly for thelabour market. how man) graduatesare placed in it. what percentage isoccupied in their speciality and towhat extent they are trained to practisesuccessfully a vocation relevant totheir school-based training. Policy rec-ommendations are made for improv-ing the quality of training in TVL andfor creating new educational institu-tions for vocational training.

I epangelmatiki ekpaidefsi kai to"systima tis epangelmatikisekpaidefsis-katartisis" you eisageito Ypoyrgeio Paideias(Vocational edcuation and the "sys-tem of vocational education andtraining" introduced by the Minis-try of education)Pate rak s G.Poste Restante Stavrou Attikis.GR-15303. "Ta ekpaideftike. 1992.

95 p.This is a criticism of the new nationalsystem of vocational education andtraining. The main objectives of it are:1) to solve the problem of secondaryeducation graduates who do not enterhigher education by creating newforms of vocational preparation.2) to classify a great number of pri-vate schools. already operating inGreece. by creating a new level in theeducational pyramid. that of the Insti-tutes of Vocational Education andTraining.The author makes his own proposalsfor the establishment of the institutes

.of vocational training.

I Techniki-Epangelmatiki kaiTechnologiki Ekpaidefsi:Provlimata kai Prooptikes en opseitoy 200()(Technical Vocational and Techno-logical Education: Problems andprospects towards the year 2000)Psacharopoulos G.: Palaiokrassas S.Ekpaidefsi kai Epangelma, Athens.1990. pp. 217-230ISSN 1011-3622

This paper reviews the most impor-tant trends. which follow the develop-ment of technical-vocational and tech-nological education in Greece. andattempts to analyze the main prob-lems which have appeared. This diag-nosis is considered necessary in orderto outline alternative proposals foreducational policies for the year 2000.

Koinoniko-choriki theorisi tis mesisepangelmatikis ekpaidefsis.(Socio-spatial aspects of secondaryvocational education)Panagiotopoulou I.

(2 Vocational training 2/1902

INFORMATION SOURCES

Ethniko Metsovio Polytechneio(EMP)Oktovriou 48. GR-10682 Athens.1991. 624 p.

Although the educational reforms of1976-77 and 1983-85 gave priority tothe development of technical-voca-tional education, its enrolment consti-tutes only a small fraction of the totalsecondary education enrolment. Theauthor describes the structure and theevolution of the secondary technical-vocational education since 1976 andanalyzes the reasons which have in-fluenced the development of this typeof education.

0 prosanatolismos ton ellinidonmathitrion pros tin mesi technikiekpaidefsi(Female students' orientation to-wards secondary technical educa-tion)Kassotakis M.in: Ekpaidefsi kai Epangelma. Ath-ens. Greece. 1991, pp. 159-180ISSN 1011-3622

This article examines the educational.cultural and socio-economic charac-teristics of female students, whochoose technical education schools.as well as their views and attitudestowards the education, career and so-cial role of women. Reasons for theirunwillingness to attend TechnicalLyceum are also examined.

The technical-vocational lyceum inGreecePanagiotopoulou I.University of Sheffield. Institute ofEducationSheffield S I 0 2TN. GB-England.1990. 2(X) p.

EN

This study attempts to explore theprocess technical-vocational lyceum(TVL) schooling. It descibes the his-torical and recent development of sec-ondary technical-vocational educationin Greece. It also examines the role of

TVL within the entire educational sys-tem and the relationship between edu-cation, economy and social class mo-bility. Moreover, the study argues thatTVL represents the track whose mainrole is to block working class childrenfrom entering the university.

The technical-vocational lyceum inGreeceKaradija-Stavlioti E.University of London, Institute ofEducation.20 Bedford Way. London WC I H OAL.GB-England. 1991.98 p.EN

During the last three decades the ex-pansion of provision of technical-vo-cational education has proceededapace around the world in both devel-oped and developing countries. In theI 980s their vocational education "factspread to Greece. This dissertationexamines the Greek vocational ex-periment to discover whether Greekexperience of vocational education isdifferent from experience elsewherein the world. The author recommendschanges in Greek educational policy.

Technologia Ekpaidefsi Anaptyxi(Technology, Education, Develop-ment)Papatheodosiou Th.Athens. Greece, Ekdoseis Lychnos.1991, 101 p.ISBN 960-85013-7-7

This hook incorporates reports on con-ferences, seminars, meetings. etc. re-ferring to technology development andeducation. These reports are based ondata collected by the Institute of Tech-nological Education (ITE) throughseveral studies. They specifically re-fer to the Greek education and trainingsystem. European trends, new speciali-zations in the labour market andschool-industry links.

Ongoing research

Evaluation of the apprenticeshipsystem of Manpower Employment(OAED): Reorganization of study pro-grams and experimental implementa-tion of new educational projects,OAED, Athens, 1991

Needs for technical education inGreek industryInstitute for Economic and IndustrialResearch ( IOVE 1.12-14 Mitropoleos Str..GR-10563 Athens

Useful AddressesFederation of Greek Industries(S.EV )

5 Xenofontos Str.GR-10557 AthensTel.: 00301/32 55 531Fax: 00301/32 22 929

Manpower Employment Organiza-tion (OAED)8 Thrakis Str.GR- I 6610 GlyfadaTel.: 00301/99 42 810Fax: 00301/99 37 301

Ministry of National Education andReligious AffairsDirectorate for Secondary Education15 Mitropoleos Str.GR-10585 AthensTel.: 00301/32 46 039Fax: 00301/32 48 264

Vocational Education and Train-ing Organization (VETO)1 II ioupoleos Str.GR-11631 Athens

Pedagogical Institute (Pd.)396 Mesogeion Ave.GR-15341 Ag. ParaskeviTel.: 00301/65 67 370. 63 92 510Fax: 00301/65 67 370

Technical and Vocational TeacherTraining School (SELETE)GR-14121 kaki ioTel.: 00301/28 20 212Fax: 00301/28 21 094

Vocational training 2/1992

INFORMATION SOURCES

Institute Nacional de EmpleoCondesa de VonadRo, 9E-28027 MadridTel.: 341+585 95 82Fax: 341+268 39 81

Bibliography

El disefio curricular en formackinocupacionalPon Barcelo'. E.In: Herramientas, Revista deFormaciOn para el empleo (Madrid).18. 1991. pp. 4-26Glorieta do Cuatro Caminos 6 y 7.E-28020 MadridTel.: 91 535 1017

This article analyzes the relationshipbetween vocational education and thelabour market and the differences be-tween vocational education ( for whichthe education ministry is responsible)and job-related training (for which thelabour ministry is responsible). Threescenarios are set out for coordinatingthe two types. technic- :ivocational andjob-related.

Plan de la reforma de laformacion profesionalMinisterio de EducaciOn y Conch'.1992. 194 pp.c/Alcalli 34-36. E-28071 MadridTel.: 91 - 522 I 1 00

Fax: 91 521 37 75

This document sets out the lines to hefollow ed in vocational education inthe future: the intensification of linksbetween educational institutions andindustry, the integration of basic vo-cational education into secondary edu-cation. the development of a new struc-ture of qualifications. the develop-ment of a system of teacher selectionand training and the creation of a sys-tem of vocational guidance.

Formachin profesional enalternancia, evaluacion de Inexperiencia vascaDepartamento de Educacitin.Liniversidades e Investigackin delGohierno VascoVitoria, Servicio

64

Central de Publicaciones delGobiemo Vasco.1990. 175 pp.ISBN 84-7542-760-X

This report considers the utility of theknowledge and skills acquired by stu-dents at colleges of vocational educa-tion and evaluates collaboration in theform of alternance training betweenthe education system and industry. Itis divided into three main parts. to-gether with a methodological intro-ductory chapter. showing the view-points of the groups concerned: stu-dents. college teachers and companyinstructors. A final chapter provides acomparative analysis of the threegroups studied and an evaluation ofthe shortcomings and potential ofalternance training. The report coversthe Basque Country.

La educacion del sentido de lainiciativaTolosa Clam. C.In: Revistadel.EducaciOn. Madrid. 293.1990. pp. 185-202ISSN 0034-8082

This article focuses on the theme ofeducating young people forenterprisein response to the changes taking placein the structure of production. the la-bour market and the education sys-tem. It details and analyzes a series ofconcrete experiments by young entre-preneurs who have launched projectsinvolving self-employment or busi-ness creation and educational experi-ments conducted both within the edu-cation system and in non-formal edu-cation.

La reforma de la ensefianzatecnico-profesionalAsi's Bias. F.D.. I. Borinaga. A. Corraland J. Gabina Vitoria. Seri icio Cen-tral de Publicaciones del Gi)hiernoVasco.

1991. 80 pp.ISBN 84-7542-915-7

This document comprises the papersfor the technical conference on thereform of vocational education held inBilbao on 2 July 1990. The first con-tain . a series of reflections on theconditions which must be met if thereforms set out in the General Organi-zation of the Education System Act(LOGSE) are to succeed, emphasiz-ing that the development of high-qual-ity professional education requires aknowledge of the social and economiccontext. The remaining papers focuson the design of the new vocationalmodules in a given local domain, thelevel at which the holders of main-stream vocational qualifications enteremployment. alternance training, thestructure and evolution of occupationsand occupational profiles in the BasqueAutonomous Region.

Research inprogress

Transition from vocationaleducation to the world of work.The design, testing and evaluationof vocational-training modulesusing distance-learning methodol-ogyUnix ersity Institute of Education ofthe National 1. ni' ersity of DistanceEducation ( UNED )

The purpose of this research is toprovide a basis for the development ofvocational-education modules at lev-els 2 and 3 as envisaged in the GeneralOrganization of the Education Sys-tem Act (LOGSE) and to improvetraining pros ision h) introducing dis-tance-learning approaches alongsidethe lace-to-face approaches already

7L.3(sat lona! training 2/1992

INFORMATION SOURCES

used. The objectives are to constructapprenticeship syllabuses for a sig-nificant number of qualifications andsubjects not suited to student-directednon-face-to-face training, in concreteterms the didactic structure of a voca-tional-training module.

Employment study for the pur-pose of designing vocationaltraining for the Rioja Baja districtThis employment study of the RiojaBaja district is aimed at helping gov-ernment, colleges and industry to co-operate on optimizing existing train-ing resources. training provision anddeliberative and decision-making pro-cedures in the design of vocationaleducation, in response to the demandsof the labour market and of students(great distances to colleges). The ulti-mate aim is to bring vocational educa-tion into line with real needs.

Curricular material in the tech-nology fieldThe aim is to develop six TeachingUnits as specific curricular material in

the technology field for pupils in com-pulsory secondary education. TheUnits will he defined in terms of theirplace in the curriculum, their objec-tives and the skills they aim to teach,the areas of content from which theystart, and their sequencing and evalu-ation criteria. The notion of managedtechnology is defined as: "a complexof processes which involve the inno-;'ation. manufacture, use and knowl-edge of objects and are capable ofmodifying the environment of humanbeings with a view to satisfying cer-tain needs or promoting their inter-ests- (social. historical, scientific andtechnical elements).

Useful addresses

Institutions responsiblefor technical education

Direccion General de FormacionProfesional Reglada( Directorate General of RegulatedVocational Education)

"Proyecto de renovacion de loscontenidos de Formacion Profesional-c/ Argumosa 43, Pabellon 5Tel.: 528 52 47E-280 I 4 Madrid

Address in the near intureP1. del Marques de Salamanca no. I I .

3 IN.E-28006 MadridTel.: 341 435 13 86Fax. 341 - 577 44 54

Research organizations

Centro de Investigacion,Documentacitin v Evaluacion(CIDE)Ciudad Universitaria sin.E-28040 MadridTel.: 341 - 549 77 00Fax. 341 543 73 90

linnrTour Europe Cedex 07F-92080 Paris-la-DefenseTel.: 331+477 813 50Fax: 331+477 374 20

BibliographyL'enseignement professionnel enFrance: des ouvriers aux techniciensTanguy L.Paris. PUF. 1991. 227 pp.ISBN 2 -13- 043393 -6

This hook describes the social mor-phology of vocational education teach-ers. their career paths and also thedirection that they impart to their workand the main aspects of their trainingpractices. Based on a historical analsis and a sample of teachers. the re-search has a twofold aim: to describethe practices and values of formerworkers who become teachers and to

construct an analytical method thatwill clarify the nature of institutionsand the development of vocationaltraining

Quelles formations pour les ouvrierset les employes en France - Rapportde mission a Monsieur le Secretaired'Etat chargé de l'EnseignementtechniqueTanguy L.Paris. Mini sterc de l'EducationNationale de la Jeunesse et des Sports.1991. 179 pp.Ministi!re de l'Educ:ation Nationale.110 rue de (Irene' le.F-75700 Paris

This report to the Secretary of Stateresponsible for technical educationlooks at the job skills required of quail-fled shopfloor and office workers andidentifies the sectors in which the needsoccur. It describes the vocational di-plomas and makes recommendationsfor the future.

A Renault Billancourt, le CERTAin: Flash Formation Continue(Grenoble). 299. 1990. pp.8-10ISSN 0397-3640

A brief description of the Centre deRessourccs de TechnologiesA ancccs. Productiquc Ile-de-France.

Vocational training 2/1992 (15

INFORMATION SOURCES t7447

a group jointly funded by the Educa-tion Ministry, Renault and the regionoflle-de-France. This advanced tech-nology' resource centre offers schoolpupils, trainees, teachers in technicaleducation and those training to hetrainers an opportunity to train withproduction technology using equip-ment on the same scale as in the work-ing world.

Eduquer pour demain: acteurs etpartenairesCommissariat general du planParis. La Decouverte,La Documentation Franoise, 1991.362 pp.ISBN 2-7071-2046-4

This is a compihttion of the findings ofresearch on the future of the Frencheducational system, conducted in 1990and 1991 by four working groups setup by the Office of the General Com-missioner for the Plan. It covers thediversification and personalization oftraining in the school, the autonomyof lycees and technical schools, anevaluation of the initial training sys-tem and the outlook for the funding ofeducation up to the year 2005.

Rapport d'etape sur le developpe-ment de l'apprentissage et de la for-mation en alternanceGreffe X.Paris. Ministere du Travail et der Emploi. 1991. 57 pp.Ministere du Travail et de l'Emploi.Delegation Generale pour le &ye-loppement de rapprentissag.e et de laformation en alternance.127 rue de Grenelle.F-75700 Paris

In the light of experience in the field.the authorof this progress report speci-fies the prerequisites and recommendssome forty measures that would injectfresh life into apprenticeship andalternance training provided in theschool context. He suggests changesto itineraries through the school. aninternal reorganization of alternanceestablishments and partnership and

consultation between public institu-tions and enterprises.

Sorties sans diplomes, sorties sansqualifications: deux realites diffe-rentesin: Note d' Information de la DEP(Paris), 27.1991, pp.1-4ISSN 0759-8440

The levels of education attained bythose young people who leave schoolwithout a diploma are very disparate.ranging up to level IV. Those wholeave school without qualificationstend to be at levels VI and V bis, inother words the lowest levels. Since1986 there has been a considerablereduction in the number leaving with-out a diploma, mainly due to the fall atlevel V. The reduction in the numberleaving without qualifications is onlyslight.

Le systeme educatifDurand- Prinhorgne C.in: Les Cahiers Francais (Paris). 249.1991. pp. 3-96ISSN 0008-0217

This monograph gives a detailed de-scription of the components of educa-tion in France. from the primary to thehigher level, and looks at present-dayproblems and issues: guidance, careeroutlets, academic failure, mass educa-tion. the explosive growth in num-bers. the recruitment and training ofteachers. decentralization and the shar-ing of responsibilities. It closes with areview of continuing training inFrance.

Ongoing researchL'investissement educatif et sonefficaciteFrancoise OeuvrardMinistere de r Education Nationale.Direction de revaluation et de Ia perspecti ve,142 rue du Bac. F-75007 Paris

In 1991 the Education Ministry in-vited tenders for research on the themeof the "investment in education and itseffectiveness ". Fifteen projects werechosen, covering all ley( and meth-ods of initial and continuing training.The aspects studied were the effectson the individual, social effects. theeffects on enterprises, the macro-eco-nomic effects and cultural effects. Thefollowing three research projects arethose relating to the secondary level ofthe educational system.

Evolution de Ia demande sociale etde l'offre de formation dans lesysteme educatifUniversite de Picardie. Centreuniversitaire de recherches sociolo-giques d' Amiens (CURSA).Catherine Agulhon

This research on developments in thesocial demands for and supply oftrain-ing in educational system aims at shed-ding light on the role of educationalstaff and the families of pupils in rede-fining the provision of training in thevarious streams of the educationalsystem (duration of project: 18

months).

Genese et usages sociaux d'une for-mation: le cas de baccalaureatsprofessionnelsCentre d'etudes et de recherches surles qualifications (CEREQ ). MyriamCampinos- Duhernet

The purpose of this research is to takea balanced look at the original inten-tions underlying the introduction ofthe vocational baccalaureate. and theuses that employers make of holdersof that diploma. It is to investigate theopinions of those holding the diplomaon the work they do and their status(duration: 2 years).

Des savoirs de reference aux savoirsenseignables ou enseignes. Efficacitede ('interaction cloves-enseignantset evaluation au baccalaureat

66 Vocational training 2/1992

7:3.771%F. 7-M7:7-', INFORMATION SOURCES

Groupement de recherches Institu-tions. emploi et politique econ-omique". CNRS. Elisabeth Chatel.Research findings available in autumn1993.

Research on the teaching and learningof economic and social science, relat-ing the practices of those involved tothe end results (knowledge taught andknowledge required, and baccalaure-ate results) (duration: 2 years).

Useful addresses

Association francaise pour ledeveloppement de l'enseignementtechnique (AFDET)178 rue du TempleF-75003 ParisTel.: 331/42 74 00 64

An association for the development oftechnical education founded in 1902.and granted the status of a body in thepublic interest, its role is to bring to-gether those individuals and corpo-rate bodies concerned with matters oftechnical education. vocational train-ing and young people's integration, bypromoting cooperation between schooland the workplace.Quarterly journal: l'Enseignementtechnique.Underproduction: a memorandum forthe 5 000 to 6 000 "technical educa-tion counsellors" in France. These

counsellors are nominated from in-dustry every six years by the Educa-tion Ministry. They provide profes-sional support to educational estab-lishments, serve on examinationboards, etc.

Commission Nationale Education-Professions (CNEP)Piece 205 B.107 rue de GrenelleF-75007 ParisTel.: 331/49 55 18 97

The national committee on educationand occupations was founded by adecree 31 March 1992, and comesunder the Minister of Education. Itsmembers are representatives of em-ployers' associations and the unions,together with experts. It is consultedon guidelines for and the implementa-tion of policies defining training andthe planning of job-related diplomas,careers information and guidance forschool pupils and students and theorganization of consultation betweenthe Education Ministry and representa-tives of occupations. Its secretary isappointed by the Education Minister.

Haut Comae Education-Economie(HCEE)107 boulevard de GrenelleF-75007 ParisTel.: 331/49 55 12 60Fax: 331/45 55 48 20

Founded by a decree in 1986, thissenior committee is responsible forcontinuing consultation at the highestlevel between the Education Ministryand its economic partners. Its terms ofreference are to suggest measures tothe Education Minister to bring theeducational system closer to the work-ing world.

Jeunesse et Entreprises (JE)44 avenue d' LenaF-75116 ParisTel.: 331/47 20 52 33Fax: 331/40 70 98 61

An association granted the status of abody in the public interest. founded in1966 under the auspices of the Minis-try of Education. is has a membershipof some two hundred enterprises. Itsaim is to help employers to give to-day's young people the skills and workexperience that will promote com-petitiveness in the future.

In 1992, as part of its campaign toestablish a better understanding be-tween employers and class IV pupils.Jeunesse et Entreprises published aguidance booklet entitled "Bien danston métier". Distributed to 750 000young people. it describes careers.sectors and the workplace.

AS

27-33 Upper Begat* StreetDublia,4ligAtiarf Tet.: 3531+611 57 77

AUTHONTy Fax: 353140 90 93

Technical andVocationalEducationAchievement and Aspiration: Cur-ricular Initiatives in Irish Post-Pri-mary Education in the 1980s

McNamara G.. Williams W., HannonD. (eds.)Dublin. Drumcondra Teachers Cen-tre. 1990. 147 p.ISBN 0-9515744-0-X

The new Junior Certificate, the Tran-sition Year Option. the VocationalPreparation and Training Programme,

the European Pilot Projects and HealthEducation are among some of the im-portant curricular initiatives of recentyears. In this publication leading edu-cationalists write of these and otherimportant initiatives in Irish educa-tion. It shows how educators respondedto the demands of the 1980s and con-siders the practical implications of

Vocational training 2/1992 67

INFORMATION SOURCES

68

these achievements for the CUITICU-Ium of the 1990s and beyond.

Beyond SchoolStokes D.Dublin. Curriculum DevelopmentUnit, Department of Education. 1988.

53p.ISBN 0-946791-06-6

This report was based on a pilot project

conducted under the second EuropeanCommunity. Action Programme onTransition of Young People from Edu-cation to Adult and Working Life.Major issues, identified in the FirstAction Programmes were explored.e.g. work experience, equality of op-portunity. better education and voca-tional training, and new forms of as-sessment and certification.

Education Bill 1991Minister for EducationDublin. Stationary Office. 1991. 11 p.Government Publications Sales Of-fice. Sun Alliance House. MolesworthStreet. IRL-Dublin 2

Under the Act, the Minister for Edu-cation is obliged to provide primaryand post-primary education to all per-sons of school age who enrol in suchschools. The Minister also guaranteesto implement educational policy in-cluding the establishment of a Cur-riculum Review Board for the pur-pose of undertaking a periodic reviewof the curriculum in primary and post -primary schools.

The Education System in IrelandDepartment of EducationDublin, Stationary Office. 1991.23 p.Government Publications Sales Of-fice. Sun Alliance House. Molesw orth

Street. IRL-Dublin 2

This report sets out t':e responsibili-ties of the Government for educationand goes on to outline the structureand functions of the various providersof education at first lower second.

upper second and third lin els. togetherwith a section on adult and commu-nity education.

The FAS Development Plan 1989-1993 - A SummaryFAS The Training and EmploymentAuthorityDublin. FAS. P.O.Box 456, 27/33Upper Baggot Street, IRL-Dublin 4.1990. 14 p.

The 5-year plan which is concernedwith manpower policy geared to en-suring that sufficient and suitable skillsare made available to meet future de-mands. is concerned also with the pro-tection of existing employment.Among the issues addressed is theintroduction of an integrated pro-gramme of vocational education/train-ing and work experience for thosewho leave school without any certi-fied qualifications.

Initial Training for Young People -IrelandPETRAB-1040 Brussels.Square Ambiorix 321989.21 p.

The report presents the social and eco-nomic background against which anoverview of recent developments ineducation and training may he as-sessed. Steps are being taken tostrengthen the vocational preparationcomponent of courses before and afterthe end of compulsory school to caterfor a wider variety of needs than hith-erto. Emphasis is placed also onstrengthening technical education atLeaving Certificate level.

Irish Education Policy: Process andSubstanceMulcahy D.G.: O'Sullivan D. (ed.)Dublin. Institute of Public Adminis-tration (IPA ). 1989. 284 p.ISBN 0-906980-96-8

This is the first full-length study ofeducational policy in contemporaryIreland. Topics include approaches tosecond-level curriculum, the interac-tion of policy with research and evalu-ation. and the calibre of ideas de-ployed to fuel educational planning.The contributors are drawn from theeducational and research communi-ties including those who have contrib-uted to the formulation of educationalpolicy.

The Quality of their Education:School Leavers' View of Educa-tional Objectives and OutcomesHannan D.E.: Shortall S.Dublin. The Economic and SocialResearch Institute (ESRI). 199IISBN 0-7070-0120-X

Extensive interviews were carried outin late 1987 with a large sample ofschool leavers who had first left schoolin 1981/82. This study is the first tolook at young people's assessments oftheir education since the mid-1970sand the first er in Ireland to examinethe -mature judgements- of ex-pupilsafter spending some time out of edu-cation. Having spent 5 years in thelabour market, their assessment onleaving school can he compared totheir actual labour market experiences.

Regional Technical Colleges Bill,1991

Minister for EducationDublin. Stationary Office. I 991. 22 p.Government Publications Sales Of-fice. Sun Alliance House. MolesworthStreet. IRL-Dublin 2

The purpose of the hill is to statutorilyestablish as Regional Technical Col-leges the existing nine such colleges.Provision is made in the Bill to bringother educational institutions withinits scope in the future. as well as chang-

ing the name of a college were re-quired. The Bill also sets out the func-tions of the various colleges.

Voi:ational training 2/1992

VII INFORMATION SOURCES

A Time for Change: Industrial Poli-cies for the 1990s Industrial PolicyReview GroupDublin, Stationary Office.1992. 110 p.Government Publications Sales Of-fice.Sun Alliance House,Molesworth Street.IRL-Dublin 2

This is a major report which has gen-erated considerable public discussion.It reviewed and made recommenda-tions on industrial policy in Irelandand on public policy as it affects in-dustrial development. Dealing witheducation, enterprise and technologythe report states "Despite its enviableacademic standards, the Irish educa-tion and training system has seriousgaps when it comes to technical andvocational education... Among its rec-ommendations is that a higher prioritymust he attached in the education sys-tem to the acquisition of usable andmarketable skills.

Useful addresses

Department of Education*Marlborough StreetIRL-Dublin ITel.: 01/73 40 0Fax: 01/72 95 53

FAS, The Training and Employ-ment AuthorityP.O.Box 45627/33 Upper Baggot StreetIRL-Duhlin 4Tel.: 01/68 57 77Fax: 01/68 26 91

CERT - The Hotel, Catering andTourism Training AgencyCERT HouseAmiens StreetIRL-Dublin 1Tel.: 01/74 25 55Fax: 01/74 28 21

Teagasc - Agriculture and FoodDevelopment Authority19 Sandymount AvenueIRL-Dublin 4Tel.: 01/68 81 88Fax: 01/68 80 23

* The Department is responsible foradministration of public education.primary, post-primary and special edu-cation. Vocational schools are fundedby the State and run by vocationalEducation Committees consisting ofelected representatives and experi-enced education/industrial personnel.There are approximately 38 such com-mittees in Ireland representing coun-ties and city and town boroughs.

Bibliography

La Competenza Experta. Sapereprofessionale e contesti di lavoroAjello. Anna Maria: Cevoli,Meghnagi. Saul.Rome. Ediesse1992. I 43p.Via dei Frentztni 4/A.00185 Rome

The authors discuss the concept ofvocational expertise. taking as theirpoint of departure the changing socio-occupational contexts and their impli-cations for the acquisition and use ofjob expertise.

Istituto per lo Sviluppo della Forma-zione Professionale dei LavoratoriVia G.B. Morgagni, 331-00161 RomaTel.: 396+44 59 01Fax: 396+884 58 83

They focus on the idea of vocationalskill as a combination of technicalabilities and knowledge in general.the capacity to identify and performduties that cannot readily he definedin advance. The impact of new tech-nology on work is analyzed. togetherwith the effects of organift tion as avariable and the routes through whichjob skills are acquired. A multi-disciplinary approach is applied to thesubject of learning and using job-re-lated knowledge.

lnsegnanti, formazione iniziale efbrmazione continuaGorda Costa. Maria: Meg nagi. Saulled.)

La Nuova Italia Scientifica,1990, 190pp.Via Sardegna 50.I 00187 Rome

This research. promoted by the Istitutodi Ricerche Economiche e Sociali( IRES) a research institute of the tradeunion federation ConfederazioneGenerale hal iana Lavoratori (CG IL 1.show s how the inadequacies of initialand continuing teacher training is ananomaly peculiar to the Italian schoolsystem. compared to the Europeansystem. Among the subjects cos eredare: the specific process ' herebyteachers acquire their initial and ad-vanced skills. the constraints on thatprocess of acquisition and the re-

Vocational training 2/1992

INFORMATION SOURCES

sources: the special features of a refer-ence occupational profile: the impor-tant role of the university in this field:and the responsibilities and institu-tional bases of the trainers of trainers.A close look is taken at the problem ofretraining teachers in technical andadult education. Regarding the tech-nical education, researchers highlightthe need to update training and relateit more closely to the working worldand the training and employment sys-tem. both nationally and locally. Re-garding adult education, they considerthe specific curricula required foradults and the implications for theinitial and in-service training forteachers.

li Progetto della CommissioneBrocca. Piani di studio della ScuolaSecondaria Superiore e programmedel biennioZuccon. G. C. (ed.)Brescia, Editrice La Scuola.1991. 360p.ISBN 88-350-8508-X

The ministerial committee chaired bythe parliamentarian Mr. Brocca has

brought about sweeping changes inthe content of studies in upper second-ary education, in the form of newstudy plans and new curricula. Fol-lowing an introduction on the reasonsunderlying the project. the book givesa detailed description of the new set ofcurricula for an initial two-year pe-riod. The options are: classics, lan-guages, socio-psycho-pedagogy, sci-ence, science/technology, technology(with 10 options over a three-yearperiod), economics (two options inthe three-year period), arts and voca-tional studies. The study plans for thetwo-year period state of the core sub-jects taken by all pupils regardless ofthe options they choose, core subjectsfor groups of options and specific sub-jects for each individual option.

L'Istruzione professionale. Unaformazione per it futuroMinistero della Pubblica Istruzione,Direzione Generale IstruzioneProfessionaleFlorence. Le Monnier, 1989. 180pp..series "Studi e documenti" in the"Annali della Pubblica Istruzione"no. 49.

Project '92. an experiment promotedby the Italian Education Ministry. is aradical curricular reform of vocationaleducation.

The factors inspiring the Project werecertain pressing needs: to broadenbasic education by reinforcing a corearea of learning, to cut back sharplythe number of qualifications and torethink the post-qualification route(fourth and fifth year). Due to thelatter factor in particular. various op-tions are to be introduced. Young peo-ple will be able to continue on thetraining route, either by taking exami-nations and going on to the final twoyears of technical education or bytaking further qualification courses.in conjunction with vocational train-ing organized by the regions. Follow-ing the experiment, Project '92 will beinstitutionalized as from the nextschoolyear, and will be extended to allcourses over the next three years.

BibliographyBedrijfsleven enberoepsonderwijs: nieuwebondgenoten!Ministry of Economic AffairsThe Hague. Ministry of EconomicAffairs, 1992. 14 pp.Ministry of Economic Affairs.Postbus 20101.NL-2500 EC The Hague

This paper focuses on the importanceof high-quality vocational education

as a factor in industrial competitive-ness and on ways in which industrycan help further strengthen it.The Ministry of Economic Affairs.along with the Ministry of Social Af-fairs and Employment and the Minis-try of Education and Science. is tolaunch "impulse programmes" totackle the problem of the shortage inindustry of people with a vocationaleducation. The programmes' key pur-pose is to improve the match betweeneducational pros ision and industry'sneeds.

BVE op weg naar 2000:beschouwing over denoodzakelijke vernieuwing vanberoepsonderwijs envolwasseneducatie: visie-notavoorzittersoverleg MBOHover. C., P. Smets and R. BaardaVoorburg. Smets - Hover Consultantsfor Professional Organizations. 1992,26 pp.Smets and Hover ConsultancMauritskade 40.NL-The Hague.

70 Vocational training 2/1992

INFORMATION SOURCES

Regional Training Centres ( ROCS) arecombined facilities for vocational andadult education: this report considerstheir function in the light of the devel-oping labour market, ending with abrief-commentary on the government'spolicy paper on ROCs. The authorsconsider the situation on the labourmarket and find that people with anIntermediate Vocational Education(MBO) or Apprenticeship Systemqualification run the least risk of un-employment. The implication of thisis that too many youngsters followgeneral or academic courses and toofew seek vocational qualifications. Partof the ROCs' function is to increaseparticipation in vocational and adulteducation. Also considered is theirrole in improving the match betweeneducational provision and industry'sneeds.

Kansen op werk: een analyse vanverdringing op de Nederlandsearbeidsmarkt: de relatie tussenopleiding en beroep, face 2; SE()onderzoekBelderhos. R.A., and C.N. TeulingsSEO. Amsterdam University Instituteof Economic ResearchAmsterdam. SEO. 1991. 155 pp.ISBN 90-5220-001-7

Between 1979 and 1985 there was amarked degree of crowding out on theDutch labour market. The more plen-tiful the supply of labour is relative todemand, the more selective employ-ers become in taking on workers. Thisemerges in two ways: from job-seek-ers' likelihood of finding work andfrom an occupation-by-occupationanalysis of job-finders. Attributes as-sociated with appointment arc elabo-rated. The requirements set for com-parable jobs vary with the labour-market situation. One consequence ofcrowding out is that it becomes possi-ble to read off from the results of themarket process how occupations arerated. When the labour market is tightjob-seekers can afford to be choosierand are thus likely to find work inmore highly rated occupations. This

Vocational training 2/1992

fact allowed a rating order of occupa-tions to be established in this empiri-cal study.

Naar landelijke organen van hetberoepsonderwijsMinistry of Education and Science.Vocational and Adult Education Di-rectorateZoetenneer. Ministry of Education andScience. 1992. 16 pp.Ministry of Education and Science.Posthus 25000.NL-2700 LZ. Zoetermeer

This paper deals with the establish-ment of the national bodies for voca-tional education that will result fromthe merger of the Sectoral TrainingCouncils (BOOBS) for IntermediateVocational Education (MBO) and thecurrent national bodies for the Ap-prenticeship System. Curricular har-monization between MBO and theApprenticeship System will enable thecreation of a unified structure ofquali-fications. The process will involve aconsiderable degree of concentration.Training curricula will he structuredas certification units which build intoa complete course related to definedI arning targets.

Ontwikkelingsplan sectortechniekAssociation of Intermediate Techni-cal Colleges (VMTS)Utrecht. VMTS, 1992.42 pp.VMTS. Posthus 2465.NL-3500 GL Utrecht

This paper updates and de \ clops thewishes set down in the 198I StructurePlan for New-Style Intermediate Tech-nical Education (MTO). relating thelines of development initially tracedout to new legislation and develop-ments (the Training Services Act andthe reform of Intermediate VocationalEducation) and looks at the develop-ment of part-time Intermediate Voca-tional Education and courses (pub-

licly funded or in the form of contracttraining services). Also discussed isthe development of new study areas/differentiation and technological in-novation in curricula. modularizationand the compilation of examinationsyllabuses. further training. raisingstandards, the recognition of educa-tional institutions, legislation govern-ing the establishment of businessesand international recognition.

De V van SVM: inventarisatie vanvernieuwingen en organisatie inde SVM instellingen voormiddelbaar beroepsonderwijs(1990-91)Pelkmans. A.. and B. de VriesInstitute of Applied Social Sciences(ITS)Nijmegen. ITS, 1992, xvi. 124 pp.ISBN 90-6370-844-0

The first phase of the reform of Inter-mediate Vocational Education - "Op-eration SVM" involved mergers be-tween Colleges of Intermediate Voca-tional Education to form new sectoralinstitutions (the "S" of SVM ). Thispaper focuses on the new institutionsin the second phase ofOperation SVM.renewal in education and management(the "V" of SVM), looking at what isbeing done in these fields. The studywas commissioned by the Institute ofEducational Research (SVO) and theVocational and Adult Education Di-rectorate ( Directie BVE) of the Ministry of Education and Science. TheSVM Process Coordination Unit wasalso involved in the study. Importantelements in Operation SVM. alongwith educational renewal. include or-ganizational and managerial renew aland concern for quality. On the educa-tional side the aspects considered were:

improvements in and support for in-takes. inteuration of long and shortcourses. intriiicvitig student successrates. modularization and increasedflexibility. contract training servicesetc. Organizational aspects included:post-merger management. the organi-zational structui e of sectors. coursesand sen ices. etc.

71

INFORMATION SOURCES PLL5T-

Useful addresses

Ministerie van Onderwijs enWetenschappen, DirectieBeroepsonderwijs enVolwasseneducatie(Ministry of Education and Science,Vocational and Adult Education Di-rectorate)Postbus 25000NL-2700 LZ ZoetermeerTel.: 079 - 531911

Ministerie van Economische zaken(Ministry of Economic Affairs)Posthus 20101NL-2500 EC The HagueTel.: 070 - 379 8911

Vereniging MiddelbareTechnische Scholen (VMTS)(Association of Intermediate Techni-cal Colleges)Posthus 196NL -373() AD Dc BiltTel.: 030 - 219802

Stichting voor EconomischOnderzoek der Universiteit vanAmsterdam (5E0)(Amsterdam University Institute ofEconomic Research)Jodenhreestraat 23NL-101 I NH AmsterdamTel.: 020 525 4131

Technische UniversiteitEindhoven (TUE)(Eindhoven Technical University)Posthus 513

NL-5600 MB EindhovenTel.: 040 - 479111

Scholing Technische Informatie inhet LTO (SCHOTIL)(Training in Technical Information inLower Technical Education)p/a CIBBPosthus 1585NL-5200 BP 's-HertogenboschTel.: 073 - 124011

MINISTERIO DO. EMPREO0E DA SEGURAKA SOCIAL

Service de InforrnagOoCiedtifIce e TitmicePala de Landres, 2-1.° anderP-1091 LieboiCedexTel.: 3511+89 68 28Fax: 3511+80 61 71

Bibliographicalreferences

Caracterizacao das ofertas e dafrequencia dos cursos tecnicos(ETP) e profissionais (EP):December 1990Ministcrio da Educacilo, Gabinete deEducaciio TechnolOgica Artistica eProfissional (GETAP).Oporto. GETAP,1991. 76p

GETAP.Av. da Boavista 1311-5.P-4100 Oporto

The first part of this study containsdetails of attendance at VocationalTechnical courses and Training Col-leges (Grade 3). tote second part ananalysis broken down by NUT III.while in the third part attendance inthe different areas of training and lo-cal councils in each region is shown.

Conferencia Nacional - Novosrumos para o ensino Technologic()e ProfissionalMinistcrio da Educacilo. Gahinete doEducacirto Technologica Artistica eProfissional (GETAP). Oporto.GETAP. 1991.2 vol.. I.124pISBN 972-9386-16-1

These papers were given at the Na-tional Conference "Novos rumos parao ensino Technologic() e Profissional".which dealt with the problems of tech-nological and vocational education inPortugal. The papers are divided into15 specialized talks and sessions cov-ering the subjects concerned.

Disparidades regionals deformacao: avaliacao do sistemaeducacao/formacao e elementospara a definicao de politicas doambito territorialPerm) J. et alInstitute do Emprego e FormaciloProfissional (IEFP)

72 7

Lisbon. IEFP. 1991. 126 pISBN 972/9003/07/6

The object of this study. which formedpart of an investigation into trainingand regional development in Europeup to 1993, was to examine the effectof the relationship bet ween vocationaltraining and regional development inregions in Portugal where there aredisparities in development. It givesthe characteristics of the education/training s} stem (general organizationof the education system, technicalvocational education, vocational train-ing structure. methods of funding).Case studies relating to two regionsare given. The study concludes bydefining integrated regional policies.

Documento orientador sobre aformacao de professores/formadores das escolasprofissionaisMinistcrio da Educacao. Gabinete deEducaciio TechnolOgica Artistica e

Votational 11,111111T 2/1942

INFORMATION SOURCES

Profissional (GETAP), Oporto.GETAP. 1991.1 folder (12 doc.)GETAP.A. da Boa ista 1311-5,P-4100 Oporto

This GETAP paper describes the planadopted for the development of theTraining of Teachers/Trainers (FP/F)of Training Colleges. It sets out theprinciples of the Training CollegesFP/F structures; the framework of theTraining Colleges FP/F procedure;proposals for FP/F action for 1990-1991 and 1991-1992 (training to hepromoted by GETAP, action to hetaken by the Training Colleges. othertraining, distance aid and individualtraining scholar' lips). An appendixcontains the re,,u Its of the 1990 surveyof Training Colleges. a summary ofthe assessment of training courses heldby GETAP (1990). regulations andlegislation.

Educacao tecnologica nos anos 90Azevedo J.Rio Tinto. Ediciies Asa: Cluhe do Pro-fessor. 1991. 207 p.Asa.R. Afonso Henriques 742.P-4435 Rio Tinto

A monograph containing thoughts onthe problems of technical educationand vocational training. Portugal isfaced with the vital task of training itsmanpower. especially the youngergeneration. What is the place and roleof technological education in the edu-cation system? This paper studies awide range of aspects of the subject indepth.

Educacao tecnologica no ensinosecundario regular em PortugalMinisterio da Educacao. Gahinete deEducacao Technologica Artistica eProfissional (GETAP). Oporto.GETAP. 1992. llpGETAP.Av. da Boavista 1311-5.P-4100 Oporto

A publication giving a brief descrip-tion of how technical vocational edu-cation has emerged and the compo-nents of this type of training. Underthe Basic Law of the Education Sys-tem. Technological Education is in-troduced into Secondary Educationcourses and priority is given to scien-tific teaching of a more general nature(continuance of studies) or in coursesorientated principally towards work-ing life or technological courses. Sec-ondary Education is currently beingreformed; this will also affect Techni-cal Education. the objectives of whichare given here.

Necessidades de formacao tecnicae profissional: os quadrosintermedios: sintese de algunsestudosMinisterio da Educacao. Gahinete deEducacao Technologica Artistica eProfissional (GETAP). Oporto,GETAP. 1991, 47pGETAP.Av. da Boa ista 1311-5.P-4 IOU Oporto

A summary of the published studieson the principal vocational trainingrequirements in Portugal. particularlythose of intermediate executives. tak-ing into consideration the macro-economic development trends of thenational economy and the employ-ment market. Future requirements aregiven for three different periods: thefirst, until 1992; the second, the yearsimmediately following realization ofthe Single Market: the third coveringa longer period. even up to the begin-ning of the XXI century.

C - Names andaddresses ofinstitutions

Gabinete de EducacaoTecnologica, Artistica eProfissional (GETAP)Ministerio da EducacaoAV. da Boavista, 1311 - 5o.P-4100 OportoTel: 02/694362Fax: 02/694339

AV. 24 de Julho. 140 - So.P-1300 LisbonTel: 01/609500Fax: 01/3974042

Ministerio da Educacao (ME)Secretaria de Estado do Ensino Basic()e SecondarioAv. 5 de Outubro. 107P-1000 LisbonTel: 01/7978793

Ministerio do Emprego e daSeguranca Social (MESS)Secretaria de Estado do Emprego eFormica° Profissional(SEEFP)Praca de Londres. 2 15o.P-1091 Lisbon CodexTel: 01/8470010Fax: 01/8472187

Institute do Emprego e FormacaoProfissional (IEFP)Av. Jose Malhoa. 11P-1000 LisbonTel: 01/7262536Fax: 01/7265755

Associcao Nacional de EscolasProfessionais (ANESPO)R. Julio Rinis 825. 5o. EscP-4000 PortugalTel: (02) 6002243Fax: (02) 6000340

Vocational training 2/19q2 73

INFORMATION SOURCES

BibliograficalreferenceSchool-Industry LinksGorman. G.Londra, Kogan Page. 1989. 129 p.ISBN I- 85091 -863 -5

This practical handbook provides in-formation on all the major schemescurrently in operation and make manysuggestions for ways in which teach-ers can set up school-industry linksand organize work-related activitiesin schools. Among the issues consid-ered are how to contact firms andorganize links. how to arrange workexperience placements for pupils andteacher secondments in industry, en-terprise education and raising fundsfrom industry.

TVEI - The Technical and Voca-tional Education Initiative, is a ma-

jor curriculum initiative intended to'ensure that the education of 14-18year olds provides young people withthe learning opportunities which willequip them for the demands of work-ing life in a rapidly changing society'(TVEI Focus Statement). A Pilot pro-gramme was launched in 1983: start-ing in 1987, the extension of TVEI toall students aged 14-18 has been un-dertaken, through a phased programme

of entry involving all maintained andvoluntary aided institutions, includ-ing special schools. As part of theInitiative, the Employment Depart-ment which coordinated the TVEIpublished the following:

Clusters and Consortia: Coordinat-ing Educational Cold Changes inthe 1990sSaunders. 1..: Stradling. B.: et al.1991.71 p.

Into Work: An initial study of therecruitment and performance ofschool leavers from the first 11 Ex-tension programmes1991, 46 p.

Pathways to Implementation: equal-ity of opportunity?: managing edu-cational entitlement1991.86 p.

Pathways to Implementation: apreparation for adult and workinglife: managing the work-relatedcurriculumSaunders,L.: et al.1992. 108 p.

The above mentioned publications areavailable from: Employment Depart-ment.Moorfoot,UK Sheffield S I 4PQ

The following titles give an externalview of the TVEI:

Technical and Vocational Educa-tion Initiative: England and Wales1983-1990Department of Education and ScienceLondon. HMSO, 1991.55 p.ISBN 0 -I 1- 27- 7:-.7 -X

TVEI is the largest curriculum devel-opment project funded and adminis-tered by central government. It aimedto change the curriculum experiencedby people aged between 14 and 18years old by giving their education amore practical, applied and relevantfocus. It was assumed that this wouldcreate a shift in teaching styles awayfrom abstract and theoretical ap-proaches towards more practical w orkand other forms of student participa-tion.

TVEI and the Post-16 CurriculumHodkinson, P.Exeter, Wheaton Education,1990. 52 p.

ISBN 0-08-040454-5

The post-16 scene in British educa-tion and training is changing fast. Theimplementation of the National Cur-riculum proposals for further modifi-cation of A-levels, the growth andimplications of National VocationalQualifications, the emergence of theTraining Enterprise Councils and thefinancial implications of the LocalManagement of Schools are all takingplace simultaneously with the TVEIextension programme. The principlesand practices outlined in this hookoffer a guide towards a path forprogress in these rapidly changingtimes.

TVEI and the Management ofChange: an overviewMorris, M.: Murray. K.: et al.Technical and Vocational EducationInitiativeEmployment DepartmentAvailability: Employment Depart-ment. Moorfoot.UK-Sheffield S 1 4PQ.1991. 141 p.

Given the demands made on educa-tional planners and managers by theinteraction of a national programmewith new national statutes. this reportaddresses key issues for educationalprovision in the 1990's: curriculumentitlement. educational coherence.quality management and strategicplanning. The management of TVEIhas necessarily been tailored to vary-ing and changing local or institutionalneeds and priorities. Whilst it is there-fore important to explore how TVEIhas been a change facilitator as muchas a change agent. the book pays par-

74

7IVocational Iraininp 2/1992

titular attention to the new kinds ofmanagement challenges posed byTVEI.

Work Experience and the SchoolCurriculumNational Curriculum Council. 1991.37 p.ISBN 1-872676-47-2

INFORMATION SOURCES

Work experience on employers'premises is an important part of theschool curriculum. It helps schools tomeet the aim of the 1988 EducationReform Act to prepare pupils for 'theopportunities, responsibilities and ex-periences of adult life'. Since the Edu-cation (Work Experience) Act waspassed in 1973 most schools and localeducation authorities have establishedschemes. Under the extension phaseof the Technical and Vocational Edu-cation Initiative (TVEI) all pupils arerequired to have a period of workexperience.

Research projects

Cohort study of' technical and voca-tional education initiative (TVEI)extension studentsNational Foundation for EducationalResearch (NFER)Completion Date: 1994

This survey aims to measure impact ofTVEI upon young people, chartingtheir progress through the TVEI ex-tension and on to further education,higher education, training and work.

Evaluation of "Compacts initiative"National Foundation for EducationalResearch (NFER)Completion Date: 1991

The project aims to establish "beforepolicy" or "early policy- on baselinesagainst which to evaluate the progressof the Compacts Initiative. Subse-quently data will be collected for thisevaluation. The project draws on na-

tional surveys as well as case studiesof compact schools and control non-compact schools within five LEAs.The current project is a first phase and,if satisfactory, the work may he ex-tended.

Special educational needs in techni-cal and vocational education initia-tive (TVEI)Social Community Planning and Re-search and National Bureau for Disa-bled StudentsCompletion Date: 1991

The aim of this study is to examine theeffectiveness of different aspects ofTVEI for young people with specialeducational needs. The study will aimto identify practices, methods and ap-proaches which best meet the centralrequirements for TVEI for people withspecial educational needs.

Contact person in the EmploymentDepartment for all the above studiesis:

Louise Blakey, Tel.: 0742/593523.

Useful addresses

Compact Enquiry PointPartnership Support UnitEmployment DepartmentRm. E45UK-Moorfoot. Sheffield. S 1 4PQTel.: 0742/59 32 82

National Curriculum Council(NCC)Albion Wharf25 SkeldergateUK-York. YO1 2XLTel.: 0904/62 25 33

Technical and Vocational Educa-tion Initiative (TVEI)TVEI & Partnership BranchEmployment DepartmentUK- Moorfoot. Sheffield, S 1 4PQTel.: 0742/59 44 10

National Foundation for Educa-tional Research (NFER)Tne MereUpton ParkSloughUK-Berkshire SL I I DQ

Vocational 'raining 2/1992 75

7r)

INFORMATION SOURCES

Voiational Imintng 2110 q2

Venta y suscripciones Salg og abonnement Verkauf and Abonnement ficoAllociq Kal ouviSpopiqSales and subscriptions Vente et abonnements Vendita e abbonamenti

Verkoop en abonnementen Venda e assinaturas

BELGIQUE / BELGIC

Monttour beige /Belgisch StaatabladRue de Louvain 42 / Leuvensewrig 42B-1000 Bruxelles /171-1000 BrusselTM. (02) 512 00 26Fax (02) 511 01 84

Autos dtstributeurs /Overige verkooppuntenLibrairle europeenne/Europese boekhandelRue de la Lot 244/Wetstraat 24413-1040 Bruxelles /13-1040 BrusselTM. (02) 231 04 35Fax (02) 735 08 60

Jean Do LannoyAv...ue du Rol 202 /Koningslasn 202B-1060 Bruxelles / B-1060 BrusselTM. (02) 538 51 69Telex 63220 UNBOOK BFax (02) 538 08 41

Document delivery:CredosRue de Is Montagne 34 / Bergatraat 34ate 11 / Bus 11B-1000 Bruxelles / B-1000 BrusselTM. (02) 511 69 41Fax (02) 513 31 95

DANMARK

J. H. Schultz Information A/SHerstedvang 10-12DK-2620 AlbertslundTM 43 63 23 00Fax (Sales) 43 63 19 89Fax (Management) 43 63 19 49

DEUTSCHLAND

Musidagraisalger VerlagBreit* Streik, 78-80Postfach 10 80 08D-W-5000 K51n 1Tel. (02 21) 20 29-0Telex ANZEIGER BONN 8 882 595Fax 2 02 92 78

GREECE/E/tAAOA

Eleftheroudakle SAInternational BookstoreNikki Street 4GR-10583 AthensTN. (01) 322 63 23Telex 219410 ELEFFax 323 98 21

ESPANA

B olenn Ofkiall del EatedoTrafalgar, 29E -26071 MadridTeL (91) 538 22 95Fax (91) 538 23 49

Mundt-Prem. Ubros, SACastello. 37E-28001 MadridTel. (91) 431 33 99 (Ubros)

431 32 22 (Suscripciones)435 36 37 (Direction)

Telex 49370-MPLI-EFax (91) 575 39 98

Sucursal:Ubreda Iniernecionel AEDOSConsio de Ciento, 391F 06009 BarcelonaTN. (93) 488 34 92-'risc (93) 487 76 59

Ulbrorls do la Cionerailtatde Cs laluaysRambla dela Estudla, 118 (Palau Mole)E-08002 BarcelonaTel. (93) 302 68 35

302 64 62Fax (93) 302 12 99

FRANCE

Journal off OWservice des publicationsdee Communaute,* europiennes28. rue DesaixF-75727 Paris Codex 15T61. (1) 40 58 75 00Fax (1) 40 58 77 00

IRELAND

Government Supplies Agency4-5 Harcourt RoadDublin 2Tel. (1) 61 31 11Fax (1) 78 08 45

rTAUA

Licosa SpAVia Duca di Calabria 1/1Gisela postale 5521-50125 FlrecusTN. (055) 64 54 15Fax 64 12 57Telex 570466 UCOSA I

GRAND-DUCHE DE LUXEMBOURG

Messageries du kyr*5, rue RaiffelsenL-2411 LuxembourgT61. 40 10 20Fax 40 10 24 01

NEDERLAND

SOU OverheideinfonnatieExtern* FondsenPostbus 2001425U0 EA 's-GravenhageTel. (070) 37 89 911Fax (070) 34 75 778

PORTUGAL

Imprensa NacionalCasa da Moeda. EPRua 0. Francisco Manuel de Melo. 5P-1092 Usboa CodexTN. (01) 69 34 14

Distribuidora de UbrosBertrand, LW°typo Bertrand. SARua des Tetras dos Vales, 4-AApartado 37P-2700 Amadora CodexTel. (01) 49 59 050Telex 15798 BERDISFax 49 60 255

UNITED KINGDOM

HMSO Books (Agency motion)HMSO Publications Centre51 Nine Elms LaneLondon SW8 5DRTel. (071) 873 9090Fax 873 8463Telex 29 71 138

OSTERREICH

Manz'ocno Verfags-und UnlyarstLitabuchhandiungKohlmarkt 18A-1014 WienTel. (0222) 531 61-0Telex 112 500 BOX AFax (0222) 531 61-39

SUOMI/FINLAND

Alcateernkren KirleicauppeKeskuskatu 1PO Box 128SF-00101 HelsinkiTel. (0) 121 41Fax (0) 121 44 41

NORGE

Neweeen Info CenterBertrand Narvesens vei 2PO Box 6125 EtterstadN-0602 Oslo 6Tel. (22) 57 33 00Telex 79688 NIC NFax (22) 68 19 01

SVERIGE

BTJTryck Traktorerligen 13S-222 80 LundTel. (046) 18 00 00Fax (048) 18 01 25

30 79 47

SCHWEIZ / SUISSE / SVIZZERA

OSECStamplenbachstra8e 85CH-13035 ZOrIchTel. (01) 365 54 49Fax (01) 365 54 11

CESKA REPUBUKA

NIS eRHavelkova 22130 00 Praha 3Tel. (2) 235 84 46Fax (2) 235 97 88

MAGYARORSZAG

Euro-Info-ServiceClub SzigetMergitsziget1138 BudapestTel/Fax 1 111 60 61

1 111 62 16

POLSKA

Suainees Foundationul. Krucza 38/4200-512 WarszawaTei. (22) 21 99 93. 628-28-82International Fax&Phone

(0-39) 12-00-77

ROMANIA

Euromedla65. Strada Dionisie Lupu70184 BucurestiTel/Fax 0 12 96 46

BALGARIJA

Europreee Klassice BK Ltd66, bd Vitosha1483 SofiaTel/Fax 2 52 74 75

RUSSIA

Europe Press20 Sadovea-Spariskaia Street107078 MoscowTel. 095 208 28 60

975 30 09Fax 095 200 22 04

CYPRUS

Cyprus Chamber of Commerce endIndustryChamber Building38 Grivas Dhlgenis Ave3 Dellgiorgis StreetPO Box 1455NicosiaTel. (2) 449500/462312Fax (2) 456630

Qo

TURKIYE

Pres Gavots Kftw DemiPaw-lama Dafildro Tlcaret are annoy'ABNarlIbetice Sokak N. 15Istanbul-CagaioOluTel. (1) 520 92 96 - 528 55 68Fax 520 64 57Telex 23822 DSVO-TR

ISRAEL

ROY InternationalPO Box 1305641 Mishmar Hayarden StreetTel Aviv 61130Tel. 3 498 108Fax 3 544 60 39

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA/CANADA

UNIPUB4811-F Aseembly DriveLanham, MD 20706-4391TN. Toll Free (800) 274 4888Fax (301) 459 0056

CANADA

Subscriptions onlyUnequement abonnementsRenouf Publishing Co. Ltd1294 Algoma RoadOttawa. Ontario K1B 3W8Tel (813) 741 43 33Fax (613) 741 54 39Telex 0534783

AUSTRALIA

Hunter Publications58A Glppe StreetCollIngwoodVictoria 3008Tel. (3) 417 5361Fax (3) 419 7154

JAPAN

Kinokunlys Company Ltd17-7 ShInluku 3-ChomeShInJuku-kuTokyo 160-91Tel. (03) 3439-0121

Journal DepartmentPO Box 55 ChkoseTokyo 158Tel. (03) 3439-0124

SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Legal Library Services LtdSTK AgencyRobinson RoadPO Box 1817Singapore 9038

AUTRES PAYSOTHER COUNTRIESANDERE LANDER

Office doe publicationsdeg CommunsuMe uropiennge2. rue MercierL-2985 LuxembourgTel. 499 28-1Telex PUBOF LU 1324 bFax 48 85 73/48 68 17

\bcational II:''

....;.!,,...:-.... v,,,...r.--.

.?----. Au,Co(4,A° .1:- c.,:06. ,r-,,i --00..1.,.. -_.)

sotto:!..-. ,..: \

C"....

-:---Subjects of. .

?k/oca bona/ TrainingaO

o

.*** lc: OVA

Subjects which confronteveryone who has to dowith vocational training.Subjects covered inVocational Training, apublication of the EuropeanCentre for the Developmentof Vocational Training.

Vocational Training tries tomake the comc'?x field ofvocational training inEurope more transparent byway of a constant exchangeof opinions, informationand models amongst all ECMember States.

Role of the social partners in initial andcontinuing vocational training

Education + Training = the keys to thefuture

Our European neighbours (Thevocational training systems of the CMEAcountries - USSR, CSFR, Poland, GDR,Hungary and Bulgaria)

Roads to an initial vocational qualification

Experienced workers - reserve capital

Tomorrow's training A challenge fortrainers

00 Qualifications for a changing world

Vocational Training is an indispensableworking tool for all decision-makers andtrainers, in particular for those wholook beyond national boundariesand are interested in co-operation at Communityand internationallevels.

As a Community organization.CEDEFOP also has a contribution tomake towards the acnievement of theinternal market. Throu,,., its research.comparative studies. its informationand documentation service and itswork on the comparability of trainingqualifications. CEDEFOP plays its partin promoting the social dimension ofthe 1992 objective.

CEDEFOPEuropeanCentre for theDevelopment ofVocational Training,Bundesallee 22D-1000 Berlin 15Tel.: (030)884120Telex:184163 eucendTelefax:(030) 88412222

The journal Vocational Training is pub-lished as from 1990 twice a year in nine langua-

ges IDA. DE. EN. ES. FR. GR. IT .%'L. PT). The annualsubscription covers all issues of the oGoiication VocationalTraining published in the course of the calendar year(January to December). Unless notice of cancellation isgiven by 30 November. the subscription will be extendedautomatically for a further calendar year.

The publication Vocational Training will be sent to you bythe EC Office for Official Publications. Luxembourg. Theinvoice will be sent to you by the responsible EC distributor.

The subscription price does not incluae VAT.Please ao not pay the amount due umi you have receivedthe invoice.

Yearly subscription !excl. VAT): ECU 10: UKL 750: IRL 8.00:USD 12.10. Single copies (excl. VAT). ECU 6: UKL 4.50;IRL 4.70: USD 725.

Prices (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg

Single copyAnnual subscription

ECU 6ECU 10

..OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONSOF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

L-2985 Luxembourg

IAN

ISSN 0378-5068

IHX-AA-92-002-EN-C